diff --git "a/36_years1988-11.jsonl" "b/36_years1988-11.jsonl"
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+{"cellarURIs": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/fc62e092-1c5f-4d5c-8a70-093ac04b361e", "title": "PROPOSAL FOR A COUNCIL DECISION EXTENDING CERTAIN PROVISIONS ON THE SUPPLY OF MILK AND MILK PRODUCTS AT A REDUCED PRICE TO COVER PORTUGAL", "langIdentifier": "ENG", "mtypes": "pdfa1b,print", "workTypes": "http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#act_preparatory,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#proposal_act,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#proposal_decision_ec,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#resource_legal,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#work", "authors": "European Commission", "date": "1988-12-01", "subjects": "Portugal,aid to disadvantaged groups,discount sale,educational institution,milk,milk product", "workIds": "celex:51988PC0716,comnat:COM_1988_0716_FIN,oj:JOC_1988_329_R_0008_01", "eurovoc_concepts": ["Portugal", "aid to disadvantaged groups", "discount sale", "educational institution", "milk", "milk product"], "url": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/fc62e092-1c5f-4d5c-8a70-093ac04b361e", "lang": "eng", "formats": ["pdfa1b", "print"]}
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+{"cellarURIs": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/6a3edf45-644a-4b66-910c-d3448cb2d908", "title": "AMENDMENT TO THE PROPOSAL FOR A COUNCIL DECISION ADOPTING A SPECIFIC RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME IN THE FIELD OF ENERGY - NON NUCLEAR ENERGIES AND RATIONAL USE OF ENERGY - 1989-1992 \" JOULE \" ( JOINT OPPORTUNITIES FOR UNCONVENTIONAL OR LONG-TERM ENERGY SUPPLY )", "langIdentifier": "ENG", "mtypes": "pdfa1b,print", "workTypes": "http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#act_preparatory,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#proposal_act,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#proposal_decision_ec,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#resource_legal,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#work", "authors": "European Commission", "date": "1988-12-01", "subjects": "energy policy,energy research,energy technology,research programme,soft energy", "workIds": "celex:51988PC0757,comnat:COM_1988_0757_FIN,oj:JOC_1988_329_R_0006_01", "eurovoc_concepts": ["energy policy", "energy research", "energy technology", "research programme", "soft energy"], "url": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/6a3edf45-644a-4b66-910c-d3448cb2d908", "lang": "eng", "formats": ["pdfa1b", "print"]}
+{"cellarURIs": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/f390b5c4-5641-4475-8496-5122342064d7", "title": "88/617/EEC: Commission Decision of 1 December 1988 on improving the efficiency of agricultural structures in Italy (Tuscany) pursuant to Council Regulation (EEC) No 797/85 (Only the Italian text is authentic)", "langIdentifier": "ENG", "mtypes": "html,pdfa1b,print", "workTypes": "http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#decision,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#legislation_secondary,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#resource_legal,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#work", "authors": "European Commission", "date": "1988-12-01", "subjects": "Tuscany,aid to agriculture,installation allowance,regions of Italy,young farmer", "workIds": "celex:31988D0617,oj:JOL_1988_343_R_0027_038", "eurovoc_concepts": ["Tuscany", "aid to agriculture", "installation allowance", "regions of Italy", "young farmer"], "url": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/f390b5c4-5641-4475-8496-5122342064d7", "lang": "eng", "formats": ["html", "pdfa1b", "print"]}
+{"cellarURIs": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/e6d33587-bc7d-46a5-9f7d-41fb1e26ca65", "title": "89/216/EEC: Commission Decision of 30 November 1988 on the Belgian funds for the promotion of the farming of poultry and other small animals and of fruit and vegetable growing (Only the French and Dutch texts are authentic)", "langIdentifier": "ENG", "mtypes": "html,pdfa1b,print", "workTypes": "http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#decision,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#legislation_secondary,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#resource_legal,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#work", "authors": "European Commission", "date": "1988-11-30", "subjects": "Belgium,advertising,fruit,poultry farming,sales promotion,vegetable", "workIds": "celex:31989D0216,oj:JOL_1989_085_R_0045_042", "eurovoc_concepts": ["Belgium", "advertising", "fruit", "poultry farming", "sales promotion", "vegetable"], "url": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/e6d33587-bc7d-46a5-9f7d-41fb1e26ca65", "lang": "eng", "formats": ["html", "pdfa1b", "print"]}
+{"cellarURIs": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/92846ab3-d424-4eb0-84ff-4d7794da4398", "title": "89/217/EEC: Commission Decision of 30 November 1988 on a national aid scheme for beef in Italy (Only the Italian text is authentic)", "langIdentifier": "ENG", "mtypes": "html,pdfa1b,print", "workTypes": "http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#decision,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#legislation_secondary,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#resource_legal,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#work", "authors": "European Commission", "date": "1988-11-30", "subjects": "Italy,State aid,beef", "workIds": "celex:31989D0217,oj:JOL_1989_085_R_0048_043", "eurovoc_concepts": ["Italy", "State aid", "beef"], "url": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/92846ab3-d424-4eb0-84ff-4d7794da4398", "lang": "eng", "formats": ["html", "pdfa1b", "print"]}
+{"cellarURIs": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/58f7ab7a-a604-48b5-bb4a-d5749cb1c26d", "title": "RE-EXAMINED PROPOSAL FOR A COUNCIL DIRECTIVE AMENDING DIRECTIVE 80/1107/EEC ON THE PROTECTION OF WORKERS FROM THE RISKS RELATED TO EXPOSURE TO CHEMICAL, PHYSICAL AND BIOLOGICAL AGENTS AT WORK", "langIdentifier": "ENG", "mtypes": "pdfa1b,print", "workTypes": "http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#act_preparatory,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#proposal_act,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#proposal_regulation_ec,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#resource_legal,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#work", "authors": "European Commission", "date": "1988-11-30", "subjects": "approximation of laws,chemical product,occupational health,occupational safety,safety device", "workIds": "celex:51988PC0735,comnat:COM_1988_0735_FIN,oj:JOC_1988_330_R_0010_01", "eurovoc_concepts": ["approximation of laws", "chemical product", "occupational health", "occupational safety", "safety device"], "url": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/58f7ab7a-a604-48b5-bb4a-d5749cb1c26d", "lang": "eng", "formats": ["pdfa1b", "print"]}
+{"cellarURIs": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/db2a4e89-3c65-4cf8-872e-6eff3ce98ccd", "title": "89/228/EEC: Commission Decision of 30 November 1988 on Decree-Law No 370/87 of 7 September 1987 of the Italian Government subsequently converted into Law No 460 of 4 November 1987 on production and marketing, including new standards for the production and marketing of wine sector products (Only the Italian text is authentic)", "langIdentifier": "ENG", "mtypes": "html,pdfa1b,print", "workTypes": "http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#decision,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#legislation_secondary,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#resource_legal,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#work", "authors": "European Commission", "date": "1988-11-30", "subjects": "EU aid,Italy,food processing,fruit product,marketing standard,wine", "workIds": "celex:31989D0228,oj:JOL_1989_094_R_0038_036", "eurovoc_concepts": ["EU aid", "Italy", "food processing", "fruit product", "marketing standard", "wine"], "url": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/db2a4e89-3c65-4cf8-872e-6eff3ce98ccd", "lang": "eng", "formats": ["html", "pdfa1b", "print"]}
+{"cellarURIs": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/60b624bf-bd67-45f0-96a5-515e095e939d", "title": "DRAFT JOINT DECISION OF THE COUNCIL AND THE COMMISSION ESTABLISHING A PROGRAMME OF OPTIONS SPECIFIC TO THE REMOTE AND INSULAR NATURE OF THE FRENCH OVERSEAS DEPARTMENTS ( POSEIDOM )", "langIdentifier": "ENG", "mtypes": "pdfa1b,print", "workTypes": "http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#act_preparatory,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#proposal_act,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#proposal_other,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#resource_legal,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#work", "authors": "European Commission", "date": "1988-11-30", "subjects": "action programme,island region,regional development", "workIds": "celex:51988PC0730(01),comnat:COM_1988_0730(01)_FIN,oj:JOC_1989_053_R_0012_01", "eurovoc_concepts": ["action programme", "island region", "regional development"], "url": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/60b624bf-bd67-45f0-96a5-515e095e939d", "lang": "eng", "formats": ["pdfa1b", "print"]}
+{"cellarURIs": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/ccc79ed0-3962-4eac-bdc4-0da1c6287093", "title": "Cooperation Agreement between the European Economic Community and the Swiss Confederation on Research and Development in the field of advanced materials (Euram)", "langIdentifier": "ENG", "mtypes": "fmx4,html,pdfa1b,print,xhtml", "workTypes": "http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#agreement_international,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#agreement_non-member-states,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#resource_legal,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#work", "authors": "European Economic Community,Switzerland", "date": "1988-11-30", "subjects": "Switzerland,advanced materials,cooperation agreement (EU),research and development,scientific cooperation", "workIds": "celex:21988A0723(02)", "eurovoc_concepts": ["Switzerland", "advanced materials", "cooperation agreement (EU)", "research and development", "scientific cooperation"], "url": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/ccc79ed0-3962-4eac-bdc4-0da1c6287093", "lang": "eng", "formats": ["fmx4", "html", "pdfa1b", "print", "xhtml"], "text": "L_1988195EN. 01008001. xml\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n23. 7. 1988\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\n\n\nEN\n\n\nOfficial Journal of the European Communities\n\n\nL 195/80\n\n\n\n\n\nCOOPERATION AGREEMENT\nbetween the European Economic Community and the Swiss Confederation on Research and Development in the field of advanced materials (Euram)\nTHE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC COMMUNITY,\nhereinafter referred to as \u2018the Community\u2019,\nand\nTHE SWISS CONFEDERATION,\nhereinafter referred to as \u2018Switzerland\u2019,\nhereinafter referred to as the \u2018Contracting Parties\u2019,\nWHEREAS, by its Decision of 3 October 1983, the Swiss Federal Council adopted, for the period 1985 to 1990, a Swiss national research programme called \u2018Materials for tomorrow's needs\u2019, hereinafter referred to as \u2018the Swiss programme\u2019, which is implemented and financed in Switzerland by the Swiss National Fund for Scientific Research;\nWHEREAS, by its Decision of 10 June 1986, the Council adopted, for a period of four years from 1 January 1986, a research programme on materials (raw materials and advanced materials), which includes a subprogramme on advanced materials (Euram), hereinafter referred to as \u2018the Community Programme\u2019; whereas Article 6 of that Decision provides for the conclusion of agreements with third States, in particular those involved in European cooperation in the field of scientific and technical research (COST);\nWHEREAS the Community and Switzerland concluded a Framework Agreement for scientific and technical cooperation which entered into force on 17 July 1987;\nWHEREAS cooperation between the Swiss and Community programmes would be in the interests of both parties and would ensure that the respective research undertaken is complementary and avoid unnecessary duplication of effort,\nHAVE AGREED AS FOLLOWS:\nArticle 1\nThe Community and Switzerland shall cooperate on the Community and Swiss programmes as described in Annexes A and B. Article 2\nEach Contracting Party shall bear the cost of implementing its own programme. The costs arising from inter-programme cooperation activities shall be defrayed by the Contracting Parties, each party being responsible for the amounts which concern it. Article 3\nThe objective of the cooperation referred to in Article 1 is to coordinate the Community and Swiss programmes and to provide a stimulus for carrying out the programmes with a view to deriving greater benefit from the respective research efforts. The aims of this coordination are, in particular:\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\u2014\n\n\nto select and define research projects,\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\u2014\n\n\nto monitor the implementation of projects,\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\u2014\n\n\nto evaluate the results and identify new research priorities. It shall be carried out through:\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\u2014\n\n\na detailed exchange of information on the respective programmes,\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\u2014\n\n\nparticipation of representatives of one Contracting Party in the seminars and symposia of the other,\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\u2014\n\n\norganization of vists by specialists from one Contracting Party to research institutes of the other,\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\u2014\n\n\nregular close contacts between those responsible for the Community and Swiss programmes,\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\u2014\n\n\nother means of cooperation which shall be the subject of particular negotiations, if appropriate. Article 4\nThe Commission of the European Communities, of the one part, and the bodies designated by the Swiss Federal Council, of the other part, shall ensure that cooperation takes place between the Community and Swiss programmes. To this end, the person responsible for the Community programme shall invite the person responsible for the Swiss programme to attend meetings of Community working parties and groups of experts, as necessary, and the person responsible for the Swiss programme shall invite the person responsible for the Community programme to attend meetings of Swiss working parties and groups of experts, as necessary. These persons may be accompanied by experts at the meetings to which they are invited. Article 5\nKnowledge resulting from the implementation of the Community programme during the period of validity of this Agreement shall be communicated to Switzerland and to its bodies (organs, undertakings or persons) carrying out research or production work justifying access to this knowledge, under the same conditions as to the Member States of the Community. Knowledge resulting from the implementation of the Swiss programme during the period of validity of this Agreement shall be communicated to the Member States of the Community and to their relevant bodies under the same conditions as to the relevant Swiss bodies. If in the implementation of the respective programmes patentable inventions, which will be protected by patents, are made or conceived, the Contracting Parties shall encourage as far as possible the granting by the holders of such patents of non-exclusive licences to persons and undertakings established in the Community and Switzerland. Any such licences shall be granted on non-discriminatory terms. Article 6\nThis Agreement shall apply, on the one hand, to the territories in which the Treaty establishing the European Economic Community is applied and under the conditions laid down in that Treaty, and on the other hand, to the territory of the Swiss Confederation. Article 7\n1. This Agreement shall be concluded for the duration of the programme of the Contracting Party which expires first. Unless notice of termination of the Agreement is served in the month following a decision to revise the programme of one of the Contracting Parties, Annex A or B shall be amended to take account of the revision. The Contracting Parties, shall inform one another of decisions to revise the programmes. 2. Unless notice of termination is served in the month following the decision to adopt a new programme by one of the Contracting Parties, this Agreement shall be extended for the duration of the programme of the Contracting Party which expires first. The provisions of the second subparagraph of the paragraph 1 above shall be applicable mutatis mutandis. 3. This Agreement shall not be deemed to have expired solely by the fact of a delay in the adoption of a subsequent programme of one of the Contracting Parties. 4. With the exception of the provisions set out in paragraphs 1 and 2, each Contracting Party may at any moment terminate the Agreement by serving six months notice. Article 8\nAnnexes A and B shall form an integral part Of the Agreement. Article 9\nThis Agreement shall be approved by the Contracting Parties under the procedures in force for each of them. It shall enter into force as soon as the Contracting Parties have notified one another of completion of the procedures necessary to this effect. Article 10\nThis Agreement shall be drawn up in duplicate in Danish, Dutch, English, French, German, Greek, Italian, Portuguese and Spanish, each text being equally authentic. For the Swiss Confederation\n\n\n\n\non behalf of the Council of the European Communities\n\n\n\n\n\nANNEX A\nCommunity programme on advanced materials (Euram) (1986 to 1989)\nThe Community programme shall cover the following research areas:\n1. Metallic Materials\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1. 1. Light aluminium-based alloys\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1. 2. Light magnesium-based alloys\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1. 3. Light titanium-based alloys\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1. 4. Electronic and electrical-contact materials\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1. 5. High-performance magnetic materials\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1. 6. Materials for surface coating for machine-tool and cutting equipment\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1. 7. Thin-walled castings. 2. Engineering Ceramics\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2. 1. Optimization of engineering ceramics\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2. 2. Study of metal/ceramic interface: cermets\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2. 3. Ceramic composites with fibres and whiskers\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2. 4. High temperature behaviour of engineering ceramics. 3. Composite Materials\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n3. 1. Organic-matrix composites\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n3. 2. Metallic-matrix composites\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n3. 3. Ceramic-matrix composites\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n3. 4. Other specific advanced materials. The programme shall be implemented by means of shared-cost research contracts and coordination and training activites. ANNEX B\nSwiss programme on \u2018Materials for tomorrow's needs\u2019 (1985 to 1990)\nThe Swiss programme covers the following areas of research:\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\u2014\n\n\nMaterials for magnetic functions,\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\u2014\n\n\nMaterials for surface coating intended for machine-tool and cutting equipment,\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\u2014\n\n\nDevelopment of engineering ceramics,\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\u2014\n\n\nDevelopment of composite materials,\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\u2014\n\n\nMaterials for electronics and optoelectronics,\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\u2014\n\n\nSpecial polymers,\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\u2014\n\n\nMaterials for sensors"}
+{"cellarURIs": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/8816a98d-a6a2-41e1-a254-30b5f6387317", "title": "Commission Regulation (EEC) No 556/89 of 30 November 1988 on the application of Article 85 (3) of the Treaty to certain categories of know-how licensing agreements", "langIdentifier": "ENG", "mtypes": "html,pdfa1b,print", "workTypes": "http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#legislation_secondary,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#regulation,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#resource_legal,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#work", "authors": "European Commission", "date": "1988-11-30", "subjects": "competition policy,industrial property,inter-company agreement,know-how,patents licence", "workIds": "celex:31989R0556,oj:JOL_1989_061_R_0001_027", "eurovoc_concepts": ["competition policy", "industrial property", "inter-company agreement", "know-how", "patents licence"], "url": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/8816a98d-a6a2-41e1-a254-30b5f6387317", "lang": "eng", "formats": ["html", "pdfa1b", "print"]}
+{"cellarURIs": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/6e3b9a2b-05bb-45ff-9701-633b5313e3f1", "title": "89/373/EEC: Commission Decision of 30 November 1988 on aid decided by the Italian Government for investments in the public flat-glass industry (Veneziana Vetro) (Only the Italian text is authentic)", "langIdentifier": "ENG", "mtypes": "html,pdfa1b,print", "workTypes": "http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#decision,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#legislation_secondary,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#resource_legal,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#work", "authors": "European Commission", "date": "1988-11-30", "subjects": "Italy,State aid,control of State aid,glass,glass industry", "workIds": "celex:31989D0373,oj:JOL_1989_166_R_0060_042", "eurovoc_concepts": ["Italy", "State aid", "control of State aid", "glass", "glass industry"], "url": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/6e3b9a2b-05bb-45ff-9701-633b5313e3f1", "lang": "eng", "formats": ["html", "pdfa1b", "print"]}
+{"cellarURIs": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/c07d4efa-d2a3-404a-ad9c-295c5ca1227c", "title": "Cooperation Agreement between the European Economic Community and the Swiss Confederation on Research and Development in the field of wood, including cork, as a renewable raw material", "langIdentifier": "ENG", "mtypes": "fmx4,html,pdfa1b,print,xhtml", "workTypes": "http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#agreement_international,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#agreement_non-member-states,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#resource_legal,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#work", "authors": "European Economic Community,Switzerland", "date": "1988-11-30", "subjects": "Switzerland,cooperation agreement (EU),cork,raw material,research and development,scientific cooperation,wood product", "workIds": "celex:21988A0723(01)", "eurovoc_concepts": ["Switzerland", "cooperation agreement (EU)", "cork", "raw material", "research and development", "scientific cooperation", "wood product"], "url": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/c07d4efa-d2a3-404a-ad9c-295c5ca1227c", "lang": "eng", "formats": ["fmx4", "html", "pdfa1b", "print", "xhtml"], "text": "L_1988195EN. 01007501. xml\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n23. 7. 1988\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\n\n\nEN\n\n\nOfficial Journal of the European Communities\n\n\nL 195/75\n\n\n\n\n\nCOOPERATION AGREEMENT\nbetween the European Economic Community and the Swiss Confederation on Research and Development in the field of wood, including cork, as a renewable raw material\nTHE EUROPEAN ECONOMIC COMMUNITY,\nhereinafter referred to as \u2018the Community\u2019,\nand\nTHE SWISS CONFEDERATION\nhereinafter referred to as \u2018Switzerland\u2019,\nHereinafter referred to as the \u2018Contracting Parties\u2019,\nWHEREAS, pursuant to the Decision of the Council of the European Communities, hereinafter referred to as \u2018the Council\u2019, of 18 February 1985, Switzerland and the Community cooperated, for a period up to 31 December 1985 on research and development in the field of wood as a renewable raw material; whereas the Contracting Parties have both benefited from this cooperation;\nWHEREAS, by its Decision of 19 May 1982, the Swiss Federal Council adopted, for the period ending in April 1988 and extended to the end of 1990, a national programme on wood as an energy source and renewable raw material, herinafter referred to as \u2018the Swiss programme\u2019, which is implemented and financed in Switzerland by the Swiss National fund for Scientific Research;\nWHEREAS, by its Decision of 10 June 1986, the Council adopted, for a period of four years from 1 January 1986, a research programme on materials (raw materials and advanced materials), which includes a subprogramme on wood, including cork, as a renewable raw material, hereinafter referred to as \u2018the Community programme\u2019; whereas Article 6 of that Decision provides for the conclusion of ageements with third States, in particular those involved in European cooperation in the field of scientific and technical research (COST);\nWHEREAS the Community and Switzerland concluded a Framework Agreement for scientific and technical cooperation which entered into force on 17 July 1987;\nWHEREAS cooperation between the Swiss and Community programmes would continue to ensure that the respective research undertaken is complementary and avoid unnecessary duplication of effort,\nHAVE AGREED AS FOLLOWS:\nArticle 1\nThe Community and Switzerland shall cooperate on the Community and Swiss programmes as described in Annexes A and B. Article 2\nEach Contracting Party shall bear the cost of implementing its own programme. The costs arising from inter-programme cooperation activities shall be defrayed by the Contracting Parties, each party being responsible for the amounts which concern it. Article 3\nThe objective of the cooperation referred to in Article 1 is to coordinate the Community and Swiss programmes and to provide a stimulus for carrying out the programmes with a view to deriving greater benefit from the respective research efforts. The aims of this coordination are, in particular:\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\u2014\n\n\nto select and define research projects,\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\u2014\n\n\nto monitor the implementation of projects,\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\u2014\n\n\nto evaluate the results and identify new research priorities. It shall be carried out through:\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\u2014\n\n\na detailed exchange of information on the respective programmes,\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\u2014\n\n\nparticipation of representatives of one Contracting Party in the seminars and symposia of the other,\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\u2014\n\n\norganization of visits by specialists from one Contracting Party to research institutes of the other,\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\u2014\n\n\nregular close contacts between those responsible for the Community and Swiss programmes. Article 4\nThe Commission of the European Communities, of the one part, and the bodies designated by the Swiss Federal Council, of the other part, shall ensure that cooperation takes place between the Community and Swiss programmes. To this end, the person responsible for the Community programme shall invite the person responsible for the Swiss programme to attend meetings of Community working parties and groups of experts, as necessary, and the person responsible for the Swiss programme shall invite the person responsible for the Community programme to attend meetings of Swiss working parties and groups of experts, as necessary. These persons may be accompanied by experts at the meetings to which they are invited. Article 5\nKnowledge resulting from the implementation of the Community programme during the period of validity of this Agreement shall be communicated to Switzerland and to its bodies (organs, undertakings or persons) carrying out research or production work justifying access to this knowledge, under the same conditions as to the Member States of the Community. Knowledge resulting from the implementation of the Swiss programme during the period of validity of this Agreement shall be communicated to the Member States of the Community and to their relevant bodies under the same conditions as to the relevant Swiss bodies. If in the implementation of the respective programmes patentable inventions, which will be protected by patents, are made or conceived, the Contracting Parties shall encourage as far as possible the granting by the holders of such patents of non-exclusive licenses to persons and undertakings established in the Community and Switzerland. Any such licenses shall be granted on non-discriminatory terms. Article 6\nThis Agreement shall apply, on the one hand, to the territories in which the Treaty establishing the European Economic Community is applied and under the conditions laid down in that Treaty, and on the other hand, to the territory of the Swiss Confederation. Article 7\n1. This Agreement shall be concluded for the duration of the programme of the Contracting Party which expires first. Unless notice of termination of the Agreement is served in the month following a decision to revise the programme of one of the Contracting Parties, Annex A or B shall be amended to take account of the revision. The Contracting Parties shall inform one another of decisions to revise the programmes. 2. Unless notice of termination is served in the month following the decision to adopt a new programme by one of the Contracting Parties, this Agreement shall be extended for the duration of the programme of the Contracting Party which expires first. The provisions of the second subparagraph of the paragraph 1 above shall be applicable mutatis mutandis. 3. This Agreement shall be deemed not to have expired solely by the fact of a delay in the adoption of a subsequent programme of one of the Contracting Parties. 4. With the exception of the provisions set out in paragraphs 1 and 2, each Contracting Party may at any moment terminate the Agreement by serving six months notice. Article 8\nAnnexes A and B shall form an integral part of the Agreement. Article 9\nThis Agreement shall be approved by the Contracting Parties under the procedures in force for each of them. It shall enter into force as soon as the Contracting Parties have notified one another of completion of the procedures necessary to this effect. Article 10\nThis Agreement shall be drawn up in duplicate in Danish, Dutch, English, French, German, Greek, Italian, Portuguese and Spanish, each text being equally authentic. For the Swiss Confederation\n\n\n\n\nOn behalf of the Council of the European Communities\n\n\n\n\n\nANNEX A\nCommunity programme on wood, including cork, as a renewable raw material (1986 to 1989)\nThe Community programme shall cover the following research areas:\n1. Wood production\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1. 1. Forest-tree breeding and gene resource conservation\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1. 2. Protection against damage from biotic and abiotic agents and fire\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1. 3. Better use of land resources (coordination action only)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1. 4. Forest inventories (coordination action only)\n\n\n\n\n2. Wood harvest, storage and transport\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2. 1. Organization of harvesting operations and development of harvesting machinery\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2. 2. Harvesting, treatment, storage and transport\n\n\n\n\n3. Wood as a material\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n3. 1. Properties, protection and improvement of wood and wood-based panels\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n3. 2. Development of testing and grading procedures\n\n\n\n\n4. Mechanical wood processing and use of finished wood products\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n4. 1. Mechanical conversion and manufacturing processes\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n4. 2. Drying processes\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n4. 3. Use of wood and wood-based materials in construction\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n4. 4. Other uses of finished products made of wood\n\n\n\n\n5. Pulp and paper manufacturing and processing and wood chemicals\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n5. 1. The physical and organic chemistry of wood defibring\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n5. 2. Chemi-mechanical pulping (high-yield pulping)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n5. 3. Pulping processes with low-grade wood\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n5. 4. Substitutes for wood fibres and material additives\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n5. 5. Fibre recycling\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n5. 6. The process of manufacture of paper and board\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n5. 7. Products derived from wood as a source of chemicals\n\n\n\n\nThe programme shall be implemented by means of shared-cost research contracts and coordination and training activities. ANNEX B\nSwiss programme on wood as an energy source and a renewable raw material (1982 to 1990)\n1. National supply requirements:\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\u2014\n\n\nForestry policy and forestry law in a situation of chronic scarcity,\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\u2014\n\n\nIncreased production with the help of sylvicultural means,\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\u2014\n\n\nClaims and conflicts as regards operation,\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\u2014\n\n\nUtilization for forestry purposes of forage areas released,\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\u2014\n\n\nMaking mountain forests accessible,\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\u2014\n\n\nBasic data for the management of forestry undertakings,\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\u2014\n\n\nOptimizing the management of forestry undertakings,\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\u2014\n\n\nThe timber market. 2. Vital wood products:\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\u2014\n\n\nIncreased processing of wood in Switerland,\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\u2014\n\n\nOptimum distribution of raw materials,\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\u2014\n\n\nExports and imports,\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\u2014\n\n\nThe properties of Swiss wood,\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\u2014\n\n\nSorting facilities in small and medium-sized undertakings,\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\u2014\n\n\nOptimizing craft trade undertakings,\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\u2014\n\n\nConstruction-timber joining techniques,\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\u2014\n\n\nDeformation and long-term resistance of construction components and load-bearing structures,\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\u2014\n\n\nProcesses for impregnating large sections,\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\u2014\n\n\nExterior wood covering,\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\u2014\n\n\nWood in interior decoration,\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\u2014\n\n\nOrganic components of sulphur-free waste solutions,\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\u2014\n\n\nBiodegradation of lignin,\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\u2014\n\n\nProcess control system in the timber industry. 3. Wood as an energy source:\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\u2014\n\n\nWood as an energy source in times of crisis,\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\u2014\n\n\nEnergy potential of the wood used as material for civil engineering purposes,\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\u2014\n\n\nTransport and distribution of wood as an energy source. 4. Economic effects of forest dieback:\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\u2014\n\n\nSimulation model of economic losses"}
+{"cellarURIs": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/382dbbff-a677-4873-8de5-f715277fb8c6", "title": "89/204/EEC: Commission Decision of 30 November 1988 on regional aid for mandarin growers in Sicily (Only the Italian text is authentic)", "langIdentifier": "ENG", "mtypes": "html,pdfa1b,print", "workTypes": "http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#decision,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#legislation_secondary,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#resource_legal,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#work", "authors": "European Commission", "date": "1988-11-30", "subjects": "Sicily,citrus fruit,producer organisation,production aid,regional aid,restriction on competition", "workIds": "celex:31989D0204,oj:JOL_1989_076_R_0048_037", "eurovoc_concepts": ["Sicily", "citrus fruit", "producer organisation", "production aid", "regional aid", "restriction on competition"], "url": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/382dbbff-a677-4873-8de5-f715277fb8c6", "lang": "eng", "formats": ["html", "pdfa1b", "print"]}
+{"cellarURIs": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/6f7cd7de-409e-4fa5-8ae8-fd08aed2168b", "title": "PROPOSAL FOR A COUNCIL DECISION CONCERNING THE DOCK DUES ARRANGEMENTS IN THE FRENCH OVERSEAS DEPARTMENTS", "langIdentifier": "ENG", "mtypes": "pdfa1b,print", "workTypes": "http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#act_preparatory,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#proposal_act,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#proposal_decision_ec,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#resource_legal,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#work", "authors": "European Commission", "date": "1988-11-30", "subjects": "French overseas department and region,import tax,local tax,tax system", "workIds": "celex:51988PC0730(02),comnat:COM_1988_0730(02)_FIN,oj:JOC_1989_039_R_0006_01", "eurovoc_concepts": ["French overseas department and region", "import tax", "local tax", "tax system"], "url": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/6f7cd7de-409e-4fa5-8ae8-fd08aed2168b", "lang": "eng", "formats": ["pdfa1b", "print"]}
+{"cellarURIs": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/f0d2369f-43ea-11ed-92ed-01aa75ed71a1", "title": "Information on the date of entry into force of the Additional Protocol to the Cooperation Agreement between the European Economic Community and the Syrian Arab Republic, signed in Brussels on 16 June 1988", "langIdentifier": "ENG", "mtypes": "pdf,print", "workTypes": "http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#resource_legal,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#work", "authors": "Council of the European Union", "date": "1988-11-30", "subjects": "Syria,cooperation agreement (EU),protocol to an agreement", "workIds": "celex:21988X1130(05),oj:JOL_1988_327_R_0064_01", "eurovoc_concepts": ["Syria", "cooperation agreement (EU)", "protocol to an agreement"], "url": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/f0d2369f-43ea-11ed-92ed-01aa75ed71a1", "lang": "eng", "formats": ["pdf", "print"], "text": "No L 327 / 64\n\nOfficial Journal of the European Communities\n\n30. 11. 88\n\nInformation on the date of entry into force of the Additional Protocol to the Cooperation Agreement\nbetween the European Economic Community and the Syrian Arab Republic, signed in Brussels on\n16 June 1988. Notification of completion of the procedures necessary for the entry into force of the abovementioned\nProtocol having been given on 25 November 1988 , the Additional Protocol will enter into force on\n1 December 1988 in accordance with Article 5 ( 2 ) thereof"}
+{"cellarURIs": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/e3e1fd1a-5634-4d47-b901-86b4720f1808", "title": "88/613/EEC: Commission Decision of 30 November 1988 approving a programme on the crushing of oil seeds in France in accordance with Council Regulation (EEC) No 355/77 (only the French version of this text is authentic)", "langIdentifier": "ENG", "mtypes": "html,pdfa1b,print", "workTypes": "http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#decision,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#legislation_secondary,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#resource_legal,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#work", "authors": "European Commission", "date": "1988-11-30", "subjects": "France,oleaginous plant,production aid", "workIds": "celex:31988D0613,oj:JOL_1988_335_R_0033_028", "eurovoc_concepts": ["France", "oleaginous plant", "production aid"], "url": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/e3e1fd1a-5634-4d47-b901-86b4720f1808", "lang": "eng", "formats": ["html", "pdfa1b", "print"]}
+{"cellarURIs": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/9645603a-a95f-4970-a5f1-258b55ab4422", "title": "Commission Regulation (EEC) No 3750/88 of 30 November 1988 laying down detailed rules for the application of the limit on processing aid for Shamouti oranges for 1988/89", "langIdentifier": "ENG", "mtypes": "html,pdfa1b,print", "workTypes": "http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#legislation_secondary,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#regulation,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#resource_legal,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#work", "authors": "European Commission", "date": "1988-11-30", "subjects": "citrus fruit,economic support,production aid", "workIds": "celex:31988R3750,oj:JOL_1988_328_R_0050_052", "eurovoc_concepts": ["citrus fruit", "economic support", "production aid"], "url": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/9645603a-a95f-4970-a5f1-258b55ab4422", "lang": "eng", "formats": ["html", "pdfa1b", "print"]}
+{"cellarURIs": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/4f7756ea-43eb-11ed-92ed-01aa75ed71a1", "title": "Information on the date of entry into force of the fourth Additional Protocol to the Agreement between the European Economic Community and the State of Israel and of the Protocol on financial cooperation between the European Economic Community and the State of Israel, signed in Brussels on 15 December 1987", "langIdentifier": "ENG", "mtypes": "pdf,print", "workTypes": "http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#resource_legal,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#work", "authors": "Council of the European Union", "date": "1988-11-30", "subjects": "Israel,cooperation agreement (EU),financial aid,financial cooperation,protocol to an agreement", "workIds": "celex:21988X1130(02),oj:JOL_1988_327_R_0056_01", "eurovoc_concepts": ["Israel", "cooperation agreement (EU)", "financial aid", "financial cooperation", "protocol to an agreement"], "url": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/4f7756ea-43eb-11ed-92ed-01aa75ed71a1", "lang": "eng", "formats": ["pdf", "print"], "text": "No L 327 / 56\n\nOfficial Journal of the European Communities\n\n30. 11. 88\n\nInformation on the date of entry into force of the fourth Additional Protocol to the Agreement\nbetween the European Economic Community and the State of Israel and of the Protocol on financial\ncooperation between the European Economic Community and the State of Israel, signed in Brussels\non 15 December 1987\n\nNotification of completion of the procedures necessary for the entry into force of the abovementioned\nProtocols having been completed on 25 November 1988 , the Additional Protocol will enter into force,\nin accordance with Article 8 thereof, on 1 December 1988 , and the Financial Protocol will enter into\nforce , in accordance with Article 13 thereof, on 1 January 1989. Information on the date of implementation of Council Regulation (EEC) No 4162/ 87 of 21\nDecember 1987, laying down arrangements for Spain's and Portugal's trade with Israel and amending\nRegulation (EEC) No 449/ 86 and (EEC) No 2573 / 87 0 )\n\nThe measures provided for in Article 3 of the Regulation having been notified by the State of Israel by\nletter of 24 October 1988 , with effect from 1 December 1988 , the abovementioned Regulation will\napply as from 1 December 1988. Information on the date of implementation of Decision No 87/ 610 / ECSC of the representatives of\nthe governments of the Member States, meeting within the Council, and of the Commission of\n21 December 1987 laying down the arrangements for Spain's and Portugal's trade with Israel in\nfalling within the ECSC Treaty and amending Decisions 86 / 69/ ECSC and\nproducts\n\n87 / 456 / ECSC (2 )\n\nThe measures provided for in Article 3 of this Decision having been notified by the State of Israel by\nletter of 24 October 1988 , with effect from 1 December 1988 , the Decision will apply as from\n1 December 1988. 0 ) OJ No L 396 , 31. 12. 1987 , p. 1. H OJ No L 396 , 31. 12. 1987 , p. 69"}
+{"cellarURIs": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/0d6d0ae1-fc6c-4ab6-9044-1a74cf035fec", "title": "Commission Regulation (EEC) No 3825/88 of 30 November 1988 establishing the full version, applicable from 1 January 1989, of the agricultural product nomenclature for export refunds", "langIdentifier": "ENG", "mtypes": "pdfa1b,print", "workTypes": "http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#legislation_secondary,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#regulation,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#resource_legal,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#work", "authors": "European Commission", "date": "1988-11-30", "subjects": "agricultural product nomenclature,tariff nomenclature", "workIds": "celex:31988R3825,oj:JOL_1988_341_R_0001_003", "eurovoc_concepts": ["agricultural product nomenclature", "tariff nomenclature"], "url": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/0d6d0ae1-fc6c-4ab6-9044-1a74cf035fec", "lang": "eng", "formats": ["pdfa1b", "print"]}
+{"cellarURIs": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/f1228382-2fad-4ff0-9335-4d4cc2c31157", "title": "Commission Regulation (EEC) No 4087/88 of 30 November 1988 on the application of Article 85 (3) of the Treaty to categories of franchise agreements", "langIdentifier": "ENG", "mtypes": "html,pdfa1b,print", "workTypes": "http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#legislation_secondary,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#regulation,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#resource_legal,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#work", "authors": "European Commission", "date": "1988-11-30", "subjects": "franchising,restriction on competition,restrictive trade practice", "workIds": "celex:31988R4087,oj:JOL_1988_359_R_0046_035", "eurovoc_concepts": ["franchising", "restriction on competition", "restrictive trade practice"], "url": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/f1228382-2fad-4ff0-9335-4d4cc2c31157", "lang": "eng", "formats": ["html", "pdfa1b", "print"]}
+{"cellarURIs": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/6b5ec1eb-06dc-4e85-915a-c991eb05eeff", "title": "88/630/EEC: Commission Decision of 29 November 1988 on the clearance of the accounts presented by the Member States in respect of the expenditure for 1986 of the Guarantee Section of the European Agricultural Guidance and Guarantee Fund", "langIdentifier": "ENG", "mtypes": "html,pdfa1b,print", "workTypes": "http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#decision,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#legislation_secondary,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#resource_legal,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#work", "authors": "European Commission", "date": "1988-11-29", "subjects": "EAGGF Guarantee Section,EU Member State,closing of accounts,financial year", "workIds": "celex:31988D0630,oj:JOL_1988_353_R_0030_007", "eurovoc_concepts": ["EAGGF Guarantee Section", "EU Member State", "closing of accounts", "financial year"], "url": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/6b5ec1eb-06dc-4e85-915a-c991eb05eeff", "lang": "eng", "formats": ["html", "pdfa1b", "print"]}
+{"cellarURIs": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/10f554c3-542c-44b5-a52d-327414be9efc", "title": "FIRST REPORT ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN EUROPE", "langIdentifier": "ENG", "mtypes": "pdf", "workTypes": "http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#act_preparatory,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#document_com_other_ec,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#report_ec,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#resource_legal,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#work", "authors": "European Commission", "date": "1988-11-29", "subjects": "air transport,biotechnology,competitiveness,energy policy,information technology,new technology,quality of life,renewable energy,research and development,telecommunications", "workIds": "celex:51988DC0647,comnat:COM_1988_0647_FIN", "eurovoc_concepts": ["air transport", "biotechnology", "competitiveness", "energy policy", "information technology", "new technology", "quality of life", "renewable energy", "research and development", "telecommunications"], "url": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/10f554c3-542c-44b5-a52d-327414be9efc", "lang": "eng", "formats": ["pdf"], "text": "COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES\n\nCOM(88 ) 647 final\n\nBrussels , 29 November 1988\n\n13\n\n9 DEC. i:$3 gg\n\n5|\n\\\\ 6MMI\n\n5e*1i \u00e9a SMSUI-IAI\n\nI\n\nFIRST REPORT ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE\nAND TECHNOLOGY IN EUROPE\n\n( presented by the Commission )\n\n\fFIRST REPORT ON THE STATE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY\nIN EUROPE\n\n1\n\nHIGHLIGHTS\n\n1. This report is a first response to the request of the\nEuropean Parliament for regular reviews by the Commission of the\nstate of science and technology in Europe. the\n\nParliament\n\nIt draws on wide-ranging sources of information and assessment ,\ntechnology\nnotably :\nadministrations in the member states , the committees specifically\nestablished to advise the Commission on research requirements ,\nthe views\non Community\nthe independent evaluation panels\nprogrammes , systematic monitoring of the scientific and technical\npress and scientific meetings , as well as ongoing work in other\ninternational organisations. science\n\nitself ,\n\nand\n\nthe\n\nof\n\nCommission\n\nThe\nduring\nThereafter it should be published at two-yearly intervals. intends\n\nupdate\n\nreport\n\nthe\n\nto\n\n1989. for\n\nThe main aim of the report is to provide a factual\n2. the\nfurther\noutside\nand\nbasis\nand\ninstitutions ,\nscience\nCommunity\nin\ntechnology and how best they can be satisfied. It does not ;\nhowever , attempt to identify at what level or in which framework\nat national or at transnational level action in specific fields\ncould most beneficially be taken. both\nEurope 's\n\ninside\nneeds\n\nreflection ,\n\non\n\n3. can be summarised as follows :\n\nThe tentative picture emerging from this first report\n\nEuropean\n\n( i )\nsituation by increased efforts\n\nA good deal has already been done to improve\nthe\nspending on\nresearch and development and in improving industrial performance\nthrough innovation. But the efforts are still unbalanced and\nfragmented. Three Member States ( Germany , France and the United\nKingdom ) account for three-quarters of total spending on R and D\nin the Community ; and regional variations are acute. Cooperative\ntransnational actions ( Community programmes , EUREKA , COST , ESA ,\nCERN etc )\nthe total\nresearch effort ;\n\nsmall percentage of\n\nfor only a\n\naccount\n\nin\n\n2\n\n\f( ii )\n\nEuropean efforts are in case well below\nthose of our major competitors ( the USA and Japan ) who are both\nspending\nown\nremedy\nalso threatened by the new\nweaknesses. efforts of emerging science and technology powers ( the NICs in\nparticular ) ;\n\nand\nEurope 's\n\nposition is\n\naction\n\ntaking\n\ntheir\n\nmore\n\nalso\n\nto\n\n2\n\n( iii )\n\nEurope faces three main challenges :\n\n\u00b0\n\n\u00b0\n\nincrease\n\nto\npursue ,\ntechnological and economic options ;\n\nto\nnecessary ,\n\nits\nwhere\n\ncapacity\n\ndevelop\nits\n\nand\nown\n\nstrengthen\n\nto\ninternational\ncompetitiveness , especially in those fields\nwhich will take on increasing importance in\nthe future ;\n\nits\n\nto meet the social need for improved quality\nof life. ( iv )\nthe resources to meet these\nchallenges. It is rich in scientific talent and organisational\n\u2022 ability. And in its present economic situation it can afford to\nThe question is how to get the best out of\ninvest more in R&D. these resources and in which areas to focus the effort. Europe has\n\n( v )\n\nimbalance\n\novercoming\n\nGetting the best out of European efforts\nentails addressing a series of issues : ensuring that science and\nunderstood and accepted at all levels of European\ntechnology are\nsociety ;\nbetter\ncoordination and by ensuring an adequate basis for technological\nprogress in the less-favoured countries and regions ; encouraging\nthe spread of technology skills throughout society ; attracting\nmore private sector finance and facilitating the diffusion of\ntechnology throughout industry ;\nlinks between\nindustry and universities f as well as exploiting the scope for\ninternational\nare\nevident mutual benefits. encouraging the\n\nfragmentation\n\ncollaboration\n\nwhere\n\nthose\n\nareas\n\nthere\n\nand\n\nby\n\nin\n\n3\n\n\fAs far as research areas are concerned , the\nreport highlights five areas of major relevance to the European\neconomy :\n\n< vi )\n\n3\n\n-\n\n-\n\ninformation\na\nand\nparticular research effort is needed to improve the\nsituation of the European semiconductor industry. telecommunications\n\ntechnology\n\n-\n\nnew materials and technologies for use in manufacturing\nsuperconducting materials are particularly\nindustry -\npromising. - aeronautics ,\n\nwhere\n\nEurope\n\nfaces\n\na\n\nparticular\n\ncomp\u00e9titive challenge. - biology and biotechnology which offer the prospect of\nmajor transformations in industry and agriculture as\nefforts ,\nas\nwell\nhowever ,\ngene \u00ac\nmapping , neurobiology and biotechnology applications. medical\nthe\nneeded on basic\n\nSpecific\nplant biology ,\n\nin\nare\n\nfield. where\n\nEurope\n\nenergy ,\non\nremains\noutside sources of supply - fusion is important for the\nlonger-term and carefully targetted research on new and\nrenewables\nthe\nshorter-term. technologies\n\ndependent\n\nenergy\n\nhighly\n\nsaving\n\nand\n\nin\n\nIn terms of the quality of life there are major research needs in\nthe fields of environment , health research and industrial , road\nresearch\nand\nrequirements have a global dimension. Europe has the capacity as\nwell as the need to make a major contribution to the study of\nGlobal Climate change. environment\n\nnuclear\n\nsafety. some\n\nthe\n\nof\n\nIn\n\nUnderpinning these efforts in specific fields Europe must sustain\nand develop\nresearch to provide the\nseedcorn for new technological openings. capacity\n\nbasic\n\nits\n\nin\n\n4. There follow summaries of each chapter of the report. 4\n\n\fI : SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY AND EUROPE 'S ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL NEEDS\n\nDespite substantial progress in recent years ,\n\n5. Europe\nremains weak in a number of the science-based sectors which are\nThis specific weakness reflects a\ngrowing rapidly world-wide. technological dependence in key areas. Electronic components is\na particularly important case. 4\n\nof\n\nnew technologies. The more traditional sectors of manufacturing industry continue\nto account for higher shares of GDP than in the USA and Japan. Some of them have made real progress in modernising through the\napplication\nexample. Others , such as the paper and board processing industry , or parts\nEven\nof the machine-tool industry have been less successful. through\nthose\ntheir\nautomation\nincreasing\nautomobiles )\nOne successful company strategy in a number of\ncompetition. industries has been to seek the capture of the top-end of the\nmarket through technology. position\nface\n\ninnovation\n\nradically\n\nTextiles\n\nimproved\n\nthat\n\nhave\n\n( eg. one\n\nand\n\nis\n\nMajor efforts continue to be needed to improve the technological\nEuropean industry and to seize the opportunities\nposition of\noffered\nProgress\nscientific\nby\ntowards completion of the Internal Market will help to create the\nright framework conditions. But it needs to be accompanied by\nspecific efforts in the RTD field. technological\n\nadvance. and\n\nImprovement in the quality of life - the environment ,\n6. concerns\nare\nincreasingly\n-\nhealth ,\nthroughout Europe. Developments in science and technology are\nopening up new opportunities for tackling these problems in an\neffective and economic manner. important\n\nsafety\n\nalso\n\nneeds\n\nEurope\n\ncapability\n\nbroadly-based\nrespond\n\nand\na\n7. of\ntechnological\nto\nThis\nincreased competitiveness and a better quality of life. means being able to choose and to develop its own technological\nA fundamental research\noptions where this seems appropriate. capability is particularly important. Fundamental research is\nincreasingly recognised internationally as the provider of new\nopenings and ideas and a key factor in conditioning the pattern\nof economic and social development longer-term. scientific\n\nneeds\n\ntwin\n\nthe\n\nto\n\nThe acquisition and maintenance of such a broadly-based\n8. scientific and technological capacity\nis , however , increasingly\nexpensive : science is developing at an accelerating pace with\never shorter periods of time over which to depreciate investment\nthe most cost -\nin R&D. avoiding\neffective\n\nimportance of\nof\n\nThis\nsolutions\n\norganisation\n\nunderlines\n\nR&D ,\n\nthe\n\nthe\n\nto\n\nS\n\n\f5\nfragmented efforts. It also means that the broadest possible\nmarket is needed for the commercialisation of the products of\nresearch and development. II : EUROPEAN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN A COMPARATIVE PERSPECTIVE\n\n9. European efforts have to be set against the changing\nOur main competitors ( the USA and\ninternational environment. Japan ) have been making their own adjustments to changing needs\nwhile new players are becoming increasingly important or could be\nso over the coming years ( the NICs , the Soviet Union , China ). 10. European spending on R&D is still well below that of\nthe USA in absolute terms and below the USA and Japan as a share\nof GDP. US spending in volume is 1. 75 times that of the Member\nStates of the European Community combined , and research intensity\n( R&D spending as\nin the\nin Japan. Community compared with 2. 8%\nGermany alone has\ncomparable to\nEven when defence spending is excluded US\nEurope 's competitors. expenditure\nEuropean\nremains\naverage. in the USA and 2. 6%\n\na proportion of GDP )\n\na research intensity\n\nsignificantly\n\nis only 1. 9%\n\nhigher\n\n( 2. 8% )\n\nthan\n\nthe\n\nIn both the USA and Japan business also invests and carries out\nmore of the R&D than in Europe. Both the USA and Japan have larger numbers of research scientists\nand engineers in their labour forces ; the growth in Japan has\nbeen striking. The United States\n\nThe high level of defence R&D in the USA , half of which\n11. potent factor in mobilising\nis contracted out to industry , is a\nresources. The precise level of spin-off to the civil sector\nfrom military R&D in general and from SDI in particular , is hard\nto assess. But there have been undoubted major benefits in the\nfields of materials , aircraft engineering , vehicle technology ,\ncomputer technology and systems engineering. The shift during\nthe 1980s of much military R&D towards development work tailored\nto\nfundamental and applied research has ,\nhowever , raised some concern in the USA about reduced industrial\nimpact. the needs\n\nof more\n\n\fhas\n\nThis\n\ncoincided\n\n12. the\ncompetitiveness of US industry and US technological dependence ,\nnotably vis - ci -vis Japan. The Reagan Administration has taken\ninitiatives to encourage American industry to cooperate in the\nface of this challenge and to increase the transfer of knowledge\nfrom Federal programmes to industry. These have been combined\nwith a more restrictive approach to the wider availability of the\nresults of research. worries\n\nabout\n\nwith\n\n\u0431\n\nin\n\nthe\n\nconcern\n\nA third\n\n13. a\nshortfall of perhaps 500,000 scientists and engineers by 2010\nand the pattern of university\nbecause of demographic trends\nenrolment. One issue is the encouragement of foreign students\n( especially those from the Pacific Basin ) to stay on in the USA\nAt the post-doctoral level there are likely to\nafter graduation. skilled R&D personnel from\nbe increased pressures\nabroad , especially from Europe. the prospect of\n\n\" poach \"\n\nUSA is\n\nto\n\nJapan\n\nof\n\nThe\n\nbasic\n\nresearch\n\nimportance\n\nbe\n14. recognised in the USA : it is the only sector of Federally-funded\ncivil R&D to have increased in recent years. In Japan , where\neconomic success has been founded essentially on the absorption\ntechnology , efforts are now under\nand transformation of foreign\nreflecting a\nway to build up a capacity in basic research ,\nperception\nnew\nup\nwill\ntechnological options for Japan in the longer-term and enabling\nit to stay one step ahead. Already Japan has strengths in , for\nexample biotechnology , new materials and neuro-computing. essential\n\ncontinues\n\nopening\n\nthat\n\nthis\n\nbe\n\nto\n\nin\n\nThis interest in basic research ,\nconcern about the closed nature of\ntechnology system ,\ncollaboration , including the Human Frontier Science Programme. and the need to respond to\nthe Japanese science and\nto new openings in international\n\nhas\n\nled\n\nEmerging Science and Technology Powers\n\n15. The most dynamic NICs are planning a substantial growth\nin R&D spending and strategies for the development of large cadre\nof highly qualified personnel , as they themselves face challenges\nKorea in particular is\nfrom other industrialising countries. making efforts in this direction. Other emerging science and\ntechnology powers include Taiwan , India , Brazil and Israel. 7\n\n\fChina is making particular efforts to improve its science and\ntechnology capability and major research programmes have been\nlaunched. \"\n\n\u25a0 \u2013 - - - \u2013. -. ~\n\n~\n\n7\n\nthe\nin\nestablishment\nfor\nin ,\n\nlargest\nDevelopments\nUnion ,\nsignificant\nscientific\nthe\nachievements\ntechnology ,\naspects\nmathematics and theoretical physics , will depend heavily on the\nsuccess\nof the policy of restructuring ( perestroika ) and its\nimpact on the deployment of scientific resources to the civil\neconomy. Soviet\nin\nexample ,\n\nwhich\nworld\nof\n\nhas\nand\nspace\n\nthe\n\nIll : MOBILISING EUROPE 'S RESOURCES\n\nR&D spending ( public and private )\n\n16. Within Europe there are major national differences in\nlevels of investment in R&D ; in the relative importance of the\npublic and private sectors ; and in the distribution of resources\namong research sectors. Three countries\n( Germany , UK and France ) account together for\nover three-quarters of total public and private spending on R&D\nGermany has by far the highest\nin the European Community. research intensity and the highest number of researchers in its\nIndustry also plays a bigger role in both the\nlabour force. financing and execution of R&D in Germany than elsewhere. In the\nless favoured Member States the public sector is by far the\npredominant source of R&D finance. Regional disparities are larger still. 17. intensity is\nthemselves\ntechnology\nregions is much wider than the economic gap. and much greater at a sub-national\nthe\ngap\n\nThe gap in R&D\n12:1 between the Member States\nlevel. This\nless-favoured\n\nof the order of\n\ndeveloped\n\nbetween\n\nand\n\nthe\n\nGovernment policies and public funding\n\n18. grown during the\ntailing off. In the majority of Member Sates public R&D budgets have\nalthough there has been some recent\n\n1980s ,\n\n8\n\n\fDefence R&D is particularly important in the United\n19. and France\nKingdom ( around 50%\nElsewhere the\n( 34% ), and to a lesser extent Germany ( 12. 5% ). The wide\nshares are much smaller and in some cases negligible. differences in defence R&D make coordination of national policies\non dual-use technologies particularly difficult. the total public finance )\n\nof\n\n8\n\nSome countries give particular emphasis to the public\n20. funding of basic research ( Germany , France and the Netherlands in\nparticular ). the\nrising cost of basic research , increased emphasis on measurable\ncost-effectiveness and urgent need to improve competitiveness\nhave led to a new emphasis on industrially-oriented research. public expenditure constraints ,\n\nIn others ,\n\nEuropean Coop\u00e9ration and Coordination\n\nThe experience has been overwhelmingly positive. Transfrontier cooperation in Europe , involving industry\n21. as well as universities , has increased significantly in the past\nfew years. The\nCommunity 's own cost-sharing programmes have been overscribed ,\nreflecting a widely felt need for collaboration , especially at a\nThe\ntime when pressures on national budgets have been growing. involving\nexperience of\n800\norganisations ,\nfurther\nis\n-\nevidence of this thirst for a transnational approach. 213 announced projects\nindustrial\n\nEUREKA -\ntwo-thirds\n\nthem\n\nof\n\nThe\n\ntotal\nprogrammes\n\nthese cooperative ventures\n\nThe share of the total European research effort that is\n22. however ,\nhandled through\nthe\nthrough\nsmall. total\nCommunity 's\nof\nestimated EC public and private spending on civil research. Even\ntaking into account the other major European ventures - EUREKA ,\nESA , CERN , EMBL etc. - the vast bulk of research continues to be\nfinanced and carried out at national level , a large share of it\nthrough national budgets. equivalent\n\ncost\nis\n\nsupported\n\nprojects\n\nremains ,\n\nabout\n\nof\n\nto\n\n4%\n\nto\n\nThe\n\nneed\n\nidentify\n\n23. excessive\nduplication and overlap occur among these national efforts is\nEfforts are being made within CREST to improve the\npressing. In the\ninformation base and to \" confront \" national policies. light of further progress in this forum , the Commission intends\nto focus particular attention on duplication and overlap in its\nforthcoming reports on the state of science and technology. precisely\n\nwhere\n\n\fIV : RESEARCH ISSUES FOR THE FUTURE\n\n24. challenges described in Chapter I :\n\nresearch\n\nneeds\n\nThe\n\nof\n\n9\n\nEurope\n\nreflect\n\nthe\n\nthree\n\nto improve international competitiveness , notably in\n\nthe context of the completion of the Internal Market ;\n\nto respond to the needs of society by improving the\n\nquality of life ;\n\nto increase the Community 's capacity to develop and\npursue , where appropriate ,\nits own technological options ,\ndrawing on the opportunities offered by a solid fundamental\nresearch capability. It concentrates on\nThe following is not an exhaustive list. areas where particular efforts are needed to complement or to\nsupplement ongoing or planned activities by industry and by\npublic bodies ( national and transnational ). Improving Competitiveness\n\nThere are significant\n\n25. research needs in five ares :\nindustrial\ninformation\nmaterials and technologies , aerospace , biological sciences and\nenergy. telecommunications ,\n\ntechnology\n\nand\n\nThe European information technology industries are in\n26. better shape than at\nBut the\nthe beginning of\nnegative balance of trade in IT products is large ( 13. 4 milliard\nUS$ in 1986 ), reflecting dependence in the fields of electronic\ncomponents in particular. 1980s. the\n\nResearch is needed to give Europe the capacity to master and\ndevelop the next generation of memory chips based on circuity for\nA significant cross-border\nfeature series below 0. 5 micron. collaborative project ( JESSI ) is currently under discussion among\nEuropean manufacturers. Progress is also needed in software and advanced information\nprocessing and in peripherals ( flat panel displays and optical\nstorage technologies ) where Europe 's position is weak. More basic research is required on questions such as the security\ncomputer languages and machine \u00ac\nand reliability of computers ,\nlearning ; as well as prenormative work to prepare the integration\nof IT systems designed for a wide range of services ( intelligent\nbanking and financial services etc. ). ro\n\n\fIn telecommunications Europe 's relatively favourable\n27. position\nthe\ncould - be\nelectronic components sector , the spiralling costs of R&D and new\ntechnological and market challenges ( such as the digitalisation\nof networks , developments in broadband networks ). by - continuing weakness\n\nthreatened\n\nin\n\n10\n\nResearch \u2022 is needed on a wide front , including better network\nopto-eletronic\nmanagement\ncomponents ; new materials and software tools. electronic\n\nspecific\n\nsystems ;\n\nand\n\n28. A significant research effort will also be required in\nthe development , coordination and integration of technologies for\nthe application of IT and telecommunications , including language\ntechnologies. industry\n\nManufacturing\n\n29. of\nCommunity GNP and employs 75% of the industrial work force of\nA general need is to ensure the diffusion and\nsome 41 million. application of available new technologies by this sector. In\nparallel a major research effort continues to be necessary to\nopen up new technological possibilities for European industry and\nto solve particularly pressing problems. Areas of particular\ninterest include :\n\ncurrently\n\nprovides\n\n30%\n\n*\n\n*\n\n*\n\n*\n\n*\n\ntechniques for quality control ( which can cost up to\n25% of company turnover )\n\ntechniques for shapinq , joininq and assembly\n\nsurface treatment to prevent corrosion ( which can cost\nup to 4% of GNP )\n\npowder technology , which is a particularly large and\nhigh-value market\n\nother high-value materials , such as metal composites\n( already being developed for ceramic-reinforced light\nalloy pistons )\n\nA concerted\nparticularly necessary. mobilised in the USA and Japan. research effort on\n\nis\nLarge financial resources are being\n\nsuperconducting materials\n\n\u00b0\n\nnorms and standards. number of areas , including lasers. Prenormative work is needed in a\n\n30. In aeronautics the European industry has had major\nsuccesses , capturing ( 1980-1986 ) 23% of the civil and 27% of the\nmilitary world market. But sharply increasing competition can be\nexpected over the next 10-15 years , not only from the USA but\n\n11\n\n\falso from Japan and industrialising countries such as Korea and\nThe - US remains in -a - particularly favourable position\nBrazil. because of the large home market and the spin-off from military\nprogrammes. 11\n\nfuture\n\nsuccess\n\ncommercial\n\nThe\nEuropean\naeronautical\nIn order to\nindustry will depend heavily on advanced technology. prepare for the 1990s and beyond Europe the need is for broadly-\nbased collaborative efforts focussed on aerodynamics and flight\nmechanisms , materials , acoustics , computation , airborne systems\nand\nand\nmanufacturing technologies. integration\n\npropulsion\n\nequipment ,\n\ndesign\n\nand\n\nthe\n\nof\n\nfor\n\nThe\n\nsocial\n\nfuture\n\nmarket\n\nbiotechnology\n\nis\n31. difficult to quantify precisely ;\nbut worldwide the biological\nsciences are recognised to offer the prospect of major economic\n\" clean \"\n( through\nand\nproductivity ;\ntransformations\nprogress\nscience ;\nimproved understanding of the brain , with its implications for\ncomputer\nand\npsychiatry ). environmentally\nindustrial\n\nand\nchemistry\n\npharmaceuticals ,\n\nimpacts\nof\n\nagricultural\n\nand medical\n\npsychology\n\nproducts\n\ndesign\n\nimpact\n\nwell\n\nits\n\nas\n\non\n\nin\n\nas\n\nFour areas of research merit particular attention :\n\nbasic plant biology. Without a better understanding of\n*\nkey structures and functions within plants it will not be\npossible\napplication\ntechnology ;\n\nsignificant\n\nadvances\n\nmake\n\nto\n\nin\n\nand\n\nplant\nto\n\ngene-mapping of complex organisms. \u00b0\nFor agriculture and\nindustry the detailed mapping of the genes of important\nessential\nmicrobial\nFor\ncomplement\nmedicine , a better understanding of the human genome is as\nnecessary to the continuing process of medicine as knowledge\nThis is laborious\nof human anatomy is to its present state. are\nefforts\nand\nunderway. Europe has experience on which to build ;\n\ninternational\n\nanimal\non\n\nexpensive\n\nbiology. species\n\nMajor\n\nwork. basic\n\nplant\n\nwork\n\nthe\n\nan\n\nis\n\n*\ncoordinate some national actions ;\n\nneurosciences , where efforts are already under way to\n\nand\n\nresearch\n\nindustrial\n\napplications. \u00b0\nParticular\nthe\nby\npharmaceuticals industry to maintain its good competitive\nposition , in the face of growing competition and the cost\nand time-scale needed for the development of new products. Research is also needed on improved food technologies and on\nnutrition itself. agro-industrial\nwill\n\nefforts\n\nneeded\n\nbe\n\n12\n\n\fThe energy markets are currently slack , with plentiful\n\n32. supplies on world markets. on third countries for supplies , particularly of oil , which is\nstill the largest single element in the Community energy balance. There is\na continuing need to ensure adequately diversified\nenergy supply and efficient energy use and to reduce as far as\npossible the impact of energy supply and use on the environment. Two lines of research remain of particular importance :\n\nBut Europe remains. heavily dependent -,\n\n12\n\ncontrolled nuclear fusion , which offers the prospect in\n*\nthe\nacceptable ,\nnext\npractically inexhaustible , geographically independent source\nof supply. Europe is already playing a leading role ;\n\nenvironmentally\n\ncentury\n\nan\n\nof\n\nresearch on selective non-nuclear energy technologies\n*\nand technologies for improving energy use which offer the\nbest prospect of exploitation on a wide scale. Improvincr the Quality of Life\n\ndevising\n\nScience and technology have fundamental roles to play\n33. in\npolicies. Continuing research efforts in Europe are needed under three\ninterdependent headings :\n\nenvironmental\n\neffective\n\nrational\n\nand\n\n- understanding the basic phenomena\n- detection and interpretation of environmental changes\n- prevention. many\n\ncomplex\n\nA scientific approach to understanding the complex interactions\nthe\nsub-systems\nof\nthe\natmosphere ,\nbeen\nwater ,\nbasic\nago. unthinkable\nmathematics , in analytical techniques and technologies ( including\nremote sensing from space ), together with the huge capacity to\nhandle information through advanced computing , now makes this\npossible. stratosphere ,\nhave\nin\n\nwould\nprogress\n\nsoil ,\na\n\ndecades\n\ninland\n\n( the\n\nsea )\n\nfew\n\nBut\n\nthe\n\nthe\n\nSome of the problems are particular to Europe in a regional sense\nAction is under way both\nand require European level efforts. EUREKA\nCOST\nprogrammes ,\nCommunity\nthrough\nprojects. the\nThe\nmost\nan issue with truly global\n\" greenhouse effect \",\nimportant\nEurope\ndimensions. contribution to the International Geosphere-Biosphere Programme\n( Global Change ). Good coordination among these projects is essential. complex\n\nglobal\nis\ncapacity\n\nof\nhowever ,\nthe\nhas\n\nto make an\n\nclimate\n\nchange\n\nissue\n\nwell\n\nand\n\nas\n\nas\n\n13\n\n\f34. In the field of health , Europe is faced with sharply\nrising health care costs (a world-wide phenomenon ); a \" greying \"\nof its population , with the consequent increase in age-related\ndiseases ; and growing problems posed , in particular , by AIDS and\ncancer. 13\n\nEuropean research in the medical field suffers from particular\nThis is an area where the value of concerted\nfragmentation. national\naction\nclearly\nacross\nThe essential need is for more of the same in\ndemonstrated. as well as continuing\ntackling the problems described above ,\nresearch on medical technology. frontiers\n\nalready\n\nbeen\n\nhas\n\nIn the field of industrial technologies and materials\n35. R&D\nincreasing attention will have to be given to safety issues. has an important role to play in the development of common safety\nstandards in particular for new technologies such as lasers. of\n\nthe\n\npotential\n\ndevelopment\n\ncontribution\n\nroad-safety\nThe\nthe\nthrough\ninfrastructure to support it , is also considerable. Cooperative\nefforts are already under way in Europe to address these issues\n( the DRIVE programme in the Community , and PROMETHEUS and other\nThere is an obvious need for good\nprojects inside EUREKA ). coordination among. All these projects to ensure optimal resource\nallocation. \" intelligent \"\n\nlong-term\n\nR&D\n\nand\n\nthe\n\ncar\n\nto\n\nof\n\nContinuing attention will need to be paid also to work\n36. on the safety of nuclear fission. In addition to research on\nreactor safety , the safety of the fuel cycle , radioactive waste\nmanagement and storage , the safety of dismantling nuclear plants\nat the end of their lives , a particular effort will be required\nto increase public confidence about radiation protection. , This\nrequires both research work itself and efforts by the scientific\ncommunity to present the issues in a wav which is accessible by\nthe general public. 37. Bioethics are attracting growing attention world-wide. A particular effort is needed at Community level in particular\nbecause of the importance for the Internal Market of a harmonised\nregulatory\njuridical\nconsiderations must accompany science and precede technological\ndevelopment. environment. societal\n\nEthical ,\n\nand\n\n\fFundamental Research - the Essential Underpinning\n\n14\n\n38. up\nsignificant new opportunities through progress in mathematics ,\nphysics , chemistry and the earth sciences. Fundamental\n\ncontinuing\n\nresearch\n\nopen\n\nto\n\nis\n\nThe theory of non-linear mathematics - pioneered in Europe - has\nall -\npervasive applications , opening up prospects such as the\nor\noptical\nsignificant\ninternal\ncombustion engine. of\nfunctioning\n\nmodelling\nthe\n\nadvanced\nin\n\nclimatic\nof\n\nimprovements\n\ncomputer ,\n\nchange\n\nthe\n\nsome\n\nweaknesses :\n\nIn physics there are strong points in the European situation , but\nalso\nand\ntechnology , for example , are not on a par with those in the USA ,\ndespite some significant multinational efforts. Europe occupies a good position both in basic chemistry and on\nthe market for chemistry-based products. But there is a problem\nin recruiting a sufficient number of high quality students. efforts\n\nscience\n\nlaser\n\nthe\n\non\n\nIn earth sciences good European coordination is being assured by\nIn oceanography the USA is\nthe European Science Foundation. leading the\nsuch as the study of the\nfield. coastal zone , the interface between the ocean and the atmosphere\nwill be pursued through the Community 's MAST programme and the\nEUREKA project EUROMAR. Some aspects ,\n\nEarth observation from space is of major potential significance\nfor the earth sciences. ESF ,\n\nWithin Europe there are already several multinational\n39. ventures for the common pursuit of Big Sciences ( CERN , ESO , ESA ,\namongst\netc. )*. EMBL ,\nIncreased collaboration with\nthem , which must develop further. Community programmes is also desirable\nso as to maximise the\nindustrial and commercial spin-offs. Space research is one area\nof particular importance. There is growing collaboration\n\nadvanced\n\nThere are also outstanding questions related to access\n40. the\nto\ndevelopment of expensive scientific instrumentation. Given the\ncost of sophisticated facilities it is not feasible to imagine\n\nmiddle-size\n\nresearch\n\ndevices\n\nEurope\n\nand\n\nin\n\nCERN - European Centre for Nuclear Research\nESO\n\n- European Organisation for Astronomical Research\n\nin the Southern Hemisphere\n\n- European Space Agency\n\nESA\nEMBL - European Molecular Biology Laboratory\nESF\n\n- European Science Foundation\n\n\f15\nthat they can be available in every European country. Particular\nattention will be needed to provide a framework for cooperation\namong national teams. V : KEY ISSUES FOR SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY POLICY IN EUROPE\n\n41. broader policy questions of particular importance :\n\nAlongside the research needs themselves there are some\n\n( i )\n\nthe balance of effort between fundamental and applied\nresearch across Europe\n\nof\n\nOne\n\nthis\n\ntheme\n\nreport\n\nsound capacity in\nfundamental research is essential to Europe in its pursuit of\nThis is an area where\ntechnological and economic independence. public authorities have a particularly important role. But in\nthe funding and execution of basic research industry too has\nevident self-interest. In the USA much of this research is\nfunded by industry. that\n\nis\n\na\n\n( ii ) the links between industry and the universities\n\nThese have been growing world-wide , with industry driven\nincreasingly to tap scientific knowledge and universities driven\nby financial constraints. The trend is a desirable one , with two\ncaveats : namely , that it should not jeopardise the pursuit of\nfundamental research in universities and that restrictions on the\ndissemination of research results should be minimised. ( iii )\n\nbroadening and deepening the technology culture\n\nThe most successful economies in recent years have been\nthose that have sought actively to develop on a broad base the\nhuman skills required both to research , to develop , to apply and\nto use technology. Europe as a whole\nJapan is the best example. There is shortage firstly , of skilled\nis in a weaker position. manpower trained to use the new technologies ; while the output of\nto develop and apply the\nresearch\nengineers\ntechnologies\nadded\nthat the brightest and the best in Europe are\ndifficulty is\noften attracted across the Atlantic. Particular attention will\nbe needed to ways of increasing the supply of skills and to\nprovide an environment in Europe that is attractive to highly\n\nand\ninsufficient\n\nscientists\nis\n\ncountries. many\n\nAn\n\nin\n\n16\n\n\fqualified\nThis\nmobility of research workers between European countries. scientists. removing\n\nmeans\n\nthe barriers\n\n16\n\nto\n\n( iv )\n\nPublic acceptability of science and technology\n\nPublic concern about new technologies is often based on fear\nIt is important both for democracy and for the\nof the unknown. pursuit of scientific knowledge that popular understanding of the\nissues\nwill help to ensure that\ninformed choices are made and a sound regulatory environment\nThe information effort in many European countries\nestablished. is still inadequate. should be\n\nimproved. This\n\n( v )\n\nEncouraging the private sector to invest more\n\nIndustrial\n\ninvestment\n\ncountries. European\ninsufficiently\nessentially national. transnational\ninnovation. level\n\ndeveloped\n\nto\n\nstill\n\nThe\nin\n\nin R&D is\nventure\nmany\n\nlow in many\nare\nmarkets\nare\nthey\nAction is needed at national and at\nfor\n\ncountries\n\ncapital\n\nimprove\n\nfinance\n\naccess\n\ntoo\n\nand\n\nthe\n\nto\n\n( vi )\n\nThe Diffusion of Technology\n\nneeds\n\nEurope\n\nHere Japan in particular has a head-start. As well as opening up new frontiers through research and\nthe\nto\ndevelopment ,\ntechnologies that are already coming on the market or are about\nto do so. Some\nhave made considerable\nMember States\nOthers less\nefforts to promote a wide diffusion of technology. Community-level action has a helpful role to play ( notably\nso. spread\nthe\nSPRINT\ninformation\nof\nresearch and development. ( in particular Denmark )\n\ndone\nthe results\n\nprogramme ). about\n\ntechnologies\n\nBut more\n\navailable\n\nexploit\n\nrapidly\n\nbe\nand\n\ncould\n\nmore\n\nto\n\n( vii )\n\nPolicy Coordination and ( viii ) Cohesion\n\nParticular efforts are needed to improve the coordination of\nscience and technology policies in Europe. At the same time\nsteps must be taken to improve the RDT fabric in the less -\nto enable them to achieve a level of\nfavoured regions so as\nexcellence comparable to that of the more developed. This cannot\nbe done without the provision of\ninfrastructure and trained\npersonnel. social policy instruments could be\nappropriately used to this end. Regional and\n\n17\n\n\f( ix )\n\nCooperation with Third Countries\n\n17\n\nand\n\nScience\n\ntechnology\n\ninternational\nThe\ncommodities and further internationalisation is inevitable. issue is how best to organise cooperation in such a way that it\ncan be a \" positive-sum \" game in which everybody benefits. The\napproaches must depend on the situation of individual countries\nor regions. increasingly\n\nare\n\nThe European Community has a particular interest in close science\nand\ngood\nother\nbilateral\nestablished\nrelations\nagreements as well as EUREKA. technology\nare\n\nlinks\nalready\n\ncountries\n\nthrough\n\nwhere\n\nCOST ,\n\nEFTA\n\nwith\n\nThere is scope for improved cooperation with the USA. It would\nalso be appropriate to take advantage of Japanese openings to\nexamine the scope for mutually beneficial cooperative ventures ,\nespecially those involving expensive , long lead-time research. As far as developing countries are concerned Europe has a role to\nplay in tackling the specific problems of medicine , agriculture ,\nenergy\nwider\nconsequences for the LDCs of scientific advances in materials and\nneed\nof\nbiotechnology\nconsideration in Europe as well as at an international level. significance\n\nenvironment\n\nwhich\n\nface. will\n\nalso\n\nthey\n\nand\n\nare\n\nand\n\nThe\n\nthe\n\nFurther reflection is needed on the potential scope for RTD\ncooperation with the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe , given the\nnew developments in relations across the European continent ; and\nalso on the appropriate form for scientific cooperation with the\nNICs. ( x )\n\nAvoiding technological protectionism\n\nThe\n\nand\n\nlonger-term benefits\n\nan\ninternational level can only be fully realised if the transfer of\nknowledge\nthe\nis\n\" industrialisation \" of research and the growing importance of\nscience to trade flows has increased the pressure to restrict\ninformation in order to preserve competitive edge. flows\nPolicy developments in the USA in this respect will need to be\ncarefully monitored. RTD cooperation at\n\nfacilitated. technology\n\nBut\n\nof\n\nof\n\n18\n\n\fFIRST REPORT ON\n\nTHE STATE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN EUROPE\n\nMAIN REPORT\n\nMAIN REPORT\n\nINTRODUCTION\n\n- background\n- objectives\n- structure\n- inputs\n\nI. SCIENCE , TECHNOLOGY AND EUROPE 'S ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL\nNEEDS\n\nScience , technology and the economy\n\n( i )\n( ii ) Science , technology and the consequences of growth\n\nand change\n\nII. EUROPEAN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY FROM A COMPARATIVE\nPERSPECTIVE : TRENDS IN OUR MAIN COMPETITORS\n\n( i )\n( ii )\n( iii )\n( iv )\n\nComparative trends in Science & Technology\nTrends in the USA\nDevelopments in Japan\nA changing international environment\n\nIII. MOBILISING EUROPE ' S RESOURCES\n\n( i )\n( ii )\n\n( iii )\n\nAt a national level\nEuropean cooperation both at Community level\nand outside the Community ( notably , EUREKA )\nPolicy coordination\n\nIV. RESEARCH ISSUES FOR THE FUTURE\n\n1. IMPROVING COMPETITIVENESS\n\nInformation Technologies and T\u00e9l\u00e9communications\nIndustrial Materials and Technologies\nAeronautics\nLife Sciences and Technologies\nEnergy\n\nPages\n\n1-3\n\n4-10\n\n4\n7\n\n11-31\n\n11\n19\n25\n28\n\n32-48\n\n32\n42\n\n46\n\n49-86\n\n50-72\n\n51\n57\n61\n62\n67\n\n19\n\n\f2. IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF LIFE FOR EUROPE 'S CITIZENS\n\n73-80\n\nThe Environment\nHealth Research\nSafety\nBioethics\n\n73\n77\n78\n8 Q\n\n3. FUNDAMENTAL RESEARCH - THE ESSENTIAL UNDERPINNING\n\n81-86\n\nMathematics\nPhysics\nChemistry\nEarth Sciences\n\n83\n83\n84\n85\n\nV. KEY ISSUES FOR SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY POLICY IN EUROPE\n\n87-102\n\nThe Balance and Organisation of Research\n\n87 - 90\n\n( i )\n( ii )\n\nThe balance between basic and applied research\nThe links between industry and universities\n\n87\n88\n\nEducation and Information\n\n90 - 93\n\n( iii )\n( iv )\n\nBroadening and deepening the technology culture\nThe public acceptability of science & technology\n\n90\n92\n\nIndustry and the Private Sector\n\n93 - 96\n\n( v )\n\n( vi )\n\nEncouraging the private sector to invest more in\nR&D\nThe diffusion of technology\n\n93\n\n95\n\nPolicy Coordination and Cohesion within Europe\n\n( vii )\n( viii )\n\nIncreasing coordination among national policies\nImproving the cohesion of the Community\n\nThe External Aspects\n\n97-99\n\n97\n97\n\n99-102\n\n( ix )\n( x )\n\nEncouraging cooperation in RTD with third countries 99\n101\nAvoiding technological protectionism. 20\n\n\fANNEXES\n\nINFORMATION TECHNOLOGY AND TELECOMMUNICATIONS\n\nINDUSTRIAL TECHNOLOGIES AND MATERIALS\n\nAERONAUTICS\n\nBIOLOGY\n\nNON-NUCLEAR ENERGY\n\nCONTROLLED NUCLEAR FUSION\n\nENVIRONMENT\n\nHEALTH\n\nFISSION ENERGY-SAFETY\n\n1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. 10. BASIC SCIENCE\n\n11. SPACE\n\n12. SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY POLICIES AND TRENDS IN THE MEMBER STATES\n\n13. REGIONAL TRENDS IN SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY\n\n14. COMPARATIVE TRENDS IN THE USA , JAPAN AND EUROPE. FIRST REPORT ON\n\nTHE STATE OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY IN EUROPE\n\nINTRODUCTION\n\nThe Background and Objectives\n\nIn\n\nits\n\n1. technological\nchallenge facing Europe *\u25a0 , the European Parliament invited the\nCommission to give an account of the European situation in the\nfor\nand\nvarious\nconsidering future policy requirements. technology\n\nscience\n\nrecent\n\nreport\n\nfields\n\nbasis\n\nmost\n\nthe\n\non\n\nof\n\nas\n\na\n\n2. The importance attached by the Parliament to this issue\nreflects a widespread recognition of the vital role which science\nand technology must play in the future of Europe 's economy and in\nthe\nEuropean\nprosperous\nCommunity. That recognition is enshrined in the Single European\nAct itself. construction\n\nsuccessful\n\nand\n\nof\n\na\n\nthe\n\nthe\n\nnew\n\nsuccess. European\n\ntackling\n\nCommunity ,\n\nconstraints\n\nDuring the past few years real progress has been made\n3. in\nEuropean\non\ngovernments have launched , both inside and outside the framework\ntransnational\ninitiatives\nof\ncooperation among researchers in universities , industry and the\nAt the Community level there has been a\npublic sector itself. towards\nnew\nin\nimproving\nparticular )\ncurrent\nFramework Programme 1987-1991 provides for particular efforts in\nthese\nEUREKA has\nprovided further evidence of the interest in and benefits from\ntransnational cooperation in Europe. on\nindustrial\nas\n\nCommunity efforts ,\n\nthe quality of\n\ncompetitiveness\n\n( ESPRIT ,\nlife. development\n\nAlongside\n\noriented\n\nresearch\n\nemphasis\n\nareas. foster\n\nBRITE\n\nwell\n\nthe\n\nand\n\nThe\n\nto\n\nas\n\nthat\n4. preliminary report ares\n\nAgainst\n\nbackground\n\nthe\n\naims\n\nof\n\nthis\n\nfirst\n\n\u00b0\n\nto draw up a balance-sheet of progress\n\nso\n\nfar\n\nin\n\nComparative study of the technology level of Europe ,\nUSA , Japan and the Soviet Union , Michel Poniatowski ,\nPresident of\nResearch and\nthe Committee on Energy ,\nTechnology , European Parliament , 15 June 1987. 22\n\n\fimproving Europe 's position in science and technology ;\n\n2\n\n*\nwhich\nreducing\ntechnological dependence and\neconomic competitiveness and the quality of life ;\n\nto consider the main research needs and opportunities\nof\nattention\nimproving\n\nparticular\n\nEurope 's\n\nrequire\n\ncontext\n\nthe\n\nin\n\nand to identify the main science policy issues facing\n\n\u00b0\nEurope over the coming years. The report is not limited to a review of Community activities in\nthe fields concerned or to the planning horizon of the current\nFramework\nspecific\nProgramme\nproposals for Community action. The aim is rather to provide the\nfactual basis on which to consider what needs to be done in\nEurope , without at this stage attempting to identify what should\nbe done at national , what is more appropriate for action in a\ntransnational\nmost\nframework\neffectively be done at Community level. specifically\n\n( 1987-1991 );\n\nmight\n\nmake\n\nwhat\n\ndoes\n\nnor\n\nor\n\nit\n\nThe report highlights the importance for the future of\n5. adequate efforts in basic research alongside and in support of\nthe application of scientific knowledge and technical know-how to\nthe solution of the main economic and societal questions facing\nresearch\nEurope. ( education ) and downstream ( innovation and technology transfer ). It pays particular attention to the opportunities and needs\narising from the completion of the Community 's Internal Market in\n1992. questions\n\naddresses\n\nupstream\n\nalso\n\nof\n\nIt\n\nThe\n\nCommission\n\nand\n6. preliminary report during the course of 1989 in the light of the\nreactions to it from the Parliament , from national policy-makers\nand\neducational\nfrom\ncommunity. Thereafter it will publish similar factual analyses\nat two-yearly intervals. scientific ,\n\nindustrial\n\nintends\n\nupdate\n\nwider\n\nfirst\n\nthis\n\nund\n\nthe\n\nto\n\nThe structure\n\n7. The report has five chapters :\n\nand\n\nChapter I recalls briefly the central role played by\nscience\nsocial\ndevelopment , and some of the central issues affecting\napplied research ,\nthe links between basic research ,\ninnovation and competitiveness. technology\n\neconomic\n\nand\n\nin\n\nChapter II summarises recent policies and developments\noutside Europe , concentrating on the USA and Japan , but\nalso examining briefly the situation and prospects in\nthe emergence of new\nthe\n\nas well as\n\nSoviet\n\nUnion\n\n23\n\n\fscience and technology powers \u2022\nand\nactions\nChapter\ntransnationally , in Europe to mobilize its resources in\nthe field of research and technological development\n( RTD ). nationally\n\nsurveys\n\ntaken ,\n\nIII\n\n3\n\nChapter IV considers the main requirements for research\nto improve Europe 's competitive position , notably in\nthe context of the completion of the Internal Market ;\nto respond to the needs of society through improvements\nEurope 's\nin\ncapacity to pursue its own scientific and technological\noptions where necessary , by reducing its dependence on\nothers. the quality of\n\nto increase\n\nlife ;\n\nand\n\nChapter V outlines the main issues for science policy\nin Europe during the coming years. The Inputs\n\nevaluation\n\nindependent\n\nThe analysis in the report reflects a multiplicity of\n8. It draws heavily on the advice of the special groups\ninputs. established to advise the Commission on R&D trends , needs and\npriorities ( CODEST , CREST , IRDAC , and the Advisory Committees on\nthe coordination of individual research projects and programmes );\nprogrammes ;\nthe\nsystematic monitoring of scientific and technical literature and\nthe views of researchers and research\nprofessional meetings ;\nconsultants ;\nusers\nas well as\nscience and technology administrations\nthe\nthe\nadvice\n\" customers \" for and the \" producers \" of research ; as well as the\nIt also takes fully into account the\nEuropean Parliament itself. work\ninternational\nother\nundertaken\nfields\nsimilar\norganisations , such as the OECD. in Member States ;\nboth\n\nin industry and universities ,\n\ndepartments\n\nCommission\n\nconcerned ,\n\nCommunity\n\npanels\n\nthe\n\nby\n\non\n\nin\n\nof\n\nExcept where otherwise stated , the figures given are averages for\nthe European Community. cases data for Spain and\nPortugal are not yet available ; while data for Luxembourg are\nlimited. There are often wide variations around the average ( see\nChapter III ). some\n\nIn\n\nSome gaps in data available from the Member States have placed\nlimitations on the depth of the analysis in Chapter III\nof\nThese limitations should be remedied in future\nnational trends. reports in the light of the ongoing discussions and analysis of\nnational policies within the framework of CREST. As stated later ,\nthe Commission intends to concentrate in more detail on trends\nand policies in the Member States in future reports on science\nand technology in Europe. 24\n\n\fI\n\nSCIENCE , TECHNOLOGY AND EUROPE 'S ECONOMIC AND SOCIAL NEEDS\n\n4\n\nScience , technology and the economy\n\nEconomic Trends\n\nCommunity 's\n\nIn its analysis ^ of the economic benefits of completing\n1. 1. the\nCommission\nmarket\nunderlined the importance to economic growth and competitiveness\nadvanced\nthe\nof\neconomic\nthe\nof\nto\ntechnologies ,\nCommunity 's performance in these fields. incorporating\nattention\n\nof\nweakness\n\nsectors\nand\n\nEuropean\n\ninternal\n\nresults\n\ndrew\n\nthe\n\nthe\n\nsectors\n\nFor these\n\n\" high technology \"\n\n1. 2. ( electrical and\nelectronic goods ; office and data-processing mechanisms ; chemical\nand pharmaceutical goods ) world demand has been growing at around\ntwice the rate of that for manufactured products as a whole. Yet\nthese sectors account ( 1985 ) for only 22. 4% of the value-added of\nthe whole of Community industry , as against nearly 29% in the USA\nMoreover , the share has been growing\nand more than 28% in Japan. more\nits major\neither\ncompetitors : between 1979 and 1985 it grew by 3% a year in the\nCommunity , compared with 3. 7% in the USA and 17. 1% in Japan. The\ndifferences between Europe and Japan are particularly striking in\nthe case of electrical and electronic goods ,\nwhere Japanese\ndomestic demand grew by nearly 21% , and European demand by 3. 5%. Community than\n\nslowly\n\nthe\n\nin\n\nin\n\nof\n\nTable 1. 1\n\nEvolution of volume of domestic demand by industrial branch in the EC, the United States and Japan ( 1973-85, average annual rate of growth )\n\n%\n\n\u00a3UR\n\nUSA\n\nStrong demand sectors\n\nOffice and data-processing machines\nElectrical and electronic goods\nChemical and pharmaceutical products\n\nModerate demand sectors\n\nRubber and plastic products\nTransport equipment\nFood , beverages, tobacco\nPaper and printing products\nIndustrial and agricultural machinery\n\nWeak demand sectors\n\nMetal products\nMiscellaneous manufactured products\nFerrous and non-ferrous ores and metals\nTcutilcs. leather, clothing\nNon -metallic minerals (construction materials )\n\n5. 0\n\n9. 0\n3. 5\n5. 3\n\n1. 2\n\n2. 8\n1. 7\n1. 2\n1. 6\n- 0. 1\n\n- 0. \u00cc\n\n- o. s\n- 0,6\n0. 6\n- 0. 2\n0. 1\n\n5. 2\n\n6. S\n7. 2\n2. 3\n\n2. 8\n\n5. 4\n2,7\n0. 4\n2. 9\n5. 6\n\n0. 5\n\n- 0. 4\n2,1\n- 1. 8\n2. 0\n1. 7\n\nl\u00ed. !\n\n7. 2\n20. 7\n9. 9\n\nit\n\n2. 0\n5. 2\n0. 0\n2. 7\n5. 6\n\n2. i\n\n3. 4\n1. 9\n2. 0\n2. 2\nl. l\n\nMe\n\nlh<r\niK\u00abn JV. (\u2013K\u00e9k iknunJ ). \u00ab\u2022 J. ule4 U. IO. ho\u00ab. -fcKh\n\n\u0423\u043e(|\u041f\u041a1. \u0421(\u0418\u041a1\u0442\u00ab|\u041d\u041c1. OCCO court* oc bc-ocrt Itn. rtlMI. rtcrctcd t>T \u00ab*>\u00ab \">*\u00bb iV-\n\n(>> \u00abOu. ul IV. ( rtuulc. c Jcm. ftJI. ~l 6 , krt. ^\n\nThe Economics of 1992 , European Economy n*35 , March 1988. 25\n\n\f5\n\nand\n\nother\n\n1. 3. In terms of exports the Community has also been losing\nground in the case of electronics and electrical equipment , in\nand\noffice\nof\nforms\ncars\ninformation technology. The only high growth sectors where the\nCommunity has maintained a favourable position on export markets\nJapan in particular has\nare chemicals and pharmaceuticals. high-technology\nto\nthe\npush\ncontinued\nproducts. Between 1979 and 1985 Japan increased its world market\nshare by nearly 12% for electrical and electronic equipment , by\nover 9% for cars and by 5. 5% in information technology and office\nautomation ^. machinery ,\n\ntransport ,\n\nexport\n\nahead\n\nin\n\nof\n\nAt the same time the Community has been increasing its\n1. 4. dependence on imports of such products. Imports from outside the\nCommunity have been growing more quickly than intra-Community\ntrade in office machinery and information technology , electrical\nend electronic\nmachinery and transport equipment. Again , only the chemical and pharmaceutical industries among the\ntrade\nhigh growth\ndependence reflects an underlying technological dependence in\ncertain sectors :\nfor\nexample , European dependence on\ncomponents has been increasing\ndespite the improvements in the performance of the IT industry as\na whole. information technology ,\n\nperform well. the case of\n\nequipment ,\n\nincrease\n\nsectors\n\nThis\n\nin\n\nin\n\nx\n\nthe\n\ncombined. A number\n\n1. 5. While in the high growth industries Europe continues to\nbe underrepresented , traditional manufacturing industry remains\nThe Community accounts for some 35% of the GDP of\nsignificant. the EC -USA-Japan triad , but in 1986 it produced 44% of the cars ,\n42% of the steel and 40% of the textiles and clothing of the\nthree\nhave\nof\nimproved their position during the past few years by large-scale\ninvestment in new technologies and major research efforts ( Table\n1. 2. ). Others , such\nthe paper and board processing industry or parts of the\nas\nEven those\nmachine-tool industry , have been less successful. that\nand\ntheir\nautomation ( especially automobiles where productivity has grown\nby over\nthe prospect of increasing world\n30%\n1980-87 )\nOne successful company strategy. in some industries\ncompetition. has been to seek to capture more of the top-end of the market\nthrough the application of new technologies and their integration\ninto the products. Textiles and automobiles are two examples. innovation\n\ntraditional\n\nposition\n\nimproved\n\nthrough\n\nsectors\n\nhave\n\nface\n\n1. 6. Europe 's interest lies in both reducing its dependence\non the third countries in the high growth sectors and harnessing\n\nas the export of the USA ,\nMarket share is defined\nJapan or EC - 10 to the rest of the world compared with\nexports of OECD countries as a whole to the rest of the\nworld. 26\n\n\fthe new technologies to improving the competitiveness of\ntraditional industries. 6\n\nits\n\nThe Characteristics of the Emerging Industries\n\nThe\n\ncharacteristics\n\n1. 7. and\nof\ntheir contribution to overall economic growth and development\nhave been the subject of considerable enquiry during the past few\nyears ^. Recent trends in these sectors in the European Community\nare\nEC\nthe\nIndustry : 1989 \" which will shortly be published by the Commission\nand to which reference is made in more detail in Chapter IV\nbelow. the emerging\n\n\" Panorama of\n\nforthcoming\n\nindustries\n\nin detail\n\nanalysed\n\nin\n\na\n\nto\n\nof\n\nthe\n\ndegree\n\nresults\n\n\" generic \"\n\nembodying\n\nsignificant\n\nOne fundamental characteristic of the emerging industries is that\nthey are heavily \" science-based \" or \" science-related \", with their\nproducts\nof\nSecondly , they reflect the\nadvanced research and development. emergence\npervasive\nwith\nnew\ntechnologies\nThirdly , they are calling on the expertise of an\napplications. increasing range of scientific disciplines. Fourthly , some of\nthe new fast growing sectors demand a much closer and more\ninteractive\nand\nbetween\nnorm. has\ncommercial\nBiotechnological products and technologies have been described ,\nfor example ,\nthe laboratories \". Fifthly , however , the pace of economic growth is linked to the\ngeneric\ndiffusion ,\ntechnologies by smaller innovating firms , alongside the major\nenterprises with their large R&D resources and the contribution\nof universities and research institutes. \" growing directly out of\n\nfundamental\nhitherto\n\nresearch\nthe\n\nmodification\n\nrelationship\n\napplication\n\nproduction\n\nbeen\n\nthan\n\nnew\n\nand\n\nof\n\nas\n\nTechnology and Economic Growth\n\nof\n\nThe\n\nimportance\n\ntechnology\n\nto diminish over\n\nthan\ntechnology\n\nunderlying\n1. 8. scientific disciplines to growth , trade and welfare is certain to\nThe\ngrow rather\ninformation\nas\napplications of IT permeate industry , households , transport and\nOn one estimate ^ the electronics industry, with\ncommunications. an output value estimated at US$ 485 milliard in 1985 ( or 4. 7% of\nFree World GNP ) is likely to reach 8% by 2000 ; another expects\nthe share of telecommunications in developed countries 'GNP to\n\ncoming years. from\n\nrevolution\n\nthe\nis\n\nover ,\n\nfar\n\nand\n\nthe\n\n4\n\nFor example \" The contribution of Science and Technology\nto\nOECD\nEconomic\nSPT/Min ( 87)2 ,\n\nGrowth\n7 October 1987. Development \",\n\nSocial\n\nand\n\n5 Futurible. Paris Dec 1986. 27\n\n\fTable 1. 2. (Index 1980 = 100)\n\nProcessed foodstuffs\n\nImports\nExports\n\nIntra-EC trade\n\nChemicals\n\nImports\nExports\n\nIntra-EC trade\n\nPlastics\n\nImports\nExports\n\nIntra-EC trade\n\nLeather\n\nImports\nExports\n\nIntra-EC trade\n\nPaper and board\nImports\nExports\n\nIntra-EC trade\n\nTextiles\n\nImports\nExports\n\nIntra-EC trade\n\nFootwear\n\nImports\nExports\n\nIntra-EC trade\n\nGlass, ceramics\nImports\nExports\n\nIntra-EC trade\n\nMachinery\nImports\nExports\n\nIntra-EC trade\n\nTransport equipment\nImports\nExports\n\nIntra-EC trade\n\nAudio/video/photo equipment\nImports\nExports\n\nIntra-EC trade\n\nSource : Eu\u2022 rostat (rounded figures ). Extra-EC Imports and Exports by Branch, Evolution Since 1980\n\n1982\n\n- 119\n\n136\n\n131\n\n126\n\n118\n\n128\n\n118\n\n115\n\n120\n\n99\n\n119\n\n144\n\n123\n\n125\n\n125\n\n113\n\n124\n\n120\n\n116\n\n143\n\n119\n\n112\n\n122\n\n108\n\n135\n\n128\n\n119\n\n129\n\n139\n\n135\n\n141\n\n139\n\n124\n\n1985\n\n155\n\n183\n\n185\n\n203\n\n187\n\n197\n\n186\n\n178\n\n186\n\n146\n\n211\n\n210\n\n175\n\n220\n\n187\n\n165\n\n204\n\n170\n\n181\n\n271\n\n151\n\n162\n\n186\n\n143\n\n226\n\n171\n\n189\n\n202\n\n181\n\n172\n\n215\n\n222\n\n202\n\n1987\n\n127\n\n159\n\n209\n\n185\n\n160\n\n206\n\n184\n\n157\n\n219\n\n150\n\n216\n\n234\n\n180\n\n216\n\n234\n\n165\n\n186\n\n201\n\n173\n\n216\n\n201\n\n145\n\n164\n\n183\n\n236\n\n155\n\n232\n\n190\n\n159\n\n239\n\n232\n\n207\n\n252\n\n1987 value\n(billion ECUs)\n\n12. 9\n\n13. 2\n\n22. 3\n\n19. 7\n\n32. 0\n\n44. 9\n\n8 ^\n\n14 t\n\n29. 6\n\n5 9\n\n3. 9\n\n5. 2\n\n14. 6\n\n7. 2\n\n15. 1\n\n25. 8\n\n19. 3\n\n35. 9\n\n2. 8\n\n3. 6\n\n5. 6\n\n2. 3\n\n6. 5\n\n9. 3\n\n60. 5\n\n85. 8\n\n91. 1\n\n19. 5\n\n43. 8\n\n64. 9\n\n18. 2\n\n14. 6\n\n16. 7\n\n\fand\n\ngrow to 7-10% by the early 1990s ( compared with 5% in the USA in\n1985 , and 3% in Japan and Europe )\nBiotechnology is likely to\nimpact on a large number of economic sectors within the next\nthereafter ,\ncould\ndecade\naffecting the chemical and pharmaceutical industries , agriculture\nand food and energy. New materials could induce major savings in\nresources and change the basis of comparative advantage between\ntraditional raw material producers and countries that depend on\nimports. influence\n\nrapidly\n\nspread\n\nits\n\n7\n\nIn\n\nthis\n\nrapidly changing world economy ,\non\n\nwill\nfeedbacks between the progress of\n\ngrowth and\n1. 9. successful\ncompetitiveness\nscientific\ninteraction and\nknowledge\nmarket\nof\nopportunities and needs (\" market pull \"), the pervasive diffusion\navailable\nof\ntechnologies as well as\nthe opening up of new technological\nfrontiers. identification\n\nmodification\n\nincreasingly\n\nknowledge\n\n(\" science\n\npush \"),\n\naccess\n\ndepend\n\nand\n\nthe\n\nof ,\n\nto\n\nof\n\nThe Commission 's analysis of\n\nthe costs of non -\n1. 10. Europe shows that progress in removing market barriers within\nEurope will of itself play an important role in creating the\nconditions for the Community to improve its competitive position. It will encourage some integration of companies , laying the basis\nfor pooling of R&D resources to achieve the\n\" critical mass \"\nrequired to take major new steps forward in generic technologies. It will\nconsequent\nencouragement of innovation. But , the creation of the internal\nmarket in alone will not solve the problems of competitiveness. Progress in this direction must be accompanied and encouraged by\nadequate public policies on R&D that take account of the new\nrealities ( the ever-closer links between science , technology and\nthe market-place ) and that create the right framework conditions\nin which these links and interactions can best be established. competition and\n\nencourage\n\nmore\n\nalso\n\nthe\n\nScience , technology and the consequences of growth and change\n\nImproving Europe 's industrial competitiveness is not in\n1. 11. any case the only issue to which science policy can and should\nmake a major contribution. The pressures of technological change\nalso have important social consequences , in terms of the pattern\neconomic\ndistribution\nof\nopportunity across Europe , and consequent implications for the\n\nemployment\n\nwealth\n\nand\n\nand\n\nthe\n\nof\n\nM et al. \" Telecommunications Development in\nBorrus ,\nComparative Perspective : The New Telecommunications in\nEurope ,\nBerkeley Round Table on\nJapan and the US \",\nIndustrial Economy , California 1985. 29\n\n\feconomic and social cohesion of the European Community. They\nalso raise issues of an environmental and ethical. nature , as well\nThe challenge for\nfor international relations. as new questions\nscience policy is to help find solutions for the problems posed\nby scientific and technical advances as well as to help seize the\nopportunities which they offer. 8\n\nthe\n\nthat\n\nwill\n\neffect of\n\nThe effect of the new technologies on employment over\n1. 12. A number of studies\nthe longer-term is not yet well understood. on\ntechnologies\nnet\nsuggest\nin\nadvances\nemployment\nrelatively\nbe\nthan\nrather\nnew materials\nbiotechnology and\nreduce employment. is obvious that there are major\nstrucural adjustments within any economy and adverse effects for\nsome regions and industries. Europe has been less\nsuccessful so far than the USA and Japan in translating economic\ngrowth\nHigh\nunemployment may itself create resistance to the diffusion of\ntechnologies\nthe absence of\npolicies to mitigate the effects , encourage a Luddite approach to\nnew technology. information\nsmall 7. could\n\nAnd\nincrease ,\n\nopportunities. labour-saving\n\nemployment\n\nMoreover ,\n\ngrowth\n\ninto\n\nthat\n\nand ,\n\nBut\n\nthe\n\nare\n\nit\n\nof\n\nin\n\n1. 13. Similarly , there is a risk that technology will be seen\nas the cause and not the cure for environmental problems unless\npublic\nthe\napplication of scientific knowledge and technological resources\nto the solution of the problems of atmospheric pollution , waste\ndisposal and safety , and to prevention of environmental damage. encouraging\n\npolicies\n\nfocussed\n\nsharply\n\nare\n\non\n\n1. 14. Advances in medical and biological sciences offer the\nprospects of major improvements in health and agriculture over\nthe coming years. But there are important ethical issues posed\nby genetic engineering , and some evidence of public concern about\nthe effects on the environment and the risks to health of certain\nexperiments in biotechnology. A considered approach to these\nissues must be an integral part of European efforts to ensure an\nadequate S&T base. The external aspect is also of major importance. 1. 15. The\nmastery of technology and the promotion of scientific advance in\nEurope have consequences not only for our competition with our\nmajor industrial trading partners but also for the trade and\ndevelopment of the developing countries. Biotechnology may offer\nus the prospect of more efficient agriculture in the longer-term ,\nproducing\nmarket\nrequirements and reducing the risks of surpluses of unwanted\n\ncorrespond\n\nprecisely\n\ncrops\n\nmore\n\nthat\n\nto\n\nFor example , OECD Employment Outlook , Paris 1986\nFreeman & Soete :\n- An Assessment \", April 1985. \" Information Technology and Employment\n\n30\n\n\f9\n\nIt\n\nproducts. agriculture and medecine. other hand ,\ncountries that are exporters of traditional materials. World\ntransform\nThe advance of new materials , on the\nis likely to have consequences for those developing\n\nshould\n\nThird\n\nhelp\n\nalso\n\nto\n\n1. 16. Through the Single European Act the Governments of the\nCommunity 's Member States have expressed their commitment to the\nthe environment and to a more economically and\nprotection of\nsocially\nthe\nhave\nimportance of the external aspects of Community policy in the\nfield of R&D. The final chapter of this report outlines how\nthese commitments can be reflected in and supported by science\nand technology policy itself. underlined\n\ncohesive\n\nEurope. They\n\nalso\n\nThe Changing Scientific Environment\n\n1. 17. Science policy has also to take account of the other\nfactors , namely : the accelerating pace of scientific discoveries ;\nthe increasing cost of research ; and the trend towards a more\npluridisciplinary approach to research , in which the traditional\nboundaries between sectors are breaking down and more integrated\nsystems are developing. Chemistry provides a vivid example. growth in new compounds which are now doubling in number every\n6-7 years compared with every 40 years in the 1940s. At the same\ntime chemists are now using more and more sophisticated and\ncostly instruments and analytical aids\nspectroscopic\ninstruments , the electron miscroscope , synchroton light , etc ) and\ncalling increasity on the help of information technology. There has been an explosive\n\n( lasers ,\n\nAll this means that financial resources have to be depreciated\nover a shorter space of time and directed at an ever-growing\nThis has major implications for science\nnumber of problems. It underlines the\npolicy both at national and at European level. need for the most rational use of resources ( financial , human and\nphysical ) by the avoidance of duplication and pooling , and it\nresearch\nposes\nin\nalso\nIt\npriorities\nhighlights the importance for industry of having a large enough\nmarket\nin which to sell the products of research and thus to\nachieve a rapid depreciation of expenditure. definition\nthe\nin\n\nthe\nthan\n\nproblems\n\nfunding\n\npublic\n\nacute\n\npast. more\n\nfor\n\nof\n\n31\n\n\f10\n\nScience and Technology are vital in\nEurope 's\nthe completion of\nhave a major contribution\nsocietal needs of the European\nand safer environment and better health care. competitive position in the context of\nthe Internal Market. They also\nto offer in meeting the\n\nimproving\n\nsociety for a cleaner\n\nThe mastery of science and technology is essential\nto reduce technological , and thus economic dependence\nand to allow Europe to be able , where it wishes to do\nso , to make its own technological choices. The translation of these economic and social needs\ninto specific requirements for research is con\u00ac\nsidered , sector by sector , in Chapter IV. But science and technology are increasingly expensive\nas science develops at an accelerating pace. of research are placing an increasing strain on the\nfinancial capacities of individual companies or\nMember States. be used to the best effect. these resources may offer major advantages. The resources devoted to science must\n\nFurther pooling of\n\nThe costs\n\n32\n\n\fII\n\nEUROPEAN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY FROM A COMPARATIVE\n\nPERSPECTIVE :\nTRENDS IN OUR MAIN COMPETITORS\n\n11\n\nof\n\nin\n\nbe\n\nof\n\ncan\n\nThe\n\nmeasured\n\nvis - ci -vis\n\nperformance\n\nEurope\nterms\n\nits\nresource\n\nmajor\n2. 1. inputs\ncompetitors\n( financial and human )\nto science and technology , quantifiable\nscientific and technological outputs , and the administrative and\npolicy framework within which science and technology develop. a short analysis of the trends in\nThis chapter begins with\nby whom , what scientific\ninputs\n(\npersonnel\nand in proxy measures of output\npatenting activitiy , technological trade balance , technological\nThe comparison is between Europe\u00ae , on the\nbalance-of -payments )\none hand , and the USA and Japan , on the other. The chapter then\nexamines recent policy developments in the USA and Japan before\nconcluding with a short survey of trends in some emerging science\nand technology powers. are available )\n\nspent on R&D ,\n\n( how much is. assembled\n\n2. 2. The chapter draws heavily on available comparative data\ndrawn up by the OECD , on more detailed data for Community Member\nStates\nEuropean\nCommunities , and on a comparative study of the Community , USA and\nJapan , prepared for CREST in the context of discussions on the\ncoordination of national R&D policies in Europe^. This latter\nstudy forms the basis for annex 14. Statistical Office of\n\nthe\n\nthe\n\nby\n\nIn commenting on policy developments the chapter concentrates on\nrecent trends. of R&D in the USA and Japan can be found in the annex. More detailed on the structure and organisation\n\n( i )\n\nCOMPARATIVE TRENDS IN SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY\n\npossible ,\n\nWhere\nCommunity on\nPortugal. available. data\n\nare\nthe basis of estimates\n\nenlarged\nfor Spain and\nIn most cases data for Luxembourg are not\n\ngiven\n\nthe\n\nfor\n\n\" The European S / T \" Space \" in the International Context :\nResources\nCommunity\nConditions\nCompetitiveness \", Working paper prepared for COPOL 88 ,\n29 Feb. 1988. and\n\nfor\n\n33\n\n\fThe level of funding\n\n12\n\n2-3. only for 1985. ( civil and military )\nEuropean Community and 2. 9 times that of Japan :\n\nFully comparable data on total spending on R&D exist\nThese show that in absolute terms total spending\n1. 75 times that of the\n\nin the USA was\n\nTable 2. 1. Gross Domestic Expenditure on R&D\nMio ECU current ( ppp )\n\nEC ( 12 )\n\n48,072 *\n\n76,250 **\n\nUSA\n\n76,722\n\n134,645\n\nJapan\n\n25,136\n\n48,056\n\nestimates\nestimates\nLuxembourg\n\nfor Belgium and\nBelgium ,\n\nfor\n\n\u2022\n\nPortugal. Excludes Luxembourg\n\nSpain\n\nand\n\nPortugal. Excludes\n\n1981\n\n1985\n\n*\n\n* *\n\nSource :\n\nCommission services estimates and Table 2 of OECD \" Main\nScience and Technology Indicators \", Paris 1988. In terms of spending as a share of GDP the USA is also in the\nleading position :\n\nTable 2. 2. Gross Domestic Expenditure on R&D as\na percentage of GDP\n\n1985\n\nEC ( 12 )\n\n1. 9\n\nUSA\n\n2. 8\n\nJapan\n\n2. 6\n\nOnly one Community country ( Germany ) has an R&D intensity^-\nin 1987 ) that is comparable to that of the USA or Japan. The level elsewhere varies between 2. 3%\n( Netherlands ) down to\n\n( 2. 8%\n2. 1%\n( UK and France ),\nfor some smaller Community\n\n1% or less\n\n10\n\nShare of R&D spending in GDP. 34\n\n\fThe US figures are , however , bolstered by the high\ncountries. level of spending on defence R&D. If defence expenditure is\nexcluded , the share of US GDP devoted to R&D drops to about 1. 9% ,\nthat of the Community ( where military R&D accounts for some 25%\nof the total Government expenditure on R&D ) falls to 1. 4% , while\nthat of Japan ( where military R&D expenditure is prima facie\nnegligible ^* ) is almost unaffected. 13\n\nIn\n\non\n\nall\n\nR&D\n\nareas\n\nthree\n\nspending\n\n2. 4. grown\nsignificantly throughout the 1980s , but the growth has been more\nmarked in the US and Japan than the Community. Between 1981 and\n1985 , R&D intensity rose by an average annual rate of 1. 8% in the\nCommunity , by 2. 6% in the USA and by 4. 1% in Japan. The Japanese\nfigure is even more striking , bearing in mind that the growth of\nUS\nbeen\nperiod\nsubsequently\nIf defence expenditure is excluded ,\nconcentrated on defence R&D. Japanese growth in total R&D spending ( public and private )\nis\nestimated to have been more than twice that of the USA and Europe\n( 9% as against 4% )*^. spending\n\nduring\n\nthat\n\nand\n\nhas\n\nhas\n\nExpenditure and Execution ; the contribution of public and private\nsectors\n\nIn terms of the relative financial contributions of\n2. 5. public and private sectors to R&D , the Community lies between the\nUSA ( where the public sector share is highest ) and Japan. But in\nmost Community countries there is a significantly lower level of\nindustrial involvement in the execution of R&D programmes than in\neither the USA or Japan. Around one-half of US spending on -. R&D is financed from public\nsources , and throughout the 1980s this government spending has\nbeen growing steadily , driven by sharp increases in military R&D ;\nprivate sector spending has been less buoyant. But more than 70%\nof R&D has continued to be carried out by industry , given that a\nlarge share of military R&D is subcontracted to the private\nsector. Methods of calculating military R&D expenditure are not\nuniform. Official figures may underestimate Japanese\nmilitary R&D spending compared with those of European\ncountries. Estimate made in COPOL study - see footnote 9. 35\n\n\fIn Japan , on the other hand , industry both finances and carries\nout the bulk of R&D. Less than 30% of Japanese R&D is financed\n70% being financed and executed by the\nby the public sector ,\nprivate sector , especially industry ; and in the natural sciences\nthe figures are even further weighted towards industry. In the Community around 45% of spending is financed from public\nBut only Germany and Belgium have shares of R&D carried\nsources. out by industry that are on a par with Japan and the USA. 14\n\nR&D personnel\n\nscientists\n\nThe trends in the overall levels of expenditure are\n2. 6. The proportion of\nparallelled by those as regards R&D personnel. engineers\nis\nlabour\nresearch\nthe\nand\nsignificantly higher in\nthe USA and Japan than in European\ncountries , even when allowance is made for differences in data\nMoreover , the proportion has been growing much more\ncoverage. rapidly in Japan. In absolute numbers the USA has a much larger\nR&D workforce ( 825,000 in 1986 ) than either the Community ( an\nestimated 500,000 ) or Japan ( now up to 400,000 ). But the US\nfigure has been relatively stagnant , while that of Japan has\nincreased steadily and sharply*-*. force\n\nin\n\nIt is worth noting that the US figure is less than half\nof some estimates made of Soviet R&D personnel by the\nUS National Science Foundation ( see source to table 2. 3. )\n\n36\n\n\fTable 2. 3. 15\n\nScientists and engineers in R&D as a\nproportion of the total labour force 1965-86\n\nUSA\n\nJapan\n- nos per\n\nGermany\n10,000 labour force. France\n\nUK. 1965\n\n1970\n\n1975\n\n1980\n\n1984\n\n1985\n\n1986\n\n64. 7\n\n64. 1\n\n55. 3\n\n60. 0\n\n65. 1\n\n67. 4\n\n69. 0\n\n24. 6\n\n33. 4\n\n47. 9\n\n53. 6\n\n62. 4\n\n63. 2\n\n22. 7\n\n30. 8\n\n38. 6\n\nn. a. 49. 1\n\n21. 0\n\n27. 3\n\n29. 4\n\n32. 4\n\n41. 2\n\nn. a. n. a. 19. 6\n\nn. a. 31. 1\n\nn. a. 34. 2\n\n32. 8\n\nn. a. n. a. n. a. n. a. Source :\n\nNational Science Foundation , International Science\nand Technology Update 1987. Figures include all scientists and engineers engaged in R&D on a\nfull-time\npersons\nprimarily employed in R&D , and UK where data include only the\nGovernment and industry sectors. include\n\nexcept\n\nJapan ,\n\nwhere\n\nbasis\n\ndata\n\nThe output from R&D\n\na )\n\napplied research\n\nThree measures can be used together to provide a proxy\n2. 7. \" productivity \"\npatenting\nfor\nthe\nactivity ,\nand especially patenting in the USA as the largest\nsingle world market ; the technological balance-of payments ( ie. and\nroyalties\nreceipts\nlicences ); and the balance of trade in high-technology goods. expenditures\n\nrelated to\n\npatents ,\n\napplied\n\nnamely :\n\nR&D ,\n\nand\n\nof\n\n2. 8. In terms of the total numbers of patent applications\nand those granted domestically , Japan now ranks above the USA and\nEurope. In terms of those registered with foreign patent offices\nit ranks third after the USA and Germany , and the number of\n\n37\n\n\fforeign registered patents has been increasing steadily. In\nterms of the granting of patents in the USA , the Japanese share\nand Germany alone among the\nhas doubled since the mid-1970s ,\nlarger European countries has maintained its position :\n\n16\n\nTable 2. 4. US patents granted to inventors in various\ncountries , 1975 and 1985\n\nTotal\n\nUSA\n\nJapan\n\nGermany\n\nFrance\n\nUK\n\nOther\n\nSource :\n\n1975\n\n100\n\n64. 9\n\n8. 8\n\n8. 4\n\n3. 3\n\n4. 2\n\n10. 4\n\n1985\n\n100\n\n53. 8\n\n18. 6\n\n9. 6\n\n3. 3\n\n3. 4\n\n11. 2\n\nDerived from Appendix '. Table 6-11 of Science and\nEngineering\nScience\nBoard , Washington DC. Indicators ,\n\nNational\n\n1987 ,\n\nThe growing importance. of Japan is underlined , moreover , by the\nnumber of citations of Japanese patents registered in the US ,\nwhich provide an indication of the quality of applied research\noutput ^. 2. 9. The picture emerging from analysis of technological\nbalance-of -payments data is less clear cut ; but the trend has\nIn\nbeen towards a reduction in the negative Japanese balance. 1985 Japanese sales of licences , patents etc. were equivalent to\n, and more\nabout four-fifths of her expenditure in the field *\n\nThis is considered further in recent work by Pavitt &\nPatel : Measuring Europe 's Technological Performance :\nResults\nPolicy\nStudies , 1988. Prospects ,\n\nEuropean\n\nCentre\n\nand\n\nfor\n\nTable\nIndicators 1981-87 \", Paris 1988. \" Main\n\nOECD\n\nof\n\n48\n\nScience\n\nand\n\nTechnology\n\n38\n\n\frecent data suggest that the gap has closed about to zero. The\nfigures on trade in high-technology goods , as indicated in the\nprevious chapter , underline this growing technological strength :\n\nTable 2. 5. Export / Import ratios in selected high-technology goods. 1981 and 1986\n\n17\n\n1981\n\n1986\n\nJapan USA\n\nFRG\n\nFr\n\nUK\n\nJapan USA\n\nFRG\n\nFr\n\nUK\n\nOffice\nmach. &\ncomputers\n\nComm. Equip. fielectronic\ncomponents\n\nScientific\nInstruments\n\n2. 75\n\n3. 23\n\n0. 93\n\n0. 73\n\n0. 68 6. 63\n\n1. 11\n\n0. 92\n\n0. 7\n\n0. 79\n\n6. 59\n\n0. 70\n\n1. 13\n\n1. 14\n\n0. 96 8. 95\n\n0. 61\n\n1. 14\n\n1. 22\n\n0. 82\n\n6. 59\n\n0. 97\n\n1. 42\n\n0. 76\n\n1. 01 6. 75\n\n0. 61\n\n1. 49\n\n0. 78\n\n0. 88\n\nDrugs\n\n0. 28\n\n2. 27\n\n1. 77\n\n1. 99\n\n2. 61 0. 30\n\n1. 42\n\n1. 71\n\n1. 90\n\n2. 21\n\nElectrical\nTransmis\u00ad\nsion\nEquipment\n\nAircraft\n& parts\n\n4. 32\n\n2. 3\n\n2. 07\n\n1. 49\n\n1. 44 4. 56\n\n0. 97\n\n2. 00\n\n1. 21\n\n1. 23\n\n0. 08\n\n3. 76\n\n0. 78\n\n1. 19\n\n1. 56 0. 09\n\n2. 48\n\n0. 78\n\n1. 56\n\n1. 91\n\nSource :\n\nOECD \" Main Science and Technology Indicators 1981-87 \",\nParis 1988. In all sectors the Japanese ratio has been growing while the US trade\nposition has been weakening. 39\n\n\f( b )\n\nBasic Research\n\n18\n\nfor\n\nProxies\n\ninclude ,\n2-10. notably , Nobel Prizes ( for natural sciences and economics ) and\nnumbers of publications of scientific papers. Here Europe is in\na much stronger position , and that of Japan much weaker but\nalready improving significantly. the output\n\nresearch\n\nbasic\n\nof\n\nBetween 1946 and 1987 US scientists won 196 Nobel Prizes and\nEuropean ones ( EC-12 and EFTA ) 105 , while Japan had 5. Compared with aggregate expenditure on R&D the shares of USA and\nW. Europe in scientific publications are somewhat larger , and that\nThe difference is even more marked in\nof Japan somewhat lower. the share of\nBut more significant is the\nincreasing share of Japan and the declining share of the USA ,\ncitations\nwhile\nheld\nrelatively\nthe UK share being\ncompensated by the growth of those of France , Germany and other\ncountries :\n\npapers\nand\ndecline of\n\nshare\nwith\n\ncitations. W. Europe 's\n\nsteady ,\n\nof\nthe\n\ntotal\n\nhas\n\nTable 2. 6. Distribution of published scientific work\n\nJapan\n\nUSA\n\nW. Europe\n\n1973\n\n7. 1\n\n54. 4\n\n38. 5\n\nTOTAL\n\n100\n\n1982\n\n10. 1\n\n51. 1\n\n38. 8\n\n100\n\nSource : Patel & Pavitt , Research Policy n*16 ( 1987),Table 18\n\nW. Europe\nFinland , Italy , Netherlands , Sweden , Switzerland , UK. comprises\n\nBelgium ,\n\nDenmark ,\n\nhere\n\nFrance ,\n\nGermany,\n\n40\n\n\f( ii ) TRENDS IN THE USA\n\n19\n\nIn\n\n1986\n\n2. 11. the US balance -of - trade in high technology\ngoods became negative for the first time , reinforcing a growing\nconcern about the ability of US manufacturers to compete on world\nmarkets , the dependence of the US economy on overseas suppliers\nof key technologies and , specifically , the increasingly dominant\nbetween\nrole\nincreasing\nindustrial\nperformance has prompted questioning inside and outside Congress\nabout\nthe\norganisation of R&D spending ,\nled to new R&D policy\ninitiatives both domestically and internationally. apparent\nand\n\nexpenditure ,\n\ndiscrepancy\n\nexpenditure\n\nweaknesses\n\nand has\n\nspin-off\n\ndefence\n\nThe\nR&D\n\nplayed\n\nJapan. about\n\nfrom\n\nthe\n\nby\n\non\n\nin\n\nThe Federal Budget - defence and civil expenditure\n\nBetween FY 1980 and FY 1988 federal spending on R&D\n2. 12. grew by an estimated 26% in constant dollar terms*\u00ae. But defence\nR&D expenditure grew by 83% in real terms while civilian R&D\nAs a result of these divergent budget\nexpenditure fell by 24%. trends , in FY 1988 defence accounted for about 67% of the federal\nR&D effort , compared with 46% in FY 1980. Equally striking is that the fastest growing element of\n2. 13. Between 1980 and 1988 defence\ndefence R&D has been development. development doubled\nDuring the same period\nDepartment of Defense funding of basic research spending actually\nfell in real terms\n\nterms. real\n\nin\n\nFor non-defence\n\n2. 14. quite the\nA striking feature of the pattern of recent Federal\nopposite. spending is that , while spending on civil research has fallen\noverall , spending on basic research has actually increased by\nsome 40%. mathematics and\nengineering :\n\nnotably in the physical\n\nsciences ,\n\nspending\n\npicture\n\nthe\n\nis\n\nFigures are from \" Research and Development FY 1989 \"\nAmerican Association for the Advancement of Science ,\nReport XIII , 1988. The attribution of particular projects to one category\nor another is subject to question : some \" development \"\nhave undoubtedly had a more\nprojects ,\nfundamental\ntrend\ntowards development is nevertheless striking. for example ,\nresearch\n\nelement\n\nthem. The\n\nin\n\n41\n\n\f20\n\nTable 2. 7. DS Defence and Non-defence R&D by\ncharacter of work\n\nFT 1980\nActual\n\nFT 1988\nEstimated\n\n( budget authority in billions )\n\nDEFENCE R&D\n\n15. 0\n\nBasic Research\n\n0. 6\n\nApplied Research\n\n1. 9\n\n40. 3\n\n0. 9\n\n2. 6\n\nDevelopment\n\n12. 5\n\n36. 7\n\nNON DEFENCE R&D\n\n16. 7\n\n18. 8\n\nBasic Research\n\n4. 2\n\nApplied Research\n\n5. 0\n\n8. 6\n\n6. 5\n\nDevelopment\n\n7. 5\n\n3. 7\n\nPercent Change\n\nCurrent $\n\nConstant\n\n$\n\n83\n\n11\n\n-7\n\n99\n\n- 24\n\n40\n\n- 13\n\n- 66\n\n169\n\n64\n\n38\n\n194\n\n13\n\n107\n\n29\n\n- 50\n\nSource :\n\nTable 3 of Research and Development FY 1989. AAAS\nthe\nAmerican\nReport\nAdvancement of Science , Washington DC 1988. Association\n\nXIII ,\n\nfor\n\nWith the 1989 budget under pressure the Administration continued\nto press for an increase in basic research of $600 millions. 42\n\n\f2. 15. in Table 2. 8. the energy field ,\nincreasing expenditure on general science :\n\nThe breakdown of Federal spending by category is given\nThis demonstrates a flattening of expenditure in\nrising expenditure on health research and\n\n21\n\nTable 2. 8. DS Federal R&D expenditure\n\n1972 - 1988 by area\n\nConstant 1982 dollars\n\nFY 1972\n\nFY 1986\n\nFY 1988\n\nDefence\nNon-defence\nSpace\nHealth\nEnergy\nGeneral Science\nAll Other\n\nTOTAL\n\n22. 2\n17. 6\n6. 0\n4. 4\n1. 3\n1. 6\n4. 2\n\n39. 8\n\n33. 1\n14. 6\n2. 0\n5. 1\n2. 1\n1. 8\n4. 0\n\n47. 7\n\n34. 0\n16. 1\n2. 0\n6. 0\n1. 9\n1. 9\n4. 2\n\n50. 1\n\nSource :\n\nTable 1-4 of source to Table 2. 7. The spin-off from military R&D\n\n2. 16. industrial spin-off from military R&D. difficult\n\nanalyse\n\nto\n\nIt\n\nis\n\nwith\n\nthe\nThere have undoubtedly\n\nprecision\n\n43\n\n\fthe\n\nhas\n\nclose\n\nmeant\n\nproducts\n\nindustrial\n\n22\nbeen important spin-offs in the fields of materials , aircraft\nengineering , vehicle technology , computer technology and systems\nengineering from defence expenditure in general and from SDI in\nparticular. Moreover , the fact that 45% of the work funded by\nthe Federal budget for R&D has continued to be carried out by\nFederal\nindustry\nresearch efforts and the continuing availability of ready markets\nfor\nthe more defence\nresearch has been tailored to the needs of specific military\ndefence requirements in terms of weapons systems , communications\nequipment and so on , the more doubts have been expressed inside\nThe Administra \u00ac\nthe USA about the broader industrial benefits. tion has responded with a number of measures to increase the\npotential benefits to industry and competitiveness from federal \u00ac\nly-funded\ninclude ,\nthe Federal Technology Transfer Act of 1986 and the\nnotably ,\n\" Competitiveness Initiative \" of 27 January 1987 , which provide a\nnew\nFederal\nlaboratories and between them and universities and industry. industry military\n\nencouraging\n\ninvolvement\n\ncooperation\n\nindustrial\n\nresearch ,\n\nframework\n\nThese\n\namong\n\nR&D. R&D. for\n\nBut\n\nin\n\nof\n\nThe European situation with respect to spin-off and dual-use\ntechnologies is considered separately in Chapter III. Industrial R&D\n\nTable 2. 9. the breakdown of\n2. 17. industrial R&D spending by area. Computers are the largest\nsingle area , followed closely by the automotive industry , then\npharmaceuticals , chemicals and aerospace. gives an estimate\n\nof\n\n44\n\n\fIndustry Spent! in >> for KM )\n\n!>y business Week\n\nCroup i ngs\n\n! 986 ( in mi ]\n\nl\n\ni uns )\n\nZ Chauve\nfrom 1985\n\nTable 2. 9. Indus try\n\nAerospace\nApp I iances\nAutomot ive\n\ncars , trucks\nparts , equipment\n\nBuilding Materials\nChemicals\nConglomerates\nContainers\nDrugs\nElectrical\nElectronics\nFood and Beverage\nFuel\nInformation Processing\n\ncomputers\noffice equipment\nperipherals\nsoftware , services\n\nInstruments :\nControls\n\nmeasuring devices. , Leisure Time Industries\n\nMachinery\n\nfarm construction\nmachine tools , industrial\n\nand mining\nMetals and Mining\nMiscellaneous Manufacturing\nOil Service and Supply\nPaper\nPersonal and Home Care Products\nSemiconductors\nSteel\nT\u00e9l\u00e9communications\nTextiles , Apparels\nTire , Rubber\nTobacco\n\n1986\n\n$3,583. 9\n128. 2\n\n7,401. 7\n341. 0\n223. 0\n3,662. 2\n1,354. 2\n19. 4\n4,721. 0\n1,864. 0\n2,586. 3\n610. 7\n1,958. 4\n\n7,856. 5\n249. 2\n1,615. 2\n468. 0\n\n1,092. 5\n1,467. 4\n\n681. 7\n\n487. 2\n203. 9\n1,692. 7. 699. 5\n349. 4\n794. 3\n1,309. 6\n113. 0\n2,762. 0\n68. 0\n549. 8\n22. 5\n\n217. 1 37\n\n157. 127. 82\n62\n127. 37. 177. 162\n52\n127. - 117. 167. 12\n92\n172\n\n27. 107. - 77. 102\n152\n112\n- 42 \u201c\n12\n172\n102\n- 117. 12\n- 82\n62\n42\n\n107. Total\n\n$50,936. 4\n\nSource :\n\nBased on \" R&D Scoreboard , 1986\"\n\n( Business Week. June 22 , 1987 ). NOTE : Based on SEC data for companies reporting 1986 sales\nof $35 million or more , and R&D expenses amounting to at\nleast $1. 0 million or 1. 0 percent of sales. Promotincr Industrial Coop\u00e9ration\n\n23\n\nThe\n\nsteps\n\ntaken\n\nassociations\n\nAdministrdtion\n\n2*18 *\ndlso\nto\nnew\nhas\nThe first efforts in this\nencourage inter-firm cooperation. direction were taken under the Carter Administration through a\nThen in 1984 the\nlimited relaxation of anti-trust regulations. creation of\nthe\nlegalised\nNational Cooperative\nprecompetitive\npurpose\ncooperative\nAs a result a number of industrial R&D consortia have\nresearch. been\nthe\nlay\nin\nThose most hotly-\nfoundations for regaining US competitiveness. a Texas-based consortium in the micro \u00ac\ndebated is\nelectronics\nsupport\n( Department of Defense ) in an effort to improve semi-conductor\nmanufacturing technology , and to recapture part of the market\nlost in Japan. Research Act\nthe\nfor\nresources\n\nSEMATECH ,\nfield which is\n\nreceiving Federal\n\nof\norder\n\nestablished\n\nbudget\n\npool\n\nto\n\nto\n\nthe\n\nincludes\n\nlong-standing\n\nThe framework for greater efforts in R&D by industry\n2. 19. also\nInnovation\nResearch Programme which is intended to encourage R&D in small\nhigh-technology business and to increase their involvement in\nUnder the Small Business Development Act\nfederal R&D programmes. of 1982 all federal agencies with an extra-mural R&D budget in\nexcess of $100 million are required to assign up to 1. 25% of\ntheir budget to this goal. In 1987 the total amount of research\nby the companies aided under this scheme is estimated at $2\nmilliard. Business\n\nSmall\n\nof\n\nthe\n\nphilosophy\n\nIt is too early to judge the success of the various\n2. 20. One of the\ninitiatives to promote cooperation within the USA. Competitiveness\nresults\nInitiative , which is the subject of major controversy ,\nseems\nlikely to be reduced scientific openness as a result of such\nby Federal\nas\nmeasures\nlaboratories\nselective\nadmittance by third country participants ,\nreflecting concern\nabout the potentially negative effects of \" leakage \" as a result\nof the openness of the US research community and society more\ngenerally. granting\ncontracting\n\nexclusive\ncompanies ,\n\nlicences\nand\n\nunderlying\n\nthe\nto\n\nmore\n\nthe\n\nof\n\nInternational Coop\u00e9ration in R&D\n\nSuch concern also has also led to a new approach to\n2. 21. international\nThe\ngrowing costs of R&D and the severe budgetary pressures within\nthe USA have militated in favour of international collaboration ,\nmega-\nopening up\n\nforeign participation\n\ncollaboration\n\nscience and\n\ntechnology. prospect\n\nthe\n\nin\n\nof\n\nin\n\n46\n\n\f24\n\nas\n\nthe\n\nsuch\n\nsupercollider\n\nsuperconducting\n\nsome\nprojects \"\nan international approach to the\nelements in space research ,\nBut concern about\nsequencing of the human genome and so on. \" leakage \" has also led to an emphasis in the US approach to\n\" symmetrical\ninternational\naccess \"\nultimately ,\nfacilities ,\nmarkets , as well as on the need for stronger measures to protect\nintellectual property rights. This new emphasis is reflected in\nthe recent agreement on cooperation in R&D between the USA and\nJapan. principle\nresults\n\nprogrammes ,\n\ncooperation\n\nof\nand ,\n\nthe\n\nto\n\non\n\n,\n\nThe Prospect of Growing Skill Shortages\n\na\n\nand\n\ndeclining\n\nA further concern in the USA is about the longer-term\n2. 22. \" output \" of scientists and engineers. As noted earlier , there\nhas been no growth in the share of R&D personnel in the labour\nforce for a number of years. This seems likely to continue. With a decreasing number of college-age students in the United\nStates\ngraduates\npercentage of\nchoosing to study science and engineering one estimate*\u00ae suggests\na shortfall of more than 500,000 scientists and engineers by\nMeeting this potential shortfall is seen to require action\n2010. to encourage more women and minorities to train in science and\nfurther encouragement of\nengineering ,\nforeign students to study and to stay in the United States*\u00ae , on\nAt the post-doctoral level , moreover , there will be\nthe other. increasing\nfrom\nskilled\npressures\nabroad. personnel\n\n\" poach \"\n\nschool\n\nhand ;\n\nhigh\n\nR&D\n\none\n\nand\n\nthe\n\non\n\nto\n\nAmerica :\n\nChanging\n&\nEngineering. Interim Report of the Task Force on Women ,\nMinorities\nand\nTechnology , Washington DC 1988. Handicapped\n\nScience\n\nScience\n\nFace\n\nand\n\nthe\n\nnew\n\nThe\n\nin\n\nof\n\nSee , for example Picking up the Pace - the Commercial\nChallenge\non\nCompetitiveness , Washington DC 1988. Innovation. American\n\nCouncil\n\nto\n\n47\n\n\f( iii )\n\nDEVELOPMENTS IN JAPAN\n\nThe Organisation of Resources\n\n25\n\n2. 23. In the space of 30 years ( 1955-1985 ) the Japanese share in\nthe total R&D expenditure of the six largest industrial countries\nrose from an estimated 1% to 16% , placing it second only to the\n; and the number of researchers has become the\nUnited States\nsecond largest in the free world. As noted earlier , the bulk of\nthis effort has been in the civil R&D field , although Japanese\nmethods\nmay\nunderestimate the military effort relative to that of European\ncountries. Certainly the Japanese have spent far from negligible\namounts on R&D oriented towards naval and airforce purposes. expenditure\n\ncalculating\n\nmilitary\n\nR&D\n\nof\n\n2. 24. The private sector has accounted for by far the largest\nshare of the increase in expenditure , notably in the field of\nThus in 1986 the public sector accounted for\nnatural sciences. only 17. 6% of total R&D spending on natural sciences and \u2022 for\nabout\nsector ,\npersonnel. correspondingly , provided 82. 4% of the funding and three-quarters\nof the staff , with- industry accounting for close to 90% of the\nprivate sector effort*^l. private\n\nR&D\n\nThe\n\nthe\n\n25%\n\nof\n\nnotably MITI ,\n\nwhich has played a crucial role\n\n2. 25. however ,\nThis private sector effort has taken place ,\nwithin the framework of a tradition of long-term and \" consensus \"\nplanning and linkages between industry , government Ministries and\nagencies ,\nin\ncoordinating\nactions between industry , universities and other\ngovernment agencies and in helping to define long-term technology\nStrategies covering 10-20 year periods are common\npriorities. and Japanese companies and\nboth in industry and government ,\ngovernment\nof\nagencies\n\" outlooks \" on developments in R&D. Industry has also benefitted\nfrom a range of measures to encourage the allocation of resources\nto R&D ( tax incentives , subsidies and conditional loans ) and from\nconcerted efforts to ensure the dissemination of R&D results\n( each of the main Japanese Ministries responsible for research\nappropriations - MONBUSHO , the Ministry of Education , the SCIENCE\nAND TECHNOLOGY AGENCY and MITI itself - has an agency of its own\nconcerned with dissemination and application of R&D results ). developed\n\ncomplex\n\nnetwork\n\nhave\n\na\n\nEstimate\nTechnology , Science and Technology Agencies , Japan. 1987 White Paper on Science and\n\nfrom the\n\nEstimates made by EC Delegation , Tokyo. 48\n\n\fApplied versus basic research\n\n26\n\nin\n\non\n\neven\n\nbased\n\napplied\n\nmore ,\non\n\nindustrial\n\nsupporting\n\nand ,\npolicy\n\ntechnologies\n\nconcentrated\n\nseen\n( notably information technology ). Historically , the bulk of the Japanese R&D effort has\n2. 26. on\nresearch\napplied\nbeen\nthe\ndevelopment ,\nan\nabsorption and transformation of foreign technology. From the\nmiddle of the 1960s particular efforts were made ( notably through\nthe Large-Scale Project Programme ) to bring together researchers\nfrom private industry and those in universities to give Japan a\nleading\nof\nedge\nstrategic importance\nTo a\ncertain extent , as will be argued below , this emphasis has now\nBut technology adoption is still the main objective of\nchanged. Still today expenditure\nJapanese science and technology policy. on\nbasic\ndwarfs\ndevelopment\nAccording to the 1987 Survey of Science and Technology\nresearch. Research in Japan ^ 62. 3% of total R&D spending in 1986 was\noriented towards development work , 24. 4% to applied research and\n13. 3%\nAs might be expected the academic\ninstitutions account for the major share of this basic research\nBut the\nand industry for the bulk of the development work. importance of industrial basic research has been growing :\nin\ntotal basic\n1986 commercial organisations funded one-third of\nresearch expenditure in the natural sciences. Much of this is\napplication oriented. to basic research. research\n\napplied\n\nwere\n\nthat\n\nthat\n\nand\n\non\n\nas\n\nTable 2. 10. Breakdown of Research Expenditure in the Natural Sciences by\n\nSector & Type FY 1986\n\n%\n\nTotal\n\nB\na\nResearch\n\ns\n\ni\n\nc\n\nApplied\nResearch\n\nDevelopment\n\nTotal\n100\nCommercial 100\nInstitutes\nNational\nResearch\n100\nInstitutions\nin -\nAcademie\nstitutions 100\n\n13. 3\n6. 1\n\n13. 8\n54. 2\n\n24. 4\n21. 6\n\n27. 4\n37. 4\n\n62. 3\n72. 3\n\n58. 8\n8. 4\n\nSource :\n\nas footnote 22. The Present State of Science and Technology in Japan -\nand\nSummary\nTechnology\nand\nCoordination Agency , 1987. Science\nManagement\n\nthe\nResearch\n\nof\nSurvey ,\n\nResults\n\n1987\n\nthe\n\nthe\n\nof\n\n49\n\n\f27\nThese figures probably understate the trends. There is much more\na new preoccupation in industry and\nqualitative evidence of\ngovernment with Japan 's basic research capacity as a key factor\nconditioning economic and social progress in the longer-term. 2. 27. This preoccupation has been outlined roost vividly in\nthe 1987 and 1988 White Papers on Science and Technology from the\nThese reports\nJapanese Science and Technology Administration. demonstrate the progress already made by Japan in establishing\nits scientific credentials through the contribution of Japanese\nscientists to major scientific journals , but underline also the\nweakness of basic research relative to industrial technology. These shortcomings derive in part from the limited experience of\nthe part of most university-trained\non\nfundamental\nsince the brightest are often snapped\nengineers and scientists\nThe 1988\nup by industry before completing research degrees. Paper23 argues explicitly that Japanese research on basic science\nis\nof\nand technology ,\nis\nit\nthough\ncompared\ninsufficient\nand\nresearch\ndevelopment. This , it is argued , reflects in part a low level of\nIt draws attention also to the\nfunding by public authorities. less than satisfactory level of researchers with masters or\ndoctoral degrees ; the fact that there are fewer science graduates\nthan engineers ;\nlack of large-scale research\na\nfacilities and data-bases. high quality ,\napplication\n\nand there is\n\nresearch\n\nsome\nwith\n\nof\non\n\nInternational Coop\u00e9ration\n\n2. 28. A growing recognition of the importance for the longer -\nterm of more fundamental research , of the increasing interactions\ntechnology development and industrial\nbetween basic research ,\ncompetitiveness , and of the current Japanese shortcomings in this\narea have led to a new emphasis on international cooperation. Measures have been taken to facilitate the participation of\nforeign research workers in Japanese programmes. The launching\nof The Human Frontier Science Programme , which is intended to be\na new international framework for increased cooperation on basic\nresearch in the field of biological sciences , is part of the same\nscientific\ndrive\ncapacity and at the same time to respond to criticisms of the\nclosed\ntechnological\nOne important issue for the future will be to ensure\nsystem. that the cooperation that ensues provides benefits to all the\nparties concerned. shortcomings\n\nscientific\n\nperceived\n\nJapanese\n\nremedy\n\nnature\n\nhelp\n\nand\n\nthe\n\nto\n\nin\n\nof\n\nand\n\nTechnoloqy-\nTrends\nDeveloping Innovative Technologies to support the 21st\nCentury , MITI , September 1988. Industrial\n\nFuture\n\nTasks\n\nin\n\n50\n\n\f( iv )\n\nA CHANGING INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENT\n\n28\n\n2. 29. Apart from the changing preoccupations of Europe 's two\nmain competitors ( industrial competitiveness in the USA , basic\nresearch in Japan ), other factors could also impact significantly\non the international environment in which European science and\nParticularly important\ntechnology develop in the longer-term. will be the future direction of the Soviet economy , on the one\nhand ,\nscience and technology\npolicies in the newly-industrializing countries ( NICs ) and China\non the other. and the longer-term results of\n\nIn\n\nthe Soviet Union today military R&D absorbes\n\na\n2. 30. dominant share of scientific talent and budgetary resources. At\nthe same time science management has been plagued by the familiar\nbureaucratic ills associated with the centralised command system\nof organisation. President Gorbachev 's efforts to reform and\nmodernise the Soviet economy , if successful , will inevitably mean\nAs a\nsome reallocation of scientific resources to civil uses. over time the USSR could become an increasingly\nconsequence ,\nimportant force in terms of science and technology. The USSR has\na solid tradition of theoretical mathematics ; work is already\nunder way on the Fifth Generation Computer ; the Soviets already\nhave considerable expertise in areas such as space ,\nadvanced\nmaterials and molecular biology. They have already by far the\nlargest number in the world of scientists and engineers engaged\nin R&D as a proportion of their labour force - on some estimates\nEconomic and administrative reforms\n65% more than in the USA. are likely to increase the effectiveness with which these human\nand financial resources are deployed. Asia\n\nyears ,\n\nDuring\n\nrecent\n\nconcerns\n\nEuropean\n\nindustry\n\nin\ntraditional\n\nbeen\n2. 31. confronted with increased competitive pressure from the newly\nThis\nindustrialising countries\ncompetition\nsteel ,\nshipbuilding , automative industries ) as well as high tech sectors\n( consumer\nand\nand\nspace\naeronautics ). more serious as\nThis challenge will become even\nthe more established NICs have to face new competition from other\nIndonesia , Malaysia ,\nindustrialising countries\nPhilippines ) with labour costs advantages on the one hand , and\noffensive technology development strategies in the industrialised\ncountries on the other hand. and Latin America. ( textiles ,\n\nmicroelectronics ,\n\n( e. g. Thailand ,\n\nelectronics ,\n\nindustries\n\nhas\n\nIT\n\nTherefore the most dynamic NICs are now planning a substantial\ngrowth in R&D spending and a strategy for the development of\nhighly qualified personnel who will be very much on a par ,\nscientifically , with their counterparts in the USA but at the\nsame time much cheaper ( because salaries will be lower ). 51\n\n\f29\n\nand\n\ncheap\n\nof\nIts\n\nadaption\n\nindigenous\n\nscientific\n\nThis is particularly clear in the case of the Republic\n2. 32. Up to now Korea 's competitive advantage in , notably ,\nKorea. the electronics industry has been established on the basis of the\ntechnologies ,\nsuccessful\nexisting\nimport\ncombined with\nand\nlabour. But efforts\nresearch capacity , on the other hand , is limited. are now under way to improve the available indigenous resources ,\nnotably through\nan expansion of graduate school education in the\nscientific fields , joint efforts among existing R&D institutes ,\nuniversities and industry in relation to selective large-scale\nR&D projects and some attempts to lay the foundations for a basic\nis expected to grow from\nresearch capacity. 2% of GNP to more than 3% by 1991 ; and the number of researchers\nwill grow from 13 / 14 per 10,000 of the labour force in 1987 to a\nplanned 30 in 2000. This reflects a growing perception that as\ntechnology becomes more sophisticated an increasing scientific\nand technical capacity is required to master , exploit and adapt\nit. Growing wage costs and currency appreciation have also\nplayed a role in underlining the need for improved indigenous\nscientific capacity. ublic R&D spending\n\n2. 33. Other industrialising countries in Asia and Latin America\ntoo have clearly recognised the importance for the longer-term of\nscientific base and research capacity. a solid indigenous\nSince 1984 ,\na strong industrial restructuring effort has been\nundertaken in Taiwan , aiming at giving priority to high tech\nsectors , notably telecommunications , integrated IT systems and\nWith a US$ 663 million civil R&D budget in 1986 ,\nbiotechnology. and more than 1% of GNP allocated to R&D , Taiwan is close to\nKorean standards , including a high proportion ( 14 per 10,000 ) of\nresearchers in its population. for\n\nWith the help of the World Bank , Brazil launched its ambitious\nProgramme\nand\nthe\nTechnology ( PADCT ) in 1982 which was further extended in 1986. are supporting\nR&D funds , which reach nearly 1%\nprojects in areas vital to economic development : biotechnology ,\nchemistry and chemical engineering and geosciences. of the GNP ,\n\nDevelopment\n\nSupport\n\nScience\n\nin\n\nof\n\nWith 0. 6% of GNP devoted to R&D and a considerable scientific and\ntechnological potential , India is emerging as a nuclear energy ,\nspace and informatics international actor. Other developing countries which have clearly recognised the\nimportance for the longer-term of a solid indigenous scientific\nbase and research capacity include Israel , Hongkong , Singapore\nand Argentina. and\nimprovement\n2. 34. technological capacity is seen as fundamental to the achievement\nand\nof\ngoals\nof\n\nscientific\ngrowth\n\nof\neconomic\n\nlonger-term\n\nambitious\n\nChina\n\nthe\n\nIn\n\n\f30\n\ndevelopment. Major research programmes have been launched , aimed\nat catching up in the mastery of technology in seven main fields\ntechnology ,\n- biotechnology ,\nlasers ,\ninformation\nrobotics , energy and advanced materials. Other programmes are\nexport\ntechnological\naimed\nindustries and the level of scientific and technical education\nmore\nthe\ninternational satellite launching market. Already China\n\nattempting\n\nincreasing\n\ngenerally. aerospace ,\n\ninputs\n\nenter\n\nthe\n\nthe\n\nat\n\nto\n\nto\n\nis\n\nThe longer-term consequences of\n\n2. 35. for the\nadvance of scientific knowledge and for the pattern of world\neconomic growth and trade are clearly impossible to predict. But\nthe increasing importance attached to science and technology in\nall\nthe emergence of\nand the potential\nsignificant new science and technology powers are factors which\nEuropean countries cannot ignore in their own approach to science\nand technology policies at a national , European and international\nlevel. these trends\n\ncountries\n\nthese\n\nfor\n\n53\n\n\fEurope as a whole is spending less on R&D than its major\ncompetitors ; and European industry much less. Moreover , the share of research scientists and engineers\nin the labour force is significantly higher in the USA\nand Japan. Despite its own problems of industrial competitiveness\nthe USA continues to benefit from major advantages in the\nfield of R&D ( market size , levels of military R&D expen\u00ac\nditure ) and renewed efforts are being made to maximise the\nindustrial spin-off from Federally- funded programmes ( in\u00ac\ncluding , notably , military R&D ) as well as to improve\ninterfirm cooperation. towards tighter restrictions on the flow of scientific and\ntechnical knowledge out of the USA. There is also an increasing trend\n\nposition in applied research and\n\nJapan for its part is now extending its expertise\ninto the field of basic research to complement its\nstrong\ntechnological\nThis reflects not only a wish for greater integration into\nthe internationnal scientific community , but also the re\u00ac\ncognition that a capacity in basic research will be essen\u00ac\ntial in order to influence the direction of techno \u00ac\nlogical\n\ndevelopment in the future. development. Other industrialising countries are also beginning to\ndevelop an indigenous S /T capacity. Europe faces major challenges from this changing inter\u00ac\nnational environment. 31\n\n54\n\n\fIII\n\nMOBILISING EUROPE 'S RESOURCES\n\n( i )\n\nAT A NATIONAL LEVEL\n\n32\n\na\n\nof\n\nby\n\nhas\n\nRTD\n\nthe\n\nThis\n\nmore\n\n1980s. public\n\nsector\n\nduring\n\nbudgets\n\npolicies\n\ntechnology\n\nthemselves ;\n\nredefinitions\n\n3. 1. A growing recognition of the challenges facing Europe has\nalready led to some considerable rethinking of national science\nand\nbeen\ncharacterised\nexpenditure\npriorities , both as between RTD and other public policies and\nindustrial\nwithin\norientation in most countries ; a new focus on measures to improve\ncooperation between industry and universities ;\na concern about\nthe pattern of higher education and training at one end and about\nthe pace of innovation at the other ; and the search for better\nfor\nvalue\nevaluating choices between funding priorities and the success of\nprogrammes. This process of reevaluation is still going on : in\nthe United Kingdom a major review of science policy has been\nimportant\nSpain\nunder\nreorganizations of the administrative apparatus for dealing with\nscience policy ;\nthe\npattern of Federal spending with a greater priority now to be\ngiven to space research. Germany has witnessed recent changes\n\nimprovement\n\nmechanisms\n\nimportant\n\nthrough\n\nmoney\n\nItaly\n\nthere\n\nbeen\n\nhave\n\nway ;\n\nand\n\nfor\n\nthe\n\nin\n\nin\n\nin\n\nThe Resources Applied to R&D\n\n3. 2. The picture varies considerably among Community Member\nStates in the share of national resources devoted to R&D ; in the\nrelative importance of the public and private sectors ; and in the\nsectors to which resources are applied. In terms of the R&D effort the total volume of spending is\n3. 3. the United Kingdom and\ndominated by three countries : Germany ,\nFrance which together account for over three-quarters of total\npublic and private spending on research and development in the\nUS\nEuropean Community. and\nJapanese\ntheir own\nobservers\ncountries with these three countries , and especially with Germany\nwhich accounts for around 30% of the total. is characteristic of\n\nthe performance of\n\nIndeed it\ncompare\n\nto\n\nAll three countries , together with the Netherlands , have\n3. 4. higher than Community average shares of GDP allocated to R&D. Once again the German position stands out from the others , with\nsome\nFrance and Germany have been most\nsuccessful in increasing total expenditure , with increases in the\nR&D intensity of their economies of\n18% and 26% respectively\nbetween 1975 and 1985. ( 1987 ). Both\n\n2. 8%\n\n55\n\n\f3. 5. :\nAt the other end of the spectrum lie Spain , Portugal and\nGreece , with shares of R&D in GDP of respectively 0. 7% , 0. 4% and\nIn all of these countries public policy has emphasized\n0. 35%. the need for increasing expenditure , but this appears so far to\nhave achieved significant results only in Spain , where even in\nthe mid-1980s the intensity of the R&D efforts was below 0. 5%. 33\n\nThe remaining Community countries lie between these two\n3. 6. extremes. Here Italy 's performance is the most striking , with\nrapid growth in resources devoted to R&D throughout the 1980s. In real terms total ( public and private ) expenditure on R&D grew\nby well over 10% per year , pushing up the share of R&D in GNP to\naround 1. 5% in 1986. There is a policy objective to double this\nfigure by the early 1990s. Table 3. 1. The Intensity of R&D Spending by Member States :\n\nR&D as a percentage of GDP\n( 1987 or nearest year )\n\nGERMANY\nFRANCE\nUK\nNETHERLANDS\nBELGIUM\nDENMARK\nITALY\nIRELAND\nSPAIN\nPORTUGAL\nGREECE\n\n1981\n\n2. 45\n2. 0\n2. 4\n2. 0\nn. a\n1. 1\n1. 00\n0. 7\n0. 4\n0. 35\n0. 2\n\n1987\n\n2. 8\n2. 35\n2. 3 *\n2. 3\n1. 5 *\n1. 3 *\n1. 5 +\n0. 8\n0. 7\n0. 4 **\n0. 35 +\n\nSources :\n\nOECD and national\navailable. data. Figures for Luxembourg not\n\n*\n**\n+\n\n1985\n1984\n1986\n\n56\n\n\fThe significant differences among Member States are also\n3. 7. evident in terms of numbers of research personnel. Table 3. 2. shows that Germany and France together account for well over half\nalone\nof\nproviding some 35%. personnel ,\n\nCommunity\n\nGermany\n\nentire\n\nwith\n\nthe\n\nR&D\n\n34\n\nTable 3. 2. R&D Personnel ( 1985 )\n\nNos. ( 1000 )\n\n% of\n\nCommunity total\n( EUR=100 )\n\nNos. per 1000\nemployed ( 1983 )\n\nGERMANY\nFRANCE\nUK\nITALY\nNETHERLANDS\nSPAIN\nBELGIUM\nDENMARK\nPORTUGAL\nGREECE\nIRELAND\n\n398\n270\n174 *\n118\n\n61. 5\n32\n32 **\n20\n\n9 * * *\n6 **\n6 ***\n\n35\n24\n15\n10. 5\n5. 5\n3\n3\n2\n1\n0. 5\n0. 5\n\nSource :\n\nOECD and national data. *\n**\n***\n\n1986\n1983\n1984\n\n4. 8\n3. 9\n\n2. 7\n3. 7\n1. 0\n2. 6\n2. 7\n0. 7\n0. 6\n2. 8\n\n( 1984 )\n\n57\n\n\f35\n\nas\n\nfor\n\nsources\n\nfunding\n\nsectors\n\ncountries\n\nR&D\nof\nthe position also varies considerably. In terms of the relative importance of the public and\n3. 8. as\nprivate\nIn all\n\u201c performers \" ,\npublic\ncrucially\nremains\nCommunity\nthe\nIn only Germany and Belgium is public\nimportant source of funds. spending on R&D less than business expenditure. The increase in\nGerman expenditure on R&D , moreover , has been due more to growing\nbusiness expenditure than to public expenditure , and the private\nsector has accounted as a result for a growing share of the total\nR&D funding. In Germany too a larger share of publicly-funded\nresearch than in other Community Member States is carried out by\nthe private sector. In Italy and France , on the other hand , the\nimprovement in R&D intensity has been the result , principally , of\nincreased government expenditure. sector\n\nand\n\na\n\nTable 3. 3. Financing and Execution of R&D in\nthe Community , 1985\n\nFinancing\nShares in %\n\nExecution\nShares in %\n\nBusiness\n\nPublic Sector\n\nBusiness\n\nPublic Sector\n\nOther\n( univers\netc )\n\n( 66 ) *\n49\n61\n26\n49 *\n41\n45\n45\n50\n\nBELGIUM\nDENMARK\nGERMANY\nGREECE\nSPAIN\nFRANCE\nIRELAND\nITALY\nNETHER\nLANDS\nPORTUGAL n. a\nUNITED\nKINGDOM\n\n46\n\n( 34 )*\n46\n38\n74\n50 *\n53\n47\n52\n45\n\n62\n43\n\n( 69 )*\n55\n72\nn. a\n( 40 )**\n59\n51\n57\n55\n\nn. a\n63\n\n21\n12\nn. a\n\n25\n\n19\n\nn. a\n20\n\n\u2013 ( 31 )* \u2013\n24\n16\nn. a\n-- ( 60 ) ** \u2013\n\n- 49 --\n\u2013 43 \u2013\n\n16\n\n26\n\nn. a\n17\n\nSource :\n\nOECD and National data - Figures for Luxembourg\navailable. * 1983\n** Estim\u00e2tes for 1987\n\n58\n\n\fTable 3. 4. 3. 9. illustrates in summary from the differences\nbetween Member States in their levels of R&D intensity ( both\ntotal and industry-intensity ) and also in levels of employment in\nof\n\u201c technology-based \"\nGermany contrasts with that of the less-developed members of the\nCommunity :\n\noutstanding\n\nindustries. position\n\nThe\n\n36\n\nTable 3. 4. Indicators of RTD\n\nEC ( 12 ) = 100\n\nA\n\nR&D Intensity\n( total )\n\nB\nBusiness R&D\nIntensity\n\nC\n\" High Tech \"\nEmployment\n\nD\n\nComposite Index\n\nGERMANY\nFRANCE\nUK\nNETHER\nLANDS\nBELGIUM\nDENMARK\nITALY\nIRELAND\nSPAIN\nPORTUGAL\nGREECE\n\n134\n113\n120\n107\n\n72\n60\n59\n41\n23\n18\n11\n\n138\n111\n83\n102\n\n72\n80\n46\n49\n\n7. 5\n\n17\n5\n\n118. 5\n95\n102\n95\n\n90\n70\n80\n82\nn. a\n\nn. a\n\nn. a\n\n131\n108\n106\n103\n\n76\n68\n61\n53\n18\nn. a\n\nn. a\n\nSources\n\nderived from STRIDE report , National Board for Science\nand Technology , Dublin , November 1987. R&D Intensity = Total expenditure on R&D / GDP. Business R&D Intensity = Business expenditure on R&D / Gross Value-Added. High-Tech employment = employment in chemicals , man-made fibres , office\nmachinery and\nrubber and\nplastics , nuclear fuels - aggregated and expressed as a ratio to total\nemployment in all industries. The composite index at D is a weighted\naverage of A,B and C. Data are for 1983 and 1984 , except for Portugal ( 1982 ). data-processing machinery ,\n\nprocessing\n\nof\n\n59\n\n\fRegional Differences in RTD Capacity\n\n37\n\nat\n\nregional\n\nsituation\n\nTheir extensive\n\nSuch differences in R&D resources and their use are evn\n3. 10. In 1987 the\nmore striking if measured at the regional level. Europen Commission invited a group of external experts to analyse\nthe\nreport ^\nlevel. ( summarised at Annex 13 ) highlighted regional dispariries in R&D\nspending and in technology levels that are much greater even than\nthose in terms of GDP per capita. Even as between the Member\nStates themselves ( Table 3. 4. ) there is a difference of 12:1 in\nlevels of R&D intensity and of 28:1 in the intensity of business\ninvestment in R&D. At a sub-national level the disparities are\nmuch greater. In terms of the intensity of business expenditure\non R&D , for example Oberbayern enjoys a score three times the\nCommunity average , while in a number of regions in Italy , Spain ,\nand\nGreece\nR&D\nexpenditure by the higher education sector are negligible. The\nconseguences for desirable policy approaches are discussed in\nChapter V. expenditure\n\nPortugal\n\nbusiness\n\nboth\n\nand\n\non\n\nIt should be added , that the link between R&D intensity and rates\nof economic growth is not a simple one , as the case of Denmark\nillustrates. Denmark has a lower than average level of R&D\nBut Danish policy ( cf. 5. 20 below ) has concentrated\nintensity. much effort on the diffusion and adoption of technologies , with\nR&D resources directed to areas\nin which Danish industry is\nstrong. Denmark offers an interesting model of \" small country \"\nor regional strategy. Trends in R&D Policies and Public Funding\n\n3. 11. In the majority of Community Member States there has been\na real growth during the 1980s in the government appropriations\nThis has been most striking in the case of some of the\nfor R&D. in\n( notably Greece and\nless\nSpain )\nFrance ,\nincreased R&D\neach of which has\nresources faster than GDP ( table 3. 5. )\nMany of these countries\nhave increased public expenditure on R&D more guickly than public\nexpenditure overall. Italy and\n\ndeveloped\n\ncountries\n\nDenmark ,\n\nand\n\nOverall expenditure in the UK ,\nhas held\nbroadly stable in real terms for much of the 1980s , with some\nredeployment of defence R&D expenditures to the civil sector. In\nGermany , as noted earlier , government appropriations have grown\n\non the other hand ,\n\nResearch and Technological\nLess\nFavoured Regions of the Community ( STRIDE ), and STRIDE-\nScience and Technology for Regional\nand\nDevelopment in Europe , 1987. Figures are from Tables\n5. 1. and 5. 2. of the latter document. Development\n\nInnovation\n\nthe\n\nin\n\n60\n\n\f-H\n\nC\n\n0\n\nU'\n1\n\nGeneral cha rac t e r i s t i c s of budget appropriations for R&O\n\nin 1986\n\n1\n1\n\nBelgium\n\nDenmark\n\nGermany\n1 Greece\nSpa i n\n\n1\n\nFrance\n\nI reland\n\nItaly\n\nNetherlands\n\nPortugal\nUnited Kingdom\n\nEUR 12\n\nGovernment R&D ap \u00ac\npropriations in\n1986 at current\nvalues and ex \u00ac\nchange rates\n\ni\nI\n\n\u00cd\n\n( million ECU )\n\ntotal\n\ncivil\n\n\u0393\nI\n\u00a1\n\nfl\nH\n\n1\n1\nII\ni\na\nE\n5\n!\n\ni\n\n653\n\n509\n\n1004 9\n\n99\n\n802\n\n10273\n\n116\n\n4409\n\n1705\n\n92\n\n6787\n\n35492\n\n64 2\n\n507\n\n8832\n\n97\n\n764\n\n6935\n\n116\n\n4033\n\n1658\n\n92\n\n3329\n\n27003\n\nEuropean Communities\n\n661\n\n661\n\nI\n\n(!) Comparison of provisional budgets. Government R&D\n\nappropri\u00e2t ions at\n\n1980 prices\n\nand\nAnnual average\n\nexchange rates\n\nrate of change\n\nContribution of\nMember States to\nthe EUR 12 total\n\nRatio of govern \u00ac\nment R&D appro \u00ac\npriations to\ntotal budget\n\ntRat io of govern -\njment R&D appro\u00ac\npriations to gros\ndomestic product\n\n( X )\n\n( X )\n\n(X )\n\n( X )\n\ntotal\n\ncivil\n\n1-86\n\n86-87(1 ) 81-86\n\n86-87(1 )\n\n1. 3\n\n6. 8\n\n0. 6\n\n4. 8\n\n6. 4\n\n3. 3\n\n4. 2\n\n7. 5\n\n1. 8\n\n\u2022\n\n0. 0\n\n2. 2\n\n- 1. 6\n\n19. 4\n\n2. 0\n\n12. 2\n\n21. 3\n\n- 3. 0\n\n1. 6\n\n8. 1\n\n1. 7\n\n35. 0\n\n- 0. 4\n\n0. 6\n\n1. 1\n\n8. 0\n\n-0. 1\n\n5. 4\n\n6. 4\n\n5. 1\n\n4. 2\n\n7. 0\n\n1. 8\n\n\u00ab\n\n0. 5\n\n2. 7\n\n- 1. 2\n\n19. 5\n\n1. 9\n\n12. 7\n\n17. 3\n\n- 7. 3\n\n1. 6\n\n8. 8\n\n1. 5\n\n35. 0\n\n- 3. 3\n\n0. 3\n\n81\n\n2. 4\n\n1. 0\n\n30. 3\n0. 3'\n\n\u2022\n\n27. 9\n\n0. 3\n\n8. 3\n\n5. 2\n\n\u2022\n\n22. 4\n\n86\n\n2. 6\n\n1. 4\n\n28. 1\n\n0. 3\n\n2. 3\n\n29. 3\n\n0. 3\n\n10. 7\n\n5. 0\n\n0. 3\n\n20. 3\n\n100. 0\n\n100. 0\n\n81\n\n86\n\n81\n\n1. 31\n\n1. 36\n\n4. 06\n\n0. 51\n\n\u2022\n\n5. 62\n\n0. 74\n\n1. 60\n\n2. 34\n\n\u2022\n\n3. 18\n\n3. 33\n\n1. 33\n\n1. 55\n\n4. 20\n\n0. 67\n\n1. 61\n\n6. 34\n\n0. 80\n\n1. 60\n\n2. 40\n\n1. 04\n\n3. 04\n\n3. 11\n\n0. 63\n\n0. 49\n\n1. 15\n\n0. 16\n\n0. 28\n\n1. 31\n\n\u25a0\n\n0. 39\n\n0. 65\n\n0. 93\n\n\u2022\n\n1. 31\n\n1. 02\n\n86\n\n0. 57\n\n0. 63\n\n1. 10\n\n0. 25\n\nO. 34\n\n1. 44\n\n0. 44\n\n0. 85\n\n0. 96\n\n0. 32\n\n1. 24\n\n1. 04\n\n1\n\n\u2022\n\n\u2022\n\n\u2022\n\n\u2022\n\n\u2022\n\n\u00ab\n\n\u2022\n\n\u2022\n\n\u25a0\n\nSource :\n\nGovernment Financing. of Research and\nCommunity Countries , Statistical Office of\nCommunities OS / 12 / 87\n\nDevelopment\n\nin\nthe European\n\n\fonly modestly compared with private sector financing. 3. 12. categories of\ndifferences ( Table 3. 6. ). As far as the distribution of public funds among different\nconcerned there are again wide\n\nexpenditure is\n\n38\n\nEven between the three largest spenders ( Germany , France and the\nUK ) there are major divergences as a consequence in the first\nplace of defence expenditure , which accounts for 51% of total\nexpenditure in\nin\n34%\nGermany. in France and for 12. 5%\n\nthe UK ,\n\nfor\n\nThe\n\nresearch. non-oriented\n\nIn the civil sector , the most important categories of expenditure\nare , generally , research financed from general university funds\nand\nBelgium\nconcentrate much of their R&D support in the universities , and\nGermany and Denmark also give above-average shares of\ntotal\npublic funding for research to higher educational institutions. In the United Kingdom , on the other hand , the percentage of funds\ngoing to the universities for research purposes is well below\naverage and\nthat to finance non-oriented research significantly\nbelow and declining ; while in France the picture is mixed , with\nuniversity-funding below average but support for non-oriented\nresearch high. Netherlands\n\nand\n\nof\n\nthese\n\nshares\n\ncategories\n\non energy\n\nGermany and\n\nspend\nOutside\nhigher- than- average\nenvironmental\nresearch ; Italy has focussed in the past a particular resource\nGreece ,\n( notably nuclear energy )\neffort\nIreland and Portugal on R&D to improve agricultural\nDenmark ,\nproductivity. But generally the most important growth sector\nduring the 1980s has been R&D on industrial technologies , where\nItaly ,\nthere have been major investments by Germany , France ,\nSpain , Ireland and Denmark in particular. Netherlands\n\nthe\nfunds\n\nresearch ;\n\npublic\n\non\n\nThis latter feature of R&D budgets is associated with the\n3. 13. greater general industrial orientation in public R&D policy than\nhitherto. This has been characterized by :\n\nmeasures to encourage higher levels of spending on\n*\nresearch and development by industry itself. Practically\nall Member States now provide some form of tax relief for\nR&D\nin addition ,\nindustry on\nAs\nfinancial incentives in the form of grants or loans. noted above ,\nin particular ,\nthe Netherlands and Germany ,\nhave witnessed a steady and significant growth in industrial\nR&D spending ;\n\nMany offer ,\n\ninvestment. *\ntechnologies\n\nthe targetting of financial support on specific\n\nwith\n\nmajor\n\nindustrial\n\nhigh\napplications. 62\n\n\fOs\nCNI\n\nBreakdown of provisional R&D budge t s by objectives in 1986 and 1987 ( X )\n\nL'\nr \u00bb\n\nthe eiMH\n\nNABS Objectives\n\ni\n}. 1. Cs\u00f8lOMtlon end fi\u00f8loltetton \u00f8f\n1\n1\n2. Infrestructgres end generel\nj\nj\ni\n1\ni\nJ\n\nlend-vt* \u00f8linning\n3 , Control \u00f8f environnent et\npollution\nhg\u00ab\u00ab* heelth\n\n6. Protection end i\u00abprove*ent of\n\n5. Production, distribution \u00abnd re -\nt * e\u00ab\u00f8 l utilization of \u00c4nfrgy\n4. Agrlculturtl productivity \u00abnd\n\nttOinelogy\nIndustriel productivity\nttchnolog/\n\nd. Soefel structures \u00ab od rela \u00ac\n\ntionships\n\n\u25a0 9. Ci\u00f8loret l\u00f8n ind eiploltetlon of\n\nSPIC \u00ab\n\n!\n1\n1\n\nj\nI\n\n'0. leseerch financed fro\u00ab generel\nuniversity funds\n11. Mon-orlcnt\u00abd r\u00ab \u00bb*\u00ab, ch\n\ni\nj\nJ\n! 12. Other reseerch\n\n!\n\nTotil f incn\u00e7lng et civil \u00ab 19\n\n1 U. 9\u00abt\u00abnef\n\nTotil financing\n\ne\n\nc / ce\n\nc\n\nUd 12\n\nI960\n\n198 2\n\n1986\n\n1982\n\n1 986\n\n31\n1\n\n0,6\n\n0,6\n\n5,8\n\n\u2018,1\n\n0,7\n\n0,6\n\n5,3\n\n2. 6\n\n56 , a\n\n51,6\n\n1,9\n\n1,5\n\n1,6\n\n2. 2\n\n1. 4\n\n3,5\n\n8,7\n\n3,4\n\n1. 8\n\n2,2\n\n1,7\n\n3. 6\n\n\u00bb,1\n\n\u2022\n\n3,4\n\n2,5\n\n0,6\n\n2,4\n\n2. 1\n\n10,1\n\n7,2\n\ni\n!\n1\n1\n\ni\n\n1\n\n1982\n\n\u25a0\u00b7'\n\u00b0' ;\n*' *\n3,0\n\n7,3\n\n7,4\n\n\u2013\n\nX\n\noe\n\n1986\n\n1982\n\n1986\n\n1982\n\nc *\n\ns\n\n1994\n\n1982\n\n1996\n\n1982\n\nre\n\n1996\n\n1982\n\nl. j\n\n2. 4\n\n1,5\n\n3. 3\n\n4. 7\n\n7,0\n\n\u039c\n\n2. 3\n\n1,3\n\n4. 4\n\n\u2018. 4\n\n8. 5\n\n2,1\n\n1. \u00bb\n\n3. 3\n\n3. 0\n\n10,5\n\n2. 0\n\n1. \u00bb\n\n1. 7\n\nJ ' J. \u00b7\n\n3,2\n\n\u00ab. 7\n\n2. 0\n\n5. 5\n\n0,4\n\n3,4\n\n7,1\n\n0,3\n\n2. 1\n\n\u00bb,3. \u00b7 7,4\n\n5. 3\n\n3,\u2018\n\n0. 4\n\n4. 0\n\n2,4\n\n3,4\n\n'2,3\n\n24. \u00bb\n\n24,0\n\n4,7\n\n2,2\n\n0. 2\n\n2. 0\n\n6,6\n\n3. 1\n\n6,7\n\n1. 5\n\n3,2\n\n0,5\n\n3,8\n\n7,1\n\n3,6\n\nend\n\n26,7\n\n33. 7\n\n12,8\n\n13,7\n\n14,2\n\ni2,a\n\n20,6\n\n14. 2. 1\u2018,3\n\n15,3 \u00b7\n\n\u00bb,7\n\n11,2\n\n17,1\n\n21. 5\n\n12,1\n\n0,6\n\n1,1\n\n-\n\ni,4\n\n-\n\n100,0\n\n-\n\n100,0\n\n1,1\n\n1. 5\n\n\u2022\n1. 8. 1\n1\n1\n1\n1\n-f-\n1\n100 , C\n1\n1\n1\n\nloo,:\n\nj\n\n1\n\n2,2\n\n*,6\n\n22,1\n\n11,3\n\n0,8\n\n2,1\n\n5,4\n\n23,0\n\n10,7\n\n1,1\n\n0. 7\n\n7,3\n\n0,5\n\n\u00bb,8\n\n4,3\n\n3,1\n\n3,4\n\n2,6\n\n2. 3\n\n4,3\n\n2,3. 6'\u2018\n\n4. \u00bb. \u00ab\n\n0,4\n\n7,3\n\n0,4\n\n0. \u00bb\n\n\u2018. 8\n\n0 ,\u00bb\n\n8,8\n\n22,8\n\n22,3\n\n27,5\n\n32,1\n\n31,8\n\n31,5\n\n26 ,\u00bb\n\n25,3\n\n18 ,:\n\n17,5\n\n20,5\n4. 3\n\n2 3,6\n\n3,8\n\n19,7. 22. 3\n\n-\n\n-\n\n11. 8\n\n0,1\n\n12. 3\n0,1\n\n*,1\n2. 2\n\n4,7\n0,2\n\n20,6\n2. 2\n\n6,5\n\n3. 4\n\n2. \u00bb\n\n5. 8\n\n11,8\n\n15,1\n\n1,2\n\n75,1\n\n74,1\n\n78,5\n\n78,7\n\n\u00bb7,5\n\n\u00bb7,4\n\n87,6\n\n* 7,5\n\n77,1\n\n77,7\n\n\u00bb 4,2\n\n91,1\n\n6\u00bb,0\n\n24,7\n100,0\n\n23,7'. 100,0\n\n1. 5\n\n\u25a0\n\n* 00,0\n\n1 , 1\n100,0\n\n1\n\n1\n\n0,5\n\n100,0\n\n0,4\n\n100,0\n\n12. *\n100,0\n\n12,5\n100,0\n\n2. \u00bb\n\n\u2022 100,0\n\n2,3\n\n100,0\n\n5,8\n\n100,0\n\nj\n\n8,9\n\n100. 0\n\n31,0. 100,0\n\n34,1\n\n100. 0\n\n1 S\n\n3,2\n\n0,4\n\n3,6\n\n4. 7\n\n3,6\n\n10,6\n\n2,7\n\n5. \u00bb\n\n12. 0\n\nli , 7\n\n1. 0\n\n65,9\n\n\fC/5\n0\ne\nn\nn\n0\n\nit\n\nBreakdown of provisional R&D budgets by objectives in 1986 and 1987 ( X )\n\nn n o\nooo\n\nif \u00a3\n\nc c n\n3 3 3\nt- H * 3\nft rt 0\nf- < 3\n0\nrr\ncn n\n0 m\no c 2\nW3 ^\n\u00a3Ugso P- 5\nMt 2. oo cn \u00a3\n\nc/i\n<1 o\nS \"\n\n>-\u2022\nin po\nrt 0\nh- in\no n>\ncu 0\nf- M\no\no :r\nfh\n\n2 \u00a7\n\u00ae 0-\n\nO o\n^ (D\n<\nII (1)\n\u2022? t\u2013\n0 0\n\u00abS\n\nn n\no n\nTS\nto\nCu\nt\u2013\nD 3\n\nNABS objectives\n\nR\n\nr\n\nNL\n\nPO\n\nI\n\nJK\n\n1986\n\n1987\n\n1986\n\n1987\n\n1986\n\n1987\n\n1986\n\n1987\n\n1986\n\n1987\n\n1. Exploration and exploitation of\n\nthe earth\n\n2. Infrastructure * and general\n\nland-use planning\n\n3. Control of envi ronment a l\n\npo 1 1 ut i on\n\n4. Protection and improvement of\n\nhuman health\n\nS. Production , distribution and ra \u00ac\ntional ut i l i ist ion. cf energy\n6. Agricultural productivity a\u00abd\n\ntechnology\n\n7. Industrial productivity\n\nand\n\ntechnology\ntionships\n\n9. Exploration and exploitation of\n\nspace\n\n10. Research financed fror, general\n\nuniversity fundi\n11. Non-oriented research\n12. Other research\n\n0,7\n\n3,9\n\n0,8\n\n4,9\n\n1,2\n\n27,3\n\n26,1\n\n8,0\n\n1,1\n\n23,9\n\n2,2. \u00a11\n\u00a1j\n!\n\u00a1j\n\n0,6\n\n4,2\n\n1,0\n\n, 3,9\n\n1,1\n\n0,9\n\n1,0\n\n4,4\n\n1,1\n\n17,4\n\n3,7\n\n19,1\n\n24,2\n\n27,2\n\n10,0\n\n1,4\n\n0,8. 0,9\n\n4,5\n\n11,1\n\n3,5\n\n0,6\n\n4,2\n\n,3,0\n\n2,2\n\n4,6\n\n4,4\n\n0,6\n\n4,6. 3,1\n\n2,5\n\n4,0\n\n4,3\n\n19,1\n\n14,8\n\n17,6\n\n2,3\n\n6,9\n\n9,3\n\n3 / 5\n\n2,9\n\n2,4\n\n2,8\n\n40,7\n\n10,3\n4,4\n\n8. Social structures and relc -\n\n1,1\n\n\u25a0\n\n1,2\n\n10,2\n\n9,0\n\n8,9\n\n3,0\n\n0,2\n\n5,0\n\n10,5\n\n3,4\n\n0,2\n\n4,7\n\n14,4\n\n\u25a014,2\n\n6,2\n\n1,3\n\nI\n\n7,3\n\n0,2\n\n-\n\n35,5\n\n1,8\nis;s\n\n23,0\n\n28,6\n\n31,9\n\n43,1\n\n30,5\n\n14,9\n\n15,3\n\n2,4\n\n\u2022\n\n\u201c\n\n7,0\n\n0,2\n\n6,6\n\n1,9\n\n?/3\n4,3. 0,5\n\n19,5. 6,8\n0,3\n\n1,7\n\n1,4\n\n0,7\n\n3,7\n\n4,6\n\n4,6\n\n6,7\n\n1,3\n\n1,8\n\nV. 1,6\n\n1,5\n\n3,3\n\n3,6\n\n4,3\n\n9,9\n\n1,2\n\n2,6\n\nTotal financing of civil RID\n\n100,0\n\n100,0\n\n91,6\n\n92,2\n\n97,4\n\n97,2\n\n100^0\n\n100,0\n\n48,4\n\n13. Defence\n\nTotal f inane ing\n\n-\n\n-\n\n100,0\n\n100,0\n\n8,4\n100,0\n\n7,8\n\n100,0\n\n1\n\n2,6\n\n2,8\n\n-\n\n-\n\n100,0\n\n100,0\n\n100,0\n\n100,0\n\n51,6\n100,0\n\nI\n\n3,3\n\nok\nF\ncr\nr\u2013\nOl\no\n\n48,8\n\nui\nUJ\n\no\nO'\n51,2\n\u00b7\n\u00ab\n100,0 \u25a0 s\n\u00a7\n\nn\n\n3\n'rt\n3'\nc\nn>\na. of particular\nInformation technology has been the\nattention in most countries\nnational\npolicy initiatives in the 1980s included the Plan d' Action\nde\nInformation\nin\nStimulation Plan in the Netherlands , the Alvey Programme in\nthe UK. These are now being phased out , to a large extent\nsuperseded by transnational actions ( see 3. 49 below );\n\n( early examples of\n\nElectronique\n\nFilifere\n\nFrance ,\n\nfocus\n\nthe\n\n39\n\nhas\n\nbeen\n\n*\nmeasures to promote better technology transfer - the\ndissemination of research findings to industry. Generally\nthis\ncivilian\nresearch efforts. But in the UK earlier this year a scheme\nlaunched\nwas\nto\nR&D by\nthe\nincrease\nencouraging industry to make greater use of the technical\nexpertise and facilities of defence research establishments ;\n\n( the Civilian\nspin-off\n\nIndustrial Access Scheme )\n\nfrom defence\n\nconcentrated\n\nindustry\n\nresults\n\nthe\n\nto\n\non\n\nof\n\na\n\non\n\nnew\n\nemphasis\n\n*\ngovernment\nresearch bodies , higher education institutions and industry. In the United Kingdom , for example , the LINK initiative was\nlaunched\ncollaborative\nprogrammes between the three parties in pre-competitive but\nindustrially-relevant research. cooperation\n\nencourage\n\nDecember\n\nbetween\n\n1986\n\nin\n\nto\n\n3. 14. A sharper focus on industry-oriented R&D has meant also\na greater emphasis in public support on more \" down-stream \" R&D ,\nwith more immediate commercial application. The picture varies a\ngood deal across the Member States ,\nbut in many the balance\nbetween support for basic research and applied research has\nPublic expenditure constraints ,\nshifted in favour of the latter. the rising cost of much basic research , and increasing emphasis\non measurable cost-effectiveness have all contributed to this\ntrend in a process that has been dubbed \" the shift from science\nin some countries ( France , Germany ,\nto technology policy \" 25. Netherlands ), non-oriented research continues to be given a high\nalongside\nlevel\npre-competitive\nindustry-oriented R&D. In the United Kingdom , on the other hand ,\nthe public funding of basic research has been downgraded relative\nto the financing of pre-competitive applied R&D , this reflecting\na\nof\nconcern\ntranslating British invention into innovation. particular\n\ndifficulty\n\npriority ,\n\nperceived\n\nsupport\n\nabout\n\nfor\n\nthe\n\nof\n\nUK\n\n25\n\nSee STRIDE report. 65\n\n\fDuplication and Overlap\n\n40\n\nOutlines of the situation in each of the Member States\n3. 15. are given in the short synopses that follow. More detail is to\nbe found in Annex 12 , which reflects the ongoing work within\nCREST to compare natipnal policies and identify potential areas\nThis process , which is discussed further below\nfor cooperation. It is already\nunder Policy Coordination , is not yet complete. clear , however , that there are areas where duplication of effort\nand overlap do exist. One aim of subsequent reports on the state\nof science and technology will be to highlight these areas. Dual Use Technologies\n\nin\n\nOne\n\nthis\n\ncontext\n\nquestion\n\ndifficult\n\n\" dual-use \"\n\ntechnologies. the\n3. 16. difference among Member States in the organisation of R&D on so -\nin\ncalled\nthe\nof\ntechnological\nsectors\nrequirements\nsensor and signal / image processing ,\naffect several key areas :\ncomplex system design and information processing , man-machine\ninterfaces , vehicle technology , advanced design and manufacturing\noptoelectronics /\ntechnology ,\nmedical\nbioelectronics ,\ntechnology ,\nand energy\nconversion. The common features\nthe defence and civil\n\nelectrical and mechanical engineering ,\n\nmicroelectronics /\n\ncommunications ,\n\nelectronics /\n\nmaterials ,\n\nadvanced\n\nis\n\nThe development of\nfunded in\nEurope through defence and /or civil R&D programmes , depending on\nthe country and the degree of resources devoted to military R&D. these dual-use technologies\n\nis\n\nto\n\nand\n\nneed\n\nbetween\n\nimprove\n\ncoherence\n\n( manpower\n\nThe\ndefense\nprogrammes , where they overlap , in order to optimise the use of\nat\nfinancial )\nresources\nnational level ( cf. 3. 13 above ) and mechanisms are i implemented in\nthe principal countries to avoid unnecessary duplication and\npromote technology transfer from civil to defense and vice versa. These efforts to promote the optimal use of resources at national\nlevel are reasonably successful in some areas but more remains to\nbe\nto\ntechnology transfer remain significant. duplications\n\nrecognised\n\nbarriers\n\nwhere\n\ncivil\n\nother\n\nareas\n\nbeen\n\ndone\n\nhas\n\nand\n\nin\n\nor\n\n66\n\n\f41\n\nEuropean\n\nHowever , the most significant duplication arises not in\n3. 17. national programmes but between European countries. the\nextent that civil applications are taking the lead in driving the\ndevelopment of several dual-use technologies , civil programmes to\npromote\nparticular\nCommunity programmes and EUREKA contribute to a more efficient\nTheir impact is however , inevitably\nuse of resources ( see below )\nlimited , given their size and scope. In those technological fields which are more driven by defence\napplications ,\nmuch remains to be done to establish effective\ncooperation between countries. technological\n\ncooperation ,\n\nTo\n\nin\n\ncivil\n\ndefence and\n\nAnother trend which is important in discussing the harmonisation\nbroad\nresearch efforts\nof\ncompetitive technology base is the escalation of the cost of\ndeveloping\nled\ndefence departments in Europe to reduce their support for some\non\ndual-use\nmilitary-specific developments (a trend observed in the USA - cf. Chapter II ). producing military\n\nto establish a\n\ntechnologies\n\nconcentrate\n\nequipment. resources\n\ntheir\n\nThis\n\nand\n\nand\n\nhas\n\nto\n\nWhile this trend reduces the risk of duplications between civil\nand defence programmes , it also implies that an additional effort\nby industry or through civil programmes is needed to maintain a\nbroad competitive technology base in Europe. 67\n\n\fBELGIUM\n\nGROSS DOMESTIC\nexchange rates )\n\nPRODUCT ( GDP )\n( 1905 )\n\n: 104. 5 Billion ECU ( at current prices and\n\nCROSS domestic EXPENDITURE for R&D ( GERD )\n\n: 1,542. 6 Hio ECU ( est. )\n\n( 1905 )\n\nGERD / GDP : 1. 48 X ( est. )\n\n( 1985 )\n\nNATIONAL BUDGET : 49,112 Mio ECU ( 1986 )\n\nR&D BUDGET : 652. 6 Hio ECU ( 1986 )\n\nR&D BUDGET / NATIONAL BUDGET :\n\n1. 33 X ( 1986 )\n\nNUMBER of RESEARCHERS PER 1000 LABOUR FORCE : N. A. PERCENTAGE OF GERD financed bv industry : N. A. DEFENCE R & D AS A V. OF TOTAL GOVERNEHENT APPROPRIATIONS : 1. 6 X ( 1986 )\n\nRESPONSIBLE MINISTRY FOR S&T : Deputy Prime Minister , Responsible for the\nBudget and the Science Policy. STRUCTURE of\nresponsibility of the Science\nde\nPolitique\nServices. However , a significant portion of\nthe \" Science\nis the direct responsibility of the different ministries. S&T POLICY : The coordination of the whole structure is the\n(\"Services de Programmation\nMinister 's\nto\npolicy budget \"\n\nPolicy Office\nbelonging\n\nScientif ique \")\n\nPrime\n\nthe\n\nla\n\nNATIONAL PRIORITIES :\n1. More concentration of funds on selected research topics :\nand\n\nintelligence ,\n\nsoftware\n\n( Artificial\n\ninformatics\nmicroelectronics ) ;\nbiotechnology and biosciences ;\naerospace ;\nnew materials ;\nt\u00e9l\u00e9communications;'\noceanography. 2. Increased\n\nsupport\n\nfor\n\nfundamental\n\nresearch\n\nand\n\nmore\n\ncooperation\n\nbetween university and industry ;\n\nto industry\nin Europe\n\nin order\n: about\n\nto increase its share ( already\nin the overall\n62 X\n\nin 1985 )\n\n3. More incentives\n\none of the highest\nfunding of R & D ;\n4. Maximum encouragement\n\nof participation in Community and international\n\nprogrammes. The\n\nTRENDS :\nGERD / GDP should\n( about 2. 3 X ) but\nshows only marginal increases. responsible\nrise from\nafter a\n\ngovernment\nabout 1. 5\nbudget. increase\n\nthe ratio\nX to the same level as Netherlands\nthe overall funding\n\nofficials\n\nin 1985\n\nstate\n\nthat\n\nshare\n\nCOMMENTS : The new federal structures of the Belgian State , may lead to a\nthe\ndifferent\nlinguistic\nof\nand national authorities. However , at international\ncommunities , regions\nlevel\nfor\nnational\ncoordination. coordination\n\nresponsible\n\nauthority\n\nresearch\n\ntotally\n\nshould\n\namong\n\nthe\n\nbe\n\nof\n\nnov. 1988\n\n68\n\n\fDENNARK\n\nGROSS DOHESTIC\nexchange rates )\n\nPRODUCT ( GDP )\n( 1905 )\n\n: 76. 4\n\nBillion ECU ( at current prices and\n\nGROSS domestic EXPENDITURE for R&D ( GERD )\n\n: 959. 3 Mio ECU ( 1905 )\n\nGERD / GDP : 1. 26 X ( 1905 )\n\nNATIONAL BUDGET : 32,730 Mio ECU ( 1906 )\n\nR&D BUDGET : 500. 7 Mio ECU ( 1906 )\n\nR&D BUDGET / NATIONAL BUDGET :\n\n1. 55 X ( 1906 )\n\nPERCENTAGE OF GERD financed bv industry : 48. 9 X ( 1905 )\n\nDEFENCE HI D AS A K OF TOTAL GOVERNMENT APPROPRIATIONS : 0. 4 X ( 1906 )\n\nNUMBER of RESEARCHERS PER 1000 LABOUR FORCE : 3. 1 ( 1985 )\n\nRESPONSIBLE MINISTRY FOR S&T : The Ministry of Education and Research and\nthe Ministry of Industry. S&T\n\nis\nthe\n\nguided\n\nEach Ministry has responsibility for supporting\nSTRUCTURE of S&T POLICY\nresearch related to its function. The Government 's internal co-ordination\nby its National Research Committee under the\nof\npolicy\nchairmanship of\nby its\nResearch\nby the Ministry of Industry. Both\nIndustrial\nministries have advisory councils\nPolicy and\nPlanning\nlargest shares of the\nthe\nnational R&D are funded by the Ministry of Education and Research ( more\nthan 50 X ), the Ministry of Industry ( about 25 X ). of\nchaired\n\nfor Research\n\n( the council\n\nTechnology ). Education\n\nCommittee\n\nMinister\n\nCouncil\n\nPolicy\n\nand\n\nand\n\nand\n\nThe\n\nof\n\n: S\n\n& T\n\nis a\n\ntop priority policy area in the mid -\n\nNATIONAL PRIORITIES\n1980 's in Denmark. Three topics have been declared :\n- Information Technology ;\n- Material research ;\n- Basic Biotechnical R & D. Most Danish companies are SMEs and special Government effort is necessary\nto\ntechnology and its\nadoption. dissemination\n\ninformation\n\naid\n\nnew\n\nthe\n\non\n\nof\n\nTRENDS : Denmark ranks amongst the EC Member\nspend between\n1 X and 2 X of the GDP for R&D. Since 1980 an increase of about 8 X per\nyear has been registered. The Government 's\nGERD of\nabout 2. 3 X of GDP for the year 2000. plans provide\n\nStates which\n\nfor a\n\n:\n\nDanish\n\nresearch\n\ntechnology rely on wide international\nCOMMENTS\nattributed to\ncooperation. About 5 X of the national R&D resources are\nparticipation\nEC R&D\nthe\nprogrammes. Participation in Nordic research cooperation is of importance\nto Denmark. international\n\ncooperation. Including\n\nand\n\nin\n\nnov. 1988\n\n\fFEDERAI. REPUDLIC OF CERMANY\n\nCROSS DOMESTIC\noxchange rates )\n\nPRODUCT ( GDP )\n( 1905 )\n\n: 026. 4 Uilliou ECU ( at current pricos and\n\nGROSS domestic EXPENDITURE For RS. D\n\n( GERD )\n\n: 22,009. 4 Mio ECU ( 1905 )\n\nGERD / GDP : 2. 66 *\n\n( 1985 )\n\nNATIONAL BUDGET : 238,935 Mio ECU ( 1986 )\n\nR&D BUDGET : 10,049 Mio ECU ( 1986 )\n\nR&D BUDGET / NATIONAL BUDGET : 4. 20 X ( 1986 )\n\nPERCENTAGE OF GERD financed bv industry : 60. 9 X ( 1985 )\n\nDEFENCE R & D AS A \u2019/. OF TOTAL GOVERNMENT APPROPRIATIONS : 12. 4 X ( 1986 )\n\nNUMBER of RESEARCHERS PER 1000 LABOUR FORCE : 4. 0 ( 1983 )\n\nRESPONSIBLE MINISTRY FOR S&T :\nThe\nResearch\nMinistry\nMinistries of the Lander Governments. Federal\n\nfor\n\nand\n\nTechnology\n\n( BMFT )\n\nand\n\nthe\n\n&\n\nresponsibility for\n\n\" subsidiary funding \". STRUCTURE of S&T POLICY :\nLander Governments attach importance to the freedom\nThe Federal\nand the\nThe Lander have\nof research and the principles of\nD in the universities ( about 13 X of\nmainly the\nfor non -\nthe\n1987 total R\nThe funding of the\nuniversity\n( about\nresearch centres is\nsupporting bodies ( DFG , MPG ,\nshared\nand the Lander Governments. The Government\nbelieves that in a free-market economy the primary responsibility for R&D\nis that of industry ( 61 X of the 1987 total R & D ). Further strengthening\nof performance and private initiative will be assisted\nby tax incentives\nwhich will be provided within the 1990 tax reform. Government\nFederal\n24\nof\nX\nFhG ) and\n\nis\n1987\ntotal ). the national\n\nresponsible\n\nbetween\n\nFederal\n\nD ) ;\nD\n\nR &\n\nthe\n\nR\n\n&\n\nNATIONAL PRIORITIES :\n\nprospects , and\n\nof basic research , strengthening of research with\npreventive research ( ecology ,\n\nIncreased promotion\nlong term\nhealth , climate );\nof\nPromotion\ntechnologies ;\nImprovement of the basic conditions for innovation in SMEs. of market oriented\n\nexpansion of\n\nindustrial\n\nresearch\n\narea\n\nthe\n\nin\n\nMore specifically : the\ntechnology ;\nmaterials\ntechnologies ( laser , thin-film ); regenerative energy technologies. Airbus\nbiotechnology ;\n\ncompletion\nresearch ;\n\nfamily ; information\nphysical\nselected\n\nthe\n\nof\n\nTRENDS :\nNational R & D expenditure increased between 1973 and 1987 from 2. 1\n2. 7\nexpenditure increased from 56 X in 1981 to 61 X\nhighest among the EC Hetnber States. contribution\nin 1987\n\nto\nand is\n\nbusiness\n\nsector 's\n\nX to\nglobal R & D\nfar the\n\nGDP. The\n\nof\n\nX\n\nCOMMENTS :\nInternational cooperation has a high priority in the S6T policy of the FR\nGermany. About 8. 2\nexpenditure was\nFederal\nof\ncommitted to international organisations in 1987. Government\n\nR&D\n\nthe\n\nX\n\nnov. 1988\n\n70\n\n\fGREECE\n\nCROSS DOHHSTIC\nexchange rates )\n\nPRODUCT ( GDP )\n( 1905 )\n\n: 42. 0\n\nUilliou ECU ( at carrent prices and\n\nGROSS domestic EXPENDITURE for R&D ( GERD )\n\n: 140. 9 Mio ECU ( 1905 )\n\nCERD / GDP : 0. 35 X ( 1985 )\n\n| NATIONAL BUDGET : 14,763 Mio ECU ( 1986)\n\ni\n\nR&D BUDGET : 99. 5 Mio ECU ( 1986 )\n\nR&D BUDGET / NATIONAL BUDGET : 0. 67 X ( 1986 )\n\nPERCENTAGE OF GERD financed bv industry : 26. 3 X ( 1985 )\n\nDEFENCE R & D AS A X OF TOTAL GOVERNMENT APPROPRIATIONS : 2. 7 X ( 1986 )\n\nNUMBER of RESEARCHERS PER 1000 LABOUR FORCE : 0. 8 ( 1983 )\n\nRESPONSIBLE MINISTRY FOR S&T :\nGeneral Secretariat of Research and Technology , an autonomous body within\nthe Ministry of Industry , Energy and Technology. ministry\n\nSTRUCTURE of S&T POLICY :\nEach\nIndustry , Energy and Technology finances 43 X of the total\nExpenditure\nX. Ministry\n'coordinates the R &\n\nthe\nD efforts\n\nbetween the\n\nresponsible\n\nEducation\n\nand ,\n\nown\n\nfor\n\nits\n\nof\n\nis\n\nresearch. The Ministry of\nD Public\nR 6\nG. S. R. T. The\nvarious ministries , Research\nInternational\n\n29. 2\n\nand\n\nUniversities\n\nInstitutes ,\nOrganizations. sectoral\n\ncompanies ,\n\nNATIONAL PRIORITIES :\n\nthe international division\n\nscientific\n\nand\n\nof\n\ncountry in\n\ninstitutional\n\ninfrastructure\n\nimprovement of the role of the\nof labour ;\nestablishment\ntechnological development ;\nproduction of scientific and technological results of quality ;\nexploitation\nresults\ntransfer ;\nactivation of\nimported technology ;\nmaking public opinion more aware importance\nand social development. assimilation\n\nof research\n\napplied and\n\nresearch\n\nand\n\nfor\n\nof\n\nof\n\ntechnological research for assimilation of\n\nfor economic\n\ntechnology\n\nIn the\nnew 1988-1992 National Plan , high priority is given to social and\nhuman sciences , information technology , biotechnology , and development of\nindustrial research. TRENDS :\nGERD as\n0. 35 in 1985. The aim is to reach 0. 65 in 1992. a percentage\n\nof GDP has increased steadily from 0. 21 in 1981 to\n\nCOMMENTA :\nGreek participation in the\nover the last years. EEC\n\nprogrammes\n\nhas\n\nincreased substantially\n\nnov. 1988\n\n\fFRANCK\n\nGROSS DOMESTIC\nexchange rates )\n\nPRODUCT ( GDP )\n( 1905 )\n\n: 674. 0 Hill Lou ECU ( at current prices and\n\nGROSS domestic EXPENDITURE for R&D ( GERO )\n\n: 15,587. 4 Mio ECU ( 1985 )\n\nGERD / GDP : 2. 31 X ( 1905 )\n\nNATIONAL BUDGET : 162,565 Mio ECU ( 1986 )\n\nR&D BUDGET : 10,273. 1 Mio ECU ( 1986 )\n\nR&D BUDGET / NATIONAL BUDGET : 6. 34 X ( 1986 )\n\nPERCENTAGE OF GERD financed bv industry : 41. 4 X ( 1985 )\n\nDEFENCE R&D AS A X OF TOTAL GOVERNMENT APPROPRIATIONS : 32. 5 X ( 1986 )\n\nNUMBER of RESEARCHERS PER 1000 LABOUR FORCE : 4. 1\n\n( 1984 )\n\nRESPONSIBLE MINISTRY FOR S&T :\nMinistry\nresponsible for S&T policy in France. Space policy is under\nof Post , Telecommunications and Space. Under\nthe\nTechnology\n\nnew\n( ministere\n\nResearch\n\nGovernment ,\n\nand\n\nof\n\ndelegue )\n\nthere\n\nis a\nwho\nis\nthe Ministry\n\nSTRUCTURE of S&T POLICY : In parallel or in cooperation with the Ministry\nof Research and Technology ,\nalso an\nscientific and technical activities : the\nrole\nimportant\nof Defence ,\nMinistry of National Education , of Industry ,\nof Economy and\nof PTT. to regionalise research , the\nconsiderable efforts\nFrench S&T system is centralized. other ministerial\n\ndepartments have\n\nDespite some\n\ndirecting\n\nin\n\n: The\n\nNATIONAL PRIORITIES\ndevelopment of\nemployment of young researchers in order to solve the problem\nstructure\nresearch. The priorities in fields of research are :\n\nis the\nPriority will\n\nfurther promotion and\nalso be given to the\nin the age\nthrough\n\nindustrial research. first priority\n\nscientific\n\ntraining\n\nFrench\n\nbody ,\n\nand\n\nthe\n\nof\n\nto\n\nprogrammes\n\nDevelopment\n\nTechnological\naeronautics , t\u00e9l\u00e9communications , electronuclear eguipments. National Programmes\n: Biotechnology , food industry , medical research ,\nhuman and social sciences , production technology , electronics , natural\nchemistry , research for development ,\nresources ,\nresearch on general planning of land-use and transport. materials ,\n\nnuclear\n\nenergy ,\n\nspace ,\n\nnew\n\nnew\n\n:\n\nTRENDS : During recent years , there has been an increase in R&D financing\nas percentage\nof GDP from 2. 01 X in 1981 to 2. 31 X in 1985. Research has\nbeen designated as a national priority for France. research ,\n\nCOMMENTS : In order to encourage the private\nown\nindirect\nresearch\nenterprises and hiring of researchers by industry. start their\nenterprises to\nhas given several incentives ( direct and\nwithin\n\ninfrastructure\n\ngovernment\n\ncreation\n\naids )\n\nthe\n\nfor\n\nthe\n\nof\n\nnov. 1988\n\n\f\u00cf\u00bbPA I N\n\nGROSS DOMESTIC\nexchange rates )\n\nPRODUCT ( GDP )\n( 1905 )\n\n: 216. 2 Hill ion KCU ( at current prices and\n\nGROSS domestic EXPENDITURE for R&D ( GERD )\n\n: 1,144. 4 Mio ECU ( 1985 )\n\nGERD / GDP : 0. 53 X ( 1985 )\n\nNATIONAL BUDGET : 49. 848 Mio ECU ( 1986 )\n\nR&D BUDGET : 801. 7 Mio ECU ( 1906 )\n\nR&D BUDGET / NATIONAL BUDGET : 1. 46 X ( 1986 )\n\nPERCENTAGE OF GERD financed by industry : 49. 1 X ( 1983 )\n\nDEFENCE R&D AS A X OF TOTAL GOVERNMENT APPROPRIATIONS : 4. 8 X ( 1986 )\n\nNUMBER of RESEARCHERS PER 1000 LABOUR FORCE : 1. 0 ( 1983 )\n\nRESPONSIBLE MINISTRY FOR S&T : The interministerial Committee for Science\ncomposed of representatives from 9 ministries involved in\nand Technology\nresearch , is the official organism\ncoordination and\nfollow up of national S&T policy. planning ,\n\nthe\n\nfor\n\nSTRUCTURE of S&T POLICY : The National Plan defines the framework for the\nS&T activities of the nine ministries involved in research , whose work is\ncoordinated by the interministerial committee. The Spanish Autonomies are\nquite independent in deciding\nS&T policy. Efforts have been made to coordinate those efforts at national level. implementing\n\ntheir\n\nown\n\nand\n\nNATIONAL PRIORITIES : Priority sectors are :\n\nInformation and production technologies. National resources and agro-industrial technology. Quality of life. priorities\n\nnational\n\nPlan\n\nare ,\n\nthe\n\nset\n\nby\n\nThe\nfollowing :\n\namong\n\nothers ,\n\nthe\n\n-\n\ninnovation and technological\n\nimprovement of knowledge and progress in\ndevelopment ;\nconservation , upgrading and optimal exploitation of natural resources ;\ndevelopment and strengthening of the competitive capacity of industry ,\ntrade , agriculture and fisheries ;\nstrengthening of national defence ;\nadaptation\nscientific development and the new objectives ;\nimprovement in quality of education ;\nthe\nencouragement\nculture in all forms ;\nimprovement of health , social security and the quality of life. and dissemination of\n\ndevelopment\n\ncreativity ,\n\nbrought\n\nSpanish\n\nsociety\n\nchanges\n\nabout\n\nthe\n\nof\n\nby\n\nof\n\nto\n\nTRENDS : In Spain GERD as a percentage of GDP\n1985. The\n1981 to\neven further the national R&D efforts to\nother advanced European countries. from 0. 4 in\nSpanish Government is determined to increase\nwith the\n\nlevels comparable\n\nhas increased\n\n0. 53 in\n\nCOMHENTS : In 1987 , GERD is estimated to be 0. 75 X of GDP. nov. 1988\n\n73\n\n\fIREI. ANI)\n\nGROSS DOMESTIC\nexchange rates )\n\nPRODUCT ( GDP )\n( 1905 )\n\n: 24. 1\n\nBillion ECU ( at current prices and\n\nGROSS domestic EXPENDITURE for R&D ( GERD )\n\n: 192. 4 Mio ECU ( 1985 )\n\nGERD / GDP : 0. 80 X ( 1985 )\n\nNATIONAL BUDGET : 14,411 Mio ECU (. 1986 )\n\nR&D BUDGET : 115. 7 Mio ECU ( 1986 )\n\nR&D BUDGET / NATIONAL BUDGET : 0. 80 X ( 1986 )\n\nPERCENTAGE OF GERD financed by industry : 45. 4 X ( 1985 )\n\nDEFENCE R & D AS A X OF TOTAL GOVERNMENT APPROPRIATIONS : 0. 0 X ( 1986 )\n\nNUMBER of RESEARCHERS PER 1000 LABOUR FORCE : 2. 8 ( 1984 )\n\nRESPONSIBLE MINISTRY FOR S&T :\nScience\nfor\nMinistry\nIndustry and Commerce. and\n\nTechnology\n\noperating\n\nwithin\n\nDepartment of\n\nSTRUCTURE of S&T POLICY :\nIn 1987\nScience\nrationalisation of\nform EOLAS\n\nIrish S&T\nand\n\nTechnology\n\nwas considerably\nwas\n\nof State for\nof\na\nS&T agencies undertaken. NBST and IIRS were merged to\n\nreorganised. Minister\n\nprogramme\n\nappointed\n\ngeneral\n\nand\n\nhas\n\nidentified\n\nNATIONAL PRIORITIES :\nStrategic Research Programme emphasises\nand\nInformation Technology as priorities. Policy aims to concentrate national S&T\nindigenous firms. The\nSouth East Region - one of weaker R&D regions - has been declared a pilot\nregion for S&T related economic development. oriented research\nEngineering , Advanced Materials and\n\nBiotechnology ,\n\napplication -\n\neffort on\n\nTRENDS :\nS&T has had small budget increase in 1987 despite widespread cuts in most\nS&T increased in\nother spending\nreal terms by 1. 4 X per\nIrish S&T\nexpenditure is civilian R&D. S&T expenditure\nhas declined\nS&T for Manufacturing Sector. departments. Government\naverage\nannum\n\nin Agriculture and Energy and increased in\n\nexpenditure on\nfrom\n\n1981-1987. All\n\nCOMMENT S :\nMajor\nS&T\nparticipation and\ninstruments. interests\nS/T\n\nare\nstrengthening\ninfrastructure with\n\nindigenous\nindustry S&T\nthe help of EC structural\n\nnov. 1988\n\n\fITAI. Y\n\nCROSS DOMESTIC\nexchange rates )\n\nPRODUCT ( GDP )\n( 1905 )\n\n: 473. 0 Billion ECU ( at current prices and\n\nGROSS domestic EXPENDITURE for R&D ( GERP )\n\n: 6,307. 3 Mio ECU ( 1905 )\n\nGERD / GDP : 1. 33 X ( 1905 )\n\nNATIONAL BUDGET : 275,537 Mio ECU ( 1986 )\n\nR&D BUDGET : 4,408. 5 Mio ECU ( 1986 )\n\nR&D BUDGET / NATIONAL BUDGET :\n\n1. 60 X ( 1986 )\n\nPERCENTAGE OF GERD financed bv industry : 44. 6 X ( 1985 )\n\nDEFENCE R & D AS A X OF TOTAL GOVERNMENT APPROPRIATIONS : 8. 5 X ( 1986 )\n\nNUMBER of RESEARCHERS PER 1000 LABOUR FORCE : 2. 7 ( 1986 )\n\nRESPONSIBLE MINISTRY FOR S&T : Ministry for S&T Research\n\nSTRUCTURE of S&T POLICY :\nfor\n\" Ministry\nGovernment funded research. the\n\nThe\n\nMinistry\n\nUniversity\n\nand\n\nS&T\n\nfor\n\nS&T\n\nwill become\nResearch \", responsible for all\n\nResearch\n\nNATIONAL PRIORITIES :\n1\n\n) Increase in overall\n\nsince 1980. funding\n\nof\n\nGovernment\n\nand\n\nprivate enterprises\n\nfor research on new technologies such\n\nand\n\nfunds\n\nincreased\n\n2 ) Emphasis\nas :\n- biotechnologies and fine chemicals ;\n- information technologies ;\n- neu materials ;\n- nuclear fusion ;\n- t\u00e9l\u00e9communications ;\n- optics and lasers ;\n- advanced transport ;\n- satellites and space crafts ;\n- biom\u00e9dical instruments. 3 ) Decrease in funds for nuclear R & D for the production\nelectricity. of\n\nfor\n\nneu\n\nMinistry\n\nIRENDS :\nThe\nstreamlining the\nD structure\nuhole Government\nadministration of Government research establishments. Incentives ( mainly fiscal ) for private funded R & D. The ratio GERD/GDP uas 0. 74 X in 1980 ; by 1987 it uas about 1. 40 X. Increased European and international cooperation. research should lead to\nand simplify the\n\nUniversity\n\nS&T\n\nand\n\nR &\n\n-\n\nratio of GERD /GDP to\nwish to\nCOMMENTS :\nsame level of Italy 's largest European partners ( France and UK ) in a 4 or\n5 years. Italian authorities\n\nbring the\n\nnov. 1988\n\n75\n\n\fLUXEMBOURG\n\nGROSS DOMESTIC\nexchange rates )\n\nPRODUCT ( GDP )\n( 1985 )\n\n: 4. 7\n\nBillion ECU\n\nCat current prices and\n\nGROSS domestic EXPENDITURE for R&D ( GERD )\n\n: N. A. GERD / GDP : N. A. NATIONAL BUDGET : 2,005 Mio ECU ( 1987 )\n\nR&D BUDGET' : N. A. R&D BUDGET / NATIONAL BUDGET : N. A. PERCENTAGE OF GERD financed by industry : N. A. DEFENCE R & D AS A X OF TOTAL GOVERNMENT APPROPRIATIONS : N. A. NUMBER of RESEARCHERS PER 1000 LABOUR FORCE : N. A. RESPONSIBLE MINISTRY FOR S&T :\n\n-. -\n\nMinistry for national education and youth. STRUCTURE of S&T POLICY :\n\nInterministerial Committee for coordination of Research and Technological\nDevelopment. NATIONAL PRIORITIES :\n\nGovernment structures and public research centres to carry\n\nSetting up\nout R & D activities with Government funds. Transfer\nestablishments , to industrial innovation. research ,\n\nresults\n\nof\n\nof\n\n-\n\ngathered\n\nin\n\npublic\n\nresearch\n\nTRENDS :\n\nA\nnew\nlaw\n( March\n1987 )\nof\n( up to. $-or\nnumber ,\n7 )\nalready operational in 1988. COMMENTS :\n\nwill\nPublic. initiate the establishment of a certain\ncentres are\n\nResearch\n\nCentres ;\n\ntwo\n\nLuxembourg does not collect at present data on R & D expenditure but will\nbeen carried\n& D\ndo so probably in\nout until\nactivities have\n1989. R\nindustrial concerns , this should change\nin private\nrecently exclusively\npublic research centres\nthe government-funded\nwith the establishment of\nmentioned above. nov. 1988\n\n76\n\n\fPORTUGAL\n\nG ROSS DOMESTIC\nexchange rates )\n\nPRODUCT ( GDP )\n( 1985 )\n\n: 27. 3\n\nBillion ECU ( at current prices and\n\nGROSS domestic EXPENDITURE for R&D ( GERD )\n\n: 111. 7 tlio ECU ( 1905 )\n\nCERD / GDP : 0. 41 *\n\n( 1985 )\n\nNATIONAL BUDGET : 8,801 Mio ECU ( 1986 )\n\nR&D BUDGET : 91. 5 Mio ECU ( 1986 )\n\nR&D BUDGET / NATIONAL BUDGET :\n\n1. 0 * X ( 1986 )\n\nPERCENTAGE OF GERD financed bv industry : 30. 8 X ( 1984 )\n\nDEFENCE R & D AS A X OF TOTAL GOVERNMENT APPROPRIATIONS : N. A. NUMBER of RESEARCHERS PER 1000 LABOUR FORCE : 0. 8 ( 1984 )\n\nRESPONSIBLE MINISTRY FOR S&T :\nMinistry for Planning and Territorial Administration. JNICT is\nplanning , policy\npreparation of R & D Budget. coordination body\n\nand overall\n\nthe major\nwith responsibility for\n\nSTRUCTURE of S&T POLICY :\n\nSince 1986 and the establishment of the Superior Council for\nTechnology there has been major changes and much new investment in S&T. Science and\n\nNATIONAL PRTORITIES :\n\nmobility\n\nPriorities of the Government programme ( April 1987 ) for R & D are applied\nresearch in universities ,\nresearch related to users , strengthening basic\npromoting\nmobilization\nin\nprogrammes between research and industry , as well as strengthening public\ninfrastructural\nHajor Sectoral Research Action\nsector\nprogrammes\nmaterial\nare\nsciences and , marine sciences. robotics /microelectronics ,\n\nbiotechnology ,\n\ncapability. developing\n\nscience ,\n\njoint\n\nand\n\nS&T\n\nTRENDS :\n\nexpenditure\n\nR&D\nsteadily increase it to\nmultiplied by 4. 5. in the last four years. doubled\nX of\n\n1986/ 87\n\nreach 1\n\nin\n\n1985 's\nGDP by\n\nallocation\n1990. JNICT 's\n\nwith plans to\nbudget was\n\nC0MMENTS :\n\nLow level of International R&D Participation but set to increase steadily\nwith EEC membership and priority given by Government. A major priority is\nto strengthen S&T infrastructure as well as education and learning of S/ T\nresearchers. nov. 1988\n\n\fTHK NETIIERLANIJS\n\nGROSS DOMESTIC\nexchange rates )\n\nPRODUCT ( GDP )\n( 1905 )\n\n: 165. 3 Billion ECU Cat current prices and\n\nGROSS domestic EXPENDITURE FOR R&D ( CERD )\n\n: 3,492. 6 Mio ECU ( 1905 )\n\nGERD / GDP : 2. 11 X in 1905\n\nNATIONAL BUDGET : 70,599 Hio ECU ( 1986 )\n\nR&D BUDGET :\n\n1\n\n, 704. 9 Mio ECU ( 1986 )\n\nR&D BUDGET / NATIONAL BUDGET : 2. 40 X ( 1986 )\n\nPERCENTAGE OF GERD financed bv industry : 50. 2 X ( 1985 )\n\nDEFENCE R & D AS A X OF TOTAL GOVERNMENT APPROPRIATIONS : 2. 8 X ( 1986 )\n\nNUMBER of RESEARCHERS / PER 1000 LABOUR FORCE : 3. 7 ( 1983 )\n\nRESPONSIBLE MINISTRY FOR S&T : The Ministry of Education and\nthe Ministry of Economic Affairs. Science and\n\n:\n\nof\n\nS&T\n\nPOLICY\n\nDecision\n\nScience and\n\nmaking\n& T\n\nSTRUCTURE\nstructured network of advisory bodies. S\nCouncil for\nMinister within which the\ncoordinating\nAffairs as coordinating minister\noriented , aiming\nvia the broadening of the technology base of the industry ,\nquality , the use , and the diffusion of technology. a broadly\nprepared by the\nby the Prime\nof\nacts as\npolicy and the Minister of Economic\nis market-\nThe policy\nof the Dutch industry\nimproving the\n\nPolicy is\n( RUT ), chaired\n\ncompetitive strength\n\nMinister\nscience\n\nTechnology Policy\n\nfor technology. to improve\n\nminister\n\nEducation\n\nScience\n\nbased\n\nfor\n\nand\n\non\n\nis\n\nNATIONAL\ncentres and major incentive schemes :\n\nPRIORITIES\n\nThe\n\n:\n\ndissemination\n\nof\n\nknowledge via innovation\n\nThe Innovation Stimulation Scheme ( INSTIR ) provides\nlabour costs whether in-house or contracted R 6 D. The Technological\nR&D on new products ,\nare technologically new and risky. The SHE Business Research Programme ( OMK ) stimulates SMEs to carry out\nadvanced R&D projects. Scheme ( TDC ) offers support for\ncondition that they\nservices on\n\nDevelopment Credit\nprocesses , and\n\ngrants for R&D\n\nInnovation-Oriented\n\nProgrammes\n\n( IOPs )\n\ninclude\n\nMembrane\n\nTechnology ,\n\nTechnical\n\nThe\nBiotechnology ,\nTechnology. among\nCeramics ,\n\nothers\nand\n\n:\nIC\n\nTRENDS : National R&D expenditure increased between 1980\n2. 03 X\nto global R&D expenditure from 50. 2 X in 1985 to 55. 3 X in 1988. and 1988 from\nX of GDP. The business sector increased its contribution\n\nto 2. 40\n\nCOMMENTS : The \" Internationalisation\nmajor issue in the Dutch S&T policy. of\n\nEducation\n\nand\n\nResearch \"\n\nis a\n\nnov. 1988\n\n78\n\n\fUN I THU KINGDOM\n\nGRO SS DOMESTIC\nexchange rates )\n\nPRODUCT t GDP )\n( 1905 )\n\n: 595. 0 Billion ECU ( at current prices and\n\nCROS S doniestic EXPENDITURE for R&D ( CHRP )\n\n: 13,037. 6 flio ECU ( 1905 )\n\nGERD / GDP : 2. 33 X ( 1985 )\n\nNATIONAL BUDGET : 223,312 Nio ECU\n\nR&D BUDGET : 6,786. 8 Mio ECU ( 1986 )\n\nR&D BUDGET / NATIONAL BUDGET : 3. OA X ( 1986 )\n\nPERCENTAGE OF GERD financed by industry : 46. 1 X ( 1985 )\n\nDEFENCE R & D AS A X OF TOTAL GOVERNMENT APPROPRIATIONS : 50. 9 X ( 1986 )\n\nNUMBER of RESEARCHERS PER 1000 LABOUR FORCE : N. A. RESPONSIBLE\nresponsibility\nhave responsibility for own R & D. reporting\n\nMINISTRY\n\nS&T\n\nFOR\n\nto\n\n:\n\nOffice\nPrime Minister but ministerial departments\n\nCabinet\n\noverall\n\nhas\n\nPOLICY\n\nSTRUCTURE of S&T\ncentral\nScience\nAssessments office\nin R & D expenditure proposals. structure\nand\n\nTechnology\n\n:\n\nunder\n\nhas\nstrengthened into\nwith the Advisory Council on\nThe S&T\nassists Departments , Research Councils and University\n\nS&T\nPrime\n( ACOST )\n\nstructure\nMinister ,\n\nexpanded\n\nadvisory\n\nbody. been\n\nas\n\nNATIONAL PRIORITIES : Three main priorities have to be considered\nnational level :\n1\n2. increase social and economic return from S&T ;\n3. improve. maintain and enhance quality in S&T ;\n\nmanagement ,\n\nensure\n\ngreater concentration and selectivity of\n\nat the\n\nS&T activities. regards\n\nresearch ,\n\nAs\nsectoral\nindividual ministries. Government is\nGovernment with emphasis on contribution of\nefficiency , competitiveness and innovative capacity. conducting \" searching\n\nreview\" of\n\nprogrammes\n\naction\n\nare\n\ndeveloped\n\nby\n\nR & D priorities across\nD to\n\nGovernment funded\n\nR &\n\nCriteria revised in 1987 for distribution of Science Budget. 1. Internal Funds - Timeliness and Pervasiveness. Applicability\n2. External\n\nExploitability. and\n\n-\n\nSignificance\n\nfor\n\nEducation. 3. Financial - Benefits and Costs/Affordability. small increases\n\nTRENDS : Overall level funding for 1987-89 committed with cuts in defence\nresearch and\nfor Research Council and University Grants\nCommittee. UK Government is determined to secure greater Industry funding\n& D , and also to ensure that Industry takes more responsibility for\nof R\nR &\nto collaborative\nresearch. Emphasis\n\nproject\n\nsupport\n\nshifted\n\nfrom\n\nhas\n\nD. COMMENTS :\ndevelopment , international as well\ncontributes. Main concern is to ensure value for money in all research and\nUK Government\nas national ,\n\nto which\n\nnov. 1988\n\n\f( ii )\n\nEUROPEAN COOPERATION\n\n42\n\nbe\n\nback\n\nExamples of collaborative research ventures in Europe\n3. 18. can\nEuropean\ntraced\nover many years. Organisation for Nuclear Research ) was established in 1953 ; ESRO\n( the European Space Research Organisation ) and ELDO ( the European\nLauncher Development Organisation ), which were later merged to\nthe European Space Agency ( ESA ) were set up in 196 2 , the same\nyear as the signature of the Anglo-French Concorde project ; 1970\nsaw the establishment of Airbus Industrie. CERN\n\n( the\n\nof\n\nAt\n\nthe\n\nthe\n\nlevel\n\nEuropean Community the\n\n3. 19. first\ncollaboration in coal and steel research began in 1955 , this to\nbe followed by cooperation on nuclear research under the Euratom\nIn the aftermath of the doubling of oil and\nTreaty in 1958. energy prices in 1973 / 74 the Community 's research efforts were\nextended\nthe\nenvironment and raw materials. -- In 1971 the first cooperation\nwithin the COST framework was begun , involving the Community and\nother European countries ; COST remains an important framework for\ncooperation on specific projects. non-nuclear\n\nfields ,\n\nenergy\n\ninto\n\n1974\n\nthe\n\nin\n\nthe\n\nBut\n\nhave\n\n1980s\n\n3. 20. and\nquantitative development in Community activity , characterised by\nthe introduction of more industry-oriented \" second-generation \"\nR&D\nCommunity\nresearch , and Community level actions both upstream of research\n( in the field of education and training ) and downstream support\nfor innovation. qualitative\n\nmedium-term\n\nprogrammes ,\n\nwitnessed\n\nplanning\n\nresource\n\nfor\n\na\n\nUnderpinning this cooperation now is the political commitment of\nthe Community , enshrined in the Single European Act :\n\nto strengthen the scientific\nand technological basis of\nEuropean industry and to encourage it to become competitive\nat the international level ;\n\nencourage\n\nto\nindustry and research centres and universities ;\n\ncooperative\n\nsupport\n\nand\n\nefforts\n\nbetween\n\nand to adopt a Framework Programme as a medium-term planning\ntool. By laying down the objectives , priorities and expected financial\nrequirements for the Community 's activities in the fields of RTD\nand breaking it into lines of action , the Framework Programme\nforms a guide for specific programme decisions. Another of its\naims is to familiarise scientific institutions and companies with\nthe research opportunities offered by the Community in the medium\nterm. 80\n\n\f3. 21. The main elements in the programme for 1987-1991 are\ngiven in the following table , which illustrates the emphasis\ngiven\nthe\ntechnologies ,\nmodernisation of Community industry , biotechnology , marine\nScience & Technology , alongside the long-standing collaboration\nin nuclear fusion and fission and the environment. telecommunications ,\n\ninformation\n\nto\n\n43\n\nthe\n\nthe\n\nand\n\n1984\n\nwith\n\nproviding\n\nindustrial\n\nuniversity\n\nencouraging\n\nThe largest single programme is now ESPRIT , which was\n3. 22. launched\nEuropean\nof\nin\naims\ninformation technology industry over the subseguent 10 years with\nthe basic technologies required to meet the competition of the\n1990s ;\nin\ninformation technology , and contributing to the development of\ninternationally accepted standards. For its first five years the\nESPRIT programme had a total budget of 1500 MECU , half of it\nand half by the research partners\nfunded by the Community ,\nthemselves. 3. 200 MECU , again shared equally between the Community and the\nThe first phase of the programme concentrated\nresearch partners. information\non pre-competitive research\nprocessing systems , and application technologies such as computer\naided manufacturing systems. The new phase includes , alongside\nthe application-orientation , some emphasis on more basic research\ntargetted on issues such as artificial intelligence. In its second phase ESPRIT has a budget of\n\nin micro-electronics ,\n\ncooperation\n\n3. 23. The second largest group of industry-oriented activities\naims at the modernisation of European industry through the use of\nHere\nadvanced technology and the development of new materials. the. BRITE programme is the largest single element. BRITE was\nlaunched in 1985 as a four-year programme funded jointly by the\nCommunity ( 185 MECU ) and research partners in universities or\nBuilding on its experience with the BRITE programme\nindustry. ( under\nand the related EURAM programme on advanced materials\nwhich\nthe\nprojects\nCommission has recently submitted proposals for a new combined\nprogramme for\nin\nparticular and which , it is estimated , could generate projects\ncosting 1. 000 million ECU. Most of the Community funding of 440\nMECU will be on applied research , but up to 7% of the budget will\nbe made\nfundamental work in areas where\nindustrial progress is hindered by weakness in basic sciences. 1989-92 , which is designed to attract SMEs\n\nfinanced )\n\ntogether\n\navailable\n\nfor more\n\nbeing\n\nsome\n\nare\n\n300\n\nA third element in the Framework Programme which has a\n3. 24. industrial orientation is RACE which is\nspecifically applied\ndesigned to ensure that the different telecommunication systems\nand services now being developed in Europe remain consistent. The specific aim of the RACE programme is to enable the Community\nto move towards\nintegrated broadband communications based on\nintegrated digital networks in a system able to handle a wide\n\n81\n\n\fTable 3. 7. FRAMEWORK PROGRAMME OF COMMUNITY ACTIVITIES IN HIE FIELD OF\nRESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT ( 1987-91 )\n\nBreakdown of (he amount deemed necessary between (he various activities envisaged\n\n1. Qualily of life\n1. 1. Health\n1. 2. Radiation protection\n1. 3. Environment\n\nTowards a large market and an information and communications society\n\n2. 2. 1. Information technologies\n2. 2. T\u00e9l\u00e9communications\n2. 3. New services of common interest (including transport)\n\n3. Modernization of industrial sectors\n3. 1. Science and- technology for manufacturing industry\n3. 2. Science and technology of advanced materials\n3:3. Raw materials and recycling\n3. 4. Technical standards , measurement methods and reference materials\n\nExploitation and optimum use of biological resources\n\n4. 4. 1. Biotechnoloey\n4. 2. Agro-industrial technologies\n4. 3. Competitiveness of agriculture and management of agricultural resources\n\nEnergy\n\n5. 5. 1. Fission : nuclear safety\n5. 2. Controlled thermonuclear fusion\n5. 3. Non-nuclear energies and rational use of energy\n\n6. Science and technology for development\n\nExploitation of ( he sea bed and use of marine resources\n\n7. 7. 1. Marine science and tcchnology\n7. 2. Fisheries\n\n(uiprovciiieut of Europcau S/T coop\u00e9ration\n\n8. 8. 1. Stimulation , enhancement and use of human resources\n8. 2. Use of major installations\n8. 3. Forecasting and assessment and other back-up measures (including statistics )\n8. 4. Dissemination and utilization of S/T research results\n\nmillion iX'U\n373\n\nSU\n3 -)\n261\n\n1600\n550\n125\n\n-09\n220\n-5\nISO\n\n120\n'05\n55\n\n--0\n61 !\n122\n\n80\n\n50\n30\n\nISO\n50\n2 5\n55\n\n2 275\n\nS45\n\n2S0\n\n1 173\n\nSO\n\nSO\n\n2SS\n\nTotal\n\n5 396\n\n\fto\n\nrange of new and conventional telecommunication services from\ntelephones\nand\ncable\nimportant\nelectronic mail. contribution to the Community 's development strategy for the\ntelecommunications sector as a whole , which will be of great\nimportance to the functioning of the internal market. The RTD component will make an\n\ntransmission\n\nvideophones ,\n\ndata\n\nTV ,\n\n44\n\nOther sectors too now have a significant applications -\n3. 25. oriented component. The Community 's biotechnology programme ( BAP\n- Biotechnology Action Programme ), notably covers a number of\nresearch fields relevant to the needs of industry and agriculture\nand is complemented by a programme of projects specifically for\nthe application of biotechnology to agro-industry. Alongside the part-funding of\n\n3. 26. in\nthese and other areas of the Framework Programme and the work of\nthe Community 's own Joint Research Centre ( which is itself now to\nhave a more industry-oriented vocation ) the Community is\n\ncontract\n\nresearch\n\npromoting\n\n*\nscientists\nprogramme ( formerly called the STIMULATION programme )\n\nthe Member States\n\ncooperation\n\nexchanges\n\nof\nthe\n\nthrough\n\namong\n\nand\n\nresearch\nSCIENCE\n\nencouraging student mobility and cooperation between\n*\nhigher education institutes in Europe through its ERASMUS\nprogramme\n\n*\npromoting strong and long-lasting partnerships between\nenterprises and universities in training , notably in respect\nof high technology ( COMETT )\n\npromoting the effective dissemination of the results\ntheir\n\n*\nfrom its\napplication through the VALUE programme ;\n\nresearch activities and contributing\n\nto\n\nworking towards the lowering of language barriers to\nEUROTRA\ncirculation\n\ninformation\n\nthrough\n\nthe\n\nof\n\n*\nthe\nprogramme ;\n\naims\n\ncreate\n\nencouraging\nto\n\ninnovation through the SPRINT programme\n*\nwhich\nfor\ninnovation and technology transfer in general , as well as\nother sectoral programmes such as STAR ( telecommunications )\nand VALOREN\n( energy technologies ) which are specifically\noriented towards the needs of the less-developed regions of\nEurope ;\n\nfavourable\n\nconditions\n\nmore\n\nand\n*\npromoting\ncommunication\nthe\ninformation services market , through the IMPACT programme\nand through sectoral programmes ( AIM , DRIVE , DELTA ). the\ntechnologies\n\napplication\nin\n\ninformation\ndevelop\n\nof\norder\n\nnew\n\nto\n\n83\n\n\f45\n\nhave\n\n3. 27. The experience of the Framework Programme activities\nboth under the current Programme and under the first programme\n( 1984-87 ) has been overwhelmingly positive , demonstrating a real\nThe enthusiasm generated by\nthirst for cross-border cooperation. the Community programmes in the industrial and higher - educational\nin\nworlds is indisputable. the\nbeen\nparticular ,\nCommission and its Advisory Committees having to turn down for\nsupport a large number of potentially good projects. The same is\ntrue of programmes such as ERASMUS , which has been oversubscribed\nby a factor of at least three and COMETT ( which in 1987 received\napplications for 120 MECU compared with available finance of 16\nThe clear evidence is that the provision of a framework\nMECU ). collaboration\nencouraging\nthe\nand\nscientific ' and technological\nfields responds to a widely-felt\nneed , particularly at a time when pressures on national funding\nhave been growing. The ESPRIT and BRITE programmes ,\nmassively\n\noversubscribed ,\n\ncooperation\n\nEurope\n\nwith\n\nin\n\nin\n\n3. 28. The experience of the EUREKA initiative also confirms\nthe growing interest in European collaboration as a means of\nimproving Europe 's technological base and making the most of the\nopportunities offered by the Internal Market. 1985 ,\n\nfields\n\nannounced in\n\nSince EUREKA was\nhave\nprojects\n\n213 cooperative\nlaunched in\n3. 29. cross-border\nof\nthe\nbeen\ninformation - technology , robotics , biotechnology , communications\neguipment and other high technology fields. These include , most\nnotably , ^the High Definition Television Project , a major set of\nprojects in the area of flexibl'e automated assembly ( FAMOS ), as\nwell as projects in the transport and environmental research\nfield. The total EUREKA project portfolio has currently an\nestimated value of some 3. 8 milliard ECU , which is eguivalent to\naround 1 milliard ECU per year ( about half the level expected to\nbe generated by the Community programmes );\nand already some 800\norganisations - two-thirds of them industrial - are involved. While some of these collaborative industrial projects , which are\nintended to be more \" downstream \" than Community projects , might\nwell have gone ahead even in the absence of the EUREKA framework\nitself ,\nthe\ngrowing industrial and university interest in collaboration and\nIn the case of EUREKA , cooperation has the added\ncooperation. dimension\nand\nfacilitating\ninstitutes in Community Member States , on the one hand , and those\nin the EFTA countries in particular , on the other - around half\nthe EUREKA projects involve participants from each grouping 26. cooperation\n\nnumber of\n\ncompanies\n\nprojects\n\nconfirms\n\nbetween\n\nforward\n\ncoming\n\nthe\n\nof\n\nMore detailed information on the trends in EUREKA and\nin the links between EUREKA and Community programmes\nCommunication\ncan\n\nCommission 's\n\nfound\n\nthe\n\nbe\n\nin\n\n84\n\n\fEUREKA is an important complement to the Community 's\n3. 30. improving the\nown activities in support of the objective of\nmastery of new technologies. The Commission plays a full role\ninside EUREKA on behalf of the Community in an effort to maximise\nthe synergy between the two groups of research activity. It has\nrecently outlined ways in which cooperation between the Community\nand EUREKA can be reinforced without prejudicing the operation of\nthe Community 's own R&D programmes themselves 27. 46\n\n( iii )\n\nPOLICY COORDINATION\n\n3. 31. The Community programmes ( currently about 1. 000 million\nECU a year ) are small compared with the R&D budgets of Member\nStates ( over 35. 000 MECU in 1986 ); and the total cost of projects\nsupported through the programmes is only equivalent to about 4%\nof total estimated public and private spending on civil research\n( about 50 milliard ECU per year ). Even if all the other European\ncollaborative actions are taken into account - EUREKA , COST , ESA ,\n- the bulk of research continues to be financed\nCERN , EMBL etc. and carried out at national level , a large share of it through\nthe national budgets discussed earlier. Given the pressures on\nresources and\nfragmentation and duplication of\neffort it has been recognised by European governments that better\ncoordination\nThat\npolicies\nrecognition is reflected in Article 130H of the Single European\nAct which promises better coordination. required. national\n\nrisks\n\nnow\n\nthe\n\nof\n\nof\n\nis\n\nto\n\ndate. There are a number of factors which have constrained\n3. 32. R&D\ncoordination\nThese\ncapacities among Member States ;\nthe different balance between\ncivil and military R&D ; different patterns of involvement by the\nhigher\npublic\neducation ;\npart\nspecific economic and social concerns ( eg. energy in Italy , the\nenvironment in Germany ). private\ndifferent\n\npriorities\n\nreflecting\n\ntraditions\n\ndifferent\n\nsectoral\n\nsectors ;\n\ndifferent\n\ninclude :\n\nand\n\nthe\n\nin\n\nin\n\nBroad policy coordination is at present limited to the exchange\nof better mutual information about programmes and policies under\nway and exchanges of views among scientific advisors and experts\nwhile\nof\nin\nspecific coordination efforts are reflected in the concerted\nactions in the fields of medical research and the environment\n\nprogrammes ;\n\nCommittees\n\nCommunity\n\nAdvisory\n\nthe\n\nCOM(88)291 final of 24 June 1988 , and in its report to\nthe Parliament of 18 July 1988. COM ( 88)291 final. 85\n\n\fand , together with other European countries , within the framework\nof COST. 47\n\nfor\n\nframework\n\n3. 33. The pressures of the Internal Market will militate in\nfurther policy coordination among Community Member\nfavour of\nStates through the need to develop common standards , the opening\nup of public procurement , the reguirements of competition policy. The\nby\nEUREKA will also push in the same direction : intergovernmental\ncoordinating committees already exist for some of the larger\nprojects and aim to provide a framework for dealing with the\nwhich\nproblems\na\nactions\nwill\nnecessary corollary to research cooperation. But the degree of\ncoordination is likely to remain patchy unless the commitment\nreflected\nis\nof\nvigorously pursued. intergovernmental\n\ncooperation\n\nGovernment\n\nconcerted\n\nprovided\n\nEuropean\n\nArticle\n\nSingle\n\n130H\n\nAct\n\nthe\n\nin\n\nof\n\nbe\n\nThe Commission attaches particular importance to the ongoing work\nwithin CREST designed to facilitate an in-depth exchange of\ninformation on\nto help identify\nduplications and overlaps. As noted earlier , it intends to focus\nparticular attention on this question in forthcoming reports on\nthe state of science and technology in Europe. national policies\n\nand thus\n\n86\n\n\f48\n\nA great deal has already been done , both at a national\nand a transnational level , to tackle Europe 's problems. The success of the Community 's RTD programmes , the\nrapid development of EUREKA , other bilateral and multi \u00ac\nlateral ventures inside Europe , have demonstrated that\nthere is a thirst for cooperation across national\nfrontiers and that it can be mounted successfully , des \u00ac\npite the barriers of cultural and linguistic\ndifferences. But policy coordination among the Member States of the\nCommunity is still weak and particular efforts are\nneeded to reduce the potential for duplication and overlap\nin national efforts. particular problems in this respect. Dual-use technologies pose\n\n87\n\n\fIV\n\nRESEARCH ISSUES FOR THE FUTURE\n\n49\n\n4. 1. Three main challenges face the Community :\n\n\"\nin the context of the completion of the Internal Market ;\n\nto improve its international competitiveness , notably\n\n*\nquality of life ; and\n\nto respond to the needs of society by improving the\n\nto increase its capacity to pursue its own scientific\n\u00b0\nand technological options where necessary , by reducing its\ndependence on others. By improving competitiveness\nThese three goals are interlinked. the Community will create the wealth which makes it easier to\ntackle issues of social concern. Technological independence , on\nthe other hand ,\nis linked to longer-term competitiveness , with\nfundamental research offering opportunities to increase the scope\nfor determining , rather than simply responding to economic change\nin an international context. The organisation of this chapter reflects these three\n4. 2. concerns by dealing , firstly , with the research requirements to\nimprove competitiveness ; secondly , with the areas where research\nhas a particularly important contribution to make in meeting\nEurope 's\nand thirdly , with the scientific and\ntechnological base of fundamental research , which provides the\nessential underpinning and the seedcorn for the longer-term. social needs ;\n\nwill\n\nmake\n\nwhich\n\nbetween\n\noverlaps\n\ninevitably ,\nthese\nThere\nare ,\nThe most obvious is in the case of the biological\ncategories. sciences\nsocial\ncontributions ( through their impact on industry and agriculture ,\non the one hand , and in the fields of health and environment , on\nof\nthe\nfundamental research is essential if major break-throughs are to\nbe achieved. The categories chosen , however , reflect the areas\nwhere the most significant contributions can be expected from\nindividual areas of research. significant\n\nquestions\n\neconomic\n\nprogress\n\nspecific\n\nother ),\n\nwhere\n\namong\n\nand\n\nand\n\nand\n\non\n\n4. 3. Under each heading the chapter considers the market\nsituation , the research needs and action underway in Europe ( in\nindustry , at Member State level and , where appropriate , within\nthe framework of the European Community ). More details on each\narea of research are given in the annexes , while the industrial\nand services markets are analysed separately in depth in the\n\" Panorama of EC Industry \" which is shortly to be published by the\nCommission. 88\n\n\f4. 4. This is a first analysis of the main research needs ,\nwhich the Commission intends to refine during the coming months. But it already reflects a wealth of inputs and advice from inside\nand outside the Community institutions ; the main contributions\nhave already been indicated in the Introduction to the report. It was not possible in such a short report to be exhaustive. The report concentrates on the areas where the needs are most\nclear. 50\n\nI\n\nIMPROVING COMPETITIVENESS\n\n4. 5. There is a broad consensus internationally on the areas\nof technology which are expected to be important for industry and\nthe services over the period to the end of the century :\n\nTable 4. 1. Emerging Technologies\n\nJapan\n\nUSA\n\nEC\n\nElectronics\n\nElectronics\n\nSoftware Engineering\nNew Materials\nBiotechnology\nBiomaterials\n\nAutomation\nComputing\nAdvanced Materials\nMedical Technology\nThin Layer Technology\n\nInformation\nTechnology\nNew Materials\nBiotechnology\nEnergy\n\nSources \u00cf\n\nof\n\nStatus\n\nAn\nEmerging\nThe\nEconomic / Technological Assessment to the year 2000. US\nDepartment of Commerce , June 1987\nTrends and Themes in industrial technologies , MITI,1988\nPanorama of EC Industry 1989 ( forthcoming publication\nby the EC Commission ). Technologies :\n\nAs\n\nunderlined\n\nof\n4. 6. for\ntechnologies are not independent of each other. example , which are developed from opto-electronics , are used for\ncutting and milling metals and plastics , composites and ceramics. On the other hand silicon and , for the future , superconductors\ncomponents\nimprovement\nare materials\n\ngroups\nLasers ,\n\nelectronic\n\non which\n\nChapter\n\nnew\n\nthe\n\nin\n\nin\n\nI ,\n\n89\n\n\fdepend , while superconductors may modify significantly the way\nenergy is transported and stored. Some of interrelationships are\nidentified by the concentric circles in Table 4. 2. Specific research : needs in Europe can , however , be identified in\nfive fields :\n\n51\n\n1. Europe\ndevelopments are occurring world-wide ;\n\nInformation Technology and Telecommunications ,\nwhere\n\nsubstantial\n\nprogress ,\n\nmade\n\nbut\n\nhas\n\nwhere\nrapid\n\n2. the success of manufacturing industry ;\n\nIndustrial Materials Technologies , which are vital to\n\n3. important competitive challenge ;\n\nAeronautics ,\n\nwhere\n\nEurope\n\nfaces\n\na\n\nparticularly\n\n\u00bb\n\nBiological sciences , which are the focus of attention\n4. radical\nworld-wide\nimprovements\nin agricultural and industrial production and\nmajor commercial opportunities , in addition to their impact\non medicine and the environment ;\n\nprospect\n\noffer\n\nwhich\n\nthe\n\nand\n\nof\n\nEnergy , where adeguate and secure supply at reasonable\n5. cost\nan\nessential prereguisite to the functioning of the European\neconomy. environmentally\n\nacceptable\n\nform\n\nand\n\nan\n\nin\n\nis\n\n1. INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY AND TELECOMMUNICATIONS\n\n( Annex 1 )\n\nThe Market Situation\n\nEurope 's weaknesses in this area , especially in the\n4. 7. information technology industry , attracted great concern at the\nThe European industry was characterised\nbeginning of the 1980s. low market shares , low R&D and low\nby a flagging IT market ,\nIT\ncapital\nproducts was negative , amounting to a deficit of 10. 6 milliard US\ndollars in 1984. the balance of\n\ninvestments. Moreover ,\n\ntrade in\n\nConcerted action was taken from 1984 onwards by the European\ncompanies to rectify the position. These actions encouraged a\nnew dynamism in the European industry and helped mobilise human ,\nfinancial and technological resources which were supported by\ncollaborative programmes such as ESPRIT. The fruits of these\ncombined efforts are just starting to appear :\n\nIn a world-wide market growing at more than 15% yearly , the\nsix main European companies have been growing at a 25% p. a. \u2013\n\nIn the European market , the largest European companies have\n\n90\n\n\fEmerging technologies with wide penetration effect\n\n/\n\nNc w in * t cr i 1 1 s !\nNew in \u2022 t criais \\\n\nItigli - temperature siipercontluclive inaterinls\n\n/Iti(>)'*1emper\u25a0Iure supcrcondiicli\u00abc m\u00abtcrini\u00bb\n\nNon * linear o |j I i cn I electronic n. Urrials\nNon - linc. r opt i cn I electronic m. leri. ls\n\n/\n\n/\n\nAdvanced composite materials with extended\nAdvinced composite miterlels with eatended\nenvironmental ~clurahlllty\nenvironmenl. il * dure hi Illy\n\n\\\n\n\\\n\n\\\n\n\\\n\n^\u2013\" ---\n\nNew 1 1 toys , metal chemicsl compniimls\n\n| New alloys, metal chemical compounds_j^\n\n/ Technologies related to both new\nTechnologies related to both new\nmaterials end electronics I\n/\nmntrrialf end clectronlct I\n/\n- \u2013 \u2013i\n/\n[\nTcrhunlngy lo conirol preeise arrangement I\nTci'hnnlngy lo control preciie errengement\na I nnn. ml molecules\n\u201ef\n/\nainms ami mnlccules\n\u25a0. \u2013 \u2013\n/\n- 1\n\u25a0\n>\nreaction process technology\n/\nOptical\n( echnology\nr\u00e9action proeesi\nOptiral\n/\n- -\n- -\nI Kitrrmi! environment simulation tsehnology |\n/\nl''ilremi! environment simulation technology\n'\n\u25a0 \u2013\n'\nI\n\n-\n\n-\n\n_\n\n_\n\n\"\n\n\u25a0\n\n\u25a0\n\n'\n\n1\n\n'. \\\n\n/. \u2013 --\n\nSoflwsre / Sys lemsll zstlnn\nSoft ware / Syatemall tell on\n*--\u2013\u25a0\u2013-. <lftt processing\nStructurin, of\nStructuring ot data processing\nmechanism in the autonomic nerve\nmechanism in the autonomic nerve\nsystem\nsystem\n--\nSoltwire \u00aboorilinilion develupment\nSoftware coordination development\nteclmolngy\ntechnology\n\n-\n\n\u2013\n\nBlomimetie materials\n\nTechnology releled lo both new\nTechnology reified lo both new\ntn. l bio - technology\nmfterii. ll\nmiterinlt end bio*t\u00abchnnlogy \\\n\u2013\nBlomlmetic molerials\nBiomechanical mat\u00e9riels\nBiomechanical material *\nZ\nDio'prncesf separation end purification\nBio-process separation and purification\ntechnology\ntechnology\n\n\\\n\\\n\\\n\u2013-- --\u2013- \\\n\\\n\\\n!\n\\\n\\\n1\n\n\\\ni\nI\n\nT. |\n\n!\n\ni\n\n|\n\nF. lectronies\n\nr. lectrnnies\nSupcrci. nduclive. le. ieei. Snpereomluelive devices\n^\"\"nll'm flinClioneI device!\nOnnnium funclionil devices\nI'nwcr electronics devices\nl' nwer elcr. lronics deviees\nNew npiirni\nNfw itpiiral\n\n_\nfunction devices\nftmciinn devices\n\n^\n\\\n\\\n\\\n\\\n\\\n\n|\n\nX I Mumes lechnoio,/_|\n\nlloinan technology\n\n/\n\nllinlechnology\n\n_ \u2013 I. I\n\nTechnology relfteil\nTechnology related to both electronics\n*nd bio*leehnology. snd bio-technology \\\n\nto bolls electronics\n\n-\n\nProtein handling ( arrangement ) technology\nProlein hamlling ( irrangement ) technology\nMemlirene utilisation technology\nMembrane utilisation technology\n\nCr\u00e9\u00e9. ion ni highly \u00ab fllelent enzyme. ml\nCreation nl highly ellidcnt enzyme ami\nhlnmaleriels\nAnimel end plsnt cell engineering\n\nAnimal and plsnt cell engineering\n\nNew genelie engineering\nNew genelic engineering\n; ~\u201c\nAdvanced eppllcatinn technology lor\nAdvanced explication technology lor\norganism re. etion systems\norganism reaction systems\n\n'\n\nj\n/\n/\n/\n/\n/\n\n\u25a0. \\. 'v\n\nJ\n<M\n\n0>\n\n-O\n\nK\n\nDevelopment o( an analysis snd\nin analysis snd\nDevelopment of\nsssetsmenl system for biotechnology\nassessment system lor biotechnology\n\n/\n\n/\n\nON\n\nt\n\nt\u2013t\nh-\nK\n\u00a3\n\n\u2022\n\n00\n00\nO'\n\nI\u2013\nod\n00\n\nc\no\n\nu\nto\na\nns\na. to\nv\n\n\u2022p. c\n3\n\nto\n\na*\nc\n(0\na\n<9\n\n\u00bb\u2022\nUJ\n<\u2022>\nOC\n3\nO\n00\n\n\fsignificantly increased\nclose to 50% from 33% in 1983. their market\n\nshare ,\n\nbringing\n\n52\n\nit\n\nIn software and services market , the European companies are\nholding\nthe\nstrong growth of the market demand. taking advantage of\n\nfavourable position ,\n\na\n\nEuropean IT companies are now investing in R&D a proportion\nof their sales that is very close to that of US companies. Nevertheless\nare\naccelerating. needs\n\nfield\n\nR&D\n\nthe\n\nthe\n\nfor\n\nin\n\nIT\n\n4. 8. Although the European Information Processing industry\nseems on the way to overcome some of its traditional weaknesses ,\nmajor problems still remain. These include :\n\nThe penetration of European Information Systems companies on\noverseas markets is still minimal ( 15 to 25% of sales ). On\nThe balance of trade in IT products has not improved. the contrary in 1986 the trade 'deficit increased to 13. 4\nbillion US dollars. The Electronic Components industry has not progressed in\nEurope at the same rate , making the Information Systems\nindustry and other user industries even more dependent on\nforeign\ncomponents\n( Table 4. 3. ). strategic\n\nsuppliers\n\n^critical\n\nand\n\nof\n\nThe situation is similarly critical in certain types of\ncomputer peripherals. These represent an ever-increasing\nshare of the value of Information Systems. A major weakness in Europe is the lack of trained personnel. Table 4. 3. Million ECU\n\nEUR - 12\nEUR - 12\n\nElectronic components - Main Trends\nElectronic components - Main Trends\n\n1980 - 1987\n1980 - 1987\n\nApparent\nConsumption\nNet Export\nEarnings\nTotal Production\n\n1980\n\n6,083\n\n+ 1,246\n\n7,329\n\n1985\n\n13,125\n\n+ 104\n\n13,229\n\n1986\n\n13,117\n\n+ 498\n\n1987\n\nn. a. n. a. 13,615\n\n14,060\n\nSource :\nNote :\nmore than 29 milliard ECU in 1986 , and Japan 23 milliard. Panorama of EC Industry 1989\nBy comparison , the USA has a components market worth\n\n92\n\n\fThe relative success in some areas\n\n4. 9. serves to highlight the remaining problems. also\npositions. to\nThis means :\n\nconsolidate the newly acquired\n\nrequired\n\nEuropean\n\nIT\nContinued action is\ncompetitive\n\nof\n\n-\n\nensuring the economic climate and boundary conditions which\nallow full exploitation of the potential demand. strengthening\nareas. European technological capabilities in key\n\n53\n\n4. 10. relatively\nfavourable situation of Europe , in industrial , technological and\ncommercial terms could be threatened by :\n\ntelecommunications\n\nsector\n\nthe\n\nthe\n\nIn\n\ncontinuing weaknesses\n\nthe\ncomponents ;\nnew technological and market challenges ( digitalisation of\nnetworks , ISDN and broadband networks );\n\nelectronic\n\nfield of\n\nthe\n\nin\n\nthe spiralling costs of R&D in telecommunications ;\n\nthe effects of rapid changes in the regulatory environment\nworld-wide. Substantial\nreinforce\ntelecommunications operators. present\n\nefforts\n\nthe\n\nare\n\ntherefore\nposition\n\nneeded\n\nto\n\nsecure\n\nand\n\nof\n\nEuropean\n\nindustry\n\nto\nand\n\nResearch needs : Information Technology\n\nhighly\n\nrequires\n\n4. 11. Further advances in the field of electronic components\nwill lead , for example , to an increase of the capacity of memory\nchips beyond the present state of the art ( 1Mbit ). Progress\n64 Mbit chips make it necessary to\ntowards the objective of\ndesign circuitry for feature sizes below the level of 0. 5 micron. This\nproduction\nsophisticated\ntechniques. The new technological approach , combined with the\ncurrently stronger industrial and technological position of the\nshould provide opportunities\nEuropean semiconductor companies ,\nfor Europe to come back into the race. A significant cross -\nborder collaborative effort in Europe is proposed under the Joint\nEuropean Submicron Silicon project ( JESSI ), which aims to develop\nthe design and manufacturing techniques needed for Europe to\nchange its competitive position vis - & -vis the USA and Japan. This project will need appropriate support from companies and\npublic authorities. design\n\nand\n\n93\n\n\f4. 12. At the same time progress needs to be made in software\nand advanced information processing , given the growing demand for\n( rather\nincreased capabilities for computing ,\nthan data -) processing , and for enhanced user friendliness. for knowledge -\n\n54\n\nKey issues in this context are : operating systems ; management\nsystems for data base ; parallel architectures which can provide\npowerful\ngood\ncapabilities in this field ); RISC architectures , especially for\nmicroprocessors. capabilities\n\ncomputing\n\n( Europe\n\nvery\n\nhas\n\ngood\n\ntechnical\n\ntraditionally\n\nthe\nThe\nsoftware area is being reinforced by the advances made through\nsome major cooperative projects developed in\nFurther\nefforts are nevertheless required if Europe wants to stay in the\nlong term\nrace :\nprojects such as TRON , SIGMA , 5th Generation. ) are making major\nefforts in this field. ( especially through ambitious\n\nUSA and Japan\n\nposition of\n\nESPRIT. Europe\n\nin\n\nPeripherals will become increasingly important with the\n4. 13. development towards integrated systems. Research work on flat\npanel displays and optical storage technologies is progressing\nfast ; but Europe 's situation is rather weak and requires early\nattention. At the\n\nsame time as\n\n4. 14. this applied research effort ,\nhowever , the fast-developing IT industry is demonstrating a need\nfor more fundamental research in computer services\n( to solve\nin programming\nproblems of reliability ,\nlanguages appropriate to the expanding hardware facilities ; in\nautonomous\nsuch as\nmachine-learning ;\nmobile\nthe\nengineering ,\nanalysis and better design of human - computer-work interactions. safety and security ) ;\n\nthe design of\n\nspecifically\n\ncognitive\n\nin areas\n\nrobots ,\n\nand\n\nthere\n\nFinally ,\n\nmajor\nof\n4. 15. are\nprenormative research , because\nof the increasing importance of\nstandards ( and of their early definition of standards ) in the\ncontext of evolution towards the integration of complex systems\n( intelligent\ndesigned\nof\nbanking and financial services ;\nmultimedia\nsystems ;\ntransportation\nsystems ; home automation. ). new applications\nadvanced robotics ;\n\nbioinformatics ;\n\nintelligent\n\na wide\n\nneeds\n\nrange\n\nfield\n\ncar\n\nand\n\nthe\n\nfor\n\nin\n\nResearch Needs :\n\nT\u00e9l\u00e9communication Technologies\n\nThe key issues in telecommunications are essentially\n4. 16. related to the establishment of broadband networks , equipment and\nservices , which are expected to happen from the mid-1990s onwards\nwill\n( the\nuse\nISDN\nbasically\ntechnologies\nstandardisation work ). narrow-band\nalready\n\navailable ,\n\nrequires\n\nnetwork ,\n\npresent\n\nwhich\n\n94\n\n\f55\n\ntechnological\n\nMost\ndemand pull ,\ncommunication systems :\n\nby\nlinked to each major component of the broadband\n\ndevelopments\n\ntherefore\n\ngenerated\n\nare\n\na )\ntimes more important than today. broadband infrastructures will carry information flows 1000\n\nThis will require enhanced systems of network management using\nthe resources of advanced information processing and of data base\nmanagement systems. The USA are presently ahead in these areas. broadband\n\nb )\nthree\ntechnological stages allowing each time considerable gains of\nspeed ,\ncost\neffectiveness. These three stages will use :\n\ntransmitted\n\nequipment\n\naccording\n\nreceived\n\ndevelop\n\nvolume\n\nwill\n\nand\n\nand\n\nto\n\nof\n\nof\n\nVLSI electronic components for switching ; coding / decoding ;\nnetwork management. design\n\nof\nThe\nadvances to be made in the field of software. is still behind US and Japan ;\n\ncomponents\n\nthese\n\nuse\n\nand\n\nrequire\n\nstrong\nHere Europe\n\noptoelectronic\nquicker interfaces with fibreoptics transmission ;\n\ncomponents\n\nwhich\n\nallow\n\nwill\n\nbetter\n\nand\n\nmaterials\n\n( operational\n\ncommunication\nnew\n\nwhich\noptical\nimplies :\ncomponent\nmanufacturing technologies ; new software tools in order to\nflows\nconsiderable\ncontrol\ninformation\ntransmitted\n( coherent multichannel\nspeed\ntechniques allowing multiplexing of optical channels on one\nfibre by frequency allocation ). manage\nvery\n\ncomponents ;\n\nafter\n\n2000 )\n\nhigh\n\nnew\n\nand\n\nfor\n\nof\n\nat\n\nc )\n\nbroadband services. Their implementation requires substantial activity in :\n\nengineering\n\nprocessing ),\n\nservice\nof\ntechniques ,\nstandardisation , software , expert systems , data libraries ,\nimage\noperational\nimages and voice through\nservices able to combine data ,\nmerging of data processing and telecommunications. The 3\nmain regions of the world seem to be at the same stage in\nthis field ;\n\nestablish\n\n( covering\n\nissues\n\norder\n\nto\n\nin\n\nappropriate exploitation of technologies through increased\nactivity test beds , language customisation of hardware and\nsoftware , permanent feedback with the users of new services ,\nfor\nin order to provide\n( by\nbusiness\nspecialised\ncombination of PCs , TVs , hifi. ). advanced / intelligent terminals\nuse\nuse\n\ndomestic\n\nand\n\nfor\n\n95\n\n\fResearch Needs : Application Technologies\n\n56\n\nconvergence\n\ninformation\nThe\n4. 17. technologies ,\ntelecommunications and audio-visual services has\ncreated conditions favourable to the intensive exploitation of\nthe basic technologies , adapting them to the specific needs and\nconstraints of different categories of users ( the business world ,\npublic administration , social services , individuals ) in order to\nmeet social and economic needs. maturing\n\nand\n\nof\n\n4. 18. The fields of potential application are very numerous :\nhealth , transport , agriculture , public administration , education\nAnd the spread of technologies to be used and\nand training. integrated in this respect is broad :\npersonal computers , optical\ndiscs , microprocessor cards , new medical and educational imaging\ntechniques , computer languages close to ordinary human language ,\nexpert systems , mobile telephones , integrated digital services ,\nbroad band networks , high definition television , direct satellite\ntransmission , etc. of\nand\n\ntechnologies\noptimise\nto\n\nThe problem is to combine and integrate as far as possible the\nunder\nbroad\nrange\ndevelopment ;\nin\nterms , while avoiding the\ntechnological ,\nsystems\nrisks caused by the present proliferation of independent\nexclusively\nwhich\nnational\nrequires\nAvoidance\ncooperative and concerted actions at a European level among all\nthe actors concerned. conceived\nperspectives. economic and social\n\nalready\ntheir\n\nperformance\n\nparticular ,\n\navailable\n\noverall\n\nrisks\n\noften\n\nsuch\n\nfrom\n\nare\n\nand\n\nor\n\nof\n\ninformation\n\n4. 19. In Europe there is a particular need to make use of the\nopportunities offered by information technology to facilitate the\nflow of\nis\nand\nparticularly\ndistribution industries , which currently represent 59% of GDP and\nIt will be of increasing relevance\n60% of employment in Europe. in the context of the completion of the Internal Market. The\ncurrent EUROTRA programme at Community level , which began in\n1982 , has already produced a sound basis for the creation of a\nEuropean language industry. But new efforts are needed to :\n\nlinguistic boundaries. across\nto\n\nCommunity 's\n\nimportant\n\nservice\n\nThis\n\nthe\n\n( a )\nwork\nand\nindustry ;\n\nencourage industrial participation in the development\nand\n\nuniversities\n\nknowledge\n\ntransfer\n\nbetween\n\nthe\nvoice\n\nresults\nand\n\nartificial\n( b )\nexploit\nexpert\nintelligence ,\nThe\nsystems developed under programmes such as ESPRIT. transformation\ninto\nresearch\nindustrial applications will lead to increased outlets and\nlanguage\ndemand\nprocessing technology such as text processors , hyphenation ,\n\non\nrecognition\n\npre-competitive\n\nof\npattern\n\n\" monolingual \"\n\nnormally\n\nresearch\n\nongoing\n\nnatural\n\nand\n\nfor\n\nof\n\n96\n\n\fgrammar and spelling checkers , optical readers and the like ,\nthe\nimpetus\nthus\ninformation technology industry. providing\n\nfurther\n\ngrowth\n\nthe\n\nfor\n\nof\n\n57\n\nEuropean Action in IT and T\u00e9l\u00e9communications\n\nin\n\nwill\n\nthese\n\nfields\n\nAssuring the necessary and most effective efforts on\n4. 20. further encouragement and\nR&D\nAction is already under way in\ncoordination at European level. And\nsome areas. in\nabove ,\nthe\ndiscussions are in progress between European manufacturers to\nJESSI\nframework\nestablish\nproject ); the Community will have a role to play as catalyst. The second phase of ESPRIT is now in operation. appropriate\n\ntechnology ,\n\nsub-micron\n\nresearch\n\nrequire\n\nnoted\n\nfield\n\n( the\n\nfor\n\nan\n\nas\n\nof\n\nof\n\nWithin EUREKA , information technology projects represent a major\nto\nshare\ncapitalise on the successful experience of European collaboration\nin\nto ensure the best\npossible coordination between projects and programmes. technology field\n\ninformation\n\nportfolio. important\n\nproject\n\nwill\n\nthe\n\nand\n\nthe\n\nbe\n\nIt\n\nAs\n\nfar as more basic research on\n\nis concerned ,\n4. 21. Europe is in a different position from its competitors. In the\nUS and particularly Japan , such research is largely the preserve\nof industry ; while in Europe industry has been more short - or\nThis is an area where action at a European\nmedium-term oriented. level can be of immense value in encouraging the necessary work\nto be carried out in a cooperative framework and in helping to\ncommit industrial finance to the projects. IT\n\n2. INDUSTRIAL MATERIALS AND TECHNOLOGIES\n\n( Annex 2 )\n\nThe Market Situation\n\nIndustrial\n\n4. 22. design ,\nengineering , manufacture and operation of products and processes. They are inseparable from the materials which must be developed ,\nprocessed and finished to meet the designer 's intentions. technologies\n\nsupport\n\nthe\n\n4. 23. materials is manufacturing industry ,\nabout\nindustrial work force of some 41 million people. The primary customer for industrial technologies and\nwhich currently provides\nand 75% of the\nThe Community\n\n30% of GNP in the European Community ,\n\n97\n\n\fbalance of external trade in manufactured goods - + 15% in 1987 -\nis positive. 58\n\nTable 4. 4. EC Trade Balance in Manufactured Goods\n\nMilliard ECUs\n\nImports\n\nExports\n\nBalance\n\n1981 ( EC 10 )\n\n1987 ( EC 12 )\n\n171\n\n252\n\nSource :\n\nEUR0STAT\n\n236\n\n289\n\n+ 65\n\n+ 37\n\nis\n\nthe\n\nmost\n\nthe\nindustry\n\nindustry\nin\n\nMoreover , some of the traditional sectors of manufacturing have\nthe\ninvested heavily in new technology in the past few years :\ntextile\ngreat\nconfidence\ncomputer -\nthat\nintegrated manufacturing is likely to reinforce its position on\nworld markets\n( the EC accounts for 55% of world production ). Despite the improving position in many areas , however , Western\nEurope suffers from structural weaknesses , namely an inadeguate\ncapacity to\nthe more\n-particularly those where the economies of\ndeveloped markets\nmachinery ,\nare\nscale\ninstrument manufacturing , paper and printing. growing demand\n\nrespond to\n\nequipment ,\n\ntransport\n\nthe move\n\nlargest ,\n\nexample ,\n\ntelling\n\ntowards\n\nwith\n\nsuch\n\nsome\n\nas\n\nin\n\nof\n\nmeans\n\nof\nand\n\nmanufacture. flexibility\n\nSuccessful manufacturers are seeking increasingly to\n4. 24. capture the top end of the market by new and improved products ,\nusually with a higher technology content in the product itself or\nincreased\nin\nits\nproductivity\nthe\n\" mature \" industries ( such as textiles , clothing , motor vehicles\nand food as well as textiles ). Improving the situation depends\nheavily on the further diffusion and application of available\ntechnologies by these industries. It also depends , however , on\nadvances in the technologies themselves and in exploiting the\nProgress in R&D is therefore\npossibilities that they offer. fundamental to long-term success. Here Europe is hampered by the\nlow level of industrial RS. D compared with that of the US and\nJapan (a point underlined in Chapter II and III ). potential\nparticularly\n\nfor\ngreat\n\nThe\n\nin\n\nis\n\n98\n\n\fResearch Needs\n\n4. 25. are :\n\nParticular areas that require renewed research efforts\n\n59\n\nand\n\nquality\n\nrel iability. the development of technologies to improve product and\n*\nprocess\nEnsuring quality and\nreliability can typically cost 5-25% of company turnover ,\nand for one Member State has been estimated to cost the\nSignificant improvements are\nequivalent of\npossible\nengineering ,\nR&D\nsensors , power control engineering and through the use of\nmodelling in areas such as the filling of complex injection\nmoulds ,\nof\nin\nsensors\ncomposite\nmaterials ;\n\natomisers ,\nthe\n\nof GNP. successful\n\nparticle\nfor\n\nmonitoring ,\n\npositioning\n\non optical\n\nformation\n\nthrough\n\ndesign\n\n10%\n\nor\n\nof\n\ntechniques for shaping ,\n\njoining and assembly , and for\n\u00b0\nsurface treatment. The prevention of corrosion , which is\nestimated to cost 4% of GNP in industrialised countries ,\nmakes\nreal\nprogress\neconomic significance ;\n\nin surface treatment potentially of\n\ncatalysts and membranes. lead ,\ncatalysis\n\nProgress in the understanding\n\u2019\ncleaner\nin\nof\nworld\nproduction\nmarket for membranes ( currently estimated at 400MECU / year )\nis\nlikely to grow significantly as new applications are\nidentified ;\n\nspecificity ;\n\nparticular ,\n\nthrough\n\nhigher\n\ncould\n\nwhile\n\nthe\n\nto\n\nis\n\nThis\n\npowder technology. large and high-value\n*\nmarket ( about 2 milliard ECU / year in USA , half as big in\nWhile steel , semi-finished powder and\nEurope and Japan ). be valued at between 20-50\nmetallurgical components\nECU / kilo. ECU / kilo ,\nInternational competition is particularly strong , driven in\npart\nvacuum\ntechnology , from the space programmes ;\n\nceramic powder parts\n\nby the requirements\n\nand spin-cffs ,\n\ncan cost\n\nsuch as\n\n2. 000\n\ncan\n\na\n\nother\n\nhigh-value\n\nmatrix\n*\nmaterials ,\ncomposites ( already being developed for ceramic - reinforced\nlight alloy pistons ) and anisotropic materials using various\nstrengthening\nfibre\nsuch\nreinforcement ;\n\ntechniques\n\nparticles\n\nmetal\n\nsuch\n\nor\n\nas\n\nas\n\n*\n\nsuperconducting materials. communication\n\ninformation\nof\n\nand\nsuperconducting\n\nfurther\nIn\nlead\nto\ndevelopment\nas well\nqualitative breakthroughs ( by minimising heating ),\nas progress in technologies based on magnetism\n( eg. fast\nswitching devices , nuclear magnetic resonance for medical\nAnd if economic\ndiagnosis ,\n\ncontrolled nuclear fusion ). technology the\n\nmaterials\n\ncould\n\n99\n\n\f60\n\ndevices carrying high current densities could be built , long\ndistance\nmagnetic\ndistribution\nsuperfast trains would acguire a more practical dimension. electricity\n\nnetworks\n\nand\n\nSome very fundamental aspects of\nsuperconductivity , however , are\nnot yet understood and the prospects for development of high\nIn Japan around\ncurrent density devices are still uncertain. one-third\nof the research effort is devoted to work on these\nissues. In Europe , where some of the seminal discoveries were first made ,\nreactions to the explosion of interest in the field was rapid\n( the EC Commission convened the first group of interested experts\nin June 1987 ). But in terms of resources made available the\nEuropean response was much weaker than in the USA and Japan. to\nIn\norder\nresources\nmade\nEuropean action is needed. available\n\nmatch\n\nthe\n\nfinancial ,\n\ntechnological\n\nby\n\ncompetitors ,\n\nand\nsystematic\n\nhuman\njoint\n\nIn addition to research on technologies and materials\n4. 26. themselves there is a growing need , in the context of the 199 2\nmarket , to ensure that there is an adequate research base for the\nand\ndevelopment\nof\nin\nmaterials ,\nindustrial\nrespect of lasers , membranes , new materials in general , fracture\nconstruction materials and production technologies. mechanics ,\nThis\nand\ntelecommunications standards referred to earlier. of\ntechnologies\n\nfield\nnotably\n\npreparatory\n\nnorms\nand\n\nstandards\n\nincluding\n\naddition\n\ncommon\n\nwork\n\nthe\n\nthe\n\non\n\nin\n\nto\n\nin\n\nIT\n\nis\n\nEuropean Action\n\nIt\n\nis\n\nin\n\nto\n\nrole\n\nplay\n\nright\n\nitself\n\nshould\n\nindustry\n\nCommunity\n\nimportant\n\nproviding\n\nThe very high\n\ncost-sharing\nrate\n\n4. 27. be\nthat\nencouraged to invest more in the R&D that is required in the\nNational authorities clearly have an\nareas outlined above. framework\nthe\nimportant\nof\nalso\nprogrammes\nconditions. significance. the\nto\nof\n( on average there are 5 times more good\nCommunity programmes\nconditions )\nbe\ncan\nproposals\nindicates that European industrialists increasingly recognise the\nneed for R&D and are ready to participate and contribute with\ncompany funds to at least half the cost of Community-managed pre -\ncompetitive R&D on industrial technologies and materials. A new\nprogramme of Community support for industrial technologies and\nmaterials has recently been proposed to the Council , which aims\nto provide a European dimension and to act as a catalyst to the\nresearch discussed above. a specific effort\nwithin Europe is needed on superconducting materials. funded under the present\n\nAs noted above ,\n\nsubscription\n\nthan\n\nare\n\n100\n\n\f61\n\nProviding\n\n4. 28. by\nstimulating\nindustry is not , however , of itself sufficient to maximise the\nTwo other things are also required , which would\nbenefits of R&D. benefit from a European dimension :\n\ncommitment\n\nfinancial\n\nand\n\naction needs to be taken to improve the availability of\n*\nskilled research managers in industry. It could be useful\nto examine further what action in the field of training\nmight be appropriate at a European level , whether inside or\noutside the Community framework ;\n\nas\n\nof\n\nto\n\nbe\n\ntop\n\nwell\n\nought\n\nindustry\n\nmanagement\n\nresearch\n*\nmanagers , must be more directly involved in R&D projects ,\nwhich\ncorporate\nThe independent panel which recently evaluated\nstrategies. programme\nin\nthe\nBRITE\nown\nprojects\nof\nrespect\nprogrammes. The positive results of such involvement have\nalready been witnessed in the case of the ESPRIT programme\nand in the preparation of the Commission 's proposal in the\naeronautics field. recommendation\nCommunity 's\n\nhas\nfinanced\n\nintegrated\n\nsuch\nunder\n\nclosely\n\na\nthe\n\nmade\n\nin\n\nas\n\n3. AERONAUTICS\n\n( Annex 3 )\n\nThe Market Situation\n\nthe\n\nthe\n\nperiod\n\nDuring\n\n1980-86\n\n4. 29. aeronautics\nindustry captured 23% of the civil and 27% of the military world\nmarket. The world market is expected to expand substantially up\nto the end of the century and increasing competition to capture\nit must be expected , not only from the USA but also from Japan\nand industrialising countries such as Korea and Brazil. The US\nindustry remains in a particularly favourable position , however ,\nbecause it enjoys a large home market and it benefits from the\nspin-off from military R&D programmes. European\n\nThe Challenge for Research\n\n4. 30. The aeronautical industry depends heavily on advanced\ntechnology to ensure competitiveness , incorporating progress in\nadvanced\naeronautics ,\nand\ndesign\nmaterials ,\nimplementation of new manufacturing methods. The development of\nthese technologies requires a long-term strategic approach , while\ntheir application necessitates a broad industrial base. structure\nas\n\ncomplex\nas\n\nelectronics ,\n\ndesign\n\nof\netc\n\nwell\n\nand\n\nthe\n\nthe\n\n101\n\n\fMECU\n\nSCENARIO OF FUTURE EUROPEAN AIRCRAFT\nRESEARCH & TECHNOLOGY NEEDS\n\n1000_rl~\u2013:-----\n1000-. AERODYNAMICS\n\n100 %\n\nH\n\u00d9)\nO\"\n\n\u00ab\n\nAIRCRAFT CATEGORY\nBREAKDOWN IN YEAR\n\n2010\n\n_-\n\nSTRUCTURES &\nMATERIALS\n\n/\n\nAIRBORNE SYSTEMS\nEOUIPMENT &\nCOMPUTATION\n\nPROPULSION INTEGRATION\n& ACOUSTICS\n\nDESIGN &\nMANUFACTURING\nTECHNOLOGY\n\nOPERATlONAL SYSTEMS\n\nI\n05\n\n20\u042e\n\nI \u2013 -1-1-1\n85\n\n1990\n\n95\n\n2000\n\nCOMMERCIAL\n\nTRANSPORT\n\nCOMMUTER\n\nGENERAL AVIATION\n\nVSTOL\n\nHIGH SPEED\n\nTRANSPORT \u2022\n\nMILITARY\n\n80\n\n60\n\n40\n\n20\n\n0\n\n1988\n\n\u2022 ASSUME 50 % OF SST. 25% OF HST\n\n( Source\n\n:\n\nEUROMART Study )\n\n800 _\n\n600 _\n\n1980\n\nO\nro\n\n\fEuropean Action\n\n62\n\na\n\nThis\n\nwould\n\nlevel. competitive\n\nIf Europe is to be able to meet the challenge in an\n4. 31. increasingly\nbroadly-based\nenvironment\ntransnational collaborative effort in R&D is now reguired ( Table\nThe Commission has recently proposed a pilot programme at\n4. 5. ). European\nfor\nfoundation\nprovide\nand\ncooperation between the European aeronautical industries ,\nbetween them , universities , national research centres and SMEs. It would also enable specific urgent research projects to be\nThe scope of the programme is discussed\ntackled right away. The main technology areas identified for\nfurther in the annex. mechanics ,\nthe\npilot\nmaterials ,\nand\ncomputation ,\nequipment , propulsion integration and design and manufacturing\nSpecial attention will be paid to\ntechnologies ( Table 4. 5. ). safety and environmental aspects , as well as common norms and\nstandards. phase\nare :\nacoustics ,\n\nand\nairborne\n\naerodynamics\n\nsystems\n\nflight\n\nfirm\n\na\n\n4. LIFE SCIENCES AND TECHNOLOGIES\n\n( Annex 4 )\n\nof\n\nthe\n\nand\n\nfrom\n\nbrain ,\n\nmedical\n\nchemistry\n\nimprovements\n\nagricultural\n\nDevelopments in the life-sciences open up possibilities\n4. 32. that straddle the concerns of economic success and social need ;\nand\nranging\nindustrial\nin\nto progress in\nproductivity that are environmentally \" clean \";\nimproved\npharmaceuticals ,\nfor\njust\nunderstanding\nmedical science but for the design of computers ; to new knowledge\nTheir major economic\nabout the mechanism of evolution itself. contribution\nand\nprocesses\nshorten\nincrease efficiency in the pharmaceuticals industry ; to speed up\nthe development of new strains of plants ( it took 50 years from\n1930-1980 to increase the yield of corn by 70% through a long\nprocess of genetic selection ; the same improvement could now be\nobtained in a few years or less ); and to develop and produce\nproducts in new ways ( computers built with biological components\nmay be able to deliver vastly higher performances than current\ntechnology allows ). implications\n\nproduction\n\nscience ;\n\nto\nnot\n\ncould\n\nwith\n\nbe\n\nto\n\nthe issues\n\nfor research discussed below are\nFor convenience ,\ntreated predominantly in the context of Europe 's economic needs ,\nwith medical research alone dealt with separately in the context\nof the needs of European society. But it should be remembered ,\nfor example , that genome analysis , which is discussed below , will\nbe of major significance in the context of medical diagnosis and\ntherapy as well as\nwhile\ncertain aspects of medical research ( medical instrumentation ) are\nof relevance in the context of competitiveness and technological\nindependence. in bio-industries\n\nand agriculture ;\n\n103\n\n\fThe Market Prospects\n\n63\n\nof\n\nrapid\n\ngrowth\n\nwidespread\n\nexpectation\n\nIn both the USA and Japan biology and its applications\n4. 33. have been identified as fields of major potential significance to\nindustry over the period to the end of the century ; and there is\na\nof\na\napplication technologies ( cf Chapter I ), although determination\nof future market size and timing is particularly difficult. A\ncooperative analysis of 11 market forecasts to 2000 undertaken in\n1984 showed a range of between 9 milliard dollars for the least\nmost\noptimistic\nthe\noptimistic^\u00ae. that\nmeantime ,\nis\nand\npharmaceuticals ,\nthe\nagriculture\ngreatest market opportunities. One reason for the difficulty is\nthe pervasive nature of the potential application of biological\nresearch ; another is the speed of change in this field , which has\nbeen made possible by the development of instrumentation based on\nadvanced physics , chemistry , informatics and mathematics. a\nfood-processing\n\nuncertainties\nthere\n\nover\nThe\nalthough\n\nfor\nchanged\nconsensus\n\ndollars\nnot\nbroad\n\nworld-wide\n\nmilliard\n\nhave\n\noffer\n\nand\n\nthe\n\n100\n\nin\n\nResearch Needs\n\nhas\n\nmany\n\nEurope\n\npioneered\n\nimportant\nmost\n4. 34. developments in the life sciences ,\nfrom the discovery of the\n\" double helix \" to monoclonal antibodies and receptor-targetted\nphysical\nbiological\npharmacology ;\nthree\ncrystallographic\nspectroscopy\ndimensional structure of nucleic acids and proteins including ,\nquite\nthe\nregulation of gene expression to genome structure and predictive\nmedicine. application\nstudy\n\nassociated\n\nmembranes ;\n\nrecently ,\n\nthose\n\nwith\n\nfrom\n\nfrom\n\nthe\n\nthe\n\nthe\n\nto\n\nof\n\nof\n\nof\n\nIn spite of its many achievements , however , Europe is inferior to\nAmerica in breadth and depth of coverage and in the capacity to\nexpand rapidly in new fields and to exploit the results\nin\nindustry. 4. 35. In several areas of biology , Europeans have found it\nuseful to complement existing collaboration with the rest of the\nworld ( and especially with the USA ) by improved collaboration\namong themselves. The European Molecular Biology Organisation\nand the European Molecular Biology Laboratory , as well as the\nBasel\nsignificant\nexamples. particularly\n\nImmunology\n\nInstitute\n\nare\n\nof\n\nTechnology\n\nHigh\nOutlooks\nBiotechnology , US Department of Commerce , International\nTrade Administration , Washington DC 1984. Industries ,\n\nProfit\n\nand\n\n104\n\n\f4. 36. Taking into account the ongoing and planned activities\nof these organisations and suggestions made by the authorities of\nsome Member States and by university and industry researchers ,\n4\nareas of research merit particular attention in Europe :\n\n64\n\n-\n-\n\n-\n-\n\nbasic plant biology\nthe molecular investigation of the genomes of complex\norganisms\nneuroscience , and\nbiotechnology\ntechnology development. agro-industrial\n\nresearch\n\nbased\n\nand\n\nBasic plant biology\n\nThe\n\nnew\n\nwith\n\ntools\n\nprogress\n\n4. 37. modern\nassociated\ngenetics and biotechnology now make possible a diversity of\npotential applications for the improvement of crop sciences , for\nenvironmentally safe land use and disease control methods. But\nit has become apparent world-wide that the bottleneck to progress\nlies less in the absence of adequate application technologies ,\nkey\nour\nand more\nunderstanding of\nEuropean biotechnology\nstructures and functions within plants. has now reached a stage where the ability\nto manipulate plant\ngenes , largely established by pioneering laboratories in several\nMember States , has outstripped the knowledge of many underlying\nbiological functions and metabolic properties. basic\n\nlarge\n\ngaps\n\nin\n\nin\n\nin\n\nto\n\nfor\n\n5-10\n\nyears\n\nvalue ,\n\nexample ,\n\nidentify ,\n\nnutritional\n\nthe\n- those associated with\ntexture. In order to make significant advances in biotechnology ,\n4. 38. it is therefore essential to go back to the investigation of\nplant physiology , using all the new tools developed for molecular\nIf major efforts are made , it may be possible\ninvestigation. \" quality \"\nwithin\ninnocuity ,\nmolecules of many plants\nflavour ,\nbe\ncan\nand\nidentified , their synthesis controlled , the \" quality \" molecules\nwould\nproduction ,\nproviding the basis for a better balance between high quality and\nlow quality crops. At the same time it will be easier to\nestablish a better balance between \" bio-natural \" and chemical\npractices in agriculture , enabling increased production to be\nbased' on biological supply of chemical fertilizers and pestides. Finally ,\nbiology would enable\ncloser monitoring of the interactions of crop plants with other\nspecies , which would permit better ecological monitoring of land\nuse. better understanding of\n\nagricultural\n\ndifference\n\nbasic\n\nmake\n\nthey\n\nreal\n\nto\n\nIf\n\na\n\nThis work is of particular importance in a global context. In\norder to feed a world population , which could be as high as\n10. 000 million in 50-60 years time , without at the same time\n\n105\n\n\fincreasing the greenhouse effect , new methods of food production\nEfforts must be stepped up now to provide a\nwill be needed. solution to the problems that will face Europe and the rest of\nthe world in the longer-term future. 65\n\nA major effort in this field would be at the crossroads\n4. 39. between molecular biology ,\na\nmultidisciplinary approach requires elaborate integration of work\nprogrammes which could be achieved at the desired level\nof\nexcellence only through coordinated transnational action. physiology and genetics. Such\n\nGenome Analysis\n\n10\n\nas\n\nto\n\nin\n\nof\n\nthe\n\nwhat\n\nEach\n\ncells\n\ntrillion\n\ncorresponds\n\nthe human body\n4. 40. The sum total of these\ncontains about 100. 000 individual genes. genome. human\nknown\nis\ngenes\nKnowledge of the human genome is as necessary to the continuing\nprocess of medicine as knowledge of human anatomy has been for\nThe major diseases which affect\nthe present state of medicine. and many diseases\nhuman beings all have genetic components ;\nUnderstanding\nresult\nthe\nrapid\nidentification of these disorders and an accurate detection of\nhereditary predispositions. In the field of agriculture and\nindustry the molecular investigation_of important microbial plant\narid animal species is an essential complement to the work needed\non basic plant biology discussed above. directly from one or more defective genes. a\n\nsequence\n\nentire\n\ngenome\n\nallow\n\nwould\n\nmore\n\nthe. The necessary research work is complex. 4. 41. It consists of\nseveral phases , involving respectively the detailed and physical\nmapping of genomes , 'the development of automated techniques for\nlarge-scale cloning and sequencing , and finally , the sequencing\nitself. importance\n\nrecognised\nhas\nThe\n4. 42. outside the Community. In Japan a major effort is being made on\nthe automation of mapping and sequencing techniques ; while the\nUSA are setting aside $3. 5bn for work on the human genome during\nthe next 10 years. field\n\nbeen\n\nthis\n\nof\n\n4. 43. Europe has many of the skills and resources to make a\nmajor contribution to the international efforts on complex genome\nAlready some actions are under way at a national level\nanalysis. However , even the largest European\n( France , UK , Germany , Italy ). country cannot work on its own in this costly endeavour. The\nCommunity as such already has experience in the field of genome\n\n106\n\n\f( the\n\nprogramme has\n\nCommunity BAP\n\n24\nanalysis\nOther\nlaboratories in the sequencing of one yeast chromosome ). discrete steps have been taken using existing programmes or new\nproposals\norganise\ntransnational research on small-scale sequencing projects ; and\nMedicine\nnew\ninitiative. Given the cost and complexity of genome analysis ,\nfurther work in Europe requires transnational effort. Programme ,\n\nFramework\n\ninvolved\n\nPredictive\n\nefforts\n\nunder\n\nsome\n\nunder\n\nwill\n\nmade\n\nthe\n\nthe\n\nto\n\nbe\n\n\u0431\u0431\n\nNeurosciences\n\nfew\n\nThe\n\nhave\nin\n4. 44. decades\npast\nIn the past many disciplines\nknowledge of the nervous system. such\nmolecular\nphysics ,\nbiology studied the nervous system in isolation from each other. But neuroscience today is an alliance of disciplines applied to\nthis most complex branch of the life sciences. chemistry ,\n\nexplosion\n\nseen \u25a0 an\n\nscience ,\n\nmedical\n\nand\n\nas\n\nEven\n\nwith\n\n4. 45. information\nalready accumulated on what the brain is made of , what it looks\nlike and how its elements behave , the really big questions about ,\nfor example , how man remembers , feels and carries out voluntary\nmovements , remain unanswered. considerable\n\namount\n\nthe\n\nof\n\npsychiatry\n\nincreasingly interesting also\n\nThe applications of knowledge in this field go beyond\n4. 46. The\npsychology ,\npharmacology ,\nof\nneurosciences\nare\nThe brain has capacities for\ninformation theory and technology. plasticity ,\nstorage\ninformation\nlearning and creative association which cannot be\nadaptivity ,\nmatched\npresent. computers\nMathematicians , physicists and biologists hope to build computer\nmodels that go much further than today in mimicking some of the\nskills of real brains. processing ,\n\navailable\n\nincluding\n\nmedicine. terms\n\nbest\n\nand\n\nand\n\nthe\n\nby\n\nin\n\nat\n\nTo that end , and to ensure a timely and original first\n4. 47. European\nthe\ncontribution\nCommission launched the BRAIN initiative on adaptive intelligence\nand neuro computing. rapidly developing\n\nfield ,\n\nthis\n\nto\n\nThis latter initiative needs to be followed by other action at a\nEuropean level to pool resources and complementary skills. Industrial and agro-industrial applications\n\n4. 48. The European pharmaceutical industry has enjoyed rapid\ngrowth in the 1980s , with production almost doubling between 1980\nBut it now faces a number of problems. and 1987 and imports low. 107\n\n\f67\n\n100\n\nthe\n\ncost\n\nhigh\n\n( around\n\ninclude\n\nThese\nof\ndeveloping and bringing to the market a new product or chemical\nentity ( NCE ); the short period of exclusiveness granted under\nexisting patent protection legislation ( it takes usually over 10\nyears from the time of patent application until a marketing\n; and increasing competition from the\nauthorisation is obtained )\nEuropean research is still highly\nUS and Japanese industries. effective but the results achieved in Japan in particular ( 19\nNCEs out of 56 introduced in 1987 ) demonstrate that a redoubling\nof effort is required and more investment is essential. million\n\nECU )\n\n4. 49. There is also a need for further efforts in the agro \u00ac\nindustrial field , where the Commission has already made proposals\nfor action at Community level. These are described more fully in\nthe annex. Industry has\n\nsuggested', moreover ,\n\nThe funds estimated necessary for the programme proposed on agro \u00ac\nindustrial research ( ECLAIR ) are limited ( 80 MECU for 5 years ). They allow a reasonable start , but - if successful - they are\nlikely to need expansion in the coming years to meet the expected\nneeds. that the currently\nproposed programme on improved food technology ( FLAIR - 25 MECU\nover 5 years ) should be complemented by an action at European\nat\nlevel\nnutrition is desirable given the importance of the nutritional\naspects\nnew\ntechnologies for food production. This \" new nutrition \" is being\nIn Europe the\npursued in the USA and Japan in particular. implications for transfrontier trade in food products , for the\nCAP ,\nbe\nconsidered. possibilities\n\non nutrition. standards\n\nstimulate\n\noffered\n\nresearch\n\nhealth\n\ncommon\n\nA new\n\nwould\n\nneed\n\nneed\n\nlook\n\nand\n\nthe\n\nand\n\nthe\n\nfor\n\nby\n\nof\n\nto\n\nto\n\n5. ENERGY ( Annexes 5+6 )\n\nThe Market Requirements\n\n4. 50. An adequate supply of energy at reasonable cost in the\nright place at the right time is fundamental to the proper\nfunctioning\nthe\ncommerce\nof\nsatisfaction of human needs\ncooking and travel. Technologies that supply energy , as well as those that ensure its\nmost efficient use are truly \" enabling \" technologies , without\nwhich our economies and societies would rapidly break down. transport and\n\nfor -heating ,\n\nindustry ,\n\nand\n\nto\n\n4. 51. The future energy needs of the European Community up to\nthe end of the century and alternative ways to satisfy them have\nbeen extensively analysed by the services of the Commission with\nthe help of national experts and the modelling tools developed\nThe\nunder, j the Community 's non-nuclear energy R&D programme. 108\n\n\frange of scenarios they present are a good starting point to\nidentify research needs. 68\n\nTable 4. 6. Scenarios for Community energy needs in 2000 a. d. Primary energy demand\nSolid Fuels\nOil\nGas\nNuclear\nHydro , Geothermal , Solar , etc. Source :\n\nEnergy 2000 , CEC 1986. Mtoe\n\nEUR - 10\n\n2000 a. d. 1036 - 1218\n309\n539\n256\n235\n22\n\n229 -\n430 -\n196 -\n150 -\n21\n\n1985\n942\n218\n413\n182\n116\n12\n\nThe range of figures reflects uncertainties about future economic\ngrowth , the future price of oil , emission controls , the size of\nnuclear power programmes in individual Member States and progress\nin development and use of new and renewable energies. All the scenarios point to a growing demand for electricity ,\nwhich could rise to as much as 20% of the energy used by the\nfinal consumer in 2000 , compared with around 15% today. Beyond\n2000 too the demand for electricity is expected to grow more\nquickly than other fuels. The broad conclusions from this analysis - supported by\n4. 52. national\nand\nmajbr\nstudies\nof\nreflected in the Community 's agreed energy objectives to 1995 -\nare in favour of diversification of European supply and increased\nefficiency of energy use as means to ensure energy and economic\nsecurity. companies ,\n\nenergy\n\nthose\n\nand\n\nThe close relationship between energy production and use and the\nenvironment add a further and compelling argument in favour of\ndiversification. In order to minimise the negative environmental\neffects of each energy source it is important to have access to\nseveral solutions. 109\n\n\fResearch Needs\n\n69\n\nMany of the technologies are available now ; some will\n4. 53. in\nresult of major\nlonger-term as\nonly be available\nresearch efforts. Those efforts , which in some cases will not\nbear fruits for 10-20 years or even longer , must not be weakened\nor abandoned simply because the price of oil in the short-term\nhas dropped to less than half its value in the early 1980s. the\n\na\n\nIn the past few years there has been some reduction in of\nThis\nexpenditure on energy as a whole inside and outside Europe. applies particularly to research on new and renewable energies\nbreeder\nand\nbased\nfast\non\nwell\ntechnologies. Expenditure on nuclear fission research continues\nto be the largest element in public expenditure on R&D as a whole\n( Table 4. 7. ). fossil-fuel\n\nreactors\n\nas\n\nas\n\nin\n\nfor\n\nR&D\n\nThe\n\nand\n\nfrom\n\nenergy\n\nenergy\n\nsupport\n\nreduction\n\n4. 54. reflects\nprogress accomplished since major programmes were launched in the\naftermath of the 1973-74 \" oil crisis \"; problems encountered in\nbringing some projects to successful technological or commercial\ndevelopment ; and shifts of priority in publicly-financed research\naway\nindustrial\nThere remain areas where a significant level of\ntechnologies. effort\nlonger-term\nbe maintained because of\nto\nneeds\npotential for providing environmentally benign and independent\nsources of energy supply and use in Europe. This is particularly\nthe case of controlled nuclear fusion and for carefully targetted\nactions in the field of non-nuclear energies. As far as nuclear\nfission energy is concerned the main needs lie more in the field\nof public acceptability rather than in production technology\nThe issue of acceptability and safety is discussed\nitself. separately in part 2 of this chapter. information\n\ntowards\n\ntheir\n\nand\n\nControlled nuclear fusion\n\nshould\n\nNuclear\n\nfusion\nacceptable ,\n\nan\n4. 55. inexhaustible ,\nenvironmentally\ngeographically\neconomic\nThe\nsource\naspects are impossible to define precisely at the present stage ,\nbut will need to be periodically monitored as the fusion and\nlong-term\nThe\ncontinuous study as\nenvironmental aspects will also deserve\nfusion programmes approach the technological stage. provide\npractically\n\nindependent\n\nultimately\n\nscenarios\n\nenergy. energy\n\nbetter\n\nbecome\n\nknown. of\n\nFusion\n\nresearch\n\n4. 56. European\nThis long-term\ncollaborative venture under Community auspices. project , embracing all the work carried out in the Member States ,\nis designed to lead in due course to the joint construction of\nprototype reactors with a view to their industrial production and\n\nalready\n\nmajor\n\nis\n\na\n\n110\n\n\fMARKET REQUIREMENTS FOR ENERGY TECHNOLOGIES IN DIFFERENT TIME SCALES\n\nUp to 2000\n\nBetween 2000 and 2020\n\nAfter 2020\n\n\u201c1\n>\nCD\n1\u201c\nm\n\n\u00abr*\n\n( DU\n\nildings , industry , transpo rt )\n\nRational Use of\nenergy\n\nEnergy conservation\ncombu\n\nenergy use technologies\nin technologies\n\nand\nStic\n\u201c\u03a4\u03a0\u0393\n\nElectricity\n\nStorage Conversion a nd 1. ransportation\n\n* \n\nExplorati on - Exploi ta t. assisted extraction\n\n *\n\n* \n\n***\n\nOil\n\nGas\n\nCoal\n\nNuclear\n\nRenew. Energies\n\nExploration\n\nconversion into liquic\nfuel e. g. alcohols et al\n\n* \n\n *\u00b7\n\nimproved\n- exploitation and us\n- fluidised bed combu\n\nes\nSt. - Coal gasification\n- Combined cycles -\n\nelectricity generati on\n\nMHD\ngasification/ 1 iquefactior\n\n2nd generation\nnuclear reactors\nwith improved safety\nfeatures\n\nCost reduction :\nPhotovoltaic solar\n\nSafety\nwaste disposal\ndecommissioning\n\nCost reduction :\nSolar\nWind\nBiomass\nHydra ul ic\nGeothermal\n\n**\n\n*\n\n *\n\n* *\n\n*\n\nBreeder and Fusion\nreactors\n\nCost reduction\n\n* \n\n* *\n\n *\n\nit \n\nEnergy - Env i ronment\n\nEmission R <\n( C02 )\n\nS02 , NOx ,\nC02 abatement\n\n; duc tion , radioactive waste\n\nC02\n\nand\n\nemission control\n\nC02\n\n\u2022kit *\n\nPotential market\n\nin primary energy requirements : **' * > 30 % - **\n\n10 to 30 % -\n\n*\n\n< 10 %. 70\n\nTwo third countries ( Sweden and Switzerland ) have\nmarketing. A multi-annual programme for the period\njoined the programme. ( 1. 1. 1988-31. 3. 1992 ) has recently been approved. A new Programme\nDecision should be taken in January 1991 , which will need to be\nprepared by in depth analysis not only of the outlook for fusion\nitself ,\nenergy and\nenvironmental scenarios for the next century , both within the EC\nand world-wide. In particular , the global climate change study\n( discussed later ) should indicate the acceptable limits to fossil\nAnalysis will also be needed of the prospects\nfuel combustion. Both results will help to\nfor nuclear fission waste disposal. define the long-term role to be played by fusion. could\n\nplay\n\nrole\n\nbut\n\nthe\n\nthe\n\nin\n\nof\n\nit\n\n4. 57. Scientific wisdom , technological skill and managerial\nefficiency have made of the EC fusion programme a recognised\nsuccess. Scientific and technical achievements place Europe in\nthe forefront of world-wide magnetic fusion research :\n\nJET , the flagship of the Community fusion programme , is the\nworld 's\nlargest experiment , which has made a large step\ntowards the demonstration of the scientific feasibility of\nfusion ;\nthe European medium-size devices in operation contribute\nalso to the progress of fusion , and the construction and\ncommissioning of new devices are proceeding according to\nschedule ;\nEuropean industry is building all these devices and has\nadvanced\nwith\nalready\ndevelopment. entrusted\n\nlong-term\n\nbeen\n\nsome\n\nbilateral\n\nThis leading position of the Community fusion programme makes\nEurope an appealing partner for international collaboration both\nwithin\n( Canada ,\nframeworks\nin\nand\nIn particular , under\nmultinational organisations ( OECD , IAEA ). IAEA\nEURATOM-\ntogether with the USA , the USSR and Japan - in the conceptual\ndesign activities for an International Thermonuclear Experimental\nReactor ( ITER ) has recently been signed. participation\n\nagreement\n\nauspices ,\n\nJapan ,\n\nUSA )\n\non\n\nby\n\nan\n\nbasis ,\n\nThe EC decision to concentrate on magnetic rather than\n4. 58. on a world\u00ac\ninertial confinement has so far proved judicious :\nbe\nnot\nwide\nneglected ( Table 4. 8. ). Two-thirds of efforts , in the USA for\nexample , are devoted to magnetic confinement and one-third to\ninertial confinement ( which has a direct connection with military\ntechnology ). approach\n\ninertial\n\nhowever ,\n\nshould ,\n\nthe\n\nSuggestions to develop the inertial confinement approach , either\nItaly. by lasers\nDevelopment of this approach would be at least as expensive as\nthe present magnetic confinement programme. or by heavy particles ,\n\nhave been made in\n\n112\n\n\fCOMM R&D\n\nCOMM. ( i n c l. R&DD\n\nJ RC )\n\nComparison between public R S DD expenditures in 1987\n\n($ 1987 )\n\n( 7\u03af of the total )\n\nEC\n\nJAPAN\n\nX\n\n9\n\n3\n\n9\n\n39\n\n9\n\n21\n\n10\n\nX\n\nA\n\n5\n\n11\n\nA A\n\n5\n\n28\n\n3\n\nUS\n\n%\n\n8\n\n2,5\n\n10,5\n\n33\n\n7\n\n18\n\n21\n\n%\n\n3,3\n\n1,4\n\n2,3\n\n7,8\n\n9,7\n\n73,0\n\n2,5\n\n100\n\n100\n\n100\n\n100\n\nEnergy conservation\n\nHydrocarbons\n\nCoa l\n\nNuclear Fission\n\nRenewable energies\n\nAdvances nuclear + Fusion\n\nOthers\n\nTOTAL\n\ny. 8\n\n7\n\n12\n\n20\n\n1 1\n\nA\u00ed\n\n1\n\n100\n\n\fEuropean Fusion Programme Strategy\n\nMostly\nMostly\nScientific. Scientific\n\u25a0 Aims\n\u25a0 Aims\n\ni\ni\n!\n!\n\nMostly\nMostly\nTechnical\nTechnical\nAims\n\n:_ i\n\n---\n\n|\n|\n!\n\ni\n\nEconomic\nEconomic\nFeasibility\nFeasibility\n\nT-\n\n- |\n\n' - -\u2013>\u25a0\nJET -1->\u25a0\n^\nNCT\nI\nr~rj-^\nOther -i-\u25ba HER\nTokamaks\ni vrvcu i icirw j\n^ |\nj\ni\n\nOther\n\ni-\n\nj\n\n|\n_ I__ _L ---1\n\n|\n\n|\n\nDEMO\nDEMO\n\nTechnology\nTechnology\n\n-\n\nAlternative lines\nAlternative lines\n\n-:-. --->\n\n1980\n\n1990\n\n2000\n\n2010. 2020\n\nTHE THREE ABOVE-MENTIONED STEPS TOWARDS FUSION REACTORS\nTECHNOLOGICAL AND ECONOMIC FEASIBILITIES ) ARE INTERDEPENDENT AND OVERLAP EACH OTHER. AT THE TIME OF THE NEXT PROGRAMME REVISION ( 1 - 1 -1991 ) / THE PHYSICS AND TECHNOLOGY DATA\nBASE WILL PROBABLY BE SUFFICIENT TO ALLOW TO DECIDE ON THE STARTING DATE OF THE DETAILED\nDESIGN OF THE NEXT STEP. ( DEMONSTRATION OF SCIENTIFIC /\n\n\u2013H\n\u00f9i\nC7\nr\u2013\nfP\n\nOO\n\n\fTable 4. 8. continued\n\nVARIOUS APPROACHES TO CONTROLLED FUSION RESEARCH\n\nAPPROACH\n\nCONFIGURATION\n\nLINE\n\nMAGNETIC\n\nCONFINEMENT\n\nTOROIDAL\n\nTOKAMAK\n\nALTERNATIVE LINES :\n\ni ) Stellarator\n\nii ) Reversed Field Pinch\n\n\u2022\n\niii ) Others\n\nOPEN\n\nMIRROR\n\nOTHERS\n\nLASERS\n\nLIGHT ION BEAMS\n\nHEAVY ION BEAMS\n\nINERTIAL\n\nCONFINEMENT\n\nOTHER\n\nAPPROACHES\n\nMuon-catalyzed fusion and fusion with exotic fuels ,\nare sometimes also considered as a remote possibility. At present ,\n\nthe Community funding for fusion R&D amounts to about\n200 MioECU per year , corresponding to an overall yearly expenditure of\nabout 450 MioECU. An increase of the order of 100 MioECU / year will be\nnecessary during the detailed design of the Next Step ( 1992-1994 ). A\nfurther increase will be required during the construction phase ; its\namounts will depend upon the frame in which the construction will take\nplace. Europe\n\nis\n\nconcentrating\n\nexpenditure\n( only\nbecause of military implications ), and\ndevoted to inertial fusion ,\nwithin that approach : 80 % expenditure are devoted to tokamaks and 20%\nto alternative lines ( no research on open configurations ). on magnetic\n\nfusion\n\n2%. For \u2022 comparison :\n\napproach\n\nthe US fusion programme follows both\nand\n\nthe magnetic\nconfinement\ninertial\nthe\nconfinement approach ( one third ). Within the magnetic approach , open\nconfigurations have recently been abandoned (a large mirror device has\nin Europe -\nand US magnetic research is\nbeen moth-balled )\nputting emphasis on tokamaks. of expenditure )\n\nthirds\n\nlike\n\n( two\n\n-\n\n115\n\n\fNon-nuclear energies and energy-saving technologies\n\n71\n\non\n\nProgress\n\nnon-nuclear\n\nsignificantly\n4. 59. evolved since research activities throughout the Community were\nThe three successive Community\nstepped up from the early 1970s. programmes\nCommunity 's\nthe\ndemonstration programmes , have made an important contribution to\nthis development in Europe and throughout the world. The present state of research can be considered under four main\nheadings :\n\nenergies\n\ntogether\n\nenergy\n\nwith\n\nR&D ,\n\nhas\n\non\n\n( i ) renewables\n\nSolar power plants using photovoltaic cells have good long-term\nprospects provided the costs for the cells and the associated\nAnother\narray structures can be reduced to about 1 ECU / Watt. important area is the development of passive solar technology to\nreduce conventional energy requirements for heating and cooling\nin buildings. Wind energy research aimed essentially at cost reductions and\nreliability of larger wind generators. Long-term contributions\nof up to 10% of total electricity demand in some regions are\nconceivable. research\n\nBiomass\ncollection\nand\ngasification and liquefaction. conversion\n\naimed\n\nalso\n\nat\n\nof\n\nreducing\n\nbiomass\n\noverall\n\nthrough\n\ncosts\n\nof\npyrolysis ,\n\nGeothermal R&D focussed on \" Hot dry rock \" technology development\ncould provide heat and power almost anywhere in Europe where the\ngeological conditions are favourable once economic feasibility is\nachieved. ( ii ) Rational energy use\n\nis\n\nwork\n\nconcentrating\n\nadvanced\nDevelopment\nbatteries and fuel cells. Heat pumps have the potential to\nreduce energy use in domestic and industrial heating by 30-50%. solid batteries are being developed for electrical\nAdvanced\nvehicles. Fuel cells are being given particular attention in the\nfield of energy production and storage. pumps ,\n\nheat\n\non\n\nEnergy savings research in industry is focussing on component\ndevelopment and unit operations. In combustion research for\nstationary applications and in transport the main interest lies\nin the twin concerns of energy saving and pollution abatement. 116\n\n\f( iii ) Fossil fuels\n\n72\n\nOne important field is the use and conversion of solid fuels ,\nlignite , including the possible reduction of\ni. e. coal , peat ,\nenvironmental\nconversion\nin\nprocesses. Research on liquefaction , combined cycle electricity\ngeneration with fluidised beds and coal gasification is being\ncarried out in some of the Member States and at Community level. The use of coal / liquid mixtures is also being researched. pollution\n\ninvolved\n\ncoal\n\nthe\n\nThe bulk of hydrocarbons research is being carried out by the oil\nAt Community level the focus of\nand gas companies themselves. activity\nreserves\nexploitable\neconomic\nto\nDrilling techniques are\naccessible to the European oil industry. concerned ,\nprogressing as\nespecially in the deep and off shore drilling sectors. The same\nholds for production techniques including assisted recovery. reliability are\n\nincrease\n\nspeed\n\nand\n\nfar\n\nthe\n\nas\n\nis\n\n( iv ) Energy Modelling\n\nA fourth important research area embraces the analytical tools\nessential to understanding energy systems and their interface\nThis is an area where the\nwith the economy and the environment. value\nresearch\ninstitutes and universities in a Community framework has already\nproved its worth ( cf. Energy 2000 study cited earlier ). coordinated\n\nactivities\n\ndifferent\n\namong\n\nof\n\nFuture Options\n\n4. 60. Some of the technology options which were pursued in\nthe aftermath of the first \" oil crisis \" have now come to an end\nfrom the point of view of research , because they have reached\ntheir goals and led to practical exploitation ( one example is\npassive\nnow relatively widely\ndeveloped in Europe , notably in Southern Europe ). solar water heating\n\nwhich\n\nis\n\nspecific\nhave\nOthers\ntechnological\neconomic\nreasons , they do not offer the prospect of broad application. One example of the former is solar tower power stations. end\nan\nencountered\n\nto\ncome\nproblems\n\nbecause\nbecause ,\n\neither\n\nof\nfor\n\nor\n\nOn the other hand , new perspectives have emerged in the light of\nthe trends described earlier. These are analysed more fully in\nthe Annex on non-nuclear energies and summarised in table 4. 9. The\nthe\nCommission 's recent proposal ( the JOULE programme ). Community\n\nreflected\n\ntargets\n\nlevel\n\nnew\n\nare\n\nat\n\nin\n\n117\n\n\fTable\n\n4. 9. Priorities for non-nuclear energy R&D\n\nRatlonal Energy Use ( RuE )\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\nsaving\n\ntechnology\n\nin buildings\n\n( energy management\n\nenergy\npumps , solar energy applications )\ncombustion\nexperimental Verification with advanced non-intrusive diagnostics )\nindustrial processes\n( heat recovery including development of heat\nexchangers and heat pumps , unit operations , energy and process system\nmodels )\nfuel cells ( solide oxide , molten carbonate ) high Tc superconductors ,\nenergy storage. combustion ,\n\nsimulation\n\n( computer\n\ncontrol ,\n\nheat\n\nand\n\nof\n\nRenewables\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\nsolar\n\nenergy\n\nwind energy ( large-scale wind installations , wind measurements and\nmodelling )\nphotovoltaic\ntechnology )\nhydraulic energy ( small hydro , study of potential of tidal and wave\nenergy )\nbiomass\n( production and\nthermal conversion , pilot projects )\ngeothermal energy ( hot dry rocks , brine handling and corrosion and\nscaling of resources , study of deep geology )\n\nbiological and\n\nenergy crops ,\n\n( crystalline\n\nstorage of\n\namorphous\n\nsilicon\n\nand\n\nEnergy derived from fossil sources\n\n-\n-\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\noil exploration and recovery techniques\nconversion of gas into liquid fuels\ncombined cycle electricity generation with fluidised beds and coal\ngasification\ncoal liquefaction and in situ coal gasification\nnew solid fuel burners\nMagneto-hydrodynamics\n\nModelling energy and environment\n\n-\n-\n-\n\nenergy resources , energy supply and demand systems\nenergy / environment interactions\nassessing impact of the Single European market on energy / economy\n\n118\n\n\fII IMPROVING THE QUALITY OF LIFE FOR EUROPE 'S CITIZENS\n\n73\n\n4. 61. contribution to make in three main areas :\n\nEuropean\n\nscience\n\nand\n\ntechnology\n\nhave\n\na\n\nmajor\n\n*\n\n*\n\n*\n\nin producing a better environment\n\nin improving health ; and\n\nin enhancing safety. In addition there are important social responsibilities which\nmust be addressed in the field of bioethics , which are considered\nseparately below. 1. THE ENVIRONMENT\n\n( Annex 7 )\n\nis\n\nThere\n\nincreasing\n\n4. 62. the\nPolitical leaders have responded to\nthreat to the environment. such concern and have proposed specific national , regional and\ninternational actions. The relevance of the European dimension\nhas been formally recognised by the Single European Act , which\nidentifies the protection and the improvement of the environment\nas a main objective of Community action. awareness\n\npublic\n\nabout\n\n4. 63. Environmental\nevolution and incompletely known. vital basis on which policy responses can be evolved. are\ncontinuous\nResearch provides therefore a\n\nproblems\n\ncomplex ,\n\nin\n\nThough many problems are common to industrialised countries , and\nothers are \" global \" in the literal sense of the word ( namely they\nconcern the whole globe and require world-wide collaboration ),\nmany problems are of a regional nature. Moreover , the European\nregulatory responsibilities which must rest on\nCommunity has\nknow-how. and\nsound\nJoint research at Community level is therefore needed to provide\nthis knowledge and know-how efficiently and economically ( through\ncomplementarity and task sharing ), and also to provide it in a\nform acceptable to all concerned. scientific\n\nknowledge\n\ntechnical\n\nreliable\n\nResearch Needs\n\nAn overview of the main issues for research is given in\n4. 64. Annex 7. The research problems to which need or would greatly\nbenefit from research at a transnational level in Europe are\n\n119\n\n\fsummarised in Table 4. 10. They form three interdependent sets :\n\n74\n\nunderstanding the basic phenomena\ndetection\nchanges\nprevention. interpretation\n\nand\n\nof\n\n\"\n\nenvironmental\n\nUnderstanding the basic phenomena\n\nthe\n\nsea ),\n\nSince\n\nenvironment\n\ncomplex\nthe\n4. 65. results\ninteraction of many complex sub-systems ,\nthese must each be\nanalysed ( the stratosphere , the atmosphere , soil , inland water ,\nthe\nand their mutual interaction studied by a systems\napproach ( large ecosystems , climate in its regional as well as\nglobal aspects ). In addition further efforts are needed to\nunderstand the environment within buildings , an area on which the\nCommunity 's JRC is carrying out pioneering work. from\n\nA scientific approach to a system of this complexity would have\nbeen unthinkable a few decades ago. However , progress in basic\nmathematics , analytical techniques ( including remote sensing from\nspace ), together with the huge capacity to store and analyse\ninformation\napproach\ncomputing\npossible. advanced\n\nmake\n\nthis\n\nnow\n\nby\n\nDetection and interpretation of environmental changes\n\nA second\n\nset concerns\n\nthe continuous detection and\n4. 66. interpretation of environmental changes and the assessment of\ntheir consequences on human , animal and vegetable life as well as\non geological resources and the sea. This is needed to provide\npublic assurance that undesirable trends will be detected and\nalso to provide data for the analysis outlined in 4. 65. above. Environmental epidemiology is included in this activity. The\nEuropean dimension in\nadvantages\nstatistical\nthe\nobvious. significance\ndevelopment of suitable systems to identify and measure noxious\nagents is also important. toxicology and\n\nEnvironmental\n\na\nare\n\nterms\n\nof\n\nof\n\nPrevention\n\nThe\n\nprevention ,\nthe\n4. 67. concerns\nthird\nthe abatement of existing\ndevelopment of \u2022 rc-lean technologies ,\nnoxae and the elimination of toxic wastes. Research on the\nsafety of industrial practice and compatibility of agricultural\nSince\npractice with the environment also belongs to this group. including\n\nset\n\n120\n\n\fable 4. 10. Key Research Issues in the Environmental Field\n\nA. Understanding the basic phenomena\n\nmechanisms of climate ;\natmospheric ( troposphere and stratosphere ) chemistry (\" ozone\nhole \") ;\nphysiology of organisms under environmental stress (pollutants ,\ndrought , etc ) ;\nfunctioning , stability and vulnerability of ecosystems ,\nincluding stress ecology , natural population dynamics ;\nmetabolism find effects of xenobiotic substances in man , aniirals\nand plants ;\ninteractions between atmosphere , soil and water bodies ;\nchemistry and biology of soil under the influence of pollution\nand other stresses (eg. agricultural practise ) , vulnerability\nto erosion ;\nbasic mechanisms of seismic and volcanic events ;\nstudy of the effects of pollutants on materials ;\nresearch into the prevention of accidents frcm hazardous\nindustrial activities. B. Detection and Interpretation of Environmental Changes\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\nimprovement of methods for the analysis of the components of\nenvironmental matrices ;\nearth observation by remote sensing techniques ;\nelaboration of methods for storage and treatment of data on the\nenvironment , also in support of modelling ;\ncollection , conpilation and assessment of data on environmental\nquality ;\ndescription and evaluation of damage symptoms on organisms ;\nepidemiological studies in human populations exposed to\nenvironmental pollution ;\nstudies on soil deterioration and erosion ;\nrecording of indicators for climatic changes. C. Prevention of Environmental Damages\n\ndevelopment of sound technologies for pollution abatement and\nwaste recycling and disposal ;\ndevelopment of alternative , less polluting technologies and\nproducts (\" clean technologies \") ;\nmethods for the ecologically sound management of ecosystems and\nrenewable resources ;\nrehabilitations of disturbed or degraded ecosystems ;\ndevelopment of safer technologies (chemical plants ) ;\ninvestigation of the possibilities to predict , and to mitigate\nthe consequences of , disasters of man-made and natural origin ;\ndesign of methods and materials for the protection and\nrestoration of the cultural heritage. 121\n\n\fthese activities are continuously evolving , so must the research\nStudies on the prevention and mitigation of man-made and\nitself. natural hazards also belong under this heading. 75\n\nGlobal Climate Change\n\n4. 68. to analyse is the so-called \" greenhouse-effect \". The greatest source of concern and the most difficult\n\nContinued burning of coal and oil since the beginning of the\nindustrial era has resulted in increasing quantities of carbon\ndioxide being added to the natural composition of the planet 's\natmosphere. Although the oceans act as a large sink through\ncomplex phenomena involving phytoplankton photosynthesis , large\nquantities of carbon dioxide remain in the atmosphere , which is\nthis\nnow\npre \u00ac\nin\nenriched\nindustrial values. Natural recycling of CO2 by green terrestrial\nplants is also seriously impaired by deforestation. respect\n\n15-20%\n\nwith\n\ngas\n\nby\n\nto\n\nCarbon dioxide is not transparent to the infrared light radiated\nback by the earth 's\nincoming solar\nas\nradiation , which means that heat is trapped in the lower layers\nof the atmosphere. The planet is thus being heated in a similar\nway to that of a greenhouse. a result of\n\nsurface\n\nconsensus\n\nan\nScientific\nincrease in the global mean surface temperature of 1. 5 to 4. 5\u2019C\nThe atmospheric accumulation of other\nover the next 50 years. greenhouse\nthe\nmethane ,\nas\nsuch\nchlorof luorocarbons also plays a role. nitrous\n\nheating\n\nproduce\n\ngases ,\n\noxide\n\nwill\n\nthat\n\nsuch\n\nand\n\nis\n\nThe climate change resulting from such heating would have serious\nconsequences for agriculture , and a significant rise in the level\nof the seas is expected from the thermal expansion of the oceans\nalone , apart from the melting of the ice caps. the\n\nheating ,\n\nregional\n\ndroughts\n\n4. 69. The issue has global dimensions and is made enormously\ncomplex by the uncertainties still affecting the measurement of\nglobal\nthe\nanticipated climatic changes ( precipitation patterns , frequency\nthe\nof\nextreme\nan\nuncertainties about\nassessment of the rates of carbon dioxide production , of the role\nof the oceans and biosphere as sinks and sources , of the rate of\ndeforestation ,\nthe\nclimate\nof\nmodelling\n\nother\nevents ,\nfuture energy patterns. the possible shifts\nall\n\ninteractive components\n\nof bioclimatic zones ,\n\nIt involves\n\nseasonal\n\nfeatures\n\netc. ),\n\nthe\n\nthe\n\nand\n\nand\n\nand\n\nof\n\nof\n\n122\n\n\fsystems\nappreciation of the consequences of energy policy options. ( atmosphere ,\n\ncryosphere ,\n\nbiosphere ),\n\noceans ,\n\n76\n\nan\n\nand\n\n4. 70. Intensified research is needed to reduce as much as\npossible , and as soon as possible , the remaining uncertainties ,\nespecially as regards the timing , the magnitude and the regional\nthe impacts which the change\ndistribution of climate change ;\nwould have mainly on agriculture and water resources , on the sea\nlevel and\nfor the coasts and coastal-based\neconomic activities , on socio-economic structures in general ; and\non environmentally benign energy options capable of leading to\nAt the same time research is\nreduced carbon dioxide emissions. needed to ensure\npreparedness in respect of changes which cannot\nbe prevented in time , so at least alleviate their consequences. its consequences\n\nSuch\n\nresearch\n\nworld-wide\nrequires\n4. 71. cooperation , not only because of the multi-disciplinary character\nof the issue , but also in view of the need for a coordinated\napproach to choices that might have to be made on future energy ,\nto\npolicies\nagriculture\ncounteract or alleviate the affects of the climate change. industry\n\nmeasures\n\nEuropean\n\nable\n\nand\n\nand\n\nand\n\non\n\nEuropean Action\n\nAt a European level the Community will need to mobilise\n4. 72. the\nmodes\nvarious\nunderstanding ,\nthe\nenvironment , starting from its own \" in house \" research carried\nout in the JRC (a guarantee of independent high level S / T know\u00ac\nhow\naction and\ninternational collaboration. for\nimprovement of\n\nof\nmonitoring ,\n\nprotection and\n\nresearch needs\n\nshared-cost\n\nCommunity ),\n\nsatisfy\n\naction\n\nwhole\n\nthe\n\nfor\n\nto\n\nto\n\na\n\nIn the latter context a major contribution at the Community level\nto the implementation of the International Geosphere-Biosphere\nProgramme ( Global Change ) deserves careful attention. At the same time an adequate liaison needs to be assured with\nother transnational environmental R&D actions in Europe ,\nand\nnotably within EUREKA and with the space agencies ( in particular\nwith\nspace\ninstruments themselves and the requirements of the scientific\ncommunity ( see also point 4. 106. on Earth sciences ). between\n\nbalance\n\nproper\n\nensure\n\nESA )\n\nthe\n\nto\n\na\n\n\f2. HEALTH RESEARCH\n\n( Annex 8 )\n\nResearch Needs\n\n4. 73. starting point for consideration of research requirements :\n\nThree main issues in the field of health provide the\n\n77\n\n( i )\n\nthe rising cost of health care and delivery systems. Health costs in the Community amount to more than 200 milliard\nThey are rising\nECU per year , the equivalent of about 8% of GNP. both\nmedical\nequipment and opportunities for treatment , and because of the\ngrowing incidence of certain diseases. This is related in part\nto :\n\nsophistication\n\nincreasing\n\nbecause\n\nthe\n\nof\n\nof\n\n( ii ) the \" greying \" of Europe 's population. Europe faces the prospect of. an ageing population over the period\nto the end of the century as a result of lower reproduction rates\non the one hand ,\nin the\nand higher life -\nexpectancy , on the other. This will mean a quantitative increase\nover the coming years in age-typical illnesses , with consequences\nfor the demand on medical services ;\n\n1980s ,\n\n1970s\n\nand\n\n( iii )\nthe need for major progress in the fight against\ndiseases such as cancer and AIDs , as well as those related\nto the environment and life-style. 4. 74. Public health research in the Community , which is about\nhalf that of the USA , amounts to less than 2% of total health\nIf properly aimed , it can make a major contribution to\ncosts. meeting all three of\nResearch on\nthe needs described above. prevention , care-delivery systems and organisation is essential\nto ensure the best value-for money in health delivery ( i ); while\nthe need for targetting research efforts on the specific problems\nposed under ( ii ) and ( iii ) is widely recognised. European Action\n\nthe\nin\n4. 75. Research is proceeding on all these\nMost national\nMember States , but often in a fragmented manner. research programmes in the field of medicine and health consist\nof a large number of relatively small projects carried out by\nscattered\noften working\nindependently at universities , hospitals etc. This is an area\nnational\nwhere\nfrontiers has already been recognised and concerted action within\nThe principal\nthe Community framework has proved its worth. coordinated action across\n\nrelatively small\n\nresearch teams\n\nfronts\n\nvalue\n\nmore\n\nand\n\nthe\n\nof\n\n124\n\n\f78\n\ncharacteristic of this concerted action is that Member States\nfor coordination at Community\nthemselves\nwhile the Commission\nlevel and execute the work themselves ;\ncoordinates the national research contributions. select the projects\n\n4. 76. The future action lines in health research recommended\nby the Advisory Committee for the Community 's Health Research\nProgramme are summarised in table 4. 11. It will be seen that\nthey correspond very clearly to the needs described earlier. They also include one other important aspect of R&D on health\nresearch - the development of medical technology - which has an\neconomic as well as social dimension. 3. SAFETY\n\n( Annex 9 )\n\na\n\nis\n\nfundamental social need ,\n\nThe safety of the environment in the home , at work and\n4. 77. the\nin travel\ncontrol of costs in health. The contribution of R&D to safety is\npervasive - from the use of new materials to the development of\nrobotics , from the improvement in vehicle and aircraft technology\nto\nto\nidentify potential dangers in the environment and in machinery\nand equipment long before they occur. linked also to\n\ndevelopment\n\nmonitoring\n\ntechniques\n\nsensing\n\nand\n\nthe\n\nof\n\nIndustrial and Road Safety\n\n4. 78. In the field of industrial technologies and materials\nincreasing attention will have to be given to the safety aspects\nof design of consumer goods and also to the safety of the working\nas foreshadowed in the Single European Act\nenvironment itself ,\nAn important issue , where R&D has a role to play , is the\nitself. development of common safety standards in respect of the new\ntechnologies\na\nLasers\nsignificant example. themselves. industrial\n\nuse\n\nfor\n\nare\n\n4. 79. The potential contribution of R&D to road safety in the\nlonger-term is particularly great , and major efforts are being\nundertaken in Europe to develop both the \" intelligent car \" and\nThis is an area\nthe road infrastructure that it will require. where collaborative transnational\nimportant both\nbecause of the scale of the research requirements and the need\nfor a harmonised approach. The Community itself has launched a\nsignificant programme ( DRIVE - Dedicated Road Infrastructure for\nVehicle Safety in Europe ) which is designed to help coordinate\nefforts on the infrastructure ; while within EUREKA the PROMETHEUS\nproject and other related transport R&D projects are focussed on\n\nefforts\n\nare\n\n125\n\n\fFUTURE ACTION-LINES PLANNED IN\n\nHEALTH RESEARCH\n\nCANCER\n\nCancer research training scheme\nClinical treatment research\nEpidemiological research\nEarly detection and diagnosis\nOrug development\nExperimental C fundamental ) research\n\nA I 0 S\n\nOisease control and prevention\nV i ro - i mmunolag 1 cal research\nClinical research\n\nAGE-RELATED HEALTH PROBLEMS\n\nReproduct ion\nAgeing and diseases\n0 i sab i l i t i es\n\nENVIRONMENT AND LIFE-STYLE RELATEO HEALTH PROBLEMS\n\nBreakdown in human adaptation\nNutrition\nConsumption of illicit drugs\nInfect ions\n\nMEOICAL TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT\n\nDiagnostic methods and monitoring\nTreatment and rehab i l i t a t ion\nTechnical and clinical evaluation\n\nHEALTH SERVICES RESEARCH\n\nResearch on prevention\nResearch on care delivery systems\nResearch on health care organitation\nHealth technology assessment\n\n\fthe in-car research requirements. major preoccupation. Coordination of effort is a\n\n79\n\nNuclear fission safety\n\nA third area where continuing safety research is of the\n4. 80. utmost importance is nuclear\nThe dependence on nuclear\npower for energy supplies varies significantly as between Member\nBut as the Chernobyl accident demonstrated forcefully ,\nStates. the safety of nuclear power is a matter that concerns each and\nevery Member State. fission. The needs and outlook for research on nuclear safety\n4. 81. both outside and inside Europe are presented in annex 9. The USA\nused to be in the forefront of research but the Americans have\nnow reduced\nis continuing to make a\nThe results of Soviet work in the field are\nsignificant effort. not fully available , although some opening has occurred after\nChernobyl. with some\nhas moved into the\ncountries playing a leading role ( France , Germany and the United\nKingdom ). their efforts. forefront ,\n\nEurope\n\nJapan\n\n4. 82. In the field of radiation protection ( where Community\nresearch programmes have either directly supported or coordinated\n80% of the effort inside the Community ) continuing research is\nneeded on :\n\nexposure\n\nradioactivity\nHuman\ndose ;\n( measurement\ntransfer\nthe\nenvironment , making full use of the information coming\nfrom Chernobyl ). to\nradiation\ninterpretation\n\nradionuclides\n\nradiation\n\nbehaviour\n\nand\n\nand\n\nand\n\nof\n\nin\n\nof\n\nEffects on the human body of exposure to radiation ;\nassessment , prevention and treatment. Management of risk of exposure to radiation. of\n\npolitical\n\nChernobyl ,\n\nA major information effort is also required. In the\n4. 83. aftermath\nconsiderations\noverrode scientific and technological arguments about radiation\nand technologists are\nlevels and their effects. responsible\npartly\nthey\nand\nthe\nunderestimated\neducation of the public ; while after the event they confused the\nand disagreements\ntechnical\npublic\njargon\nin^ some\nhad negative consequences\nabout details. by non-homogeneous\nThis has\n\nBefore\nsystematic\n\ninformation\n\nimportance\n\nScientists\n\nsocial\n\nevent\n\nthis. and\n\nthe\n\nfor\n\nof\n\n127\n\n\fcountries on public confidence in the nuclear community. This\nconfidence can and must be restored by greater openness and\nwillingness to communicate ,\nterms understood by\nfellow scientists , but also in terms accessible to a much wider\npublic\nthis\ndirection over the coming months and years. not only in\n\nParticular\n\nprogress. be made\n\nefforts\n\nmust\n\nin\n\n80\n\n( notably\n\nContinuing research work is\nthe phenomenology of\n\nalso needed on reactor\n4. 84. safety\nlow probability severe\naccidents ; mitigation of the consequences of severe accidents ;\nbehaviour ;\nstructural\nimproved passive\nfuel\ncycle ; radioactive waste management and storage ; decontamination\nand dismantling techniques for nuclear plants ; and control of\nfissile materials. safety mechanisms );\n\nthe safety of\n\ncomponents ;\n\nbehaviour\n\nreactor\n\nfuel\n\nthe\n\nof\n\n4. BIOETHICS\n\nin\n\nthe\n\nnotably\n\n4. 85. The progress in biology described earlier is so rapid\nand the resulting applications so pervasive and substantial that\nthe utmost attention must be given to their impact on individuals\nEver since biotechnology began to open up major new\nand society. engineering ,\npossibilities ,\nbiologists themselves have been conscious of this need. More\nthan a decade ago they proposed and implemented a moratorium on\ngenetic engineering research until the conditions\nfor safety\nwere identified. Since then , public opinion as well as public\nauthorities has become progressively aware of the problem and\nbio-ethics has become a subject of constant attention and action ,\nnot only at the national but also at the international level ( for\nthe\nexample\nof\nSummit\nindustrialised countries ). the Council of\nEurope has created\n\na standing Committee for bioethics. Conferences\nof\nIn Europe itself ,\n\nBioethics\n\ngenetic\n\nyearly\n\nfield\n\nthe\n\nof\n\n4. 86. The Community 's obligations in the field of health and\nsafety , as well as the need ( for competition reasons ) to avoid\nthe emergence of widely divergent legislation in the Member\nare\nStates\nproducts\ncompelling reasons for a Community approach to this issue. Such\nan approach would contribute to public confidence in science in\nthe Community , without which the European Technology Community\ncannot be soundly built. biotechnological\n\napplications\n\nand\n\non\n\nof\n\n1988\n\nfirst half\n\nthe EC\nIn the\nCouncil , in complete agreement with the EC Commission , called for\nSome progress has\nthe pursuit of bioethics at Community level. been made. It\nis essential that ethical , societal and juridical considerations\naccompany science and precede technological developments. The momentum should be maintained and increased. the German Presidency of\n\n128\n\n\fIII FUNDAMENTAL RESEARCH - THE ESSENTIAL UNDERPINNING\n\n81\n\nA solid capacity in fundamental research , both free and\n4. 87. targetted , provides the essential underpinning to the research in\nspecific fields described above. As the provider of new ideas\nand knowledge it offers opportunities for quantitative change and\nnew openings of both economic and social significance , widening\nIt is therefore\nand deepening the scope of technology options. of\nindependence and\nfor\nto\nvital\nautonomy. importance\n\nEurope 's\n\nquest\n\nhas\n\ndecreased ,\n\nIn the USA ,\nand\nresearch\n\nwhile Federal support for non-military\n4. 88. applied\nfor\ndevelopment\nfundamental research has increased over the last 5 years ( cf. chapter 2 ). Japan is now fully aware of the need to strengthen\nits basic research at home , and in an international framework\nhas , for example , launched the Human Frontier Science Programme\nfor joint development of fundamental research in neuro - and cell\nbiology by the Industrialised Summit Countries. In the USA\nscientific research proceeds on a very broad front , and gives\nchoices ,\nopportunity to\nin Japan\nwhereas\ntargetted basic research prevails. The implications of this new\ninternational emphasis on basic research are discussed further in\nchapter 5. 1. below. individual\n\n\" free \",\n\nthat\n\nin\n\nEuropean\n\nexcellence\n\n4. 89. is\ndemonstrated by the attribution of Nobel Prizes and by the other\nHowever , most\nindicators of performance discussed in Chapter II. European researchers would think that US occupies the first place\nDuring the last decade , industry and\nin their own field^9\nuniversities have become increasingly aware of each other. The\nquestions posed by the 'further evolution of this trend in Europe\nare also discussed in chapter 5. fundamental\n\nresearch. The Organisation of Basic Research\n\n4. 90. One permanent problem for basic research policy is\nthe distribution of resources between a small number of large and\nexpensive projects ( so-called \" Big Sciences \") and more diffuse\nand less expensive activities of small groups and individuals. The question has been partially solved in Western Europe by\nseveral multinational ventures for the common pursuit of Big\nSciences ( eg. CERN for high energy physics , ESO for astronomy ,\n\nThis emerges clearly from The Community of Science in\nEurope , Mark N. Franklin , a study made on behalf of the\nScience\nCEC\nwith\nFoundation\nand\n1986 )\nSTI\nsubsequently published by Gower ( ISBN 0566056321 ). collaboration\n( contract\n\nNovember\n\nEuropean\n\n042 ,\n\nthe\n\nin\n\n129\n\n\f82\n\nESA for space , EMBL for biology , ILL for neutron sources , ESS for\nsynchroton radiation ^ ). some very large national\nMoreover ,\nfacilities , such as the German centre in Hamburg are open to\nbilateral collaboration. These activities have been successful\nand there is growing collaboration among them , which is a welcome\ntrend. Big\nfuture ,\nSciences may have to extended world-wide. Controlled nuclear\nfusion is a case in point , as discussed earlier. collaboration\n\ninternational\n\nthe\n\nIn\n\nin\n\nSimultaneously , several networking initiatives have been taken so\nas to assure the benefits of complementarity and task sharing\nEuropean\namong individual\nBiology\nScience\nOrganisation\nStimulation\nprogramme ( now called the SCIENCE Programme ), together with the\nCommunity 's sectoral R&D programmes , play important roles in this\ncontext. scientists and\nthe\n( ESF ),\nEuropean Community 's\nand\n\nFoundation\n( EMBO )\n\nThe\nMolecular\n\nsmall groups. European\n\nthe\n\nto\n\nthe\n\naccess\n\nremains ,\n\nhowever ,\n\nquestion of\n\nThere\nadvanced\nmiddle-size research devices and the development of expensive\nscientific instrumentation. Given the cost and sophistication of\nmany of the facilities in question it is not feasible to imagine\nthat they could all be available in every European country , let\nParticular efforts are therefore\nalone very major laboratory. needed to provide a framework for cooperation among national\nteams and to reduce the risk of fragmented research efforts. In\n1989 , in recognition of this problem , the Community will initiate\na pilot programme to support mutual access to large national\nSuggestions have also been made within CREST to\ninstallations. launch a\njoint European development of\nscientific instrumentation. feasibility study on\n\nDevelopment s in sp\u00e9cifie scientific disciplines\n\nWithin the broad area of fundamental research ,\n\n4. 91. some\ndevelopments in mathematics , physics , chemistry and the earth\nsciences should be highlighted. Fundamental biology , together\nwith basic biotechnology and its applications was dealt with\nearlier in section I. CERN - European Centre for Nuclear Research\nEMBL - European Molecular Biology Laboratory\nESO\n\n- European Organisation for Astronomical Research\n\nin the Southern Hemisphere\n\nESA\nESF\n\n- European Space Agency\n- European Science Foundation. 130\n\n\fI\nI\n\nMathematics\n\n83\n\nIn\n\nthe\n\ntheory\n\nmodern\n\nmathematics. non-linear\n4. 92. phenomena and related geometrical ideas deserve attention because\nthey are revolutionising the theory and application of dynamic\nsystems , with far-reaching implications for physics , chemistry ,\nbiology ,\nprobably ,\nMost real world problems\nsociology and the science of economics. are complex and non-linear ; therefore they fall outside the scope\nof traditional closed-form\nThe subtle and versatile\ntechniques of dynamic systems theory now make it possible to\nmodel and to explore the evolution over time of both natural and\nman-made systems. meteorology ,\n\ntechnology\n\nanalysis. ecology ,\n\nand ,\n\nof\n\na\n\npower\n\nsituation\n\nnow makes\n\n4. 93. The combination of theoretical advance and significant\nthose\ncomputing\npossible\nsystems which evolve towards a stable solution ; those that evolve\nto\nreach\nalternative final states depending on small differences in the\ninitial conditions ; and those that develop into a state of steady\nbut perpetual chaos. The search for an underlying order in the\nensemble of all chaotic trajectories in a chaotic system remains\na major challenge to modern mathematics. to distinguish\n\noscillation ;\n\nstable\n\nthose\n\nthat\n\nit\n\nof\n\ncan\n\n4. 94. Specific examples of the impact which the theory of non\u00ad\nlinear , complex phenomena has on other branches of science and\ntechnology\nthe\ndevelopment of the first optical version of a transistor , and\nan all-optical computer ;\ndemonstration of\nadvanced modelling of climatic change ( of relevance to the Global\nChange\nthe\nfunctioning of the internal combustion engine. feasibility of\n\nimprovements\n\ninitiative\n\ndiscussed\n\nearlier );\n\ninclude\n\nAnnex\n\nThese\n\nfound\n\nthe\n\n10. be\n\nin\n\nin\n\nThe theory of non-linear phenomena was pioneered in\nAnd Europe continues to play a significant role\n\n4. 95. Europe. Research projects in fields such as those mentioned in 4. 94. above are amongst those accepted , after stiff competition , under\nthe EC Stimulation programme , reflecting the continuing interest\nof European researchers in pushing out the frontiers. Physics\n\nIn addition to encouraging further collaboration among\n4. 96. in high energy physics etc. ,\nexisting multinational ventures\nthe exploitation of\ngreater attention needs\nThis must be done without side-tracking\ntechnology spin-offs. EC\nThe\nthe main\ntechnological research programmes and to the industrial firms\nparticipating in them could be usefully explored. to be given to\n\nprojects. closer\n\nscope\n\nlinks\n\nwith\n\nfor\n\n131\n\n\f84\n\n4. 97. As far as fundamental physics are concerned , particular\nattention needs to be given to the study of condensed matter ,\nbecause of both its implications for materials technology and its\nneed for large and medium scale investigation facilities ( such as\nsynchrotron radiation and neutron sources , high power lasers ,\nThe USA and Japan are well provided with\nirradiation devices ). ( as\nsuch devices. suggested above ), could be open to increased transnational use. In Europe , however , they are often unique and ,\n\nA suggestion along these\n1985 by the UK\nSciences and Engineering Research Council and could be pursued\nthrough the EC programme of Access to Large Installations. lines was made in\n\nthe\n\nAmong\n\n4. 98. particular\ninterest in terms of the expected technological impact , is high\ntemperature superconductivity ( the ability of electrical currents\nto flow without resistance ), which was discussed in section 1\nabove in the context of industrial materials. developments\n\nscientific\n\nof\n\nbecause\n\nOther areas of the physics of matter should also be\n4. 99. or\noptical\nmentioned ,\nof\nmechanical properties , such as \" low-dimensional \"\n( i. e. very thin )\nmaterials , artificially structured materials , material obtained\nand performing under extreme conditions , liquid crystals , quasi\ncrystals. Progress on these subjects has a high priority in the\nUSA. electromagnetic ,\n\ntheir\n\nDevelopments in optics and lasers are also interesting :\n4. 100. in advanced optics , Western Europe is in a good position and has\npioneered\nthe Joint\nEuropean Optical Bistability Project within the EC Stimulation\nProgramme ). recent developments\n\ninstance ,\n\nsome\n\n( for\n\nhowever ,\n\nsome important national and\nin spite of\nIn lasers ,\nmultinational\nEuropean\nBRITE\ninside\nefforts are not on a par with those in the USA , where there has\nbeen a significant spin-off from military R&D , and notably SDI. The need for strengthened joint European action in this field\nmerits careful consideration. developments\n\nEUREKA ,\n\nand\n\nChemistry\n\nChemistry\n\nby\n4. 101. progress in computing , mathematics and physics instrumentation\nand \" pulled \" by biology and by a pervasive market demand. developing\n\nrapidly ,\n\n\" pushed \"\n\nalso\n\nis\n\nHere as in other technological areas , quality is becoming more\nstandpoint ,\nimportant\nFrom\nin\ncomputer\n\nscientific\nwell\n\nprediction\n\nmodelling\n\nquantity. progress\n\nthe\nas\n\nthan\n\nand\n\nas\n\nV5Z\n\n\fidentified ,\n\n85\nanalytical tools^l are changing the way in which chemicals are\nisolated ,\nsynthesized. Progress in the theory of chemical reaction is leading to a whole\nspectrum of new catalysts ( synthetic enzymes , catalytic surfaces ,\nand photochemically\ncluster catalysis ,\ntechniques ,\nprimed\nincluding\nimproving\nseparation and purification. homogeneous\nsame\nselection\n\ncatalysis )\ntime\n\na\nmembranes\n\n\" intelligent \"\n\nnumber of\n\ndesigned\n\ncomputer\n\nevents. and\n\nare\n\nthe\n\nby\n\nAt\n\nchemistry-based\n\nEurope occupies a very good position both on the market\n4. 102. basic\nfor\nThere are , however , some problems of public acceptance\nscience. because of the issue of toxic waste. Possibly related to the\nlatter , there is also some difficulty in recruiting a sufficient\nnumber of high quality students ( cf. chapter 5 ). products\n\nchapter\n\n( see\n\nand\n\nin\n\nI )\n\nEarth Sciences\n\n4. 103. the prediction of natural phenomena with major economic\nsocial impacts\nexploitation of land resources goes without saying. The importance of progress in the earth sciences for\nand\n( eg. earthquakes ), as well as for the rational\n\nin\n\noil\n\nThe\n\nparticular ,\n\nthemselves\n4. 104. companies ,\nDeep drilling\nengaged in significant basic and applied research. and there are major\nhas been pioneered by the Soviet Union ;\nGood European coordination is assured by the\nefforts in the USA. Project\nEuropean\nsupported by the EC ). At a national level , the German government\nrecently decided to initiate a very ambitious programme to drill\na very deep ( 10 km ) hole through the crust of the earth. This is\nimportant because other deep drills ( notably those carried out in\nthe Soviet Union ) have suggested that conventional methods in\nexploration of the earth crust may be affected by artifacts. Geotraverse\n\nFoundation\n\nScience\n\n( cf. are\n\nthe\n\nOceanography , as part of the earth sciences ,\n\n4. 105. is being\nactively pursued throughout the world. The US is leading the\nfield ,\nwith a high level of participation of Japan and some\nthe\nEuropean countries. coastal zone , the interface between the ocean and the atmosphere\nbe\n( important\n\nSome aspects such as\n\nunderstanding global\n\nthe study of\n\nclimate\n\nchange )\n\nwill\n\nfor\n\nMass and optical spectroscopy\nNMR : Nuclear Magnetic Resonance\nESCA : Electron Spectroscopy for Chemical Analysis\nXAFS : Xray Absorption Fine Structure\nXANES : Xray Absorption Near Edge Structure\nNeutron activation , neutron scattering , chromatography. 133\n\n\f88\n\nThis is a matter for all European governments to reflect\n5. 4. This is\nIn many areas basic research is very expensive. upon. high energy physics or oceanography or\nobvious for fields like\nBut many smaller-scale basic research investigations now\nspace. also require high-cost sophisticated equipment. Costly basic\nresearch cries out for a joint or coordinated approach whether\nthrough the sharing of expensive facilities or the formulation of\nalready\ncoordinated\nhappening to some extent in Europe , notably through CERN , EMBL ,\nESO ,\nThe\nSCIENCE programme of the Community is also helping to demonstrate\nthe usefulness of joint approaches to speculative basic research. And\nprogramme\ncurrently before the Council provision has been made for joint\nprojects on more targetted basic research topics than hitherto. the basic research programme of\n\nis\nESF ^. Resource-pooling\n\nprogrammes. BRITE-EURAM\n\nESA and\n\nESPRIT\n\nunder\n\nwork\n\nnew\n\nand\n\nthe\n\nin\n\nII\n\nThe\n\nthis\n\nthat\n\ntrend\n\nshould\n\nfacing\n\nbelieves\n\nproblems\n\nbe\n5. 5. Commission\nreinforced during the coming years. It considers basic research\nto be an essential aspect of Community efforts , underpinning\nresearch aimed at improving competitiveness and research on the\nsocietal\nsupports\nEurope. industrial development longer-term alongside - but distinct from\nBasic research also performs\n- shorter-term product development. \" training \" researchers in the paradigms ,\nthe vital function of\nTo neglect this human capital\nmethods and norms of research. long-term prospect. would\nAs\nnew\nwhere\nis\nsuggested\nthe\nlay\nnow\nfundamental\nfoundations\nnotably in the\nfields of health and agriculture. research\nfor more applied research later ,\n\ncompromise\nIV ,\nefforts\n\nEurope 's\nbiology\nare\n\nseriously\nin\n\nresearch\n\nChapter\n\nneeded\n\nBasic\n\nfield\n\none\n\nto\n\nPrivate industry should also be encouraged to invest more in\nbasic research for the\nimportant\nlonger-term. advances in fundamental research have been made by scientists\nworking within private sector companies ( one example is the work\non beta-blockers which recently led to the award of a Nobel Prize\nto Sir James Black )\n\nHistorically ,. ( ii )\n\nThe links between industry and the universities\n\n5. 6. to\ngovernment ,\n\nThe Japanese technological success is partly attributable\nand\nof\n\nrelationships\nincluding\n\nuniversities ,\nof\n\nindustry\nseries\na\n\nestablishment\n\nbetween\n\nclose\n\nthe\n\n33\n\nCERN - European Centre for Nuclear Research\nEMBL - European Molecular Biology Laboratory\nESO\n\n- European Organisation for Astronomical Research\n\nin the Southern Hemisphere\n\n- European Space Agency\n- European Science Foundation. ESA\nESF\n\n134\n\n\f89\n\nof\n\nMITI\n\nyears^S. USA\nbut in the 1980s it\n\nspecifically cooperative ventures involving firms , universities\nindustry-university\nand\nthe\nIn\nlaboratories -^. has\ncooperation dates back over many years ,\nwitnessed a qualitatively new development in the form of major\nmultimillion dollar contracts between companies and universities\nenabling companies to be the first to have\naccess to the work\ncarried out on campus in a broad scientific domain and for a\nindustry-\nperiod\nuniversity links vary considerably but the general trend has been\ntowards a reinforcement , with industry driven increasingly by the\nneed to tap scientific knowledge and universities by financial\nOne associated phenomenon has been the growth of\nconstraints. \" science parks \" on both sides of the Atlantic ( eg. Durham in the\nUSA , Cambridge in the UK ). Community cost-sharing programmes\nsuch as ESPRIT and BRITE have aimed to encourage the links by\ndeliberately providing a framework in which industry research\nworkers and those in universities can team up in specific R&D\nprojects. traditions\n\nEurope\n\nthe\n\nof\n\nin\n\n( i )\n\n( point\n\nresearch\n\nThe trend towards close industry-university links in Europe\n5. 7. It is one more potential means of\nshould be further encouraged. But there are two\nmaximising the use of scarce R&D resources. The first is linked to the balance between basic and\ncaveats. that\napplied\nincreasing university dependence on industry may encourage more\nshort-term\nand\nmore\nproblem-solving\nmore\nand\nfundamental research. Secondly , there is a risk that exclusive\nrelationships between companies and universities or university\ndepartments may lead\nto restrictions on the availability of\nThis is already an important issue in the USA ,\nresearch results. Already the\nand it\nthe\nrecent\nOECD ,\nimplications for the longer-term^\u00ae. is likely to grow in importance in Europe. devoted\nto\nlonger-term\n\nresources\nthe\n\nuniversity\n\nexpressed\n\nThere is\n\nconcern\n\nneglect\n\nabove ). report\n\nbe\nof\n\nabout\n\nrisk\n\nhas\n\nto\n\nto\n\nin\n\na\n\na\n\nFuture\nfor\nnotably the JISEDAI\nfor\nResearch\nIndustries )\nThis is not to say ,\nAdvanced Technology ) programmes. of course , that the Japanese experience can be directly\ntranslated to Europe. ( Basic Technologies\n( Exploratory\n\nERATO\n\nand\n\nWell-known examples are the ten -year -agreement between\nHOECHST and the Massachusetts General Hospital for the\ncreation of a department of molecular biology ; and a\nfive -year - agreement\nWashington\nUniversity in St. Louis for research on proteins and peptides. MONSANTO\n\nbetween\n\nand\n\nScience and Technology Outlook , 1988\nOECD , Paris 1988. 135\n\n\fThe Commission has shown the way to avoid the risks in Community\nprogrammes through the nature of the contractual arrangements\nmade with participants , which provide a basis for both assuring\nthe dissemination of research results to interested parties while\nsafeguarding\ngroups\ninvolved. But this is an issue which will need to be considered\nfurther in all research funding programmes of a national as well\nas a transnational nature. interests\n\nresearch\n\nspecific\n\nthe\n\nthe\n\nof\n\n90\n\nthe\n\ncontext\n\nspecifically\n\nTwo other more specific developments at a European level\n5. 8. between\ndeserve\nof\nin\nalso\nattention\nuniversities and industry. The first is the creation by a number\nof multinational companies of a European Institute of Technology\naimed\nR&D\nbetween\nThe second is\nefforts and pre-competitive university research. the\nin\nthe\nmultidisciplinary collaborative research associations in Europe\nknown as\nThis\nlatter issue is currently under discussion by the Community 's\nManagement and Coordination Advisory Committee on Biotechnology\nand by the Industrial Research and Development Advisory Committee\n( IRDAC ). European Laboratories without Walls\n\nparticipation\n\nindustrial\n\nindustrial\n\ncreating\n\ninterest\n\ngrowing\n\n( ELWWs ). links\n\nlinks\n\nat\n\nin\n\nBasic research must be given adequate support and\nattention , if solid foundations for the future are\nto be constructed. Industry-university links should be further encouraged ,\nbut attention must be paid to the consequences for the\nnature of university research work and the availability\nof research results. EDUCATION AND INFORMATION\n\n( iii )\n\nBroadening and deepening the technology culture\n\nThe conduct and management of research and the application\n5. 9. of the technologies that result from it all depend on the skills\nThe most successful societies in the post-war\nof individuals. period have been those that have sought actively to develop those\n\n136\n\n\fskills , to create a general climate of technical literacy and to\nencourage\nhighly trained\nlarge\nemergence\nthe\nof\nIn the future these skills will be\nscientists and engineers. ever more in demand. numbers\n\nof\n\n91\n\nof\n\nin\n\nthe\n\nand\n\nliteracy\n\nfor skilled manpower. In Europe the traditions of\n\nJapan has witnessed the most significant growth in\n5. 10. research\nnumbers\ngeneral\ntechnical\nscientists and engineers. In the USA the numbers are high but\nstagnant , and increasingly worries are expressed about the future\navailability of the manpower needed to carry through the new\nsome\ntechnological revolution. countries are stronger ( Chapter II ) than others. But there are\nwidespread mismatches between the output of traditional education\nand the demand\nThere are particular\nshortages of highly gualified scientific personnel in the smaller\nand less developed countries of the Community ( see ( viii ) below ). But\nshortages of\nscience-based skills are already a source of some concern and\nthere are new worries about a \" brain-drain \" as US universities\nand companies seek to entice the brightest and the best to meet\nfuture\ntheir\nand\nown\nengineers. The US drive will not be directed only at Europe : a\nkey issue in the USA now is whether and how to encourage the\nlarge number of Asian students at US universities to stay on in\nthe USA. But Europe will continue to be a major potential source\nof supply of highly trained research scientists to the USA. for highly qualified\n\nlarger countries\n\nscientists\n\nneeds\n\neven\n\nsome\n\nthe\n\nthe\n\nin\n\nof\n\nis\n\nin\n\nfor\n\none\n\nthe\n\nnational\n\nimproving\n\nprincipally\n\nattractions\n\nThe question of science education , training and skill\n5. 11. acquisition\ngovernments. Industry also has an important role to play and many industries\nhave already increased their own training efforts as a partial\nBut the value of complementary action at Community\nsolution. level has already been demonstrated by the success of the COMETT\nAlongside , the Community must now move\nand ERASMUS programmes. forward\nEuropean\nframework to the most able national research workers by more\nrapid progress in creating a genuine Researchers' Europe. As the\nscope of research needs widens and deepens it is less and less\nhowever\npossible\noffer\ncountries ,\nIt becomes in consequence\ncentres of excellence in every field. increasingly\ntake\nable\nimportant\nadvantage of the possibilities offered by the whole European\nCommunity. At present the mobility of researchers is hampered\nnot only by language problems , but also by practical problems\nsuch as different social security systems , pension arrangements\nand so on. Progress in this area will be greatly facilitated by\nthe removal of barriers to the free movement of labour within the\nCommunity in the framework of progress towards the Community 's\nInternal Market. researchers\n\nindividual\n\nthe wider\n\nlarge ,\n\nfor\n\nfor\n\nbe\n\nto\n\nto\n\nto\n\nof\n\n137\n\n\f( iv )\n\nThe public acceptability of science and technology\n\n92\n\nand\n\nA related issue is that of public acceptability of science\n5. 12. On the one hand ,\nPublic concern has two facets. and technology. people worry about the dangers and risks associated with new\ntechnology ,\ninvoluntary\naccidents\n(a repeat of the Chernobyl accident , the escape of\ndangerous biological cultures , the possibility of major chemical\nOn the other , there is ethical concern about\nspillages etc. ). the possibilities offered by scientific developments , for example\nin the field of genetic engineering , which may be voluntarily\nexploited. particularly\n\npossibility\n\nthe\n\nof\n\nConcern about new scientific developments is often based\n5. 13. This is particularly true at present in\non fears of the unknown. the case of biotechnology. Public opinion surveys in the USA and\nin some European countries have revealed considerable confusion\nThey have also demonstrated that\nabout its benefits and risks. the\nas\ntechnologies\nof\nof\nbiotechnology depends heavily on the level of general education\nand on the depths of understanding of the issues surrounding a\nparticular scientific development or technology-^. acceptability\n\ndegree\n\nsuch\n\nnew\n\nbe made ;\n\nIt is important for the proper functioning of our democracies and\nfor the advance of European society that popular understanding of\nthe issues should be improved. Only in that way will sensible\nchoices\na sound regulatory environment established to\nminimise the risks ; and an informed basis created for examination\nof the ethical issues. The role which information can play in\nthe\nthis\nNetherlands where tough regulations on safety matters combined\nwith a high quality , extensive and systematic provision of public\ninformation in schools and through the mass media has helped to\nreduce concern about recombinant DNA techniques. illustrated\n\nvisibly\n\nrespect\n\ncase\n\nthe\n\nin\n\nis\n\nof\n\n5. 14. The Commission has a role to play on behalf of the whole\nCommunity in improving public understanding about these important\nissues by help in the design and development of consistent and\nobjective\nlarge\nexpansion of satellite broadcasting could offer new opportunities\nfor Community-backed programmes on science and technology issues. information\n\nmaterial. prospect\n\nThe\n\nof\n\na\n\nScience\n\n1987 , NSF\nEngineering\nSee\nOpinion\nBiotechnology :\nWashington ;\n( un ) known ,\nin Biotechnology in Holland ,\n1985 / 5 ; Democracy and Biotechnology , Mark Cantley , in\nSwiss Biotech , 5(1987 ). and\n\" Public\n( un ) loved ?\"\n\nIndicators ,\n\non\n\n138\n\n\f93\n\nMore attention must be paid in Europe to the development\nof human resources , both to pursue scientific knowledge\nand to apply its results. made to provide an attractive environment inside\nEurope for research workers in which the brightest and\nthe best have easy access to the centres of excellence\nwhich are available in different countries. A particular effort must be\n\nAt the same time a particular effort must be directed to\nimprove public understanding of science and technology\nissues. INDUSTRY AND THE PRIVATE SECTOR\n\n( v )\n\nEncouraging the private sector to invest more in R&D\n\nA major challenge for Europe is to increase the share of\n5. 15. its economic resources that are devoted to investment in R&D ,\nwhich for the bulk of European nations is well below that of the\nUSA and Japan ( Chapters II and III ). Much of the efforts must be\nmade by industry itself , which has been the leading source of the\ngrowth of funds in non-military R&D expenditure in the USA and\nJapan. It is in industry 's own interests to invest more in R&D\nas the source of longer-term improvements in competitiveness and\nBut the growth in industry-funding of R&D is not\nprofitability. Industry-funding of R&D must be focussed\nuniform across Europe. \" downstream \"\nnot\ncommercial\non\nbenefit. Japanese and US industry is spending more and more\nmoney on targetted basic research to create the conditions for\nlonger-term advance. European industry must do the same. short-term\n\nprojects\n\nonly\n\nof\n\n5. 16. Factors of importance in encouraging investment in R&D and\ninnovation include the general economic climate , tax regimes , and\n( for innovative investments ) the existence of developed venture\n( the latter being of particular importance to\ncapital markets\nof\nnascent\n\ncompanies ). overall\n\nEurope\n\nsmall\n\nrates\n\nor\n\nIn\n\n139\n\n\findustrial investment vary widely ;\nown\nsystem of tax or other incentives to support industrial R&D ;\nwhile venture capital markets ( which are developed in the United\nKingdom , and to a lesser extent in the Netherlands and Belgium )\nare essentially national markets. each country has\n\nits\n\n94\n\nBRITE in particular )\n\nThe Community 's R&D programmes on industrial technologies\n5. 17. ( ESPRIT ,\nhave already played a role in\nhelping to commit industry-funding of R&D through cost-sharing\nmechanisms. A number of initiatives at European level have also\nbeen taken\nto encourage investment by small and medium-size\nenterprises. The European Venture Capital Association ( ECVA ) was\nthe\ncreated\nIn\nwith\nthe Venture Consort project aimed at\ncollaboration with ECVA\npromoting\nwas\ninnovation\nfinancing of\ntransnational\nlaunched in 1985. The Commission has also recently approved the\nlaunching\nthe\nfor\nestablishment of \" seed capital \" funds and for a European network\nof such funds. Commission. initiative\n\nfinancial\n\nof. the\n\nsupport\n\nsupport\n\n1983\n\nSMEs\n\nfor\n\nin\n\nan\n\nof\n\nin\n\nbarriers\n\nThe\ntechnological\ncooperation have already been analysed separately in a separate\nCommunication by the Commission , which contains an action plan 38. transnational\n\nindustrial\n\nand\n\nto\n\nThe Commission is also exploring with the financial Community\nwhether it would be appropriate to establish one or several\ninvestment companies specialised in this kind of project. It is\nalso exploring with the insurance companies\nthe most appropriate\nway to insure the risks involved and thus to remove one of the\nmain obstacles to investment in innovative projects. These two\nInnovation\nInsurance\ninitiatives\nFacility39 )\ncommercial\nand\nthe\nensure\napplication of the results of European R&D programmes. and\nindustrial\n\n( Eurotech\nto\naim\n\nCapital\n\nIn addition , the European Investment Bank has made available loan\nfinance to SMEs , with priority for innovative investment , using\nits own resources and those of the New Community Instrument\n( NCI ). Between 1985 and 1987 its loans for investment in high\nThe proposed NCI V\ntechnology amounted to 1,094 million ECU. two\nof\nincludes\npriority areas. technology as\n\ninvestments\n\nhigh\n\none\n\nthe\n\nin\n\nThe Commission is also working towards improvements in the flow\nof information between potential financiers and the promoters of\nprojects who are seeking external finance , by establishing a\nproject data-base. 38\n39\n\nC0M ( 88)114 final , du 28. 3. 88\nformerly EUROTECH INSUR\n\n\u25a0 r\n\u00ea\n\\ -, u\n\n\f95\n\nin\nto\nfor\n\nindustry\nin\ncompetition. 5. 18. Alongside action to improve the flow of private funds to\nindustry the Commission has operated competition policy in such a\nthe need to increase the overall level of\nway as to balance\navoiding\ninvestment\nbeen\ndistortions\nhas\nestablished\nbetween\nenterprises in R&D and for state aid regimes for R&D projects. As the Community moves further towards the completion of the\nInternal Market , with a consequent increase in competition , on\nthe one hand , and concentration , on the other , the application of\ncompetition policy to R&D and particularly to transfrontier R&D\narrangements will become an increasingly important issue. against\nA specific\njoint\n\nof\nthat\nframework\nagreements\n\nhandling\n\nR&D\n\nthe\n\nof\n\n( vi )\n\nThe diffusion of technoloqy\n\nand\n\nAs well\n\n( upstream )\n\n( downstream ). R&D itself\ninvolving\n\nlies at the centre of\neducation\ntechnology transfer\n\na complex feedback\n5. 19. and\ninnovation\nprocess\ndiffusion or\nas\ninvesting more in R&D , industry also has to know and understand\nthe new technologies coming on the market and to invest directly\nAn expert group of the OECD has recently noted that\nin them. \" the economic advantages of new technologies derive from their\ndiffusion rather than from their refinement. New technology\nin itself has hardly any economic advantages as long as it is not\nThe sluggish growth\neffectively used and widely applied. \"^. is one\nin European demand for electronic goods\nimportant\nnew\nof\ntechnologies. It should also be said that the benefits of\nresearch to develop those technologies are also enhanced the more\nwidely they are disseminated , even though this may not always be\nin the immediate commercial interest of an industrial firm or\nresearch consortium. ( chapter 1. 2 )\nof\n\nadoption\n\nexample\n\nslow\n\nrate\n\nthe\n\nof\n\nTechnology transfer is another area where the Japan is in\n5. 20. a stronger position than Europe. In some European countries\n( notably Denmark ) major efforts have been made in recent years to\nencourage the spread of new technologies within industry and\ncommerce through information campaigns and specific financial\nsupport systems\nBut the degree of\nMoreover , the public policy efforts are based\nattention varies. national\nessentially\nborders. for the private sector. technologies\n\nwithin\n\nspread\n\nthe\n\non\n\nof\n\nEffective dissemination of the results from the Community 's own\nimproving\nresearch\n\ncontributes\n\nactivities\n\ngoal\n\nthe\n\nto\n\nof\n\n40\n\nScience and Technology Policy Outlook , OECD 1988. 141\n\n\f96\n\nof\n\nCommunity\n\nThis is the purpose of the VALUE programme. information. But\nthe impact of measures in this field is directly related to the\nwhy\nvolume\ncomplementary actions such as those carried out under the SPRINT\nprogramme to create more favourable conditions for innovation and\ntechnology transfer will need to be reinforced in the future. Outside experts have recently underlined the importance of a\nvigorous effort in this direction and called for a strengthening\nof the SPRINT activities'* * , and a new and larger programme has\nnow been proposed by the Commission. activities. research\n\nThis\n\nis\n\nparticular\n\nThe importance of stimulating demand for new technologies cannot\nA key issue is the availability of information\nbe overstressed. about\nreturns. their\nOrganised \" watch \" programmes have proved to be very efficient in\nConsideration needs to be given in Europe to how to\nJapan. improve\n( of\nthis\ncapital or consumer goods ) to think about how new technologies\ncould help satisfy his needs. technologies\n\ninformation\n\nstimulate\n\nexpected\n\nconsumer\n\nand\n\nand\n\nthe\n\nto\n\nin\nThe\nof\nrole\nstandardisation\nalso\nimportant in the context of shaping the market for adoption of\ntechnologies. normalisation\n\ntechnologies\n\nMember\nand\n\nGovernments\n\nCommunity\n\nand\n\nthe\n\nof\n\nis\n\nIndustry must be encouraged to invest more in R&D ,\nand top management should be more closely involved\nthan is often the case. A major effort is needed throughout industry and the\nservices to improve awareness and information about new\ntechnologies so that the fruits of R&D can be widely\nand quickly spread. Evaluation of the first BRITE programme ( 1985-88 )\nResearch evaluation report n*25 , CEC 1988. 142\n\n\fPOLICY COORDINATION AND COHESION WITHIN EUROPE\n\n97\n\n( vii )\n\nIncreasinq coordination amonq national policies\n\nIII\n\nthe\n\nChapter\n\nimportance\n\nunderlined\n\nincreased\n5. 21. coordination of national policies as a means of saving money\noverall , increasing the returns to R&D investment , encouraging\nthe broadest use in the Community of \" best practice \" in research\nmanagement , and ultimately leading to greater complementarity in\nnational programmes. This is why Article 130H of the Single\nEuropean Act expresses a political commitment on the part of the\nCommunity 's Member States ,\nto\ntheir policies and programmes at\ncoordinate among themselves\nnational level. in liaison with the Commission ,\n\nof\n\non\n\nThese\n\nfuture\n\nnational\n\ndecisions\n\ncooperation. The first step in better coordination must be to improve\n5. 22. mutual information and understanding about national policies. Such information about what others are doing will in itself\nto\ncontribute\nor\nThe second is to identify fruitful areas for more\npolicies. or\nspecific\nSome may be appropriate for Community-wide\nmultilateral nature. coordination. for\ndeveloping cooperative activities ( such as specific bilateral or\nnational\njoint\nmultilateral\nparticipations\nor\nprojects\nsupplementary programmes in a strictly Community framework as\nprovided for under Article 130L of the Single European Act ). At\nCommunity level the formula of \" concerted action \" at , which has\nproved highly successful in the fields of health and environment\nand which requires a minimal amount of Community public funding ,\nshould be more widely used. agreements ,\nmajor\n\nagreements\nsuch\n\nprogrammes\n\non\nCERN ,\n\nbilateral\n\nnumerous\n\npossible\n\nformulas\n\nThere\n\nEMBO ,\n\ncan\n\nare\n\nin\n\nbe\n\nas\n\nof\n\na\n\n( viii ) Improving the cohesion of the Community\n\n5. 23. The technology gap between the less-favoured regions\n( LFRs ) and the more economically advanced areas of the Community\nis greater even than the economic gap ( Chapter III ). In most\nLFRs there is a lack of physical infrastructure for research and\ndevelopment ; there is a chronic shortage of skilled scientific\npersonnel ;\ninnovation. Improving the RTD base is essential to ensure adequate growth and\ndevelopment in the LFRs. companies\n\noriented\n\ntowards\n\nless\n\nare\n\n143\n\n\f98\n\nof\n\nThe\n\nbetter\n\nnational\n\nbetween\n\n5. 24. research\ncoordination\nactivities will certainly have some spin-offs in regional terms. And the Community 's VALUE programme will ensure the spread of\nCommunity ,\nresearch results throughout all the regions of the\nhelping to reinforce the knowledge base in the LFRs. Moreover ,\nthe Community 's own research programmes have already promoted\ncolleagues\nrelations\nelsewhere , encouraging the \" trickling down \" of best practice and\nexperience. regional\ncompetitiveness cannot be tackled primarily through Community\nThe main principle applying to\nresearch programmes themselves. the choice of research projects for Community support is that of\nexcellence in scientific terms , and the evaluation of projects\nand\ncriteria. Excellence is a goal which is appropriate for all regions to\nstrive towards. But scientific excellence will not be achieved\neverywhere without major improvement in the RTD fabric. improvements\n\nsubstantial\n\nresearchers\n\nprogrammes\n\nscientific\n\npurely\n\ntheir\n\nbased\n\nLFRs\n\nand\n\nBut\n\nin\n\non\n\nin\n\nis\n\nto\n\nby\n\nthe\n\nare\n\nneeds\n\nActions\n\noffered\n\ninstitutes\n\nTo achieve these improvements mechanisms other than\n5. 25. At a Community\nresearch programmes themselves must be used. opportunities\nthe\nreform\nlevel\nnew\n3 structural funds , whose budget will be doubled by\nCommunity 's\n1993. infrastructure ;\nfocussed\nbe\nstimulating innovative activities in industry ; helping companies\nCommunity\nand\nfor\nprogrammes ;\nThe\nCommission is already contemplating one specific action known as\nThis is not a research programme aimed at specific\nSTRIDE^. research goals. a blueprint for RTD development\nprepared centrally. In keeping with the philosophy applying to\nthe structural funds it is a framework for the development of\ninitiatives to improve the RTD base in LFRs in partnership with\nthe\nother\nOther\nstructural funds may be considered. participation\nand\n\nin\nevaluation. to\ntechnical\n\nthemselves. assistance\n\nthrough\n\nactions\n\nregions\n\nprepare\n\nNor is\n\nthe\n\nand\n\non\n\nof\n\nit\n\n5. 26. It would be illusory to believe that the problem of the\ntechnology gap within the Community can be rapidly and easily\nInfrastructural development ; training ; the creation of\nbridged. an innovative capacity ,\nBut action through\nregional and social policy instruments will help to shorten the\ntime-scales involved. all take time. Science\nDevelopment in Europe. and Technology for Regional\n\nInnovation\n\nand\n\n144\n\n\f99\n\nBetter coordination of national policies would help to\nsave money and improve the efficiency of resource use\nthroughout the Community. At the same time a particular effort is required to\nimprove the RTD fabric in the less-favoured regions of the\nCommunity. provide a complete answer. and social policy instruments is needed. Research programmes in themselves cannot\n\nA major action using regional\n\nTHE EXTERNAL ASPECTS\n\n( ix )\n\nEncouraging cooperation in RTD with third countries\n\nScience and technology are increasingly international\n5. 27. At the level of the firm there has been a rapid\ncommodities. growth in recent years of cooperative ventures in R&D , often of a\ntransnational nature. Among universities and between them and\nindustry , relations of a transnational nature are already common. There is a growing international market in research scientists. And national policy-makers have recognised the value of access to\nthe scientific and technological resources of third countries as\na means of providing the new knowledge and expertise needed to\nsustain growth and development in their own countries. In the\nscientific\ncase\nexchanges and significant industrial R&D cooperation with the\nUSA. particularly\n\nintensive\n\nEurope\n\nthere\n\nare\n\nof\n\n5. 28. with third countries and international organisations ,\n\nBy committing the Community to develop RTD cooperation\nArticle\n\n145\n\n\fThe recent recommendations'* 3\n\n130G of the Single European Act recognises the importance for\nEurope 's own long-term future of properly coordinated action in\nof the OECD Council\nthis field. also urge Member States in their own mutual interests to promote\nscientific\nfurther\ntechnological\ninternationalisation of RTD is therefore inevitable. The issue\nis how best to organise international cooperation in such a way\nthat\nthe\nparticipants have something to gain. \" positive-sum \"\n\nexchanges. which\n\ngame\n\nand\n\nThe\n\ncan\n\nall\n\nbe\n\nit\n\nin\n\na\n\n100\n\nof\n\nthree\n\nEurope ,\n\nnotably\n\nand\ncountries\n\nFor the European Community cooperative activities must be\n5. 29. focussed principally on\nto whom\ngroups\ndifferent considerations apply , namely : other countries within\nEFTA\nthe\nWestern\nother\ndeveloping\nEurope ,\nindustrialised\ncountries. Outside these three groups separate reflections are\nnow needed on the basis for cooperation with the Soviet Union and\nEastern\nnow\ndeveloping across the European continent ; as well as on policies\nof RTD cooperation with the NICs that take into account , on a\ncase -by- case basis ,\nthe position and prospects for individual\ncountries. partners ,\nthe\n\nrelationships\n\ncountries ,\n\noutside\n\nEurope\n\nlight\n\nand\n\nnew\n\nour\n\nthe\n\nthe\n\nin\n\nof\n\n\"A\n\nan\n\nfor\n\nwith\n\nother\n\ncarte \"\n\ncooperation\n\nimportant\nla\n\nEuropean countries. As far as the EFTA countries are concerned , cooperation\n5. 30. COST\nhas been running since the establishment of COST in 1971. specific\nframework\nremains\nprojects\nThe\nLuxembourg agreement of 1984 between the Community , the Member\nStates and the EFTA countries to create a European Economic SPace\nhas led to an intensification of relations in the scientific\nhave now been\nfield. concluded between the Community and 5 of the EFTA countries. The\nsixth ( with Iceland ) has recently been submitted to the Council\nfor approval. These agreements provide for various forms of\nCommunity\naccess\nframework EUREKA provides a useful basis for cooperation between\ncompanies and institutes from the EFTA countries ( and Turkey ) and\nthose from the Community Member States themselves. Special bilateral cooperation agreements\n\nprogrammes. Community\n\nAlongside\n\nthe\n\nto\n\non\n\n5. 31. Cooperation within a strictly Community framework with\nindustrialised countries outside Europe is less well-developed. a dense network of\nAt a commercial\nlinkages in R&D between companies has been established across the\nMoreover , the tradition of transatlantic migration of\nAtlantic. noted above ,\n\nlevel ,\n\nas\n\nRecommendations of the OECD Council about a general\nframework\ninternational\nscientific and technological cooperation , 21 April 1988. principles\n\nrelating\n\nto\n\nof\n\n146\n\n\f101\n\nEuropean scientists goes back a long way. But these developments\nhave occurred in the absence of a formal general framework for\ncooperation with the USA. It might now be appropriate to explore\nthe scope for such a general framework , given the wealth of US\nresources\nthe\nopportunities and issues raised by the recent developments in the\nUSA described in Chapter II. It would also be timely to take\nadvantage of the new moves by Japan towards the international\nscience and technology community in order to examine seriously\nthe scope for mutually beneficial cooperative ventures which are\nunlikely to exacerbate commercial strains. experience\n\nscientific\n\ndomain\n\nand\n\nand\n\nthe\n\nin\n\nFor the developing countries the situation is different\n5. 32. Their problems are , in some respects , akin to those of\nagain. RTD\nthe less-favoured regions of Europe , but their shortages of\ninfrastructure and skilled scientists and skilled manpower are\nThese limitations in terms of indigenous resources\nmore severe. put a powerful brake on economic and social development. In\naddition many of them face specific problems in the fields of\nagriculture ,\nthe environment which\nmedicine\nrequire a particular research effort. and health ,\n\nand\n\nhas\n\nEurope\nthese\nresearch fields , partly as a consequence of colonial experience. But the expertise is often fragmented among different national\ninstitutes. Efforts are needed to coordinate national actions. and expertise\n\nconsiderable\n\nexperience\n\nin\n\nof\n\nthe\n\nalready\n\nnecessary\n\ncoordination\n\nat\nis\nSome\nCommunity level. Since 1983 the Community has been running with\nthe LDCs a programme of R&D directed at the problems of tropical\nfor\nand\nmedicine\nDevelopment \"). a\nflexible programme of scientific cooperation in Latin America ,\nAsia and Mediterranean countries aimed at the integration of\ninternational\nresearch\ninto\nscientific\nresearch\nof\ncapacities , and ,\nlatterly , exploring the scope for technology\ntransfer. agriculture\nSeparately ,\n\ncountries\nimprovement\n\nin\ncommunity ,\n\n(\" Science\nsince\n\nTechnology\n\nindigenous\n\nthese\nthe\n\ndeveloped\n\nunderway\n\nand\nit\n\nworkers\n\n1984\n\nhas\n\nthe\n\nThese programmes are an important contribution to the Community 's\n- wider development policy objectives , and in the years to come RTD\nmust play an increasingly important role in this context. Given\nissues in the developing\nthe growing concern about environmental\ncountries ( soil erosion , industrial pollutants etc. ) and the need\nto 'optimise\nthe natural\nthe development and exploitation of\nresource base and new and renewable energies , there is a growing\nneed for a particular new and coordinated research effort in\nAt the same time the wider consequences for the\nthese fields. developing countries of\nfor example ,\nmaterials and biotechnology will need to be considered further. scientific advances\n\nin ,\n\n\f( x )\n\nAvoidinq technoloaical protectionism\n\n102\n\nof\n\nThe\n\nbenefits\n\nlonger-term\n\nan\n5. 33. international level can only be fully achieved if the transfer of\nknowledge and technology is facilitated rather than constrained. Historically the scientific world has been an open world in which\nresults of research are widely published and discussed and taken\nup and elaborated by others. of\nresearch and the growing importance of science to trade flows has\nincreased the pressure to restrict the flow of information in\norder to preserve competitive edge. But the \" industrialisation \"\n\ncooperation\n\nRTD\n\nat\n\nis\n\nThis\n\n5. 34. a major issue for international cooperation ,\nnotably in the Community 's relations with other industrialised\ncountries , which has been addressed recently by the OECD in its\nCouncil Recommendation of April 1988 44. The Commission believes\nthat Europe and the world economy as a whole would be the loser\nfrom a more protectionist scientific and technological world. LDCs would be even bigger losers. The Community should therefore\nwork towards ensuring the diffusion of research results and away\nfrom policies\nThe\nthe\nnecessary corollary is that progress should be made in ensuring\nadequate\nand\nvigorously\nindustrial\nendorses the OECD Council Recommendation on the need to work\ntowards this end. protection\nCommission\n\nof\ntherefore\n\nintellectual\n\ninformation. property. restrict\n\nflow of\n\nthe\nThe\n\nregimes\n\nthat\n\nfor\n\nScience and technology are international commodities , and\ninternational cooperation must be a fundamental element in\nEuropean RTD policies. The Community must further cement\nits relations with the EFTA countries ? explore new modes of\ncooperation with the other industrial countries , notably\nthe USA and Japan ; and build on its successful cooperation\nwith LDCs. One important issue affecting relations with third coun\u00ac\ntries is the question of technological protectionism and\npotential restrictions on the flow of knowledge. Community should work towards ensuring the diffusion of\nresearch results by third countries and away from policies\nto restraint the flow of information. The\n\n44\n\nSee footnote n*31. 148\n\n\fAnnex 1\n\nINFORMATION TECHNOLOGY AND TELECOMMUNICATIONS TECHNOLOGY\nISSUES\n\nIntroduction\n\nI. INFORMATION TECHNOLOGY ISSUES\n\nA. Technology issues in the context of the competitive position of IT. industry in Europe\n\n1. Initial situation 1980 - 1984\n\n2. Actions and progress 1984 - 1988\n\n3. 4. Remaining weak points\n\nChanging priorities and new actions\n\nB. The perspectives of emerging technologies in I. T. and the need for reinforced basic\n\nresearch\n\n1. 2. Background and rationale\n\nIssues of strategic significance\n\nII. TELECOMMUNICATIONS AND APPLICATION TECHNOLOGY ISSUES\n\nA. T\u00e9l\u00e9communications technology\n\nInitial situation\n\nChanges occurred during the last years\n\nNew needs to address\n\nNew priorities for action\n\nB. Application technology\n\n1. Rationale for Community action\n\n2. Application of information technology and telecommunications in health care\n\n3. Application of information technology and telecommunications in education and\n\ntraining\n\n4. Application of information technology and telecommunications in transport\n\n149\n\n\fINFORMATION AND TELECOMMUNICATIONS TECHNOLOGIES ISSUES\n\nIntroduction\n\nThe global R&D effort devoted to information and telecommunications technologies in the\nEEC for 1986 is evaluated at 14 billion ECUs, thus one half less than in the United States. In Europe, almost all expenses are financed and carried out by industry, that devotes a\nconsiderable proportion of its turn-over ( 10. 5%) to it. Public financing plays a notable but minor role (29% in Europe against 37% in the United\nStates). The R&D effort in information and telecommunications technologies is characterised in\nEurope by a triple deficiency:\n\na very marked scattering of efforts between 12 countries (ranging from 0. 3% to 6% of\nthe GNP, thus a factor of 1 to 20 of the effort rate);\n\na high redundancy mainly for what concerns many national programmes and the critical\nmass insufficiency that can result of this;\n\na rythm of actual growth that is slower than in the United States and Japan. Despite\nthe recent constant increase of the R&D effort in the small countries of the European\nCommunity (Portugal, Greece, Ireland, the Netherlands), the slow progress of public\nand private budgets in the four countries realising 90% of the total (Federal Republic\nof Germany, France, Italy, United Kingdom) leads to a global annual increase of\nexpenditures (8. 4%) that, in the European Community, is still under that realised in the\nUnited States (+ 10. 7%) and in Japan (+ 9. 5%): thus, the gap seems to increase from\nyear to year. The existence,\nthe Community\u2019s transnational cooperative research\nprogrammes (representing 3% of the total RDT expenditures in 1986) obviously cannot\nalone have an effort proportionate to the importance of the stakes and problems. since 1984, of\n\n150\n\n\f1\n\nA. 1. Information Technology (IT) Issues in the Context of the Competitive Position\n1\nsrrritmra^iTWturope ^)\n\n\"\n\n\u25a0\n\nn\n\nInitial Situation 1980 - 1984\n\nTo gain of the present status and trends within the European IT industry we need\nto review recent history. At the beginning of the 1980s the situation of the\nEuropean IT industry attracted great concern. The European industry was\ncharacterized by a lagging IT market,\nlow market shares, low R&D and low\ncapital investments. An analysis of performances of two groups of companies, including respectively\nthe largest US and the largest European Information Systems companies, shows\nthat from 1980 to 1984 < 1 ) :\n\n-\n\n-\n\nthe revenue growth rate of US companies was higher both on the worldwide\nand the European market;\n\nthe profitability of US companies stayed constantly higher;\n\n- both capital expenditure and R&D were much higher in US than in Europe\n\nand still growing in US at a higher rate than in Europe ;\n\n-\n\nthe projected growth of the leading US companies would have enhanced their\ndominant position in the Information Systems market, by the end of the\ndecade. Moreover, the balance of trade in IT products was negative, amounting to a\ndeficit of 10. 6 billion US dollars in 1984 1. 2. Actions and Progress ( 1984-1988)\n\nConcerted action was taken by the European companies to try and rectify the\nposition. These actions encouraged a new dynamism in the European IT\nindustry and helped mobilise human, financial and technological resources to try\nand reverse the negative trends. There have been some acquisitions and\nnumerous cooperative projects between European companies during the last five\nyears. These have been partly inspired by entrepreneurial opportunities strongly\nstressed and supported by collaborative programmes such as ESPRIT. We are now beginning to see the fruits of the combined efforts. In strictly quantitative terms, the situation in the Information Systems industry is\nnow quite different. (*)\n\nAll sources of data are listed in the annex. Information Technologies ( IT ) comprises : Information Systems including software and services. Electronic Components , Industrial Automation Systems/Computer Integrated Manufacturing ( CIH ). 151\n\n\f2\n\n-\n\n-\n\nIn the European market, where market shares have not been affected by\nchanges in exchange rates, the largest European companies have significantly\nincreased their market share, bringing it close to 50 %, from 33 % in 1983 43 *. In the software and services market, representing more than half of the total\nthe European companies are holding a\nInformation Systems market,\nfavourable position taking advantage of the strong growth of the market\ndemand 44 *. - European IT companies are now investing in R&D a proportion of their sales\nvery close to that of US companies. Nevertheless the speed of necessary\nincrease of R&D cost in the IT field has not yet slowed down45 *. - The strongest\n\ninvestment effort of European companies was in capital\nexpenditure, which reached in 1987 a level higher than that of US companies,\nalthough still lower than the level of Japanese companies45 *. 3. Remaining Weak Points\n\nAlthough the European Information Processing industry seems on the way to\novercome some of its traditional weaknesses, major problems still remain. These\ninclude:\n\nThe Information Processing industry represents in Europe only 26 % of the\nElectronic industry, against 33 % in Japan and 41 % in USA4. The fastest\ngrowing sector of the electronic industry (the Information Processing\nsector) has not yet in Europe a position able to provide an healthy condition\nto the whole electronic industry and in particular to the semiconductors\nindustry. b) The penetration of European Information Systems companies on overseas\nmarkets is still minimal\n( 15 to 25 % of sales43 *), while the expanding\nEuropean market is increasingly attracting tough competitors: Japanese\nmanufacturers have not yet concentrated their efforts in Europe, but the\nrate of their growth pushes Japanese companies to expand overseas sales. c)\n\nThe balance of trade has not improved. On the contrary in 1986 the trade\ndeficit in IT products increased to 13. 4 billion US dollars4**. d) The Electronic Components industry has not progressed in Europe at the\nsame rate, making the Information Systems industry and other user\nindustries even more dependent on foreign suppliers of critical and strategic\nsome key\nThe dependency on foreign suppliers\ncomponents. Microelectronics components is as follows:\n\nfor\n\n- 65 % of the most commonly used memory chips are produced by\nJapanese manufacturers. This share gets close to 90 % for the most\nadvanced type of memory46*. This situation has already pushed US\nmanufacturers (both of semiconductor and computers) to join forces to\nestablish new production capabilities in the USA;\n\n152\n\n\f3\n\n- 89 % of the production of the most advanced microprocessor chips (32-\nbit) is concentrated in three US companies. The same three companies\naccount\ncommonly used\nfor\nmicroprocessors ( 16 bit)\n\n55 % of production of. the most\n\na\n\nstrongly\n\ncompetitive\n\nIn\nthe European\nindustrial\nMicroelectronics industry has the disadvantage of a low demand from the\nconsumer electronics\nlocomotive which led Japanese\nthe\nsemiconductor industry to the present leadership position. Moreover, the\nInformation Systems industry, the second driving force of Microelectronics,\nis much smaller in Europe than in the US. environment,\n\nindustry,\n\ne)\n\nThe situation is similarly critical in certain types of computer peripherals. These represent an ever-increasing part of\nthe value of Information\nSystems. - Japanese and South East Asia manufacturers produce 90 % of worldwide\nproduction of tubes (CRTs) for display units, 95 % of flat panels based on\nLiquid Crystal Technology (LCD\u2019s) and are expected to get similar shares\nin other emerging flat panel technologies1 7). - US and Japanese manufacturers represent 90 % of the world production\nof printers and the European dependence is even higher for key parts:\nthe core elements for laser printers are a monopoly of three Japanese\ncompanies( 7>. f)\n\nA further and critical weakness is the lack of trained personnel. Estimates\nof the required number of trained personnel vary widely but it is clear that\ninsufficient are being produced. As an example one recent estimate for the\nrequirement of engineers trained in VLSI design was 5,000 per year in one\nrecent estimate for the requirement of engineers trained in VLSI design\nwas 5,000 per year in one Member State, namely Germany185. At the\nmoment only about 3,000 per year are entering the workforce in the whole\nof the Community. 153\n\n\f4\n\n4. Changing Priorities and New Actions\n\nThe relative success in some areas of European IT serves to highlight\nthe\nremaining problems. Continued action is required to tackle these as well as to\nconsolidate the newly acquired competitive positions. Further efforts are called\nfor by new challenges evolving (such as Japanese entry into European computer\nmarket or the recent new US initiatives in Microelectronics). The fact moreover\nthat, in the light of the recent positive experience in collaboration, European\ncompanies are now ready to progress further on the road of integration of joint\nefforts and to subscribe in some selected areas to unprecedented commitment in\ncooperative R&D and to the subsequent downstream production investments,\ncreates the need for a revision and an adaptation, and in some cases a substantial\nshift, of the priorities to date and in order to ensure the longer term viability of\nthe Community strategy to strengthen and consolidate a competitive position\nworldwide of European IT industry and services. To this end it is in the first place necessary:\n\na)\n\nb)\n\nc)\n\nd)\n\ne)\n\nf)\n\nto provide the economic climate and boundary conditions which allow full\nexploitation of the potential demand. This because the overall success of\nany R&D policy in the IT sector is closely related to the achievements in\nother sectors of Community policy, in particular the internal market and\nstandardization;\n\nto pursue further and strengthen on the one hand the current ESPRIT II\npolicy of development of a European capability to design and produce\napplication specific Microelectronics products (integrated circuits) capable\nof fully exploiting\nthe potential of the most advanced semiconductor\ntechnologies and, on the other hand, to complement this by promoting and\nsustaining the creation in the Community of such leading edge technologies\n(0. 3 micron CMOS technology by 1996) so as to secure to European\nelectronics industry strategic independence of supply. to secure, in particular, the ready availability of microprocessor technology\nin Europe. This is why a new initiative is necessary, which aims to develop a\nbasis for a family of microprocessors with standardized architectures. Control of the microprocessor architecture (including the instruction set)\nwill enable a hierarchy of standard interfaces to be designed and used for\nsoftware development throughout IT user industries;\n\nto provide the production capability for key peripherals in Europe. to re-inforce certain well-identified topics such as Computer Integrated\nManufacturing;\n\nto prepare new actions promoting in specific areas of strategic concern\ntraining measures, which would help to overcome crucial bottlenecks on a\nCommunity scale. 154\n\n\f\u00ffb'Ri: DWiwB\u00bbE)P\u00abw\u00abiiiiliaiWil\u00ab^H\n\u0410}?\u0428#1\u0435\u0442\u0449\u0440\u00ab^\n\nANNEX II\n\n1\n\ni\n\nFUJITSU NEC HITACHI\nTOSHIBA MATSUSHITA\n\nSIEMENS OLIVETTI BULL\nNIXDORF PHILIPS STC\n\nDEC HP WANG APPLE\n\nCAGR\n% \u25a0\n\n35. 3\n\n26. 4\n\n20. 4\n\nTOTAL DP MARKET\n\n17. 3\n\nIBM\n\nBURROUGHS SP\nCDC HONEYWEL\n\nERRY NCR\n\n8. 5\n\n2. 1\n\n( NOIiVWYiVO )\n\n\f'\u0428\u00ab1\u00ab\u00ae1\u04181\u043a|\u0428\u041b\u0428\u0432\u0428\u0432\u0432\n\u2022\n1984\n\n- \u0449\u0442\u0442\u0442\u0442\u0448\u0442\u0448\u0448&\u0449\u0449\u0436\u0428\n\u0448\u0448\u0442\u0448\u0448\u0448\u0448\u0448\u0448\u0442\n'1\u041c\u044f\u0428\u0448\u0448\u0442\u043f\u043c\n\n1987 '\n\n1\u04280\n\u0448\n\n\u0448\u0432\n\n;\n\n\u25a0\n\nANNEX 111\n\n33% /\n,/\n\n7\u2013\\ 1 2%\n/ $X\n/ LARGES/\n/ jAPAj/ \\\n\nLARGEST\n\nl/i. EUR\n\n/OTHER USA / /LARGEST /^\nOTHER USA\n''T\"^ IBM\n/_\n\n/\n\n\\\n\n/\n\n45%\n\n21%\n\n/\\ LARGEST / \\\n/ \\ LARGEST\nV JAPAN / 6\n/\n\\ JAPAN ,\n\\s /LARGEST\\\nI\n27% OTHER USA ^-~-1\n/\n/\ny\n\u0423\n\nLARGEST \\\nEUR\n\nOTHER USA\n\ni o u\n1\u0412\u041c\n\n/\n/\n\n\\\n\u0427\n\n\\16%\n\nV\n\n\u0423\n\n36%\n\n98 BILLION $\n\n141 BILLION $\n\n( DATAMATION )\n\nKO - 3\n\n\fI\nI. :xp[\u00aeDifp!ptete\u00c9p^\n\n\u25a0\n\n\u2022\u25a0\n\n\u25a0 \u0442\u044e\u0442 \u2022*\u04280\u2116\u0428\u0430\u0442\u0428\u2116\u0428\u0428\u0448\u0442\u0442&\u0442\n\n1984\n\n1987\n\n25% OTHER\n\n\u041c\n/^ Tf. \u00a3?. \\ o \u00ab\u00ab. / Np\\\ns N?\u00ab*\n\\\\ LARGEST\\\nLARGEST\n2SJ0T\u201eERXC!l \\\nEUR\nj\n| USA ^\nUSA\nJ\n\\ / l8M\n40%\n\n\u0413^\u0447*. ,. /\" \\. \u00bb _ \\\n16Vl. \\\n7 OTHER\\ LARGEST \\\n/ OTHERX LARGEST\nEUR \\ EUR\n/\n\\\nEUR\nEUR \\\n,\u2018--~X__\n1 OTHER /\n/\nOTHER\n\u2022 J\n\\ USA / IBM\nUSA\n/\n/\n20\u00bb\\\n\u0423%1\u042a\n\\/\n\nen\n\u2022^3\n\n28. 5 BILLION $. 56. 3 BILLION $\n\nATAMATION )\n\nANNEX IV\n\n\u2022 *2\n\nI\n\nKO - 2\n\n\\\n\n\f5\n\nB. THE PERSPECTIVE OF ERMERGTNO TECHNOT OGTRS TM I. T\n~\n\nNEED FOR REINFORCED BASIC RESEARCH\n\nAND THE\n\n1. Background and rationale\n\nThe second half of this century is replete with examples of research ideas which, although\nconceived without even thought to applications, led to technological developments with\nmajor industrial and social impact. Entire theoretical subjects studied and developed by philosophers and mathematicians are\nnow providing essential tools for Information Technologies (IT) as well as all engineering\nareas that rely on the capability for rapid and massive computing and automated logical\ninference. As a result there is a growing consensus that supporting basic fundamental research in IT is\na solid investment whose payback, even if it does not come in the form of short term\nindustrial applications, is rich. In Europe, partly in contrast with the situation in the United States, IT related basic\nresearch is mostly carried out at universities and research institutes as most industrial\nlaboratories are constrained to devote their efforts to the development of short to medium\nterm applications. In addition, it is the basic research environment in these institutions that provides the\nnursing ground for highly trained manpower, the demand for which is increasing much\nfaster than the capability to supply it. 2. Issues of strategic significance for future informations technology development\n\nThey relate to: computer science, programming language, advanced robotics, machine\nlearning, cognitive engineering optical and molecular computing. a) A well recognized and broad long-term research goal in Computer Science addresses\nthe predictable reliability, safety, security, integrity and correctness of complex, large-\nscale distributed systems. To work towards this goal, research is needed on formal\nspecifications, testing and verification, fault tolerance, system architectures and on how\nto relax on the simplified abstractions of the real world underlying current systems\nIt is intended that the ESPRIT basic research actions will enable a serious\ndesign. coordinated effort that will bring together European expertise in this area. b) The design\n\na\n\nand specification of\n\nconcurrent programming language,\n\nthe\nimplementation of a provably correct compiler for that language and the specification\nand implementation of a provably correct operating system would provide the basis for\na hardware computer, all of whose components have been verified through formal\nmethods. To achieve this, expertise must be drawn together from areas ranging from\nincluding proof verification\nautomated theorem proving to VLSI design methods,\nsystems, compiler and operating system design and concurrent programming\nmethodology. Available, but distributed throughout Europe, this expertise could be\nbrought together to challenge recent advances in this area that have taken place mostly\nin the United States. 158\n\n\f6\n\nc) Many basic problems still have to be solved before a real autonomous mobile robot can\nbe created. Corresponding to the components of such a robot, work is needed in basic\nresearch areas like planning of robot actions, autonomous navigation, design of world\nmodels, multisensor fusion, knowledge representation languages, design of hierarchical\nexpert systems, distributed planning and machine learning. d)\n\nIn machine learning new logical tools are being sought in the direction of combining\ndeductive approaches to learning with inductive ones into what is increasingly called\nconcept learning. This requires extensive work in inductive building of decision trees,\ntechniques into knowledge acquisition systems. Combining data base management and\nknowledge based techniques is also an area expected to attract ever increasing\nattention. develops models\n\ne) The emerging cognitive engineering approach to the design and analysis of complex\nsystems\nreal-life\nenvironments, models possible systems and their limitations as well as the work domain\nand its actors. It is a top-down, problem driven approach requiring basic research on\nthe representation of complex work domains, cognitive control of work, error tolerance,\nrepresentation of intentions and values and cooperative, distributed decision making. human-computer-work\n\ninteraction\n\nof\n\nin\n\nf) Optical and molecular computing are areas where much fundamental research has to\nbe carried out if the promises of the so called 6th generation computing systems are to\nbe met. From the same viewpoint, recent superconductivity developments open the\nway for work on interchip ( thick film ) and on-chip ( thin film ) interconnections, sensors,\nshielding and new devices. An eventual deeper understanding of the phenomenon itself\ncould provide even hitherto unsuspected information technology advances. 7\n\nSources of Data\n\n( 1 )\n\n(2)\n\n(3)\n\n(4)\n\n(5)\n\n(6)\n\n(7)\n\n(8)\n\nBooz, Allen and Hamilton study on \"Trends and Objectives of the IT Sector in\nthe Medium- and Long-Term\" (Study carried out for the CEC in 1985). EIC - Electronics International Coop\u00e9ration, \"L'\u00e9lectronique dans le monde\" -\n1987\n\nDatamation - The Analysis is based on the Information Systems revenue of the\nTop 25 suppliers. IDC - Eurocast - Software and services - 1988\n\nCompany reports - Companies in the group of the Top 25 for Information\nSystems revenue have been considered. Dataquest - 1988\n\nConsultronique - Study on \"Opportunities for European Suppliers of Computer\nPeripheral Equipment\" (Study carried out for the CEC in 1988)\n\nMarkt & Technik, June 1985\n\n160\n\n\f8\n\nA. T\u00e9l\u00e9communications technologv\n\n1. Initial situation\n\nIn comparison with the informatics sector, Europe has been sustaining a good position in\ntelecommunications. This is due to the good technological capabilities in this field and to\nthe close links established between telecommunications operators and industry, which\ncontributed to secure very substantial market shares to european companies. The Community balance of trade in telecommunications has therefore always been positive\nso far. 2. Changes occured during the last years\n\na) Since 1984\n\nEuropean telecommunications industry and operators are confronted with :\n\na changing regulatory environment world-wide, which will lead to increased competition\nin the provision of equipment and services,\n\ntechnological challenges with the evolution towards digitalization of networks, ISDN\nand broadband networks and services (present european weakness in components is\nalso a major challenge in this context),\n\ngrowing demand of keeping up the pace in terms of R and D effort and in investment,\nwhich require increased market base and better use of economies of scale, especially in\npublic telephony. The approach defined at Community level has allowed to establish consensus between\ntelecommunications operators and industry on common concepts of evolution of network,\nincluding the establishment of a common strategic framework to develop concertation and\ntechnology for IBC networks, services and terminals. In this context, Europe must :\n\nimprove its overall capabilities in generic IT technologies ( esp. components, software)\nwhich play an increasing role in telecommunications because of the convergence of\ntechnologies. The rising trade deficit in telecommunications with Japan and the United\nStates against an overall commercial surplus is a clear evidence of this threat. address the issues of systems research and engineering of integrated services. b) Since the launching of RACE\n\nSince telecommunications operators, industry and users of the Community and the EFTA\ncountries joined forces to address the development of an advanced telecommunications\nsystems in Europe in the framework of RACE important developments have taken place:\n\n1. The implementation of the RACE Definition Phase has proved the advantages and\nnecessity of collaborating on a european scale in defining and developing specifications\nand common technological elements. 161\n\n\f9\n\n2. Japan and the US/Canada have completed their broadband overlay network unlocking\nthe economic and competitive potential of advanced communications services. Broadband links to the customer (45 Mbit DS3) experience in the US a growth rate of\n100% per annum. The FCC expects broadband links to go into the US homes within\nthe next 3 years and an explosive growth of telecommunications services. Europe will\nconsequently have to speed up and intensify its efforts. 3. The global optical network is rapidly advancing from the US via the pacific and the\natlantic multiplying the transmission capacities linking different regions of the world\neconomy. 4. The internationalisation of economic and social activities feeds a trend towards\ninternational service provision with strong economies of scale. For Europe this implies\nthe need for the sector actors (operators, industry, service providers) to address their\nrespective responsibilities in a consistent and agreed framework. The interest and commitment by operators, telecommunications equipment industry and\ntelecommunications users to the objectives of RACE has correspondingly increased. 3. New needs to address\n\nIn the light of the developments, the appreciation of the needs has evolved reflected in\n\na) an increased conviction that the market will demand advanced communications in the\nmid-1990s implying that the target date for Europe -wide introduction of integrated\nbroadband services of 1995 may need to be moved forward to coincide with the 1992\nobjective of the completion of the internal market. b) a growing interest to reinforce the work on HDTV with respect to its distribution inter\nalia via cable networks to exploit the achievements of the EUREKA HDTV work;\n\nc)\nthe recognition of the need to address the mid- to long-term implications for the\ntelecommunications system in all its parts of the rapidly growing demand for mobile\ncommunications;\n\nd)\nthe necessity to extend the collaboration of operators and industry with service\nproviders and users in application pilots to accelerate the emergence of economically viable\nservices optimally adapted to the needs of the user. 4. New priorities for action\n\nThe specific adjustments and re-inforcements to be carried out relate to:\n\nIBC DEVELOPMENT AND IMPLEMENTATION STRATEGIES\n\nIt will be necessary to revise the common functional specifications prepared by the RACE\nprogramme in the light of the verification and integration work carried out. Furthermore\nthe new Part II technological activities will generate on one hand output for Part I and on\nthe other hand the Part II activities will need guidance from Part I. H2\n\n\f10\n\nIBC TECHNOLOGY\n\nLong Term Technological Issues\n\nIn the light of technological\ncharacteristics the following technological issues need increased attention :\n\ntrends and the evolutionof the appreciation of demand\n\n*\n\noptical switching:\n\ntechnology and system integration\n\ncoherent multichannel technique, progress towards integration into customer access\n\n*\nconnection and possibly integration with optical switching. *\n\nspecification and implementation of a signalling system for broadband networks\n\nconsideration of special topologies for the customer access networks,\n\ninterfaces to\n*\npublic networks, protocols, common functional specifications, interconnection of Customer\nPremises Networks\n\nbroadband mobile technology, technology, integration into the terrestrial network and\n\n*\nimplications on the terrestrial network\n\n* High Definition Television (HDTV), coding for HDTV, structure of distribution\nnetworks, distribution switching for HDTV signals\n\nnetwork management and impact of advanced information processing technologies on\n\n*\nnetwork management. PRE-NOMATIVE FUNCTIONAL INTEGRATION\n\nInt\u00e9gration and V\u00e9rification\n\nFurther systematic efforts are necessary and could benefit\nEuropean scale :\n\nfrom collaboration on a\n\n*\n\n*\n\n*\n\n*\n\nintegration of subsystems into systems where necessary to enable verification at system\nlevel\n\nverification of common functional specifications via integration of systems ( network\ntermination, customer access connection and local exchange ) into a network testbed to\nenable verification at network level\n\nverification of common functional specifications on the broadband user network\ninterface by integration of terminals and Customer Premises Networks (CPN )\ninto\nnetwork testbeds\n\nevolution from demonstrators and verification testbeds to a broader trial network and\nservice testbed by exploiting the synergy among national testbeds. Application Pilots\n\n*\n\nenhancement of application pilots in such a way that they can use the future broadband\nfacilities. 163\n\n\f11\n\n*\n\n*\n\nimprovement of usability of application pilots. pilot impl\u00e9mentations of service \u00e9l\u00e9ments. B. Application technology\n\nI. Rationale for Community action\n\nWhen the framework programme was being prepared, it had been clearly perceived that in\nthe field of generic technologies and common infrastructures as it is led in the framework\nof programmes such as ESPRIT and RACE, must necessarily be accompanied by a parallel\neffort of development of applications that offer a considerable potential of creation of\nactivities, services and thus of new employment. in due time,\n\nThe objective is to prepare,\nthe conditions favourable to the intensive\nexploitation of large basic technologies that are being perfected, by adapting them to the\nneeds and specific constraints of the different categories of users (business, public\nadministrations, social services, individuals) and thus implement, at Community level, a\nmarket of equipment and services that will bear the European industry, favour its\ninternational competitiveness and allow a response to the social and economic needs. On the basis of initial studies, the Commission had identified the following as bearing\napplication sectors:\n\neducation and training (mainly for professional training),\n\ntransport,\n\nmedical science and health. The very large consultations to which the Commission has proceeded since 1987 with the\ndifferent groups of actors involved (dataprocessing and telecommunications industry,\npublishing industry, transport, health equipment, etc. , scientific sectors, pubLic authorities,\nuser groups, telecommunication networks operators, standardisation organisations) have\nlargely confirmed the socio-economic relevance of the sectors of priority application\nidentified beforehand. The three specific programmes - DRIVE, AIM, DELTA issued from this phase of strategic\nconcertation - are concerned with the applications of information, telecommunications and\naudio-visual technologies in the fields of general interests services, management and\nsecurity of road traffic, bio-medical dataprocessing and remote multimedia teaching. These three fields present a certain number of common characteristics that justify a joint\naction at Community level:\n\n-\n\ntheir economic and social importance is considerable in the Community and their costs\nweigh heavily on the collectivity and in particular on public finance. This charge can\nonly be stabilised or reduced by a better cost/performance relation of the services\noffered;\n\nthey very largely depend on the responsibility of the public authorities, who either\ndefine the regulations or manage an essential part of the infrastructures that form the\nbasis of the services offered to the population;\n\n164\n\n\f12\n\nin these sectors,\n\nlastly,\nCommunity. the users\u2019 needs are developing rapidly throughout\n\nthe\n\nIn the case of training, the European active population is faced with the necessity of\nconstandy adapting its level of knowledge and experience to the rapidly changing\ntechniques and professions. Now, the traditional structures of knowledge transmission lack\nof adaptation to the necessities of the re-training and re-adaptation of knowledge. In the field of transport, the number of bodily accidents on the road, the waste of energy\nand atmospheric pollution that entail\nthe classic\ntechniques of traffic management have reachd the limits of their possibilities. traffic problems demonstrate that\n\nIn the field of health, although the progress in medical sciences has been very rapid during\nthese past decades, a considerable effort remains to be accomplished to take the best\nadvantage of them by further adapting the capacity of diagnosis and treatment to the\nspecific needs of the patients and doctors. Facing this lack of balance between the demand for services more adapted to the new\nneeds and the present supply that does not allow to take them into account in a satisfactory\nway anymore,\ntechnologies\nrepresent a major opportunity for the future. telecommunications and audio-visual\n\nthe new information,\n\nThe new technological supports that permit a multimedia and remote apprenticeship will\nallow everyone to study at a chosen time, desired rythm and in a place that suits one most\n( home, work, school). The concept of \"teieteaching\" has become a crucial factor of\nprogress. The information technologies are now a determinant factor bringing together patient and\nmedical science. They allow the conception of a \"telemedicine\" that abolishes constraints\ndue to distance, of \"integrated\" hospitals in which all equipment will function as a network,\nof health care adapted directly to the individual patient. In the field of transport, they allow the conception of solutions adapted in a better way to\ntheir disposal\nthe needs and the behaviour of\ncomputerised tools and more flexible\ninformation and communication\ninfrastructures. the vehicle drivers, by putting at\n\nand safer\n\nThe range of technologies to be used and integrated to this effect is very large: personal\ncomputer, optical disk, microprocessor cards, new techniques of medical and educational\nimagery, computer languages similar to natural language, expert systems, mobile telephony,\nISDN, broadband integrated network, HDTV, direct transmission by satellite, etc. to combine and integrate to a maximum the large range of\nThe problem now is\ntechnologies already available or in course of development, and thus optimise their gobal\nperformance on a technological, economic and social point of view and avoid, by\ncooperative and concerted actions with all the actors concerned at the European level, the\nrisks caused by the present proliferation of independent systems that would all be\nconceived in relation to a paticular, often exclusively national, point of view. 2. Application of information technology and telecommunications in health care\n\nMember States spend a substantial proportion of their GNP on Health Care. In spite of\ndetermined efforts to limit further increase, costs are still escalating (cf. separate annex on\nhealth research ). 165\n\n\f13\n\nSpecific application of information technology and new means of communication can\nprovide increased health care *\n\nThe reasons for this approach can be summarised as follows:\n\n* The efficiency of health care may improve by linking all parties involved in diagnosing\n\nor treating one patient or the same group of patients. * The goal of equal access will be a realistic one when the centralized expertise is\n\ndisseminated to where the patient is. * Managerial and financial aspects of health care will become transparent and\n\ncomparable if modern informatics is applied. *\n\nIndustry will benefit from a more harmonious health care market\nfragmented sector we know today. than the very\n\nSince introducing the AIM action in the Framework Programme, the rationale for it has\nstrengthened by\n\nmounting interest of sector actors, in particular, national administrations of health care,\nindustry and research,\n\ngrowing awareness that there is a good case for extending the cooperation beyond the\nscale of the Exploratory Phase. Areas to be strengthened are:\n\na)\n\nb)\n\nspecific diagnostic technologies such as for example imaging needs studies both on\nsoftware and hardware specifications. agreed terminology and medical records. variety of data. In medical health care there is a huge\n\nc) A European strategy for a coherent IT & T structure in health care. The\nstructural implications, and opportunities, of the new technologies need to be\nstudied and acted on. Modem telecommunications can cut across existing\nstructures, and revolutionize this professionals, hospitals, home care etc. need not\ncontinue. Further efforts in Europe should address the following key subjects:\n\nAgreed terminology and record handling,\n\nKnowledge based medical systems and instrumentation. -\n\nEstablishment of network databases and computing facilities to link generalized as well\nas more specialized workstations e. g. in oncology, epidemiology and research. Integration of knowledge based systems into health care. 166\n\n\f14\n\nDevelopment of biosensors for monitoring and controlling various body functions (a\nfield where Europe may still take a lead). A positive outcome would be of great\nimportance for many categories of patients such as diabetics, patients with cardiac\ndiseases, neurological disorders etc. Investigation of IT & T application to patients with sensory and motor handicaps, which\nwould help these disabled persons to lead a more normal life. Besides, there will be a continued need for addressing the non-technological issues, such as:\n\nLegal issues in connection with safe data handling\n\nLegal issues with respect to protection of privacy\n\nTraining of personnel\n\nEthical problems and patient acceptability. 3. Application of information technology and telecommunications in education and\n\ntraining\n\nEuropean governments and undertakings have become increasingly aware of\nthe\ncompetitive and social value of training and of a skilled, educated workforce. Recent and\nforeseeable progress in information technology, telecommunications and broadcasting open\nup new possibilities of reaching a wider audience cost-effectively. IT & T technology is a suitable tool to address this need because :\n\n1. Education is essential for everyone, but there are finite teaching resources. 2. Currently, up to 600 hours are needed to produce one hour of good educational\n\nmaterial. This can be reduced to cost effective levels. 3. It is one of the largest markets for good, integrated services that merge technology,\ncontent and processes. 4. By the year 2000, 18% of the population will be in education, training or retraining at\n\nany time. 5. Industry is becoming acutely aware of the need to maintain its skills base. It will be essential for Europe to use all appropriate means to create an informed and\neducated workforce. This is the single most vital asset of an advanced service oriented\ngroup of nations. This was the basis for the adoption of the DELTA Exploratory Action, which was\nconfirmed by the experience gained since then in COMETT and DELTA. Since the definition of the Framework Programme the case for collaboration at a European\nscale has further strengthened :\n\n1. In the USA, government expenditure on projects like DELTA are estimated at well\nover 400 M US dollar per year. 167\n\n\f15\n\n2. An estimated USA market (1987) of 29 Billion US dollar attracts other competitor\n\nnations. 3. These developments are now being aggressively exploited. 4. They are potentially very significant, in an industry starved of good global solutions to\n\nbecome de-facto world standards. 5. Even small countries have used distance teaching using technology to overcome\n\nregional, cultural and geographical barriers. In this context the specific European situation should be taken into account:\n\n1. Europe is behind in terms of pilot testing and experimentation,\n\n2. Nevertheless, it has a high level of education and training development activity, albeit\n\nfragmented,\n\n3. There is a potentially potent source of high skill and expertise in learning technology,\n\nthat works well, but is often sub-critical. 4. There is a goodwill\nadministrative barriers. for education not\n\nto be unduely restrained by tariff or\n\n5. The climate for innovators in this domain has never been better due to the volume of\n\nsuccessful results from European collaboration such as ESPRIT and RACE. There is a growing consensus in Europe to develop :\n\nsolutions that allow for more cost-effective creation of high quality learning material,\n\nexperimentation, prototyping and harmonisation of all aspects of ITT&B-based\nlearning systems. 4. Application of information technology and telecommunications in transport\n\nRoad Traffic Administrations, Industry and Road Transport Users in the Community and\nin EFTA countries, becoming aware of the increasing problems on the European road\nnetwork, have decided to join forces in the framework of the DRIVE programme to\naddress\nusing Information Technology,\nTelecommunications and Broadcasting which could help to improve the use of the existing\nnetwork, in increasing their capacity and at the same time, reducing technical or human\n\ndevelopment of\n\nadvanced\n\nsystems\n\nthe\n\nerrors. The rapid adoption of DRIVE took place against the background of:\n\ntransport representing more than 6% of GNP;\n\nmore than 10% of family budget being devoted to transport;\n\n-\n\ncar ownership in Europe representing 60% of the level in US, whilst congestion and\npoor routing costs an estimated 150 billion ECUs per year, and road accidents kill\n55,000 people and injure 1,7 million annually in Europe, with a financial cost of an\nestimated 50 billion ECUs;\n\n168\n\n\f16\n\nprogress in information technology, telecommunications and broadcasting offering new\nand effective solutions. DRIVE has been prepared with the active participation of all public bodies concerned from\nall Member States, with the motor industry and the 1T1&B industry. A full consultation\nwith more than 60 organisations, has taken place, representing all interests (Industry +\nUsers). Since the DRIVE Programme has been taken up in the US and Japan in recognition of the\ncompetitive impact of road transport informatics which are likely to result\nin speedy\nIt seems very likely that imported solutions emerging from these initiatives will\nprogress. not be optimal for the European situation;\n\nEuropean car manufacturers have committed themselves to the continuation of the\nof European\nframework\nthe\nwork\nautomobilemanufacturers);\n\n(EUREKA Project\n\nof Prometheus\n\nin\n\ninterest in traffic and transport manangement has increased ;\n\n3000 organisations, industries and Research Institutes from the Community and EFTA\ncountries have expressed interest in DRIVE ;\n\nnew important R&D of pre-competitive and pre-normative kind have been identified\nby sector actors. Future research needs include, notably:\n\na. Development of appropriate verification tools, which will facilitate the introduction of\n\nnew equipment on vehicles or to infrastructure. b. Longer term technological solutions, which will substantially increase the capacity of\n\nthe road-transport network, improving safety at the same time. c. Investigation in depth of the proposed systems, particularly those relating to public\nTransport, goods transport and vulnerable Road Users. d. Concepts for the use of mobile communication as infrastructure for road transport\n\ninformation and guidance services. e. The necessity to extend the collaboration of operators, industry and users in application\n\npilots taking into account regional differences. f. Development of proposals for integrated specifications for all major sub-systems\n\nbuilding inter alia on the results of ESPRIT and RACE. More specifically, this means:\n\nDevelopment of a systems approach, which will consider\ntransport\nenvironment in Europe and will include land use and general economic issues and\nspecific regional requirements. the total\n\nU9\n\n\f17\n\n-\n\nFurther development of transportation models to include elements of total transport\nperformance and the specifications of advanced systems offering longer\nterm\ntechnological solution; as well as development of a technoeconomic tool for evaluating\nthe consequences of producing different components of Road Transport Informatics\n(e. g. showing the way they are channeled through different economic sectors and\nthrough different markets). This would be of use to other R&D programmes\nconcerned with techno-economic evaluation. Investigation and development of longer term technological solutions, particularly\nrelating to increasing capacity of traffic lanes; technologies for Public Transport and\nGoods Transport Intermodal Information Systems; and advanced systems for rural\nRoad Transport. Integration of Traffic management and Transport Management systems, with the\ninclusion of all value added services. The synergy of similar technological solutions for all transport modes, addressing the\nissues of navigation, information, management. In addition exploitation of merging\nwork of ESPRIT and RACE for maximisation of synergy with these actions. In the road safety context :\n\nadvanced anti-collision devices in complex situations using longer term technological\nsolutions;\n\nadvanced man machine interfaces using longer term technological solutions;\n\nadvanced co-pilot systems including corresponding servo mechanisms;\n\nimproved sensors including in car biochip devices. To prepae the way for impl\u00e9mentation:\n\n- Development of test beds for Integrated Road Transport Management Systems,\nincluding the interfaces with other modes for passenger and good transport;\ndevelopment of test beds for Advanced Road Safety Systems for urban and interurban\nRoad Transport; and development of the verification procedures for\nlicencing\nAdvanced RTI Systems. 170\n\n\fAnnex 2\n\nINDUSTRIAL TECHNOLOGIES AND MATERIALS\n\nMAIN ISSUES FOR INDUSTRIAL R&D AND MARKET PERFORMANCE\n\n1. 1\n\nThe Market\n\nThere is a\n\nManufacturing industry , as the primary customer for industrial\ntechnologies and materials , is an established and essential part of the\nCommunity 's economy and will remain so for the foreseeable future. It\nprovides around 1050 billion ECU ( 1985 ) or 30% of GNP and accounts for 75%\nof the industrial work force of sortie 41 million people. strongly positive balance of trade in manufactured goods ( export/ import\nThis is underpinned by sectors which\nratio of 1,15 in 1987-Table 2. 1 ). have devoted considerable resources to maintaining their competitive edge\nand is particularly so in the manufacture of motor cars , chemicals , power\ncables and instrumentation. Nevertheless , same structural weaknesses\npersist and in particular the capacity to respond to growing demand in\nmore developed markets. The considerable changes that have taken place in\nthe relative size of world output across a range of manufacturing sectors\nis shown in figure 2. 1. Comparing the performance of selected sectors in\nEurope , US and Japan ,\n( see pages A1-A6 ) reveals large relative movements\nin output growth and thus the considerable pressure on European\nmanufacturers in a dynamic market. Table 2. 1\n\nEC Balance of Trade in Manufactured Goods\n\n(billion ECU)\n\n1981 (EC10 )\n\nExports\n236\n\nImports\n\n171\n\n1987 (EC12 )\n\n289\n\n252\n\nExport/ Import Ratio\n\n1. 38\n\n1. 15\n\nEurostat\n\n171\n\n\f1\n\n\u00a7\nft\n\u00a3\n2\n\n&\n\u00a3\n\u00e8\n\n1 a. WORLD MANUFACTURING OUTPUT GROWTH\n\nEVOLUTION BY SECTOR 75-80 AMJ 80 - 85\nEVOLUTION BY SECTOR 75 - BO AMJ 00 - 8S. 45%\n\n40%\n\n35%\n\n30% -\n\n26%\n\n31%\n--\n\n\u2022' H '\n20% \u041d \u25a0 \u0447 ;\n\u00ef-i. \u00bb -\n\n\u25a0 :i:\n\n;\n\n12%\n\n42%\n\ni\n%\n\n22%\nf~~i. ;\u0447\n/:\n\n1\u00ff'. i8%\n\n25%\n\nr\u2013-rrn 23%\n\n-\u2013,\n^\n' \u0427' : \u0427 :\n\n\u03bf% -\u0390-1-1\u2013\u03b9-\u03bc\u2013\u03b9\u2013\u03af-\u2013\u03bc\u2013\u03b9\u2013\u03b9\u2013\u03b9\u2013\u03b9\n\nCHE\n\nENQ\n\nMEN\n\nEEN\n\nSECTORS _\nSECTORS\n\nI\nI\n\n1 80-85\nI 80-85\n\n_\nHH 75 - 80\nrn 75-80\n\nFigure 2. 1 a\n\nWORLD MANUFACTURING OUTPUT GROWTH\n\nEVOLUTION BY SECTOR 75-80 AT\u00a9 80-85\n\n- 10% -\u00ab%\n\n-4% - 12%\n\n30%\n\n20% -\n\n10% -\n\n- 10% -\n\n- 20%\n\n\u03a4\u039f\u03a5\n\nSCI\n\nOPT\n\nSH\n\nI\n\n) 75-80\n\nSECTORS\n\nI\n\nj 80-65\n\nFor\n\nlegend see page A2\n\nFigure 2. 1 b\n\n172\n\n\fWORLD MANUFACTURING OUTPUT GROWTH\n\nEVOLUTION BY SECTOR 75-80 AM) 80-85\nEVOLUTION BY SECTOR 75-80 AM) 80-85\n\n21% I \" I\n\n19%\n\n2011\n\n18%. 6%\n\n\u041c\u0433\n\n1\u0421\u041f\n\n8% -\n811\n\n\u00ab -\n\n4 \\ -\n\nX\n\n\u00a7\na\nP\ns\n\n\u041b - 11\n\nw h-T^l\n\n11. ' \u2022?*\n\n13%\n\nI n%\n\n8-1\n\n8%\nI\u2013. 5%\n\n1\n\n1%\n\n1\n\n1\n\nI\n\nI\n\n1 11 Ml\n\nI\n\n-2% -\n\n-4% -\n\n-6\\ -\n\n-G%\n\ni\n\nTEX\n\ni-1-1-1\n\nCLO\n\nMAR\n\nMOT\n\nTRA\n\nF\n\nRB\n\n_\nI\n75 - 80\nI\n] 75-80\n[\n\nSECTOftS _\nSECTOftS\n\nI\n\n1 80-85\n\nT' inure 2. 1 C\n\nFor Source / Leyena see page A2\n\n173\n\n\f2. This is visible in terms of the improved performance\n\nHowever, in recent years there has been a marked reaction by European\nmanufacturing industry to the pressures of ever widening and more\ncompetitive markets. within the leading companies in many sectors. means providing a better service than canpetitors. requirement relates to the ability to supply , when required , small batches\nof high quality goods. in the manufacturing strategy of most companies. Demolition of the\nbarriers between the functions of marketing , design, purchasing or\nmanufacturing , and after sales , within and between companies , will\nfacilitate the identification of the technologies which are needed to\nimprove performance. The necessary flexibility requires major changes\n\nMaintaining market share\n\nIncreasingly , the\n\n1. 2 Technology in Company Strategy\nDifferent approaches to Industrial R&D strategy , such as focussing on\nproduct innovation or reducing manufacturing costs , must be applied\nsingularly or in combination to sectors with a fast growing demand ( such\nas instruments and chemicals) or those whose demand is stagnant ( such as\nThe common element is that\nclothing , textiles , motor vehicles and food). the performance of the European industries and those of the most developed\nindustrial countries will be less concentrated on maintaining or\nincreasing market share of the total market. capture the top end of the market by new or improved products often with a\nhigher technology content in the product itself or in its means of\nmanufacture. Instead they will seek to\n\nThe potential for increasing productivity and\n\nThe size of the so called 'top end' of the market will , to a large extent ,\ndepend on the technologies used and hew they extend the efficiency to the\ncustomer 's needs. flexibility is greater in mature industries , as is the incentive to employ\nnew technology. products having a higher added value is the movement towards materials\nhaving a greater 'expertise' content per unit weight , see figure 2. 2. Already this 'denaturing' process is evident in established sectors , as\ndemonstrated by the following examples :\n-\n\nOne indication of this trend towards the development of\n\nin the motor car industry , responsible for about 10% of industrial\nvalue added and employment , productivity increased by more than 30%\nbetween 1980 and 1987. After making losses in the early 1980s the\nindustry became profitable in 1986 with profits estimated at 7\nbillion ECU for 1987. For this improvement against strong external\n\n174\n\n\fRelation between the quantity of materials in a product and the information content\n\nDegree of sophistication\n\n\u2022 Electronic materials\n\n\\\n\nComposite#\nmaterials\n\n\u0433\n\nHigh-temperature\nmaterials\n\n\u041b\n\nMaterials mix and sophistication\nof today\u2019s automobile industry\n\nEngineering#\nplastics\nlk plastics fe alloys\n\nBulk plastics <\n\n#\n\u2022\n\nAluminium strength\n\nV\n\u00a9Steel, bulk applications\n\nHigh-\nHie\nlow-alloy % Cement\n\nSteel\n\n-\u25ba\nQuantity of material per unit of product\n\nFigure 2. 2\n\nSource : ATAS Bulletin\n\n175\n\n\f3. pressure, a major contribution came frcm innovation in the\norganisation of production, heavily supported by technology. As a highly automated process industry , European power cable\nTo defend itself\nmanufacturers simply 39% of the world production. against import substitution policies in developing countries R&D is\nrecognised as a means of maintaining technical leadership in areas\nsuch as insulation and fine protection. The clothing industry , employing over one million people , has\ninproved its export/ import ratio frcm 0. 45 to 0. 68 since 1980. Overall imports into the Carmunity amounted to 9. 6% of consumption in\n1986 although for seme items the figure was as high as 76%. Technology is recognised as offering a major opportunity although\nthere are some very difficult problems to solve. The associated textile machinery sector manufactures 55% of world\nproductions and exports 70% of output. Although recent ccrrmercial\ntrends are not encouraging there is optimism that the more integrated\nmanufacturing processes now required by users and which exploit\nadvanced technologies will reduce the relative importance of market\ncosts and so shift demand for textile production back to the\nCarmunity. as weaving achieve extended effectiveness through advanced technology\nadditions ( see figure 2. 3 and page A7)\n\nCurrent textile manufacturing process technologies such\n\n4\n\nc\n\u00a3\nv\nc\nL\nCL\nE\n\na\nO\nC. c\nU\nH\n\nMaturity extenced\nMaturity extenced\nDy microprocessor\nDy microprocessor\ntechnology\ntechnology\nand/ or\nand/ or\nroDotlcs /\nroDotlcs /. S. S\n\ny -\n\nMaturity of\nDasic process\ntechnology\n\n/\n/\n\n/\n/\n\n/\n/\n\n/\n/\n/\n/\n/\n/\n\nl-^\n\nSource KSA\n\nYears\nYears\n\nFigure 2. 3\n\n176\n\n\f4. -\n\nThe machine tool industry has had a mixed performance with sore\ncompanies being slew in moving to the technologies of numerically\ncontrolled tools. However some companies have been particularly\nsuccessful in maintaining their position in world markets through\ntechnology leadership. The glass and wood industries have annual outputs of 16 and 19\nbillion ECU respectively. contracted in the early 1980s. these sectors to benefit from their inherent environmental\n\nThough very different in nature , both\n\nTechnology innovations are allowing\n\nadvantages. Last but not least the chemical industry has an annual turnover of\nsame 230 billion ECU ( 1987 ) with an export/ import ratio of 1,27. With the opening of markets the sector has demonstrated its\ntechnical strength in products and their production against growing\ninternational competition. Barriers to progress\n\n1. 3\nAs enterprises become more dependent on expensive machinery , improvements\nare needed concerning the reliability and predictability of machine\nbehaviour. consisting of few large and many medium sized and small enterprises , there\nis a particular need to reduce the complexity and cost of new production\ntechnologies and systems. Recognising the characteristics of Corrmunity industry\n\nExploiting new technology in products is essential whether directly , as in\nthe use of new materials , or indirectly through inproved design ,\nreliability , servicing or marketing. generally been less successful than its competitors , particularly from the\nFar East. performance and methods of corponent manufacture and new materials. Failure to exploit new materials to improve product performance ,\ndurability and reliability bars the Cannunity from competing in rapidly\nexpanding and traditional markets. The Cannunity now lags behind in the engineering aspects -\n\nHere the Cannonity industry has\n\nThe challenge of the single integrated market highlights the growing\nrequirement for uniform standards at a European level , which are the basis\nfor effective ccrmunication between interested parties within industry and\nbetween industry and regulatory bodies. European level programmes including BCR , BCSC Steel Research and COST\nsuggest that research involving partners from several Member States can be\na valuable step towards harmonisation of industrial practice. Results already emerging from\n\n1 !177\n\n\fPre-ccmpetitive R&D - applied research not leading directly to\nccmmercially exploitable results - is an essential enabling instrument for\ncompetitiveness but may be too wide in application , of too long a tine\nscale , or too risky to make it acceptable for funding by single companies ,\nIt is here that existing resources in Europe can be\nparticularly SMEs. further exploited , building on the growing awareness of the benefits of\ncollaborative activity. At the European level , R&D programmes have helped\nto reinforce this encouraging trend in bringing together the complementary\nexpertise of those in industry and research organisations to specify ,\nmanage and implement the work required to underpin the competitiveness of\nEuropean manufacturers. It is estimated that spending by\n\nHowever , the available statistical\n\nWithin Europe most R&D relating to industrial technologies and materials\nis believed to take place in industry. information is generally too broad in coverage to provide an accurate\npicture of the true situation. governments on industrial production and technology is seme 3,7 billion\nECU. In comparison , the Carmunity 's industrial research and development\nprogrammes such as BRITE/EURAM, Raw Materials and Recycling , and the ECSC\nSteel Research will commit only a relatively small percentage of this sum\neach year. Though within these programmes Community support will vary\nbetween a high level of overall R&D funding in a lew research intensity\nsector such as clothing to a low level in a mere research intensive sector\nsuch as chemicals. indicate the trends across Europe , US and Japan in overall R&D expenditure\nin a number of seertors :\n\nThe figures on pages A8-A10 , though incomplete ,\n\nIn the case of chemicals , it is particularly noticeable that the\nJapanese , starting from a much smaller base , are catching up with\nEurope through a higher rate of growth in R&D expenditure. The figures for motor vehicles suggest that after major efforts in\nthe seventies , world manufacturers may have slewed down the increase\nin R&D expenditure , particularly in the case of US but also in Europe\nrelative to Japan. The textile and clothing industry conducts very little R&D but it is\nworrying to see that Europe appears to have been decreasing\nexpenditure relative to Japan and US. In the area of rubber and plastics , Europe appears to be maintaining\nits position against US and Japan. The position in machinery R&D expenditure , although increasing , is a\ncause for concern with Europe falling steadily behind both US and\n\n\u2013\n\nJapan. 178\n\n\f6. Although Europe clearly has a substantial activity , it tends to be behind\nthe US in absolute R&D expenditure and also falls belcw Japan in the rate\nof growth particularly between 1980 and 1983. The figures confirm the\nconcern expressed elsewhere over the trends in total volume of research\nexpenditure. 2. THE CHALLENGE FRCM OUTSIDE EUROPE\n\nHowever both have very\n\nOutside Europe it is , for the time being , the US and Japan which dominate\nthe R&D scene in industrial technologies. different incentives and infrastructures supporting their advancement. One measure of success is the ability to retain or increase shares in\nLooking at the relative importance of industries across a\nworld markets. basket of 12 important manufacturing sectors between 1980 and 1985 , table\n2. 2 reveals that whereas 9 of the Japanese industries have held or\nincreased market share this was only the case for one European and 4\nAmerican sectors. TABLE 2. 2\n\nGains and Losses in Share of\n\nWorld Markets 1980 to 1985\n\nSector\nElectrical Engineering\nEngineering for ail industries\nMechanical Engineering\nRubber Products\n\nEurope\nL\nL\nL\nL\n\nTextile\n\nFumiture\n\nMachine Tools\n\nShip building\nOptical Products\nScientific Instruments\n\nClothing\nChemical Industry\n\nL\n\nL\n\nL\n\nL\nL\nG\n\nL\nL\n\nUS\n\nJapan\n\nL\n\nL\n\nL\n\nH\n\nL\n\nG\n\nH\n\nG\n\nL\n\nL\n\nL\n\nL\n\nG\n\nG\n\nL\n\nL\n\nH\n\nH\n\nL\n\n\u0413'\n\nG\n\nH\n\nH\n\nH\n\nG - Gain ,\n\nL = Loss ,\n\nH - Held\n\nAfter Arthur Anderson and Co. 1988\n\n179\n\n\f7. Many European manufacturing companies have studied the\n\nFor many years Japan has had the reputation for being a copier of western\ntechnology. Japanese approach at first hand and now believe they have the\nThere is\ncapabilities , if properly used , to mount a successful challenge. a lot of ground to make up as Japanese products were new world leaders in\n36 out of 40 technology intense product categories. Japanese industry is structured in a way which avoids many of the problems\nassociated with technology transfer in the West. Japanese industry does\nthe research itself with internal technology transfer by production and\nresearch engineers working alongside one another during the development\nphase. While Government laboratories and universities play a relatively\nminor part in industry 's R&D effort they do provide a pool of expertise\nfor use by MITI and other agencies in planning and running Government\nsponsored industrial research programmes. In 1981 MITI launched its project dealing with the revolutionary basic\ntechnologies essential to the establishment of the new industries expected\nThe 'Research and Development\nto flourish before the end of the century. Project of Basic Technology for Future Industries' (JISEDAI ) covered new\nmaterials , biotechnology and new electronics devices. Various means were proposed including the\n\nLast year a report prepared on behalf of MITI by academics and\nindustrialists recognised the need to strengthen Japan 's capabilities in\nfundamental research. establishment of centres of research as a basis for encouraging exchanges\nof researchers between industry and universities. Another measure was to\nreinforce the JISEDAI programme , recognising that the areas of fundamental\nresearch which were expected to be important for industry at the beginning\nof the next century were : new materials ; electronics ; software ;\nbiotechnology ; and bicmaterials. In the US a major factor in the advancement of manufacturing , design , and\nmaterials technology has been the Department of Defense support for R&D. In the Manufacturing Technology Programme alone there are approximately\n500 projects active at any one time with an annual funding ( in 1986) of\nIn its 25 years this R&D prograrrme is\napproximately 200 million dollars. recognised as having benefited both civil and military users with , in same\ninstances , returns to the US amounting to billions of dollars. 180\n\n\f8. The primary objective to support R&D capable of improving the economical ,\ntimely and reliable production of defence material , has meant that the\nprogramme has became a national focus for developments in manufacturing\ntechnology. In contrast to the lew level of spin-off resulting from the\ndevelopment of defence equipment , the support for improving manufacturing\nperformance among defence contractors has resulted in practices , products\nand systems which have found wide application in improving manufacturing\neffectiveness. This is also\n\nNevertheless , as in Europe , there is concern in the US about the\nbarriers to the commercialisation of new technologies. considered in the Main Report. A major worry is the lack of integration\nand communication among functions within companies and a ccmplacency and\nForeign\noverdependence on the dorestic market for growth opportunities. competitors , often but not always Japanese , were seen as having turned US\ntechnological development into their commercial product successes. There\nis a feeling that the benefits of emerging technology are too easily lost\nby weak laws and regulations , and ineffective enforcement for the\nprotection of intellectual property rights in the US or overseas. As to the future , the Department of Commerce considers the emerging\ntechnologies of particular importance to the end of the century to be :\nAdvanced Materials ; Electronics ; Autonation ; Biotechnology ; Computing ;\nMedical Technology ; and Thin Layer Technology. different from those of Japan given above , reflect the importance of the\nproduction related technologies as almost all have a significant role to\nplay in the control , operation , or effectiveness of manufacturing\nprocesses. manufacturing related technologies from the Department of Defense supports\nthe effective development of products and processes. However , in the shorter term the substantial funding for\n\nThese priorities , not very\n\n3. THE TECHNICAL REQUIREMENTS\n\nIn this section the generic industrial technologies underpinning the drive\ntowards industrial competitiveness - for which research effort should be\nconcentrated - are identified. needed for the design and assurance of products and processes , for meeting\nthe manufacturing needs of groups or sectors of industry , for improved\nmanufacturing\nwith\napplication and recycling of new and advanced materials and materials\n\nIncluded are the improved technologies\n\nassociated\n\nprocesses ,\n\ntogether\n\nthose\n\nthe\n1 \\\n\nwith\n\n\f9. production. established in conjunction with industrial experts. These R&D priorities for European industry have been\n\n3. 1 Design and Assurance\nThe development of techniques to improve product and process quality, and\nthe reliability and maintainability of structures , and manufacturing\nTheir costs have been\nsystems have a major affect on performance. estimated in one of the Member States to be seme 10% of OSIP and can\ntypically range frem 5-25% of company turnover and it is believed that a\nreduction by 70% of their present level through better management and\ncontrol is possible. imperfections and also costs of process and product assurance ,\ntask is to reduce the imperfection rate while reducing the assurance\ncosts. for reliability and maintainability. The trend to lew inventory manufacture underpins the requirements\n\nAs the costs of quality are related to the\n\na major\n\nIn many sectors there is concern over limitations of available process\ncontrol and the means by which the product specified is assured. improved sensors are required to control processes and their importance\nreflects increases in the scale and flexibility of systems. engineering , if developed could satisfy needs in the areas of testing ,\ndetection and inspection. Optical\n\nNew and\n\nPower control engineering , for control of speed or position in electric\nmotors is at the base of advances in automation in all kinds of industry. Though there were strengths in the past , European and US manufacturers are\nnew losing market share against Japan. needed so that European manufacturers of process and production\nmachinery can have access to the most suitable technology. Technological improvements are\n\n3. 2 Application of Manufacturing Technologies\nHere the requirement is to develop manufacturing practices in the leading\nsectors for others which have been slew to exploit the benefits in\nbusiness performance. These will include a high proportion of SMEs , and\nhave limited research and development capabilities themselves and so be\nApplication\ndependent on the expertise and experience of other sectors. of modelling techniques is required to address problems in established\nindustries , such as the filling of complex injection moulds , particle\nformation in atomisers , positioning of sensors in condition monitoring\nsystems ,\nmaterials. in machinery or the\n\nnoise generation\n\ndesign of\n\ncomposite\n\n\"! 82\n\n\f10. A particular area where there are prospects to build on initial progress\nis in those industries based on the processing and use of flexible\nmaterials. Their importance is well illustrated by the Ccnmunity 's\ntextile and leather related industries where sane 3. 5 million people are\nemployed. SMEs , many of which have limited technical capabilities. In the clothing industry about 80% of production cares fran\n\nManufacturing Processes\n\n3. 3\nImproved techniques for shaping , joining and assembly , surface treatment ,\nchemical processes and particle technology are fundamental needs for\nAdvancement of these processes is essential for securing\nindustry. manufacturing competitiveness. With regard to surface treatments the\ncosts of corrosion prevention and effects amount to about 4% of GNP in\nIn almost all\nindustrial countries and similar figures apply to wear. surface treatment systems , the aspects of quality assurance , condition\nmonitoring in service and control of the treatment process require further\ndevelopment. In the case of technologies for shaping , assembly and joining further\ndevelopment is needed to exploit the full benefits of their incorporation\ninto computer integrated manufacturing systems. requirements for new processes with improved performance including high\nThe availability of advanced materials\nprecision and faster operation. both to be treated and also for use in the treatment process , challenge\nconventional practice. There are also\n\nThere is a particular challenge to produce\n\nImportant advances in chemical manufacture will only result if there is\ncollaboration between chemical manufacturers , users and suppliers of new\ntechnology or expertise. improved catalyst systems while the supply is mainly local , and Europe is\nThere is requirement to optimise the design of membrane\ngenerally strong. systems , such as to enhancing turbulence at the membrane surface and also\ntechniques to inhibit fouling. Europe has been slipping behind in membrane\nThe world market for membranes is about 400 mio ECU/ year and\ninnovation. is likely to grew significantly in the future as new applications for\nmembranes are identified , such as gas filtration. Research is need to overcame the inability to fully categorise particles ,\npoor efficiency and size control within many conventional particle\nprocesses ,\nmaintaining\ndistribution in the flow of powders and suspensions. an\nflew\nMulti disciplinary 183\n\ndifficulties\n\neven\n\nthe\n\nand\n\nand\n\nin\n\n\fexpertise is required to tackle problems found in very different particle\nsystems. Advanced powder materials technology is limiting the achievement of\npotential benefits in areas such as aero and automotive engines , magnets ,\ntool steels and electronic materials. There is an opportunity to build on\nEuropean strength in sane process areas to secure a share in a strongly\ncompetitive industry where the US leads production in powder and products\nvalued at about 2 billion ECU , with Europe and Japan at about 1 billion\nECU each. Advanced Materials\n\n3. 4\nWhile new materials are often considered to be a 'horizontal' subject\nwithin a wide spectrum of industrial sectors , most major developments have\narisen within aerospace , nuclear energy and more recently electronics and\nThe trend in application for the last sector is\nthe automobile industry. shewn in figure 2. 4. The lack of adequate materials is a brake on developments such as magneto\u00ac\nhydrodynamics , fuel cells and high energy density performance materials. Europe is well placed to provide the multi disciplinary approach necessary\nfor progress , but the US and Japan have been first to recognise a new\nThis is illustrated in table 2. 3 for advanced\nawareness of materials. ceramics. For metallic based materials advances in processing and alloying\ntechnologies have considerably widened the design scope. technological challenge is to establish a base of quality confidence in\nthe new materials and improve processing techniques of these and more\nestablished materials so as to bring production costs to competitive\nAnisotropic materials strengthened with particles or fibre\nlevels. reinforcement are required. But a major\n\nMaterials having significantly improved magnetic , optical , electrical ,\nand superconducting properties are needed to realise advances in a wide\nrange of industries. Magnetic materials , for example , are indispensable\nBuilding on European strengths\nin the electrical and computer industries. in R&D , there is a requirement for developments which permit effective and\neconomical exploitation as , for example , polymer-bonded anisotropic\npermanent magnets or massive segments of metallic glass for applications\npermanent magnets or massive segments of metallic glass for applications\n\n\f11 a. Materials in the automobile\n\n80O1\u2013--\n\nJ\n\n1\nI\n\nR\ny\n\nH\n70\u00b0 -\n!\n\u25a0g 600 -\n\u00a3 600\n|\n\u00dc3 500 -\nH\nfc 400-\na> 400\n^ 300-0 illlllll\n^\ni\nI\n1\nn 200' ^\n^\n8200m P M H H Pi H r\no 200\ni -,\n>\nv;\n\n'i\n-\\\n7\u2018\nj\n0 iid\u2013y\u2013y\u2013y\u2013y\u2013y\u2013u\u2013u\u2013L\u00b1J\n1992\n'84\n\nYEAR 1976 78\n\n100 -*\n\n%\n'V-\n7\n\n&\n''\n4\n\n1\n\n^\n>,\n\nI\n\nI\n\nI\n\nI\n\nI\n\n'90\n\n'88\n\n'86\n\n'80\n\n'82\n\n>>\n\u25a0>}\n\n'*7\n\n\\ '\n\n/Z\n\n4'\n\n/'\n\n/ V\n\n' /\n\n, \\. E7B Plastics and Composites\n\nESS HSLA\n\nES Aluminum\n\nNote: Increasing automobile usage (actual and projected) of cerrsin materials, including hich-srrencth low-alloy steels,\nStates, despite overall trend toward downsizing. in the lnuc>. Fi\u00e7jurs 2. 4\n\nSource : ATAS BuLletin\n\n185\n\n\f11 b. \u2022 International Comparison of R&D Efforts in Advanced Ceramics by\n\nApplication Area\n\nLocation\n\nApplication\n\nUnited States\n\nJapan\n\nWestern Europe\n\nElectronic applications:\nmultilayer capacitors\n\n10 to 15 MECU /yr\n\nGas sensors\n\nNo more than 1 to 2\nMECU /yr\n\nStructural applications:\nheat engines\n\n35 to 40 MECU/yr\n\nCutting tools\n\nProbably no more than\nl MECU/yr\n\nR & D spending\nunknown ; said to hold\n10:1 lead over US in\nnumber of patents and\nengineers\n\nR & D unknown ; said\nto hold 3:1 lead over\nUS in number cf\ntechnical papers and\n10:1 lead in patenting\n\nGreater than $50\nmillion/yr\n\nR &. D spending\nunknown ; 20:1 lead\nover US in patents for\nperiod 1973 to 1982\n\nNot estimated\n\nProbablv similar to\nUS level\n\nLess than US :\nGermany and\nSweden are the\nEuropean leaders\n\nProbable more\nthan US ; Germany\nalone nearly even\nwith the US in\npatents for period\n1973 to 1982. Optical applications :\nintegrated optics\n\nApproximately 10\nMECU/yr\n\nSlightly less than US\nexpenditures\n\nAbout half of US\nexpenditures\n\nSource. Black, Blum and Kalos\n\nTable 2. 3\n\n186\n\n\f12. which include electric motors , security systems , ore separation , medical\nequipment and magnetic levitation for transport. High temperature superconductor materials , in which Europe played an early\nrole , are expected to have a great inpact in the medium and longer term on\nmost of the high technology industry sectors , particularly in component\ndesign for reduced energy consumption. unsolved industrial breakthroughs will not be achieved without a\nsystematic investigation of the operating mechanism and engineering\nproblems. As many basic problems remain\n\nThe large potential of engineering ceramics depends on solving problems in\nproperties and availability. there are supply difficulties within Europe. meet the users needs , there will have to be closer links with pxwder\nproducers. glasses and amorphous materials , will be sane 12 billion ECU within a few\nyears. Currently European activity is lew carpared to US and Japan. In speciality powders , such as whiskers ,\nIf this technology is to\n\nThe world market for engineering ceramics , including special\n\nThe world\n\nEurope is a net importer of engineering\nThe US with 70% of the world production and Japan with 10% are\n\nDevelopments are needed in Europe to respond to the trends of replacing\ngeneral purpose polymer materials by functional materials. polymer market is of the order of 120 billion ECU , of which engineering\npolymers , including polymer matrix composites , amount to 5 billion ECU and\nare increasing in market share. polymers. increasing market share at the expense of Europe currently with 10-15%. Currently the market for advanced materials is limited and mostly in\nGrowth will ccme frem new\nthe US because of the aerospace dependence. approaches to design which allcw cheaper materials to be developed and\nexploited , as in motor cars. technologies are needed to respond to greater use of polymers in consumer\nproducts. The problems reflecting environmental consideration are\nsignificant as there are seme 7000 types of polymer in circulation. Developments in recycling and recovery\n\nImprovements are also needed in more conventional materials in addition to\nthe technologies which reflect the use of new and advanced materials. In\nparticular more effective extraction , process and recycling technologies\nare required for critical materials to underpin their availability to\nusers. Similarly improvements in the processing and application\ntechnologies of steel are needed to secure the competitiveness of European\n1 Q\nproducers in world markets. 13. 4. THE TASK FOR EUROPE\n\nA competitive , technology based manufacturing industry is an essential\nelement of the Community 's economy. to establish an environment in which the industry can flourish. technology related issues where action is needed are as follows :\n\nThe overall task at European level is\n\nThe\n\nR&D and Ccmpany Strategy\n\nHowever , not all companies are well structured to\n\n4. 1\nIt is for industry to identify its future technological needs and take the\nnecessary action. undertake such a task. This weakness was highlighted during the recent\nevaluation of the BRITE programme as resulting from poor links between\ncompany planning , marketing , manufacturing and R&D functions. analysis of particular areas that require renewed research efforts for\nEuropean industry given in Chapter 3 has been developed together with\nindustry. the level of the individual company. trend for further co-operation at European level. It will be further developed but should , already , be helpful at\n\nIt will also signal the overall\n\nThe\n\n4. 2\n\nR&D and Technical Barriers\n\nStandardisation activity at the European level contributes to the breaking\ndown of barriers to trade within the CcmniLinity. areas with a rapidly advancing technology , there can be benefits for\nestablishing links between R&D and standards related activities , so\nspeeding up the effective exploitation of the R&D results. Particularly in those\n\n4. 3 The Balance Between Fundamental and Applied Research\nA concern is how fundamental research , usually in universities and\nsupported from public funds , should be balanced against research and\ndevelopment having a greater industrial focus. A close look should be\ntaken at the balance between the fundamental and applied work to ensure\nthat the inventive skills of academic researchers are encouraged but yet\nthey have those links with industry which will ensure speedy progress\nthrough the research , design, development and application chain. Education and Training\n\n4. 4\nR&D can only be as good as the resources available. strongly influenced by its education and formation. concerns expressed above should be reflected in the training of research\n\nThe human resource is\nSeveral of the\n\nmanagers. 188\n\n\f14. At the management level the failure to convert research into profitable\nA fresh\nproducts and processes continues to be a concern within Europe. look needs to be taken at the preparation and training for managing\ninnovation and the management of its implementation - not as an isolated\nIn\nactivity but in an environment that is aware of the market place. responding to the challenge of the Japanese invasion of the European\nmarket place many companies have reformed and re-organised and are now\nmuch better structured to make real gains. 189\n\n\fBIBLIOGRAPHY\n\nIRDAC , Opinion upon R&D Funding , October 1986\nIRDAC , R&D Needs in the Field of Mechatronics , October 1986\nIRDAC , Opinion on the Framework Programme 1987-1991 , October 1986\nIRDAC , Report and Recarmendations on Advanced Materials and Related\nProcesses R&D in Europe , January 1988\nPerformance of the European Manufacturing Industry , Arthur Andersen and\nCo , February 1988\nResearch Action Programme - Materials - IV Advanced Materials , EURAM\nProgramme Description 1986-1989 , 1985\nEuropean Economy , CEC , N\u00b035 , March 1988\nEuropean Economy , CEC , N\u00b025 , September 1985\nProposal for a Council Decision adopting a specific Research and\nTechnological Development Programme of the EEC in the fields of Industrial\nTechnologies and Advanced Materials Applications (BRITE/EURAM)\n( 1989-1992 ) , CEC , August 1988\nDiscussions with Experts during the preparation of BRITE/EURAM\nDiscussions with Standards Institutions in Member States\nReport of the Evaluation Panel of the First Brite Programme\nResearch Evaluation - Report N\u00b025 , CEC , September 1988\nThe Status of Emarging Technologies : An Econanic/Technological Assessment\nto the year 2000. US Department of Ccrmerce , June 1987\nInformation provided by EC Permanent D\u00e9l\u00e9gation in Japan\nLes Mat\u00e9riaux nouveaux , Dynamique , Economique et strat\u00e9gique Europ\u00e9enne ,\nEccncmica/Paris , 1987\nATAS Bulletin , Issue 5 May 1988 , United Nations\nTechnological Needs of the European Textile Industry, KSA , February 1988\nBlack , Blum and Kalos : Referred to in 'Market Trends for Existing and\nForseeable Advanced Ceramic Products in the EEC 1 , CERAM Research ,\n\nOctober 1987\n\n-\n\n190\n\n\f\u04101\n\n1985: Value-added in the EC, the United States and Japan by sector ( 1985, current prices)\n\nBranch\n\nEUR 12\nbillion ECU\n\nJapan\nbillion ECU\n\nUSA\nbillion ECU\n\nManufactured products\n\nOres and metals\nNon-metallic minerals and mineral products\nChemical products\nMetal products (except machinery and transpon equipment )\nAgricultural and industrial machinery\nOffice and data-processing machines, precision and optical\ninstruments\nElectnca ! goods\nTranspon equipment\nFood, beverages , tobacco\nTextiles and clothing, leather and footwear\nPaper and pnnting products\nRubber and plastic goods\nOther manufactured products\n\nBuilding and construction\n\nSortit CommiUkon tcrvtcet tiectoral d\u00abta bank-VISA ). S2S\n\nSOS\n\n1 024\n\n35\n41\n76\n73\n79\n\n25\n82\n92\n129\n66\n57\n32\n38\n\n180\n\n24\n24\n44\n68\n40\n\n20\n79\n49\n56\n40\n14\n21\n26\n\n128\n\n30\n40\n103\n84\n88\n\n80\n92\n145\n108\n53\n113\n38\n51\n\n24S\n\n191\n\n\fA2\n\nTABLE OF LEGENDS\n\nS3S3SSSlS3Z<>ISSZS>SISSS\u00bbSSI>IISSai3imiBtSS>:>SC3SSS\n\nLEGENDS\n\nSECTORS\n\nI X3333S8333X33 : I 33X33IS\u00bbX3f3SXS3S3XSS3333333Z333333S3\n\n!\n\nCAT\n\nCER\n\nCES\n\nCHE\n\nCLO\n\nCOM\n\nCOO\n\nEEN\n\nENG\n\nFOR\n\nF TU\n\nFUR\n\nHOU\n\nMAC\n\nHAG\n\nHAH\n\nHAN\n\nHAR\n\nHAY\n\nHEN\n\nHOT\n\nOPT\n\nPLA\n\nRUB\n\nSCI\n\nSHI\n\nTEX\n\nTOY\n\nTRA\n\nUEL\n\nUHI. Catalyst\u00b7\nCeramics ( engineering )\nCeramics ( sanitary ) ~\nChemical Industry\nClothing\nComposites\nCooking Equipment\nElectrical Engineering\nEngineering and all. industries\nForgings and castings\nFootwear\n\nFurniture\nHousehold Fittings\nHachine Tools\nMagnetic Materials\nMaterials Handling Equipment\nMan Hade Fibres\nMetal articles\nMachinery ( Printing/Packing/ Food)\nMechanical Engineering\nMotor vehicle and parts\nOptical Products\nPlastic processing\nRubber Products\nScientific Instruments\nShipbuilding\nTexti le\n\nToys\nTransport\nUelding/ Joining Equipment\nUhite Goods\n\nSource of materials on pages A3-A7 , A9-A11\n\nand figure 2. 1 :\n\nand figure 2. 1 Arthur Andersen U \u00fbo. 192\n\n\fA3\n\nCHEMICAL INDUSTRY OUTPUT\n\nEVOLUTION BY COUNTRY 1975 - 1985\n700 -----\n\neoo -\neoo -\n\n500 -\n\n4\u00b00 -\n\n--\n\n300 4-\n\n--* ^\n\n__ ^39%___\u2013-\"\n\u00bb\n\nU. S. A. U. S. A. |\n'\nE. E. C. |\n\n200 1\n\n100 -\n100 -\n\n36*\n\n--\n\n--------\u0422___\nI\n!\ni\nj\no-,-!\n\n13*\n\nJAPAN\n\n1975\n\n1980\n\nYEARS\nYEARS\n\n1985\n\nTEXTILE OUTPUT\n\nEVOLUTION BY COUNTRY 1975 - 1985\n\n80 i---\n\n70 -\n\n70 \u038a\n\n65 -\n65 -\n\n60 _\n\n55 -\n\n7K3*~ \u2013\u25a0\u2013-\n\n__\n\n^\n\n--\u25a0*\"\n\n--\n\n____\u00ab\n\nEEC. EEC. \u03aa\u0393\n\n___ U S A. U 3. A. 2*\n\n50 -<r\"\n\n^--\n\n\"\n\n13*\n\n*S -\n\n40 \"I\n\n35 -J---\n\n___JAPAN\n\nJAPAN\n\n30 -j-1-- ---1\n\n1975\n\n1980\n\nYEARS\n\n1985\n\n193\n\n\fA4\n\nMECHANICAL ENGINEERING OUTPUT\n_EVOLUTION BY COUNTRY 1976-1988\n\n600 -\n\n500 -\n\n400 -\n\n300 -\n\n200 -. -__\n\n5%\n\ng\n\n18*\n18%\n\nUS. A\n\nrr-\nE. E. C. --\n\n30%\n60%___\n\n100 '\n\u00b0-J-----,----\n2,\n1980\n1975\n\n18%\n\nJAPAN\n\n1985\n\nYEARS\n\nMACHINE TOOLS OUTPUT\n\nEVOLUTION BY COLNTRY 1975 - 1985\n15 \u038a-1\n14 -\n\n13 -\n\n12 -\n\n11 -\n\n1\u00b0 -\n\n8 -\n\n!\n6 T\n4 -\n\n83% ^^^\n\n^^\\-43%\n\n-43%\n\nE. E. C\n\n70%__^___--\n\n_ __\u2013 ___ JAPAN\nJAPAN\n\n88%\n\n3 -,-\"\"\n\n262%\n\n-45%\n\nU. S. A\n\n\u20220 -|-\u2013-1-\u2013-\n\n1976\n\n1860\n\nYEARS\n\n1685\n\n194\n\n\fA5\n\nOPTICAL PRODUCTS OUTPUT\n_ _EVOLUTION BY COLKTRY 1975 - 1965\nEVOLUTION BY COLKTRY 1975 - 1965\n\n70 -\n\n00 -\n\n50 -\n\n40 -\n\n30 -\n30 -\n\n20 - _I85__ ____\n\n19*\n\nU^. U. S A. 10 i\n\n_\n- --\u2013--\u25a0\n\nE. E C. E. E C. 811\n\n8%\n\n17*\n\n31 *\n\nJAPAN\nJAPAN\n\n1975\n\n-\u2013-\u2013\u25a0-\u2013_\n1\n1fi~,\n1985\n18eo\n\nYEARS\n\n15 -i-\n\nSHIPBUILDING OUTPUT\n\nEVOLUTION BY COLKTRY 1975 - 19\u00d45\n\n13 -\n\n13 ~_\n\n- 11 *\n\n10 -\n\n9 -\n\n8 -\n\n7 H\n\n0 -\n\n5 -\n\n4 -\n\n3 -\n\n2 -\n\n1 -\n\nUSA ^\n\nU. S. A\n\nJAPAN\n\nE. E. C. I\nE. E. C. 0 -I-1-\u2013---i\n1975\n\n1900\n\n1966\n\nYEAR3\n\n195\n\n\fA6\n\nSCIENTIFIC INSTRUMENTS OUTPUT\n\n80 -1- --\u2013\u2013-1\n\nEVOLUTION BY COUNTRY 1975 - 1 865\n\n70 -\n70 -\n\n60 -\n80 -\n\n50 -\n\n40 -\n40 -\n\n30 -\n\n20 -\n20 -\n\n---\n\n__\u00ab-\n\n31%\nE. E. C. \u201d\nI\nE. E. C. I\n7% _ ^___\u25a0\n\n20%___<>\n\nU. S. A. U. S. A. 10 4--\n----\n\nI\n0 -I-1-1\n1975\n1975\n\n69%\n\n1980\n\n1985\n\n14%\n\nJAPAN\nJAPAN\n\nYEARS\n\n196\n\n\fA7\n\nTechnological\n\nimprovements\n\nl. All textile manufacturing\n\nManual\n\nprocesses\n\nComputer\nadjustment / control\n\n2. Raw materials\n\nNatural fibre\n\nSynthetics\nArtificials\n\nNatural filaments\n( silk )\n\nSynthetics\ncontinuous fila \u00ac\n\nments\n\n3. Yarn spinning , winding\n\nManual\n\nAutomatic piecing ,\ncreeling , doffing\n\n4. Woven fabric\n\nNarrow\n\nWide width\n\n5. Fabric dyeing\n\nBatch\n\nHigh\n\nContinuous\nprocessing\n\nLow liquor ratio\n\nAtmosferic\n\nPressure\n\n6. Carpet formation\n\nManual\n\nWeaving\nTufting\nNonwoven\n\nSource KSA\n\nExamples of changes in the textile industry that have increased\n\nsome aspect of productivity\n\n197\n\n\fA8-\n\nCHEMICALS OVERALL R&D\n\nH---\u25a0\u25a0\u25a0\u25a0\n\nEVOLUTION BY COLKTRY 1975 - 1663\nEVOLUTION BY COLKTRY 1975 \u2022 1963\n\nI\n\n25\n\n^- ^ U. 9. A. U. 3. A. -\u2013\n\n_. _\u25a0_'\n\n\u201d\n\n\u00ef\u00e9%\n\nE. E. C. ----- 25*\n\n____\n\n_\n\nJAPAN\nJAPAN\n\nI\nh\n\n4 41--\n\n14%\n\n3 -\n\n1 -\n\n- 45%\n\n0 -|-1-\n\n1976\n\n1660\n\nYEARS\n\n1S\u00d43\n\nMOTOR VEHICLES OVERALL R&D\n\n7 --\u25a0------\n\nEVOLUTION BY COUNTRY 1975 - 1963\nEVOLUTION BY COUNTRY 1975 - 1863\n\nfl -\n\n6 ~\n\n3 -\n\ni\ni\nb\n\n\u2013---11%\n\n- 11%\n\n_ _ U. S. A. U. S. A. '. \u2013\n\n__ ___18% ___\n\nE. E. C. E. E. C. o -I-1-\n\n1876\n\n1960\n\n\u03a5\u0395\u0391\u03978\n\n1963\n\n198\n\n\fA9\n\nTEXTILE AND CLOTHING OVERALL R&D\n\nEVOLUTION BY CCLMTHY 1876 - 1863\n\n-32% E. E. C. 19%JAPAN\n\n14%U. S. A. 1860\n\nYEARS\n\n41%\n\nJAPAN\n\n- 22%\n\nE. E. C\n\n1983\n\nRUBBER AND PLASTICS OVERALL R&D\n\nEVOUJTON BY COLKTRY 1875 - 1963\n\nI\n\nfe\n\nQ\n\n1\n\na\n2\n\n5 -\n\n4 -\n\n2 -\n\n1 -\n\n1875\n\n6 -\n\n5 -\n\n4 -\n\n3 -\n\n2 -\n\n37* EEC. 146* JAPAN\n146 * JAPAN\n\n1 -\n\n__ 0 USA -\n\n10%\n15%\n\n|\u2013 E. E. C. j p JAPAN\nJAPAN. - *\n-\n1- ---\n> 75\n1875\n\n1860\n\n1983\n\nYEARS\n\n199\n\n\fA10\n\nMACHINERY TOTAL R&D\n\n12 __EVOLUTION BY COLNTHY 1975 - 1868_\nEVOLUTION BY COLNTHY 1975 - 1983\n\n11 1\n10 -\n\n8 -\n\n7 -\n\n<\n\u03b2 -\n\n5 -\n\nf\nI\n\u00a3\n\n18\u00bb\n__-\n\n-- -\nU. 3. A. U. 3. A. _| _ _ _10%_E. E. C. 2 \"____ _\u2013H-sr\"\n\nE. E. C. JAPAN\n\nI\n\n0 -I-1-\n1976\n\n1980\n\n1983\n\nYEAR3\n\n2C0\n\n\fMARKET SITUATION\n\nANNEX 3 : AERONAUTICS\n\nindustry is without doubt a very important\nThe aeronautical\nThe establishment of a\nindustrial sector in Europe\nstrong\na\ncontributing factor to a strong and powerful economy and to the\nprosperity of the population. ( Fig. industrial\n\n1 ). base\n\ncompetitive\n\nfield\n\nthis\n\nand\n\nin\n\nis\n\nDuring the 1980-1986 period the European aeronautics industry has\nThis represents average\ncaptured 25,9% of the world-market. annual sales of about 9,900 - MECU 's. Forecasts for the 1987-2010\nperiod reveal an appreciable further increase in the world market\nleading to average annual sales of about 14,800 MECU 's ( Fig. 2 ). category of medium range aircraft\n\nA convincing example of the technological capability of European\naeronautics industry is the penetration of \" Airbus Industrie \" in\nthe\nhas\nprovoked a series of vigorous reactions from the USA where the\nAdministration has declared its support for a new national thrust\nto reassert US leadership in world aeronautics. ( Fig. This\n\n3 ). World scheduled passenger traffic is rapidly increasing ( Fig. 4 ). Increased competition for the capture of the expanding market\n5 ), not only\nmust be expected , notably for civil aircraft ( Fig. on the part of\nthe Newly\nIndustrialised Countries ( Brazil , Korea. ). the USA but also\n\nfrom Japan and\n\n( 0051. JC )\n\n201\n\n\fFIG. 1. EC AERONAUTICS\n\nTHE EUROPEAN INDUSTRY , based on 1 905 statistical\n\ndata :\n\n( excluding engine and equipment companies )\n\nEMPLOYMENT :\n\nTURNOVER :\n\n200,000 persons\n\n1 6,000 million ECU\n\nANNUAL RESEARCH- 6 DEVELOPMENT Expenditure :\n\n2,400 million ECU\n\nANNUAL RESEARCH \u00a3 TECHNOLOGY Expenditure :\n\n370 million ECU. ( Excluding the Product Development Content of RSD )\n\n( Source\n\nEUROMART Study )\n\nto\nO\nro\n\n\fALL-AIRCRAFT MARKET ANALYSIS. PAST AND FUTURE\nCharts show average annual value ( at 1987 prices )\nof aircraft deliveries over the periods indicated\n\n25. 9%\n\n\\ ALL OTHER WESTERN WORLD /\nALL OTHER WESTERN WORLD\n/\nMANUFACTURERS\n\\\n/\nMANUFACTURERS\n74 1%\n74. 1%\n\n\\\nV\n\n/\n/\n\nPERIOD 1980-1986\n\nAverage annual value of total market = ECU 38. 3bn\n( ECU 268 bn over the whole period )\n\nALL OTHER WESTERN WORLD\nALL OTHER WESTERN WORLD\nMANUFACTURERS\nMANUFACTURERS\n73. 1%\n73. 1%\n\n/\n/\n/\n\n26 9%\n26 9%\n\nPERIOD 1987-2010\n\nAverage annual value of total market = ECU 55bn\n( ECU 1323 bn ( at 1987 prices ) over the whole period )\n\n( Source\n\n: EUROMART Study )\n\nFIG - 2-\n\n203\n\n\fPERCENTAGE OF\nMARKET SHARE\n( in value )\n\u0394\n\nQri\n\nI_I\n\nII\nI\n\n!\n!\nUSA ( Boeing + Douglas + Lockheed )-!--1\nUSA ( Boeing + Douglas + Lockheed )\n\u25a0 _ uon iDuemy x uuuyio \u00bb x LVWMICVU /\n\n100\u2013~1\u2013I\u2013I\u2013I\u2013I\u2013I\u2013I\u2013I\u2013[\u2013I\nQn\nil \\\\T\u00cf\n*\"+^*>1,\n|\n\n3Q_ J\n\n70-i----1-fW -1\n\n- \u2013-\u2013 \u2013\u2013\n\nBOEING\n\n\\|\n\nBOEING\n\n|\n!\n|\n\nj\nj\n\n^\n\n|\n\n\u25a0 \u00ab-\n\n!\n\nt. - Sales Value \u2013 ECU 8100 million\nSales Value \u2013 ECU 8100 million\n\nUS\n\nUS\nManufacturer\n\nManufacturer\n\n50\n\nI-1-1\u2013 --- - - \u2013\u0413^-\u0422\u0432. ^ \u25a0\n\nI\nI\n40---j-j\n\ni\nI\n\n-I\n\nk \u25a0+- 33. 5%\n33. 5%\n\nAirbus\nIndustrie\n\nI\n\n20- \u2013 -1-L- -\n\n_ S\n\n0\n\n1 A\n\n1\n\nAIRBUS\nAIRBUS\n\\ INDUSTRIE X\nINDUSTRIE. X T Sales Value ~ ECU 1700 million\nSales Value ~ ECU 1700 million\n|\n\n--Nfc=H^- _^i\nI-1\n\n|_ 1- \\ JZ-4> YEAR\n\n--j ~~T\n\n| OTHERS\n\n\u25a0C> YEAR\n\nOTHERS\n\n1978\n\n80\n\n82\n\n84\n\n85\n\n86\n\n87\n\nThe market lor large civil jet transport aircraft ( more than 100 passengers )\n\nover the past ten years ( 1987 prices )\n\nAnnounced orders\nAnnounced orders\nas at end * 1987\nas at end * 1987\n\n( Source : EUROMART Study )\n\nFIG. 3\n\n\u0413\u041e\n\u25a0 7)\n\n\fPASSENGER TRAFFIC\n( Including USSR )\nBillions of passengers x km\n\n,/\n\n1500 -\n1500 \u2013\n\nlOOO-]\n\n500 \u2013\n\nI. /\n\n/\n\nM y i\n\n_ /. i\n\u00fc /\ni y\ny\n1/\n/ 1\n\u2013jp\ny rr ;-y\njy 41^ !\n\n<\u00a3>f DOUBLED\njyS IN10YEARS\n\nIN 10 YEARS\n\nDOUBLED\n\n^\n\n^\n\n\u00ca\n\nI\n\nI\n\n1\n\n\u00ab\ni\n\n,\n\nFue< crisis\n\nr- Fuel COUS -1\n\ni\n\n|\n\n--o 53 (incl. 10% mail )\n53 ( incl. 10% mail )\n\nFREIGHT\n\nFREIGHT\nBillions of Tonnes x km\nBillions of Tonnes x km\n\nt\n\n|\n\n- 50\n\n50\n\n\u2013 25\n\n\u2013-1\u2013*\n\n1\u2013I\u2013^-!-1\u2013I-\n\n87\n\nYEARS\nYEARS\n\n1960\n\u00a3\nINTRODUCTION\nS\nINTRODUCTION\nOF JET TRANSPORTS\nI OF JET TRANSPORTS\n\n1970\n70\n\n1977\n1977\n-O INTRODUCTION OF\nINTRODUCTION OF\n\u201c WIDE-BOOIEO \" TRANSPORTS\n\" WIDE-BODIED \" TRANSPORTS\n\n1980\n1980\n\nSource : International Civil Aviation Organisation\n\nWorld scheduled airlines traffic\n\nFIG. A. 205\n\n \n\fPRESENT AND FUTURE MARKET ANALYSIS\n\nAIRCRAFT DELIVERED 1980-1986\n\nFORECAST DELIVERIES 1987-2010\n\nAll Manufacturers\n\nEEC Manufacturers only\n\nAll Manufacturers\n\nEEC Manufacturers only\n\nAIRCRAFT\nCATEGORIES\n\nUnits\n\nValue\n(Bln ECU\n1987 )\n\nUnits\n\nValue\n\nValue of\n( Bln ECU Market\nShare\n(% )\n\n1987 )\n\nUnits\n\nValue\n( Bln ECU\n1987)\n\nUnits\n\nValue\n\nValue of\n(Bln ECU Market\nShare\n(%)\n\n1987 )\n\nCIVIL\nCommercial Transports\n> 360 Seals\n28 1-360\n201-280\n141-200\n\n81-140\n5 1 - 80\n20-50\n15-19\n\nSupersonic\n\nGeneral Aviation\n\nBusiness Jet\nPrivate\nUtility\n\nHelicopters\nConvertiplanos\n\n228\n\n211\n438\n734\n764\n2\n\n794\n967\n\n2401\n16000\n\nn. a. 5210\n\n19. 03\n13. 20\n21. 56\n17. 43\n1 3. 02\n0. 02\n\n3. 46\n1. 80\n\n15. 10\n2. 00\n\nn. a. 0\n\n0\n283\n\n0\n\n160\n0\n\n530\n226\n\n504\n\nn. a. n. a. 9. 23\n\n1980\n\n0\n\n0\n14. 77\n\n0\n\n2. 00\n0\n\n2. 07\n0. 50\n\n4. 42\n\nn. a. n. a. 2. 69\n\n0\n\n0\n68. 5\n\n0\n\n15. 4\n0\n\n59. 8\n27. 8\n\n29. 3\n\nn. a. n. a. 29. 1\n\n\u2013\n\n\u2013\n\n\u2013\n\n\u2013\n\n\u2013\n\n1450\n1650\n1600\n\n3250\n2050\n2000\n2350\n1900\n\n148\n\n109\n84\n79\n\n34\n16\n\n1\n\n1\n5\n\n0-200\n550\n650\n1 50\n750\n1250\n\n1\n\n1050\n750\n\n0-20\n36\n34\n30\n12\n10\n\n5\n2\n\n0-14\n\n33\n40\n\n38\n35\n63\n45\n\n40\n\n0-120\n\n0-25\n\n0-50\n\n0-10\n\n0-40\n\n8600\n70000\n\n1600\n\n12000\n600\n\n60\n10\n5. 4\n\n22\n9\n\n2150\n10500\n800\n\n4800\n150\n\n21. 5\n0-1. 5\n3. 5\n\n8. 5\n1. 5\n\n36\n0-15\n65\n\n40\n\n17\n\nCIVIL SUB-TOTALS\n\n1 15. 85\n\n26. 45\n\n22. 8\n\n592-617\n\n164-196\n\n28-32\n\n( Source : EUROMART Study )\n\nFIG. 5. ( averaged from 11 main countries inside O. E. C. D. , period 19 / 0-80 )\n\n' '\u03c7\n\n[ AEROSPACE\nCOMPUTERS^\n' ELECTRONICS\nPRUCS\nINSTRUMENTS\u201d\nELECTRIC MACHINERY\nCHEMICALS\u201d\nAUTOMOBILES\n\nOther MANUF. IND. OIL REFINER I E S\n\n: \\\u03cd \\ \u03a0 \u03a0 \u0393*\n\n\u25ba. M. ~I{ ulii-. r!;: \u2022\n\nHHH1 ;. I\n\ni. >4 i h\n\ni K w. \u0393\u03a0\u0393\u03af\u03a4\u03a0\u03a4\u03af }\n\nLTuli-\u00ee i llj\nlfei1tei[rr4r^\n|\nI \u0393 \u03af\n-ji--I. U-,i\u2013\n\n\u2022 -i *\u2022? r \u00ab\n\nr^r\n\n\u2022\n\n\u2022\n\ni\n\nTIT-\n\n:^xn ; nxr\n\n\u00fcHlTrl\u00ee\n\u00b1\u0415\n\n\u25a0\n\ni\n\nH \u201c:\n\nEEiaiHJ\n\nRESEARCH AND DEVELOPMENT INTENSITY\n= R & D EXPENDITUKE / PRODUCTION RATIO\n\nAEROSPACE INDUSTRY IS THE LEADER , AMONG THE 11\n\n\" HIGH TBCH \" INDUSTRIES\n\nINSIDE THE O. E. C. D. COUNTRIES , FOR R & D INVESTMENTS\n\nwh i c h m e a n s :\n\n( * A HIGH DEGREE OF INTERNATIONAL TRADE\n\nEXPORT\n( -\nIMPORT\n\n( Source : EUROMART Study )\n\nS \u2022* A PREDOMINANCE OF PRODUCT INNOVATION\n\nro\no\n<1\n\nFIG. 6. -2-\n\nThe situation is more favourable for the USA aeronautics industry\nbecause it enjoys a vast and uniform market and because of the\nknowledge and the infrastructure provided by the execution of\nimportant programmes financed by the Department of Defense and\nNASA for the military and the space sectors. RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGY NEEDS\n\nair\n\nCompetitive\ntransport\nin\ndemands\n( design , manufacturing , validation ),\naircraft production costs\nairline operational costs through improvements in performance and\nfuel consumption , facilities to reduce delays at airport and in\noperational\nflight ,\nrequirements ( safety , environment , punctuality , comfort , etc. ). maintainability\n\nimprovement\n\ncontinuous\n\naircraft\n\nmeeting\n\nwhile\n\nrequired\n\nonly be\ntechnological\nThe\nachieved by persistent and substantial efforts in research and\ntechnology which implies the development of a long term strategy. competence\n\nlevel\n\ncan\n\nof\n\nThe aerospace industry , more than any other , depends on advanced\ntechnology to ensure competitiveness. It is a leader in R / D\n6 ) and in the application of new technologies\ninvestments ( Fig. to its products and also benefits other industries by spin-off at\nthe same time as it develops and applies its own technologies\nespecially in the fields of design and production. It also exercises an important role as the industry which makes\nuse of the most advanced scientific research , acting as a centre\nfor the transfer and diffusion of these technologies to other\n\nindustrial sectors. ( 0051. JC )\n\n218\n\n\f-3-\n\nStates\n\nsector\n\nthe United\n\nBecause of the specific high technology characteristics of the\nthis\naerospace\nsector to develop and apply advanced technologies which are then\nadapted and utilised by other sectors engaged in development\nIndustrial\n( Automotive Engineering ,\nControl Systems , Testing and Production Methods ). The value of\nthis spin-off is immeasurable and it makes a major contribution\nto improving the country 's economy. High-Temperature Furnaces ,\n\nadministration uses\n\nsuch as\n\nThe technologies needed by the aeronautical industry require a\nhigh level of competence for their realisation in a number of\ndiverse areas ,\nthe sophisticated analysis techniques\nrequired for aerodynamics , the design of complex structures , the\nthe\nuse\nevaluation\nintegration of electronic techniques into complex operational\nnew manufacturing\nsystems ,\nmethods. implementation of\n\nmaterials ,\n\nadvanced\n\nmethods\n\ndesign\n\nand\n\nand\n\nand\n\nof\n\nof\n\na\n\nby\n\ncontinuous ,\n\nThis level of indispensable technological competence can only be\nattained\nthe domain of\nintense\nresearch and technology acquisition , and it requires a long-term\nAn example showing the timescales involved\nstrategic programme. is\nnew\nthat\ninto a new\ntechnology ,\nthe\nproduct\nproduct to recoup the investment made. five\nmore to incorporate this\n\ncan\nfive years\n\nby maybe ten years\n\nexploitation of\n\ndevelop a\n\nfollowed\n\neffort\n\nyears\n\ntake\n\nsix\n\nin\n\nof\n\nto\n\nto\n\nit\n\nis\n\nit\n\nnecessary to establish a\n\na\nConsequently ,\nEuropean level\nloosing the\ncompetitiveness of the European aeronautics industry , which could\nlead to a progressive deterioration of its position in the world\nmarket. in order to avoid the danger of\n\nstrategy at\n\n( 0051. JC )\n\n209\n\n\fEUROPEAN ACTION\n\n-4-\n\nThe acquisition of the complex technologies and the required\nsupport equipments require a wide application base. contribute\n\nand\ntheir\n\nI. N. T. A. \u00ae )\n\ninvolved\nwith\n\nThe national centres ( O. N. E. R. A. 1 , D. F. V. L. R. 2 , R. A. E. 3 , N. L. R. 4 ,\nin the major aeronautical countries are\nC. I. R. A. 5 ,\naerospace\nactively\nin\ntechniques\ncomplementing\nfundamental\nuniversity laboratories , with their applied research , preparing\nlong and medium term projects and with their direct technical\nassistance to industry , either by making the testing potential of\ntheir centres available or by studying problems raised by actual\non\nor\nprojects\noperational equipment. progress\nresearch ,\n\ndifficulties\n\ndevelopment\n\nencountered\n\nunder\n\nto\n\ninternational\n\ncollaboration on aeronautical\n\nSome\nresearch is\nimplemented in organisations like GARTEUR and AGARD on the basis\nof concerted action and on specific topics. But the acquisition\nof the complex technologies and the required support equipments\nrequires a wider application base. This can be organised in\nEurope by collaboration at community level. 1 O. N. E. R. A. 2 D. F. V. L. R. Office National d' Etudes\nA\u00e9rospatiales ( France ). Deutsche Forschungs - und Versuchsaustalt f\u00fcr\nLuft - und Raumfahrt ( F. R. G. ). et de Recherches\n\n3 R. A. E. 4 N. L. R. 5 C. I. R. A. 6 I. N. T. A. Royal Aerospace Establishment ( U. K. ). Nationaal\n( Netherlands ). Lucht-en\n\nRuimtevaartlaboratorium\n\nCentro Italiano Ricerche Aerospaziali ( Italy ). Instituto Nacional de T\u00e9cnica Aeroespacial\n( Spain ). ( 0051. JC )\n\n210\n\n\f-5-\n\nFor the development of prototypes , EUREKA is involved in a number\nof market-orientated projects ( EUROFAR , Amphibious Flying Boat ,\nSAMOVAR , etc. ). will\n\nIn the longer term the improvement in the capabilities of the\nEuropean\nprogressive\nnecessarily\nindustry\nIn the meantime , there is a need\nreorganisation of the industry. to implement a programme , without delay ,\nat Community level. This programme will be based on a series of measures following\nstudy supported by the Commission and\nthe\nundertaken by nine major European aircraft companies. conclusions\n\ninvolve\n\nof\n\na\n\na\n\nThese measures concern :\n\nincreased\nactivities ;\n\nco-operation\n\nin\n\nresearch\n\nand\n\ntechnology\n\nconcentration on key technology areas identified in new\njoint requirements ;\n\nprovision of additional funding resources to support this\nincreased effort. The Commission plans , via these actions , the double objectives :\n\nof enlarging the European technology base by involving the\nby\nthe\nlargest\nuniversities and national research centres ;\n\nparticipation\n\nprogramme ,\n\npossible\n\nin\n\nreinforcing\n\nof\nthe\naeronautical industry in world markets. current\n\nposition\n\nof\n\nthe\n\nEuropean\n\nIn the context of such a large and wide-ranging programme to\nenable Europe to attain in the future the objectives defined in\nthe Commission strategic plan ,\na two year pilot programme is\nbeing proposed. ( 0051. JC )\n\n211\n\n\f-\u0431-\n\nThe particular objectives of this pilot phase are :\n\n-\n\na\n\nprovide\n\nto\nbetween\nEuropean aeronautical industries in research and technology\nacquisition and to involve in the projects universities ,\nnational research centres and SME 's ;\n\nco-operation\n\nfoundation\n\nfirm\n\nfor\n\nto commence the research projects which have a degree of\nurgency and are important for the future capabilities of the\nEuropean aeronautical industries ;\n\nto compile , verify and complete the information base and\nknowledge required for technological development ;\n\nto gain experience in the organisation and functioning of a\nprogramme of this type and to define the required long-term\nactions. The areas of key technology identified for the pilot phase are :\n\naerodynamics and flight mechanics\nmaterials\nacoustics\ncomputation\nairborne systems and equipment\nall electric aircraft\npropulsion integration\ndesign and manufacturing technologies. ( 0051. JC )\n\n212\n\n\fB I 0 L 0 G Y\n\nANNEX 4\n\nIntroduction\n\nThe significance of biotechnology\n\nin\n\nover\n\nthat ,\n\neconomy ,\n\nJapan 's Ministry of International Trade and Industry in 1988 forecast\nthe world market for \" bio-related industries \" as $ 514 billion. In a\npaper in 1981 , a futures group within the European Commission ( 1 ) had\npointed\nof\na modern developed\nout\nor 20 X of GNP , was biological in nature or\nmanufactured output ,\norigin. Estimates of market potential for biotechnology have varied\nover several orders of magnitude , depending on the writer 's choice of\na narrow or a broad definition ; but as was pointed out ,\n\" human beings\nbiological\nare\nunderstanding and related technological or manipulative abilities were\ntherefore\nwidespread\npolitical attention , and a certain degree of public disquiet in at\nleast some cultures. The current OECD study on the \" long-term economic\nimpacts of biotechnology \" has not suggested dramatic near-term growth\nof new markets ; but has acknowledged a different significance by a\nsubtle\nof\nbiotechnology \". It is a pervasive technology. biological \"\n\ncommercial ,\n\n\" Economic\n\nadvances\n\nimpacts\n\nRadical\n\nattract\n\nchange\n\nwider\n\ntitle\n\nbound\n\nonly\n\n( 1 ). and\n\nbut\n\nnot\n\n100\n\nof\n\n40\n\nin\n\nto\n\n%\n\nX\n\n:\n\nBiotechnology is not a scientific discipline in its own right but ,\nrather ,\na cross-roads of different sectors of knowledge - including\nbiochemistry , genetics , microbiology , physiology , morphogenesis among\nmany others - which contribute to the intelligent use of nature and\nIt is the technology of living matter , from which\nnatural processes. many biotechniques have emerged to\nthe immediate benefit of health\ncare and hygiene , agriculture , the food industry , the environment , the\nhealth and chemical industries. Biotechnology is about the purposeful\nmanagement\na\nthe\nmicroorganism in a fermenter ,\nto the maintenance of a small planet\nwith a population of 5 to 10 billion human beings. systems ,\n\nranging\n\ncontrol\n\nliving\n\nfrom\n\nof\n\nof\n\n\" the\n\nIn the following sections , details are presented of some of the most\ndynamic areas of the \" bio-revolution\". The sequencing of the human\ngenome ,\nthe\na\nimagination of scientists and laymen alike. Section ( A ) sets this in\nthe broader context of genome analysis of various complex organisms ,\nsince neither scientific enquiry nor practical applications can be\nanthropocentrically constrained. challenge which has\n\nseized\n\nman\",\n\nmap\n\nof\n\nis\n\nMan depends for his existence and his environment above all on plants\nthe\nand their constituents. The penetration of the bio-revolution ,\n\" molecularisation \" of plant science which is expanding the role of\nbiotechnology in agriculture , is described in Section ( B ). The application of biotechnology to agriculture has attracted fears\nthat it will stimulate ecologically devastating monocultures ; but as\nhas\nleading\nenvironmental institutes ,\n\npointed\n\nworld 's\n\nrightly\n\nbeen\n\none\n\nout\n\nthe\n\nby\n\nof\n\n213\n\n\f\"A biotechnology attentive to natural history may provide some of\nthe pressures on genetic\nmost\nthe\nresources\nwild\nspecies \". powerful\nand\n( 2 )\n\nreduce\nvalue\n\nconservation\n\nto\nthe\n\nenhance\n\ntools\n\nand\n\nof\n\nSection\n(C )\nand political\ngenetic\ndevelopments\nresources , a task in which biotechnology is increasingly called upon\nto assist. the practical\ndiversity\n\ndescribes\nin\n\ndefending\n\nmankind 's\n\nsome of\n\nsteps\n\nthe\n\nof\n\nthe understanding of man himself. The advances in biotechnology offer the prospect of progress not only\nto the management of our environment , animal and vegetable , but above\nall to\nOf immediate social and\ncommercial relevance in defending man against disease has been the\n( by\nunderstanding\nvaccination ) to produce antibodies. Since the development of cultured ,\nimmortal hybridoma cells for the production of monoclonal antibodies\nis one of the great triumphs and most productive innovations of the\nbio-revolution , it is appropriate to present ( Section D ) a review of\nrecent progress and challenges in immunology. stimulus\n\nsystem ,\n\nimmune\n\nown\n\nand\n\nhis\n\nits\n\nof\n\nand\n\nchallenge ,\n\nintellectual\n\nThe bio-revolution is\nis transforming\na molecular revolution ,\nresearch methods and the prospects for breakthroughs even in that most\nbrain\ndaunting\nitself : section E outlines some current challenges in neurobiology. This subject is of interest not only for clinical applications ( the\nunderstanding of Alzheimer 's disease is of obvious importance for the\nageing societies of the developed world ), but for the development of\nsophisticated parallel\n\"neural computing\". processing computers contemplate with awe - and with detailed interest\nin its mechanics and methods - the speed , performance and compactness\nof the human brain. Developers of\n\nunderstanding\n\nthe most\n\nhuman\n\nthe\n\nFollowing this presentation of some of th most significant domains ,\nthe final section of this annex gives an overview of the Community\ninitiatives in biotechnology. The biotechnology race ?\n\nof\n\nthe\n\ngovernments\n\nGiven the ultimately enormous economic and social significance of\nbiotechnology ,\n\"non-interventionist \"\neven\npersuasion have rushed to support biotechnology. U. S. federal support\nis estimated by the OTA ( 3 )\nto have amounted in 1986-1987 to $ 2. 7\nbillion. Japan 's long-term technology forecasts ( 1987-2015 ) underpin a\nstrong\ntheir\npharmaceutical and other bio-related industries towards international\ncompetitiveness in the 1990s. Modest government expenditure figures on\nR&D belie a competent , coherent and long-term -oriented strategy for\nbiotechnology. biotechnology\n\nemphasis\n\npriority\n\nbring\n\nmost\n\non\n\nas\n\nto\n\na\n\nit has been unsurprising to\n\nThus\nconsultant reports ,\nincluding those used by the US Congressional Office of Technology\nAssessment , placing Europe in the bronze medal position behind the\nentrepreneurial vitality of the USA ,\nand the systematic thrust of\nJapanese consensus policy. see various\n\n214\n\nO\n\n\fof\nin\n\nexperience\n\nHowever , the \"Olympic games \" include many diverse sports. Europe has\nmany \" golds \",\nand although its fragmentation and diversity are at\nfirst seen as a weakness , the \" old colonialists \" of Europe have used\neffective\ntheir\ncenturies\nto\nbe\naround\ninternationalists\nthe\nmarkets\nentrepreneurial climate of the USA ,\nsmall companies have to shout\nloudly to attract venture capital , contract research customers , and\nnew investors willing to bid up the value of the company 's shares. the\nWith les9 noise and\nprofitable\n( in\nchemicals , in pharmaceuticals , in agrochemicals and in food - are no\nless effectively developing an international position. a greater emphasis on in-house activity ,\nEurope\n\ninternationally\n\nmost\nworld. successful\n\nthe\ntheir\n\ngiants\n\nmany\n\nand\n\nof\n\nIn\n\na\n\non\n\nEcus\n\nperhaps\n\nmillion ,\n\npublicly\n\nEurope is spending less on biotechnology research than the USA : a few\nhundred\nsupported\nbillion\nresearch. But no simple judgement can be made on the outcome of the\nis thought to lead in the number and vitality of\n\" race\". The U. S. small entrepreneurial start-ups - some $\n3 billion has been invested\nin these during the period 1976-1986 ( 31 ; but many are acquired , or do\ntheir contract research for Japanese and European multi-nationals. Total\nbiotechnology\nR&D\n( including biotechnology activities of major companies ) is estimated\nby\n1. 2 billion by\n\" dedicated biotechnology companies \", and some $ 800 million by major\ncorporations. 2. 0 billion in\n\nthe OTA at\n\nexpenditure\n\nprivate\n\ncurrent\n\nsome $\n\nsector\n\n1987 ,\n\nsome\n\nin\n\nperhaps\n\na\n\non\n\n\" biotechnology\nthe European Commission 's biotechnology concertation unit\nas\n\nin Western\n\nsomewhat\n\ncompanies\n\nbroader\n\nconcept\n\nnumbers\n\nEurope ,\n\nsome\n\n448\n\nof\n\nidentified\n\nBased\ncompany \",\nhas\nfollows :\n\nEUROPEAN COMMUNITY\n\nOTHER EUROPEAN STATES ( EFTA )\n\nEEC\n\n388\n\nBelgium\n\nDenmark\n\nFrance\n\nGermany (w. )\n\nGreece\n\nIreland\n\n37\n\n19\n\n76\n\n46\n\n2\n\n11\n\nItaly\n\nLuxembourg\n\nNetherlands\n\nPortugal\n\nSpain\n\nUK\n\n34\n\n1\n\n33\n\n2\n\n12\n\nAustria\n\nFinland\n\nNorway\n\nSweden\n\n115\n\nSwitzerland\n\n2\n\n6\n\n7\n\n28\n\n17\n\nTotal EEC\n\n388\n\nTot. West. Eur. 448\n\n215\n\n3. 3. Internationalism and Information\n\nof\n\nthe\n\ncharacteristic\n\nits\nOne\ninternationalism. Whether for access to markets for maximum return , or\naccess to science and technology for maximum efficiency in research ,\ndevelopment\nbe\nconscious of competition and opportunity on a world scale. biotechnology\n\nbiotechnology\n\nInnovation ,\n\nfeatures\n\ncompany\n\nhas\n\nand\n\nto\n\nof\n\nis\n\na\n\nOne response to this has been the proliferation of strategic alliances\nequity purchases ,\nbetween companies. These may be joint ventures ,\nor research contracts. licensing agreements , marketing agreements ,\nMany of them are transnational , EC-US , US-Japanese , or EC -Japanese. Their existence complicates any simple picture of comparative research\nexpenditures by region , since there is continuous information flow\nthrough\ninter-company\nagreements , and by the frequent transfers of individuals in a dynamic\nindustry. information\n\npublished\n\nchannels ,\n\nvia\n\nthe\n\nof\n\nThe\n\nthat\n\nlargest\n\nchallenge\n\ncompanies\n\nrecognise\n\ntheir\nof\n\ndepends upon\n\neffective exploitation\n\nEven\nthe\ncontinued\nrapidly\ncompetitiveness\nchanging base of knowledge , most of it external to the company 's own\nresources. changing\nthis\ninterface has led\nto growing emphasis on Information services and\nInfrastructure , a field in which Europe is most seriously behind the\nUSA (4 ), and in which the advantages of the federally centralised\nfacilities ,\nits\nfast-growing National Biotechnology Information Center ), build upon\ntheir computer-sophisticated home market ( 40,000 general practitioners\nhave personal computers in their surgeries ) the basis for potential\nglobal dominance. constantly\n\nNational\n\nMedicine\n\nmanaging\n\nLibrary\n\ne. g. (and\n\nthe\n\nof\n\nof\n\na\n\nBecause of its information-intensive character , biotechnology has been\nthe basis for a growth industry in advice on patenting issues. There\nare many controverses arising as the new intellectual breakthroughs in\nunderstanding seek commercial return on the research investment by\nexpanding into the traditional application areas of the life sciences. to\n\nthe already\n\nAdded\nthe regulation of\nbiotechnology , the patenting and information infrastructure illustrate\nthe many points at which international competition in biotechnology\ndepends upon public policy. For a review of these Issues , see ( 5 ). consensus about\n\nfamiliar\n\nSources\n\n1. Commission of the European Communities : FAST Occasional Papers ,\n\" Biotechnology : What will it change\", March 1981\n\nn\u00b0 1\n\n:\n\n2. Wolf , Edward C. \"Conserving Biological Diversity \", in \"State of the\n\nWorld , 1985 \", Worldwatch Institute. Washington , 1985\n\n3. U. S. Congressional Office of Technology Assessment : \"U. S. Investment in Biotechnology\", 1988\n\n4. Franklin , J. \"The role of Information Technology and Services in\nthe Future Competitiveness of Europe 's Bio-Industries , 1988\n\n5. Davies , D. ( ed. ) \" Industrial Biotechnology in Europe : Issues for\nPublic Policy\", based on CEPS ( Centre for European Policy Studies )\nconference , November 1985. Pub. Frances Pinter\n\n216 \u00ab\u2022\n\n\fA\n\nMolecular investigation of the genomes of complex organisms\n\nThe challenge\n\nthe\n\nthe\n\nthis\n\nwith\n\ndetermine\n\nenvironment ,\n\nregulation of\n\nThe genome specifies all the rules which , through interaction via the\nphenotype\nthe\nreproduction of an organism. Up to now , the molecular structure and\nthe\nlargely\ninaccessible. New techniques in DNA sequencing , as well as improve\u00ac\nments in the handling of biological information , have now created an\nto\nare\nunprecedented\ndecipher completely the genetic programme of any organism. The tool\nkit is composed of techniques to separate chromosomes , cloning and\nsequencing methods , ordered DNA libraries , genetic linkage maps , data\nbases and computer software. information\n\nscientific\n\nsituation. available\n\nsurvival\n\nremained\n\ngenetic\n\nThere\n\nmeans\n\nand\n\nhas\n\nto\n\nif\n\nof\n\nstructure\n\nDNA sequencing of whole genomes will require a vast amount of work ,\nthe\nhopes\ninvestigate\nespecially\nhigher\none\neukaryote genomes. the utmost importance to\nIt seems therefore of\nIt is\norganise and make proper choices for a productive strategy. clear that , as such , the sequence of a genome of a single entity will\nbe of very high basic value ; it seems also clear that determination of\nthe sequence of several genomes will increase the potential interest\nthe\nof sequence determination by\nsimplest level , sequencing will make available all signals that are\nimportant for the core machinery , responsible for gene expression and\nreplication. A further important result will be that we shall have\naccess to information corresponding to the ecological niche of the\nthat\nthe\norganisms\nremains present after the core sequences have been subtracted , repre \u00ac\nsents information specific to each type of organism. This will make\nunderstandable the way by which typical instances of various organisms\ncope with their environment. a very high\n\ninformation\n\nconsidered. sequence\n\nIndeed ,\n\nIndeed ,\n\nfactor. DNA\n\nat\n\nThe next domains which will be fertilised by knowledge of total genome\nsequences is the study of the evolution of species. This will result\nboth from comparisons of sequences of a given organism , and comparison\nof homologous sequences in different organisms. A major consequence\nwill be that we shall have pathways relating known structures ( at the\nthree dimensional level ) to unknown structures. This , most probably ,\nwill bring a major support to the general problem of prediction of\nprotein tertiary structure , knowing only their primary structure. 5. 217\n\n\fFinally , when we shall be in a position to start sequencing genomes of\nmulticellular eukaryotes , we shall start obtaining specific informa\u00ac\ntion on genes involved in cell differentiation. In general it can be\nhoped that knowledge of the genes will help understand a variety of\nbiological phenomena in a way more directly accessible than the usual\nconverse way ( i. e. going from the biological phenomenon to the gene ). are\n\nseriously\n\ncontemplating\n\nits proposal for\n\nthe possibility of\nThe United\nStates\nsequencing the human genome ,\nand Japan is making an endeavour to\ninvite international cooperation for this ambitious task to be placed\na Human Frontier Science\nunder the umbrella of\nProgramme. The primary interest of sequencing the human genome goes\nhuman\nwith\ndiseases\nthe\nmolecular structure of the disorders could lead to vast new markets in\ndiagnostics and therapeutic agents\nBeyond its\nscientific significance , a project of this dimension would obviously\nresult\nof\nand\nspin-off\ninstrumentation of wide biotechnological use. at\nand knowledge of\n\nthe wide-ranging medical\n\napplications\ncontrol ,\n\n( cf. Health annex ). technological\n\ndevelopment\n\ngenetic\n\nindeed\n\nstake. under\n\nMany\n\nare\n\nthe\n\nin\n\nProgress throughout the world\n\nThe United States are already engaged in some steps of\nthe human\ngenome enterprise. Total federal funding to genome projects amounted\nto 32-34 Mio $ in 1987. Projected spending of NIH in 1989 is estimated\nat 28 Mio $ , and DOE proposes 18 Mio $ for the same year to carry out\ntechnological and instrumentation connected research. The NSF would\nalso provide some support through grant programmes. However ,\nit is\ngenerally accepted that a budget of 200 Mio $ /year would be necessary\nto provide the comprehensive support\nThe\ndimension of the task , and some lack of coordination between the many\ninterested organisations , both public and private , may create diffi\u00ac\nculties before the human genome sequencing project can deliberately\ntake off. In the meanwhile , several smaller genomes are subject to\nin other\npilot sequencing work ,\ndeveloped countries. the United States as well as\n\nthat would be required. in\n\nThe Japanese position appears particularly strong from the technologi\u00ac\ncal angle. The automation of sequencing techniques is an area in which\nmuch work is being done , funded both by industry and by the govern\u00ac\nment. Robots have been developed , based on US approaches. The Univer\u00ac\nsity of Tokyo is very strong and many of the industry people involved\nin the development of automated sequencing /mapping equipment are their\nformer students. Much more so than its European counterpart , Japanese\nindustry is making efforts to commercialise the results of research\nand development in this field. \u00bb. 1\n\n\u00bb\n\n6. 218\n\n\fDevelopments in Europe\n\nthat Europe cannot accept a minor role. Several Member States as well as the Commission of the EC have already\ninvested much thinking , and sometimes money , in defining the partner\u00ac\nIt is a\nship Europe could offer in this major international effort. the\nfact\nrequired skills and resources , and has acquired much experience in\ncoordinating work across State boundaries. Its reputation that it is\nbound to coordinate policies and actions in all areas of Community\ncompetence turns out to be its real force. The task of sequencing the\ngenome of a complex organism is one which will require much division\nof labour and network integration. It has many of\n\nis\n\nand\n\nand\n\nto sequence regions of\n\nin the process of working out\n\nthe\nFrance has allocated already 1. 4 Mio $\nto develop\nhuman chromosomes of particular medical importance ,\ndata processing systems. The UK Medical Research Council set up a\ncoordination committee ,\nits\nstrategy to be approved at government level. The German DFG has been\nallocating 500. 000 $ / year for the last three years for research on the\nhuman genome. Cloning , data handling and instrumentation are the 3\nmain fields on which discussions were organised in a recent national\nA 50. 000 kbase\nmeeting ,\nchromosomal\nbeen\nhas\nwith\nselected by Italy for complete sequencing , in collaboration with the\nSalk Institute. the Italian government will be about\n10 Mio $. A EUREKA programme was also approved which covers some of\nthe technological aspects of sequencing work , with a British and a\nFrench company involved. to be convened again on a regular basis. retardation\n\nassociated\n\nThe cost\n\nmental\n\nregion\n\nto\n\nproject\n\nto\ntogether\n\nHowever ,\neven the largest European country cannot rely on its own\nforces to compete with the US and Japan where the initiative received\nearlier attention. It is still remarkable that the Comnunity has the\nprivilege of being first in 1988 to organise on a transnational basis\nThis\na coordinated\nobjective brings\nCommunity\nprogramme as many as 35 laboratories during a period of 2 years. The\na\ntarget , proportionate to the modesty of\nreasonable choice before the international scientific community will\nembark on the human genome. The latter - 1000 times the scale of a\nbacterial DNA - is so large that one has to perform several intermedi \u00ac\nate studies in order to permit scaling up. This means that eukaryotes\nwith small genomes such as yeast , be it only for this reason and not\nfor their own interest , should be considered first. sequence one chromosome of\nframework of\nin\n\nthe funds available ,\n\nyeast. the\n\nBAP\n\nthe\n\nis\n\nOther discrete steps have been taken , using existing programmes or new\nto organise trans \u00ac\nproposals under the second Framework Programme ,\nnational research on small-scale sequencing projects : Drosophila is\nconsidered under the Stimulation action , and the human genome will be\nfor\nthe\nsubject\ninitiative of Predictive Medicine. Community\n\nresearch\n\nunder\n\nfirst\n\ntime\n\nthe\n\nthe\n\nof\n\n7. 219\n\n\fFrom needs to priorities\n\ninvolve a\nThe different projects that have been briefly outlined\nsignificant amount of work : as example the smallest project ( 1000 kb )\nrequires at least 25 man x year of work , and the project of sequencing\na bacterial genome would require five times that figure. Choices are\nneeded for the Community to tailor its effort at an international\nlevel. - The participation of the Community in the human genome project is\nboth a strategic necessity and a chance offered to scientists and\nthis participation still has to be defined in terms of\nindustry ;\nethical\nscientific\ntaking\nguidelines ;\nshape\na Human\nthe framework of\nFrontier Science Programme. contributions ,\nthe coordination of\n\nthe Japanese initiative\n\nthe European response\n\nconsequences\n\ncommercial\n\nand\n\nfor\n\nis\n\nin\n\n- The completion of the total sequencing of the yeast genome , of which\nonly one chromosome is under analysis ; this is the unique strength\nof the Comminity that it was first to embark on a completely co \u00ac\naccumulating\nordinated\nthe human\ninformation and creating skills largely applicable to\ngenome\nthis modest\nadvantage. Community must\n\neukaryote ,\n\nkeep with\n\nlater on ;\n\nproject\n\nusing\n\nlower\n\nthis\n\nthe\n\nit\n\n- The\n\nparticipation\nother\n\nof\nthe\ngenomes\n\naddressing\n(JB. subtilis , Arabidopsis thaliana ). of\n\nComminity\n\nin\n\ninternational\n\nhigh\n\ncommercial\n\nprojects\nsignificance\n\n- The organisation of an industrial involvement in this whole endeav\u00ac\nour ,\ntaking care of technological spin-offs in the software and\ninstrumentation areas , as well as of legal , ethical and commercial\nconsequences of exploiting the accumulated biological information. support\n\nof molecular\n- Concomitant\nbiology ,\nto\nsecure that the structural information massively disclosed be also\ninterpreted and exploited in Europe through an adequate research\ninfrastructure. to basic science in the\nchemistry\n\nphysiology ,\n\nenzymology ,\n\nareas\nand\n\nprotein\n\ncell\n\nReferences :\n\nNational projects in biotechnology\nSusumu Yamamoto , on the occasion of Bio' FAIR TOKYO 1986\n\nQuatri\u00e8me enqu\u00eate de la STA sur les technologies japonaises dans les\n30 ans \u00e0 venir ( 1987-2015 )\nTraduction en provenance de la d\u00e9l\u00e9gation de la Commission , M. Bour\u00e8ne\n\n: partie \" Sicence de la Vie \". 8. OTA report\nMapping our genes. The genome projects : how big ; how fast ?\nOTA-BA- 373 ( Washington , DC :\n1988 )\n\nU. S. Government Printing Office , April\n\nSequencing the yeast genome. A detailed assessment. Report\nXII / F/ 280 , 250 pages. DG XII -F- 2,\n\nCommission ,\n\nthe\n\nEd. to\n\nA. Goffeau ,\n\nMay\n\n1988 ,\n\nWorkshop on prospects for biology in Europe and on the Human Frontier\nScience Programme , Brussels , 2 May 1988. Proceedings edited by XII- G- 3, 19 July 1988. B\n\nMolecular foundations of plant biotechnology\n\nThe roots of our green planet\n\nstudied\n\nare mostly\n\nand\nPlants\neconomic importance ; yet , in spite of elegant investigations in e. g. photosynthesis ,\nthey have not received the right attention on many\naspects , such as totipotency or metabolisms , with direct bearings on\nagriculture and industry. agricultural\n\nfunction of\n\ntheir\n\nin\n\nTotipotency is a unique property of plants. In contrast with other\nliving beings , they can develop into normal embryos and regenerated\norganisms ultimately , without necessarily passing through fecondation. these unusual\nThe\nprocesses is\nthe understanding of\nreproductive mechanisms in agriculture and forestry. signals\nan essential research step\n\nidentification of molecular\n\ncontrol\n\nto\nfor\n\nand\n\nare\n\nalso\n\nwith\n\ncomplex\n\nendowed\n\noriginal\n\nPlants\nbio-synthetic\npathways , which often find no equivalent in any other living organism. The products of\nthese biosyntheses have attracted the interest of\nchemists for centuries and have opened up a wide diversity of markets\nfor health and chemical industries. Their structures and biosynthetic\nroutes are however poorly known ( if known at all ) in some of the 9. 000\nplant species partially studied so far. But 300. 000 plant species with\npotential interest still are keeping most of their metabolic secrets\nbeyond scientific grasp. Limited efforts have recently been engaged to fill some of these gaps\nthrough research at molecular level. However , they have been always\nsubcritical and in no proportion to the overwhelming importance of\nplants to regulate the biosphere and to support most of human activ\u00ac\nfor a\nities. There are thousands of animal genes isolated so far ,\nhundred plant genes only ; and the excess of blood proteins compared to\nthe number of whole plant proteins that could be studied still is by\nwood ,\ntwo orders of magnitude. Nevertheless ,\nfeed ,\nessential\nfrom plant\ndrugs ,\nfeatures , which are exploited merely on empirical bases. is un\u00ac\nIt\nthinkable that the significance of any of these functions , and pro \u00ac\nducts thereof , may fade away in a foreseeable future. food ,\nsolar energy capture all are derived\n\nfibres ,\n\n9. 221\n\n\fThe situation worldwide is however rapidly changing , and a new deal in\nplant sciences is about to be established. The dramatic leap has come\nfrom the implementation of new research tools such as cell culture and\nmuta\u00ac\nregeneration methods ,\ngenesis , molecular probes for genes and gene expression ,\nThe\nrapid arrival on the market side of unconventional products with a\nspecific\nhigh\nresistances ) raised much industrial interest , resulting in substantial\nrestructuration of the agriculture-based industry. What is occurring\nin the United States and in Japan is particularly significant. T-DNA transfer\n\nsite-directed\n\n( engineered\n\nsymbiotic\n\nsystems ,\n\nprofile\n\nagents ,\n\nseeds\n\nwith\n\netc. The world scene\n\nAmerican teams have been very fast at applying the whole panoply of\nto build up leading expertise in\nmolecular tools mentioned above ,\nplant gene expression and plant development. They recorded many world\nfirsts over the last 3 years , such as creating the first tobacco with\nan engineered resistance to mosaic virus ,\nthe first tomato with an\nengineered resistance to the homworm , the first transgenic sunflowers\nand oil seed rapes ,\nthe first chloroplast genetically transformed ,\netc. This race towards meaningful research achievements has been made\npossible also because many industrial companies participated directly\nin the effort. Besides the expected seed and agro-chemical firms that\nwere first in the business , several pharmaceutical and oil companies\namong the major ones started to have significant \" green\" commitments ,\nstarting from the purchase of\nlocal seed companies to secure the\naccess to genes. They have also contracted research to universities ,\nalthough to a lesser extent than in the pharmaceutical field. such as\n\nresearch commitments have been flourishing ,\n\nOne of these big companies is even known for having established in\nEurope more contracts with universities in the EC than was possible\nthrough the BEP Community programme during the same period. Other\nforms of\nthe\npurchase of small R&D service companies , the reinforcement of in-house\nresearch capacities or the participation in consortia. Established in\n1986 , the Midwest Plant Biotechnology Consortium in particular brings\ntogether the expertise of 14 universities and the driving forces of 31\nindustrial companies\n( including from pharmaceutical and electronic\nsectors ) for target-oriented research in the field of agricultural\nbiotechnology. The research environment is particularly favourable in\nthe US because of market prospects (5 billions $ for seeds , and the\nprojection to 100 billions $ in 1995 for all biotechnology products in\nagriculture ), and after favourable provisions had been made in 1985 by\nthe US Patent and Trademark Office for granting patent protection to\nplant varieties , including those resulting from genetic engineering. The only pitfall before modified agricultural species are brought to\nthe field and new bio-rational practices implemented in agriculture\nstays with the question of conjectural risks. Pressure groups have\ncaused prejudice to the prosecution of experimental work , and federal\nagencies have not yet been able to control the situation. This diffi\u00ac\nculty , which was particularly amplified in the US where public debates\n\n10. 222\n\n\fthe political life ,\n\nthe somewhat confused regulatory status ,\n\nhave always been part of\ncould give Europe a\ncompetitive advantage if only the Community was able rapidly to define\ncommon regulations for the introduction of modified organisms. How\u00ac\never , irrespective of\nthe\nUSDA makes now provisions for a substantial support to basic plant\nresearch. Although it accounts for only 6% of the Federal budget ,\nranking third after N1H and NSF in biotechnology spendings , USDA has\nIts new\nconstantly increased its biotechnology budget\nPlant Science Centres\nto\nup\n1987 )\nencourage the best in basic plant research. These will address the\nareas of plant engineering , rhizosphere dynamics , carbohydrates and\necological processes in priority. Cooperation and multidisciplinarity\nare the major ingredients of the new recipe , which provides evidence\nfor the real obstacle which American plant biotechnology is facing :\nat physiological and molecular\nthe\nlevels , of the make-up of agricultural species. since\nhave been set\n\na basic understanding ,\n\n( 10 million $\n\nlack of\n\n1982. in\n\nJapanese plant biotechnology is not\nless spectacular ,\ncould give the impression of being more limited in scope. although\n\nit\n\nA major strong point in Japanese plant science has always been the\nstudy of secondary metabolites. Apart from describing the structure ,\nbiosynthesis and physiological functions of these compounds , a large\neffort has been put in increasing their production. This was attempted\nthrough plant breeding and through plant cell culture. In Japan so\nmany groups were and are still involved in this approach that they\nhave obtained an unique technological skill , non existing in any other\nsecundary\nof\ncountry. metabolite production will become possible through genetic engineer\u00ac\ning ,\ntheir capacity for plant cell fermentation will in the near\nfuture give Japan a leadership in the production of these compounds ,\nwhich can be of the highest importance to the fine chemical industry\nand the pharmaceutical industry. improvement\n\nplant\n\nlines\n\ncell\n\nthat\n\nNow\n\nfor\n\nDue to the strategic importance of agriculture , Japan also has a long\nlasting interest in developing crop improvement facilities. At present\nthe major effort is geared towards rice , wheat , barley and soybean. The future trend will be to include rapeseed. Their present major\nsuccesses are in adapting the gene transfer techniques to new plant\nspecies. With these techniques , they have been particularly successful\nis the only\nin engineering different rice cultivars. At present it\ncountry where in some institutes and companies one can find green \u00ac\nhouses full of engineered rice plants. is\n\nin\n\nthe\n\nalso\n\nresearch\n\ncarried out\n\nlaboratories\n\nOutstanding\nof\nthe major\ndifferent big industries. Each year the best students of\nuniversities are contracted by the leading industry. All have started\nin-house plant biotechnology research , some have even purchased seed\ncompanies in Japan and abroad. Likewise other parts of the developed\nworld , this move is seen not only on the side of the traditional food\nbut also by the major chemical\nindustry or agricultural companies ,\ncompanies ,\nand even\nfibre\ncement and electric industry. Most are active in research and produc \u00ac\ntion of several major crops ( rice , wheat , beans , even corn ) vegetables\n( tomatoes , potatoes , cabbage ) but also fruits ( citrus , melon , straw \u00ac\nberries , grapes ), medicinal plants and ornamentals. paper companies ,\n\noil companies\n\nand\n\nthe\n\n223\n\n\fIn summary ,\nscientists and\ntechnicians than the whole of the EEC countries , Japan is well pre \u00ac\npared for a major biotechnology effort. with a much larger number of\n\nskilled\n\nTheir weakness stems from the fact that developed skills are not much\nused for asking fundamental questions in plant molecular biology. And\nyet , the fruitful applications of gene transfer techniques depend on\ne. g. cell regeneration through organogenesis or embryogenesis. Success\nin\nin molecular biology\ntechniques and also on a proper understanding of plant physiology to\ncharacterise the required gene product. Quite some fundamental know\u00ac\nledge is still needed to optimise the current effort. on high standards\n\nisolation relies\n\ngene\n\nThe role of Europe\n\nEurope has up\n\nin plant biotechnology , owing to\n\nfast moving world ,\nleading posltioit\n\nto now been able to\nEven in\na\nmaintain a\nthe\nactivity of pioneering groups and to the promotion effect of national\nand Community programmes. can\nthe US. The first monocots\ncompare very favourably with those of\n(onion , daffodil , asparagus and rye) were genetically transformed in\nBelgium , Germany and the Netherlands ; the first receptor of a plant\nfirst nitrogen-fixing heterologous\nhormone cloned\nthe\nRhizobium in association with an engineered legume in Denmark ;\nfirst regulatory gene of a storage protein cloned in Italy from maize ,\netc. European achievements\n\nin Germany ;\n\na result ,\n\nthe\n\nAs\n\nor\n\nfor\n\nThe\n\neven\n\nplant\n\ncreated\n\nnumerous\n\nresearch. frequently\n\nEEC Member States have been very fast at using this momentum , as they\nand\nreinforced\ncentres\nthe\nforefront of the area , but it must make sure the benefits will stay\nwith it. Losing competitiveness in this phase of rapid expansion would\nresult in a loss of opportunities to exploit imagination. In addition ,\nit is of particular advantage that this European impetus can be tuned\nand amplified by capitalising on the experience from the Community\nprogramme for biotechnology R&D ( BAP :\n1985-89 ). BAP was very well\nreceived and provided a reliable test for the interest and promises\nwhich lie with the scientific and industrial communities in this area. laboratories\nat\nitself\n\nCommunity\n\nplaced\n\nThe pattern and development of industrial Interest parallels very well\nthat observed in the US and Japan , crossing all traditional branches\nof industry. After a period of hesitation in the early eighties , when\nsmall R&D companies were flourishing in the States , there are now many\nindicators\nby\nestablished European firms :\n\nfar-looking\n\nindustrial\n\nactivity\n\nintense\n\nand\n\nof\n\nan\n\n- recruiting university staff , particularly massively the last five\n\nyears ;\n\n- setting up new in-house biotechnology laboratories ,\n\nin almost all\n\nbranches of bio-industry ;\n\n- restructuring quite intensively the market ;\n- joining new representative bodies ( EBCG , GTBiP ) ;\n- cooperating in research ( BAP , EUREKA , Clubs , etc. );\n- supporting basic research\nprivate foundations , etc. );\n\n( European Institute of Technology EIT ,\n\n- buying American seed and R&D service companies. 224\n\n\fAbout 25 companies of various\nsizes and professional affiliations\njoined a new club , the Green Industry Biotechnology Platform (GIB1P ),\nto Interface with the public , consumers and regulatory bodies , and to\ndevelop\nintellectual\nproperty. Their expectations are for a major European effort in plant\nbiotechnology and for harmonised regulations allowing research results\ncontinents\napplied\nto\nsystematically. preferably not\n\ncommon ideas\n\nresearch and\n\nfields of\n\non other\n\nEurope\n\nand\n\nthe\n\nbe\n\nin\n\nin\n\nCommunity needs and opportunities\n\nThe foreseeable applications which could promote the welfare and the\ncompetitiveness of the Community would fall under three policy objec \u00ac\ntives :\n\n-\n-\n-\n\nagricultural competitiveness ,\nenvlronmental care , and\nconsumer safety. and\n\nprotection ,\n\npreferably\n\nenvironmental\n\ncompetitiveness\n\ncompatible when based\n\nCommunity agriculture is faced with the urgent need to increase its\ncompetitiveness while keeping in harmony with the environment. Both\nobjectives ,\nbe\neither antagonistic as they might have been occasionally in the past ,\nor\ntechnological\noptions. The reconciliation of these equally important issues stays\nwith the right balance of\nto chemical practices in\n\" bio-rational\"\nagriculture. That is to say with the design of alternative methods in\nplant nutrition and crop protection that would base productivity on\ngenuine biological processes under genetic control , rather than on\nexternal supply of chemical fertilizers or pesticides exclusively. This \" bio-rationality\" is becoming more conceivable with the advance\nof modern biotechnology and the demonstration that early applications ,\nsuch as microbial fertilizers or in-built genetic resistances , are\nalready becoming feasible. upon judicious\n\ncan\n\ntexture ,\n\nthe molecules of quality ,\n\nflavour , nutritional value ,\n\nThrough the pervasiveness of molecular approaches , more attention can\nthose associated with\nalso be given to\nlnnocuity ,\nof many plant\nproducts. If one could identify them , control their synthesis and tune\ntheir functional activity ,\nthe molecules of quality would make the\nreal difference between a surplus and a deficit crop : e. g. between a\nsurplus barley of low feeding value and a deficit barley more adapted\nto animal diet ; between a surplus wheat of poor baking quality and a\nhigh gluten wheat as demanded by the miller 's trade ,. Quality and\nprecise characteristics will increasingly become the discriminating\nfactors of plant products on the market side , and biotechnology is\ngiving a new opportunity to focus on molecular determinants of these\nparameters. etc. 13. 225\n\n\fLast but not least , the Interactions of crop plants with other native\nspecies of the agricultural environment can be monitored and , hence ,\npredicted as they never could before. This should permit real ecologi\u00ac\ncal management of land uses ,\nin both the short term and long term\ninterests of Community citizens. the\n\nWhat\n\npromote\n\nrelevant\n\nparticular\n\nis\nnot only multinational ( as\n\nIn order to apply the results of modern biology to these Community\npolicy objectives , the Commission has formulated new programmes aiming\nto\na\ndevelopments. collaborative effort ,\nin any Community\nprogramme ), and multi-disciplinary , as is usual in biotechnology , but\nbetween\nin\nagriculture ,\nthe ECLAIR\nprogramme ( European Collaborative Linkage of Agriculture and Industry\nthrough Research : 80 MECU , 1988-1992 ). The biological advances can be\nused to enable agriculture to develop products (of plant , animal or\nother origin ), better adapted to market needs ( food and , increasingly ,\nthus opening up new growth opportunities for European\nnon-food )\n;\nagriculture ,\nto\npromoting competitiveness and respecting\nmaintain and enhance the environment. closer\non\nindustry and science. partnership ,\nSuch is\n\nin\nthe aim of\n\nthe need\n\nrequired\n\nbased\n\nR&D ,\n\nis\n\nA related programme , FLAIR ( Food-Linked Agro-Industrial Research ,\n25\nMECU , 1989-1993 ), similarly applies the fruits of modern biology , but\nwith\nfood\nproduction system and the consumer. The keywords are quality , safety ,\nnutrition , and the application of the new technologies to these ends. particular\n\ninterface\n\nemphasis\n\nbetwwen\n\nthe\n\nthe\n\non\n\na\n\nThese programmes of feasibility research and development , looking at\npossible exploitations of biotechnology breakthroughs at the interface\nof agriculture , industry and the environment , have evolved in close\nconnection with the Community programmes of biotechnology R&D ( BAP :\n1985-89 , then BRIDGE : 1990-94 ). The programme BAP , in particular , is\nplaced at the fore-front of research and will find in ECLAIR , FLAIR or\nthe programme for coordination of agricultural research , the logical\nreceivers of the type of enabling techniques or instrumental knowledge\nthat\nprogrammes\nthe\nconstitute the testing ground where bottlenecks are identified and can\nvery appropriately feed back scientific ideas into the more basic\nones. application-oriented\n\nConversely ,\n\ncreated. is\n\nthe point will be made that none of\n\nAt this stage ,\nthe existing\nprogrammes of the research-development- application line will for ever\nperform as they did throughout the eighties , without caring for the\nnecessary forward thinking into the principles of life which underly\nbiological sciences. None of these objectives of Community significance can be reached just\nby extrapolating the ongoing research effort. Scientific and technical\nobstacles\nthe\nbiological end of bio-technology. technological\n\nshifted\n\nfrom\n\nhave\n\nnow\n\nthe\n\nend\n\nto\n\nIn the same way as biotechnology R&D activity and agro-industrial\nresearch mutually enhance each other ,\nthere need to be a stronger\ncommitment into basic areas where knowledge is expected to become\nplace\nlimiting\neventually. biotechnology\n\nexpansion\n\nfurther\n\ntake\n\nfor\n\nof\n\nto\n\n14. 226\n\n\fThis is a job for Europe\n\nthe emerged side of\n\nGenetic and molecular techniques have attracted attention , they have\nbecome particularly precise and powerful ,\ncan be\napplied only to\nthe Iceberg which represents\nliving matter. The hidden principles regulating plant functions and\nmetabolisms now need to be elucidated , before useful work can proceed\nat a scale of macro-economic significance. Know-how has outstripped\nknowledge , so that technology will be limited in scope until techno\u00ac\nlogy has served the purpose of producing the necessary understanding\nof agricultural objects ; what could also be called \" new plant physio\u00ac\nlogy\". still\n\nthey\n\nbut\n\nFive major areas are proposed for joint research in Europe :\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\nflower\nprocesses\n\ninduction ,\n\ngamete\n\ndevelopment\n\nand\n\nsexual\n\nrecognition\n\ncontrol of plant cell development and morphogenesis\n\ninformation at plant-microbe interfaces\n\ngenetic and metabolic controls of quality traits\n\n- molecular investigation of the genome of Arabidopsis thaliana\ngene probes\nlarge\nfrag\u00ad\nmutagenesis ,\n\nas model for all plant genomes and reservoir of\ncloning of\n(chromosome isolation and sequencing ,\nments\ntransposon\nsystems ,\ncomplementation\nhomologous recombination ). and\n\ngene-function\n\ngenome organisation ,\n\nEach of these areas has specific bearing on activities in seed or\nprocess industry. Underlying these focal points of interest , common\nthe basic cell machinery will have to be\nbiological processes of\naddressed in priority : signal perception/ transmission , regulation of\ndevelopment ,\nThe\nhorizon of the researcher in plant molecular biology is opening up\ninto a revised vision of plant cell physiology , e. g. how genetic units\neither\nare\nset\ngenetic\nadjacent\nprogrammes\nthe\nexpression of so many plant features for agriculture and industry. An\nadequacy of physiological / biochemical knowledge with the extended\narray of new analytical / genetic techniques at molecular level is what\nmultiple\npressingly\nand\nconvergence\nwide-ranging cooperation schemes. the developed skills\nmust be used for asking the fundamental questions of plant physiology ,\nbefore meaningful applications can be further devised. with\ninteractions\nand how the regulated\nfunctions\n\nthrough\nthe environment ;\nmetabolic\n\ninto\ncells or\nlead\n\nrelationships. At present ,\n\nmolecular\n\nsupport\n\nskills\n\nmotion\n\ncalls\n\nwhich\n\nnew\n\nthe\n\nfor\n\nof\n\nto\n\nSignificantly enough , this is an analysis which closely meets American\nand Japanese science evaluations. Europe must neither be bypassed by\nstrong\nthe expanding knowledge base of others who\nactions in this area , nor be overruled in strategic discussions on\ngenetic\ngenetic\nsection\nresources ). It must hold a strong negotiating position when defining\nthe new international distribution of research tasks , or the needs to\nrationalise networks of biological resources ,\nthe latter with the\nparticipation of Lome Treaty countries in particular. conducting\n\nresources\n\nDiversity\n\nalso\n\n(cf. are\n\nof\n\nC\n\n:\n\n15. 227\n\n\fReferences :\n\nThe Human Frontier Programme : Japanese research in plant sciences. A preliminary report to the Commission ( 1988 ). M. van Montagu\n\nBiotechnology in Japan. A report prepared by a UK visiting group for the SERL , April 1986. L' USDA s' accroche au wagon de la g\u00e9n\u00e9tique v\u00e9g\u00e9tale. Biofutur , Janvier 1987 , page 11. US agricultural research\nNature , vol. 324 ,\n\n13 November 1986 , page 103. New US Plant Science programme\nAGROW , n\u00b0 51 , 13 November 1987 , page 11. Biotechnologies et agriculture aux Etats-Unis\nr\u00e9volution verte. Ambassade de France \u00e0 Washington , Services de l' Expansion \u00e9conomique\net Mission scientifique , mai 1986. Paru dans \" Probl\u00e8mes \u00e9conomiques \",\nn\u00b0 1976 , 28 mai 1986 , pp. 3-10. vers une nouvelle\n\n:\n\n\u2019Workshop on prospects for biology in Europe and on the Human Frontier\nScience Programme , Brussels ,\n2 May 1988. Proceedings edited by XII-G- 3, 19 July 1988. Boutry , M. and Magnien , E. 1987. The use of RFLPs for basic research\nand plant breeding. Report to the Commission , Directorate-General for\nScience , Research and Development , DG XII -F- 2, Brussels. Dickinson , H. G. and Magnien , E. 1987. Manipulation of core processes\nin plant breeding. Report to the Commission , Directorate-General for\nScience , Research and Development , DG XII-F- 2, Brussels. S. C. ,\n\nVries ,\n\nof\nand\nde\ndifferentiation and morphogenesis in plants. Report to the Commission ,\nDirectorate-General for Science , Research and Development , DG XII -F- 2,\nBrussels. Magnien ,\n\nControl\n\nOlesen ,\n\n1988. P. E. C\n\nDiversity of genetic resources\n\nPlant resources\n\nThe production of biotechnological innovation will be limited by the\nability of scientists to capitalise on genetic variability. The access\nto genetic resources and to gene banks will become the major factor of\na continuing progress. Thirld World countries will therefore take\nadvantage of their strategic position in the tropical areas as being\nthe hosts of most living species on the earth. They sit on a reservoir\nof genetic variability that attracts considerable interest. To take\njust an example , a major seed company recently provided the USDA with\n1. 5 million \u00a7\nto inventorise and collect 20,000 genotypes and wild\nspecies of maize in South America. i \u00ab. 228\n\n\fin\n\nas\n\nthe\n\nmade\n\nfear\n\nNorth\n\nfact ,\n\naccessible\n\ncould\nand\n\nProgramme\n\na matter of\n\n( UNEP ) warns\n\ngenetic material\n\nthey would\nfrom\n\nfor the benefit of\nthat\n\nThe position of developing countries sometimes appears contradictory :\nthey would like to maintain a free international\non the one hand ,\ntheir own\nexchange of plant genetic resources\nagriculture ;\nthe best\nthe breeding work of\nresult\nadapted\nlaboratories\nthem under\nbe\nrestrictive conditions. The executive director of the United Nations\npatenting of\nEnvironment\nbiotechnology\nthe\nby\n( including\ndeveloped countries could further disadvantage developing countries \". But ,\nit\nthe\non\ngenetic\ndesirable to\nalways\nresources\nsupported\nthe\npreservation\nresources. Industrialised countries have however raised opposition against what\nthey would consider over-regulation in the field , which is already\nunder the competence of\nfor Plant Genetic\nResources ( TBPGR ). other\ncontrol and possibly regulate the export of\nconference has\nagreement\ngenetic\n\ninternational\nplant\n\nthe International Board\n\ntheir\nadoption\n\napplications\n\ncontrol and\n\nexploitation\n\nterritories. developing\n\ncountries\n\nmodified\n\nfrom\nthe\n\nconsider\n\nplants )\n\nwould\n\nworld\n\nhand ,\n\n\" the\n\nfor\n\nand\n\nThe\n\nFAO\n\nan\n\nof\n\nof\n\nto\n\nThe scientific community now enters the political debate by raising\nthe threat of a rapid erosion of plant genetic resources : within 10\nyears ,\nThe\nproposal to set up a world gene bank gets substantiated , but does not\nreceive an American approval because of the existence of a national\ncollection in the US. species will unavoidably disappear. thousands of\n\nplant\n\nThe\nInternational\nestablished since\nAgricultural\npromotion of international networks of genetic resource centres. for\n( TBPGR ),\nthe Consultative Group on International\nthe\nas\n\nby\nCentres ,\n\nobjective\n\nResources\n\nResearch\n\npursued\n\nGenetic\n\nPlant\n\nBoard\n\n1974\n\nhas\n\nan\n\nto\n\nfor\n\nthe\n\ncan\n\nIBPGR\n\ncane ,\n\nsugar\n\n( rice ,\n\npraised\n\nexceptions\n\nsignificant\n\nintends\nand\n\nthis organization\n\nactivities\nbe\n\nCollection , conservation , documentation , evaluation and use of plant\ncover\ngermplasm are\nworldwide. impressive\nachievements. Its relationships with FAO have however proven to be\ncontentious and , technically , much is left to be desired. With very\nthe\nfew\nacquisition , maintenance and evaluation of major world crops is simply\nnot organized and the breeders collections , next to being private , are\nindeed under risk that they get disrupted or lost. The evaluation of\nsustain breeding\nthe\nactivities ,\nan\nrequire\ninternational agreement on an integrated catalogue with meaningful\ndescriptors\ncharacteristics ,\nsites ,\ncollection\n:\nstress / resistance behaviour ,\nagronomic traits , using more and more\nmolecular probes and chemical signatures in conjunction with botanical\ndescriptions\nshould\nobviously be computerized. its utilization ,\n\ngermplasm and\n\ninformation\n\necological\n\nnecessary\n\npossible. properly. alfalfa\n\npotato ,\n\nbecomes\n\ncarried\n\nsystem\n\nwould. ),\n\nThis\n\nThis\n\nout\n\nnot\n\nas\n\nto\n\nis\n\n17. 229\n\n\fin\n\ngemplasm\n\nParticularly relevant will be the description of genes and of their\nsequences , expected to become available at an accelerated rate. Gene\nbanks should be designed in a way to facilitate the search for desired\ngenes\nproviding\nopportunities\noffsite-maintained\nplants , particularly through in vitro culture , biochemical blueprints\nand , may be more futuristic ,\nthe preservation of isolated genetic\ninformation in the form of DNA or RNA. The applications of rDNA\ntechnology to gerraplasm evaluation and management have hardly began ,\nbut are likely to become of increasing importance. collections. the\n\nfunctionality of\n\nBiotechnology\n\nincrease\n\nis\n\nto\n\nstandardization\nof\n\nIn Europe , awareness of species diversity is growing and is giving\nraise to discrete initiatives. A European Standard List of Animal and\nPlant species has been set up by the Council of Europe. The production\nthe\nand\ndevelopment\nfirst\npriority. But taxonomic work goes on declining further in academic\ninstitutions and it is becoming an urgent task to revitalize this key\ndiscipline of the life sciences by having it revisited , in particular ,\nwith the contribution of molecular biology. checklists\nis\n\ndiversity\ndatabase\n\nspecies\ndiversity\n\nnetworks\n\nspecies\n\nthe\n\nand\n\nof\n\nAnimal resources\n\nto\n\nof\n\nmany\n\nthe USA ,\n\nvaluable\n\nIn contrast\nthe\nthe breeding situation in Japan and\nselection of races of domestic animals in Europe has developed into an\nto the\noutstanding tradition for hundreds of years. development\nuseful\nproductions under different environmental conditions. However , due to\nan immediate competitivity requirement , there is a clear tendency for\nthese races to disappear , replaced by a small number of uniform ones ,\nhighly selected for massive productivity in an artificial environment\nand depending on supplied feed. In order to preserve this exceptional\ngenetic capital now in danger , it would be worth improving the methods\nof genetic preservation of embryos and collections of them. This has\n\nled\nmany\n\nanimals\n\nadapted\n\nto\n\nEcological monitoring\n\nin our\n\ncurrent\n\nclassify\n\nknowledge. The ignorance of the true taxonomic structure of natural microflora is\na critical deficiency\nThe majority of\nbacteria present in a given ecosystem are not readily cultured in\nvitro and are experimentally silent. Hence the inability to identify\nthose\nand\nmicroorganisms. in\nparticular ecosystems cannot be analyzed properly , although it is now\nexpected that molecular microbial ecology should allow , in conjunction\nwith sophisticated instrumentation for data capture and automation of\nmicrobial\nof\necosystems. satisfactorily\ndynamic\n\nidentification ,\n\nmicroorganisms\n\nsubstantial\n\nfunctioning\n\ninteraction\n\nproportion\n\ninsight\n\ninto\n\nnew\n\nThe\n\nthe\n\nof\n\nof\n\na\n\n7\n\n1\n\n18. 230\n\n\fDNA probes and monoclonal antibodies must be developed for many more\nmicroorganisms , and especially for those composing biotechno logically\nAnalytical instruments with higher resolving\nimportant ecosystems. power ( gas chromatography , mass-spectrometry. ) need to be further\nimproved to work on very large numbers of isolates. The data must be\nevaluated and organized into adequate information base. is\n\nneeded\n\nurgently\n\nWhat\nof\nmultidisciplinary groups capable of exploiting new technologies and\nmolecular methods\nof\nmicrobial ecology in target ecosystems , especially those susceptible\nof being subject to new agricultural practices or introduction of\nforeign species. The priorities would be :\n\norganization\n\nintegrated\n\napplying\n\nstudies\n\nEurope\n\nthem\n\nthe\n\nand\n\nin\n\nof\n\nto\n\nis\n\n- instrumentation\nidentification ;\n\nfor\n\nhigh\n\nresolution\n\nautomated\n\nmicrobial\n\n- banks of sp\u00e9cifie probes ;\n\n- monitoring , at molecular level , of gene flows in microcosms ;\n\n- standardization of model microcosms ;\n\n- microbial interactions in ecosystems moved away from equilibrium ;\n\n- relation of microbial processes to the overall flux of energy and\n\nmatter ;\n\n- ecosystem modelling with predictive capacity\n\nin\n\nthe\n\nevent\n\nof\n\na\n\nperturbation. BTBLIOGRAPHY. La guerre des semences , J. Grall et B. Roger Levy ( Fayard , 1985 ). Biotechnology News , vol. 5 n\u00b0 25 (9 October 1985 ). Department of Education and Science , and Research Council , meeting\nbackground\n\n20 September\n\n1988 ,\n\nwith Commission 's representatives ,\npaper. Prof. K. N. Timmis , GBF Braunschweig , personal communication ( 1988 ). Actes de la Conf\u00e9rence Europ\u00e9enne : Diversit\u00e9 Biologique - Un d\u00e9fi\npour la Science , l' Economie et la Soci\u00e9t\u00e9. Dublin , 4-6 mars 1987\n\nCommission des\nparticular\nconfronting the exploitation of genetic diversity , p. 26-41 )\n\nDG XII-FAST ,\n\nEurop\u00e9ennes ,\n\nCommunaut\u00e9s\n\nreference\n\nProblems\n\nP. R. Day\n\nand\n\n1988\n\n(with\nopportunities\n\nto\n\n:. Technologies to maintain biological diversity , Office of Teclmology\nAssessment , OTA- F- 330, Government Printing Office , Washington , DC ,\nMarch 1987\n\n19. 231\n\n\fD\n\nImmunology\n\nto\n\nthe\n\nthe\n\none\n\nbear\n\nbeen\n\nscale\n\ntoday\n\nbasis\n\nwitness\n\nthousand\n\njournals\n\nOver\nof\nscientific and biomedical activities conducted under the heading of\n'\u2019Immunology \". In presenting a brief resume of the current situation in\nthis complex and fast-advancing biological discipline , three aspects\nshould be highlighted. Firstly , as a fundamental science , immunology\nhas provided basic research with many challenging problems. A central\nissue has\nthe\nthe\nmechanism by which an organism has the ability to produce millions of\ndifferent antibody molecules , with a relatively low number of genes. Secondly ,\n(especially\nprophylaxis ) with , for example , a predominant role in defence against\nbacterial , viral and parasitic attacks. Thirdly , immunology provides\nexquisitely specific analytical tools , finding practical applications\nin many fields and , especially ,\nsince the discovery of monoclonal\nantibodies. These have made it possible very cheaply to detect and to\nquantify viruses , bacteria , parasites and the presence of specific\nmolecules such as hormones , toxins or pollutants. is highly implicated\n\nin medicine\n\nantibodies ,\n\nimmunology\n\ndiversity\n\nfor\n\nof\n\nSince 1980 ,\n\nDuring the recent years , immunology has brought a huge contribution to\nscience. immunological research has been rewarded with\nthree Nobel Prizes out of eight attributed in physiology and medicine\n(F ); and G. D. Snell ( EU ) -\nJ. Dausset ,\n( 1980 :\n1984 : N. Jeme (DK );\nG. Kohler ( FRG ) and C. Milstein (UK ) - 1987 :\nS. Tonegawa (J ). This demonstrates the exceptional vitality and impact\nof immunology on medicine and science. B. Benacerraf (EU );\n\nImmunology is a widely dispersed discipline. It is based on teams of\ncollaborating\nor\ninstitutes of relatively modest size ( 10 to 100 people ), and having\nhigh competence in biochemistry , molecular biology and medicine. researchers ,\n\ndepartments\n\nuniversity\n\ngrouped\n\nin\n\nCertainly , the best immunological research is conducted in the United\nStates , which has the largest number of research groups. The quality\nof their work is greatly assisted by the excellence of the research\ninfrastructure , as exemplified by the collection of cultured cells at\nthe ATCC (American Type Culture Collection ), or the Jackson collection\nof mice which have no equivalent elsewhere in the world. There are\nexcellent teams in the U. S. in every sector of immunology. (B\n\nThe development of immunology in Japan is relatively recent. However ,\nthey possess many teams of high quality such as\nthat of T. Tada\n(working on T suppressor lymphocytes and lymphokines ) in Tokyo , T. Kishimoto\n(molecular\nin\ngenetics of\nOsaka. Immunology has progressed extraordinarily quickly in Japan , and\nit is difficult to predict its development in the near future , owing\nto the potential which lies with a young generation immunologists ,\nmostly trained however in the United States. the immunoglobulin synthesis and T cell receptor )\n\nstimulatory\n\nfactors )\n\nHonjo\n\ncell\n\nand\n\nT. 20. 232\n\n\fThe\n\nbasic\n\npresent\n\nin both\n\nsituation\n\nEurope is an old and traditional region with excellent capabilities in\nclinical or\nimmunology. applied immunology is rather good , with highly qualified teams : but\nthe most competitive studies , requiring large contributions of genetic\nengineering , are located in the States or in Japan (T cell receptors ,\ninterleukins. ). Non-Community countries , such as Sweden , Finland or\nSwitzerland , have excellent immunology research. A major contribution\nto immunology has been the establishment in Switzerland of the \" Basel\nInstitute for Immunology \". This institute is entirely devoted to basic\nimmunology and is totally supported by the private pharmaceutical firm\nHoffmann - La Roche. and\n\nefforts\n\nEuropean\n\nUnfortunately ,\noften been\nand\ndeveloped and exploited in the United States before being employed in\nEurope : monoclonal antibodies are one of the most striking examples. The Nobel-prize-winning discovery was made in Cambridge , England ; but\nUS commercial firms ( Hybritech , Becton Dickinson , Ortho-Diagnostics )\nhave taken the largest part of the market ( for example , monoclonal\nantibodies for human lymphocyte typing ). have very\n\nresults\n\nof\n\nand\n\nimmunology\n\nThe Commission of the European Communities has already recognised the\nimportance\nthis\ndiscipline in programmes such as the \" Biotechnology Action Programme\",\n\" Stimulation\", \" Medical Research\" and \" Tropical Medicine \". This effort\nis considerable and can contribute to the progress of immunology and\nits application. Nevertheless , this effort is dispersed and aims at so\nmany goals that it cannot be considered as a significant contribution\nto immunology. involving\n\nresearch\n\nsupports\n\nMany major problems in applied immunology remain unsolved : such as a\nbetter evaluation of the potential of the human immune system ; better\ncontrol of immunosuppression in order to improve the success of heart ,\nspecific\nliver ,\ntoxins ,\nantibodies against many aggressive agents (virus , bacteria ,\nchemical\nautoimmune\ndiseases , etc. improvement\n\nproduction\n\ntreatment\n\ngrafts ;\n\norgan\n\nother\n\nhuman\n\ndrugs. );\n\nthe\n\nthe\n\nor\n\nof\n\nof\n\nin\n\nVery\n\nprogress\n\npromising\n\nimmunities. currently facing immunology ,\n\nto\nimprove the\nA basic challenge\nis\nget strong and\npresentation of antigens to organisms in order to\n( for\nlonglasting\nexample in understanding the AIDS virus ) and\n( the\nmajor diseases in the world are parasitic ) have been achieved , leading\nto a better understanding of these infectious agents. However , to be\ntransformed\nnew\nengineered substances must meet the requirements of the immune system\nin order to be effectively recognized. Those requirements are still\npoorly understood. A collaborative effort in Europe on such a subject\ncould be\nthe major\nproblems of human ( and veterinary ) medicine as well as a considerable\nhelp to pharmaceutical firms developing vaccines. in virology\nin parasitology\n\na valuable contribution to\n\nthe improvement of\n\nefficient ,\n\nvaccines ,\n\ncheap\n\nsafe\n\ninto\n\nand\n\nthe\n\n21. 235\n\n\fE. NEUROBIOLOGY\n\nof\n\nthe\n\nstudy of\n\ndisciplines\n\nhuman brain and nervous\n\na\nThe\nand\nmultiplicity\nInformation science to zoology, psychology and medicine. All of\nthese areas contribute to the understanding of\nthe nervous system\nfrom a cellular, molecular and biochemical point of view as well\nas going same way to elucidate the higher brain functions such as\nproblem solving language and memory. system Includes\nchemistry\n\nphysics,\n\nfrom\n\nthe\n\ncells\n\nsince\n\ncentre\n\nIt was\n\nrecognised as\n\n(neuronsj. Neuroscientists\n\nIntense Interest\nHow the brain functions has been the subject of\nIntelligence,\nfor\never\nthe brain began In\nthought and sentiment. The scientific study of\nthe last certuary when certain brain functions\nthe early part of\nwere plnponted and the nervous tissue found to be\ncomposed of\nIndividual\nhowever\nworking on the study of many of the more complex processes of the\nbrain such as memory, how sensory Information Is Interpreted and\nthe work\nthe processes\nbeing\nthe\nneurological\nunderstanding\na\nbecome\ndisorders. The brain's\nmajor subject for research with scientists hoping to emulate some\nof\nIn\ncomputers whose structure Is based on that of the brain. Involved In voluntary movement. Some of\napplication\ncertain\npower his\n\nhave\ntreatment\n\nof\ncomputer\n\n'neurocomputers'\n\ncapabilities\n\nIncredible\n\nout will\n\npossible\n\nbuilding\n\ncarried\n\ndirect\n\nstill\n\nand\n\nthe\n\nare\n\nits\n\nof\n\nto\n\nNeuroblologlcal Research\n\nIn\n\nthe complexity of\n\nand\nparticular ,\n\nIntercellular\nscientists\n\nresearch\nThe diverse topics being undertaken In neuroblological\nthe subject. Considerable\nare an Indication of\nIn recent years In the fields of\nbreakthroughs have been made\nnervous\nmolecular\ncellular\nin\nsystem. been\nIdentifying and Isolating the specific molecules\nresponsible for\nthe transmission of an impulse from one neuron to another and the\nInvolved In the modulation\ncomplex processes\nthe\nIn minute\nnerve\nare\nquantities In the neurons , using recombinant DNA techniques ,\nthey\ncan be generated In sufficient quantities to be studied In detail\nInformation Is necessary\nusing protein sequencing methods. This\nto provide\nto the\na\nnervous system. response. While neurotransmitters\n\nor control of\nproduced\n\nfull understanding of\n\nthe chemical basis\n\nsuccessful\n\nanalysis\n\nhave\n\nthe\n\nof\n\n22. 234\n\n\fthe\n\nthe\n\nand\n\nhas\n\nnervous\n\nseveral\n\nbenefltted\nstudy\nthe\n\nfrom\nof\nenabling\n'in-vlvo'. The bringing together of molecular\n\nInterdisciplinary\nReuroblology\nsystem both'in-\nsuccesses\nvltro'\nbiology\nand genetic engineering has permitted the study of nerve cells In\nculture where\ntheir\nfor\ntechniques have\ngrowth and function have been Identified. These\nIdentify\nalso brought\ncomplex interconnections. Cell culture\neach other\nhow myelinating cells\nIs currently being used In the study of\nallow\n( those\nInsulate\nwhich\nsuch\nImpulses to be conducted), may be transplanted to victims of\ndiseases as multiple sclerosis where myelinatlon has broken dowon\nIn this way, repair may be possible. the mechanisms by which neurons\n\nand form their\n\nenvironmental\n\nspecialised\n\nconditions\n\nto light\n\nrequired\n\nneurons\n\ncells\n\nand\n\ntools\n\nrecent\n\nallow the anatomical\n\nthe brain In-vlvo using scanners has\n\nImages of\n( ti. M. R. )\nexceptionally\n\ntechnique which, by detecting the changes\n\nthese techniques\nresearchers are working on\n\ncomputer which reconstructs multiple\ntechnique of Huclear Magnetic Resonance\navailable ,\nproviding\nthe magnetic properties of\n\nbeen\nThe observation of\npossible since the early 1970\u2018s. Conventional X-rays are coupled\nthe brain. to a\none of\nThe\nis\nthe most\nhigh\nthe brain\nquality Images based on\ntissue. While\nthe\nof magneto\u00ac\nbrain,\nencephalography a\nIn\nthe neurons will help to Identify diseases\nelectrical activity of\nInvasive diagnostic\nsuch as epilepsy whose\ntools. There have also recently been developments\nin the use of\nInjected Into the bloodstream which are\nradio-labelled substances\ntechnique\ntraced by a detector coupled to a data-processor. This\nIn\nbut\nprovides\naddition ,\nA whole\nradiotracers now exist which help In the Identification\nseries of\nof\nenvisaged\nIt\nthese examinations surgeons will\nthat by combining the results of\nbe\nof\ncarry\nable\nprecision. scanner\nthe complex blood-brain barrier. Information\nInformation on\n\nthe maximum amount\n\nhaemohorrages ,\n\nsurgery with\n\nevade other\n\ndevelopment\n\nthromboses ,\n\ncomparable\n\nblockages ,\n\nstudy of\n\ncauses\n\nthat\n\nect. the\n\nout\n\nof\n\nto\n\nIs\n\nto\n\na\n\nthe\n\nhave\n\n1940's\n\nparallels\n\nSince\nfunctioning of\nto emulate the brain have proved largely unsuccessful. years\nInvestment\ndeveloping\nfederal\nImportant financial commitments. the\nbeen\nthe human brain and computing machines. Attempts\nIn recent\nenthusiasm and\nIn the United States and Japan In the possibility of\nIn particular ,\nIn the United States ,\nneurocomputers. and private companies are making\nagencies , universities\n\nexplosion of\n\nthere has\n\nbeen an\n\nhowever ,\n\nbetween\n\ndrawn\n\n23. 235\n\n\f-\n\nthe\n\nthat\n\nthat\n\nthrough\n\nenvisaged\n\nunderstanding\n\nneurocomputers would\n\nof\nneurocomputer\n\nhoping\nthe brain they can \u2022 build a\n\nthe\nScientists\nare\nfunctioning of\na\ncomputer which Is structured like the brain and which like the\nbrain can learn for Itself without programming. The way In which\nthe brain processes Information is extrodln&rily efficient and it\nis\nto\nconventional machines. The brain differs from ordinary computers\nin several\ncarry out\nreasoning. While\nslmultalneous\ncomputers have been trained to play chess at world\nto\nlaw and\nrediscover\nInformation\nto answer questions\nthey\nfed\nconsidered\na\nIntelligent. The\nnot based solely on\nfunction of\nlogic as\ncomputer, as problems of certain complexity only\nIs a\nexperience based on learning can find a solution. the unstated Implications of\nfrom being\n\nImportant physical principles,\n\nImportant ways\nprocessing,\n\nlong way\nthe brain is\n\nbe vastly superior\n\nsuch as Ohm's\n\nincluding Its\n\nability to\n\nlearning\n\nactive\n\nlevel,\n\nthem,\n\nand\n\nare\n\non\n\nto\n\nIuit. iatly. es In the United States and Japan\n\nfigures\n\nthe\nIn the United States, Interest can be measured by looking at\nattendance\nin\nneurocomputing;\n1985 only 50 participants attended a meeting at Santa Barbara. By\n1987\nSan\nDiego. 'Start-up\u2018\ncompanies are operating in the field , In the United States. international\nthat\n\nconference\nfifteen\n\npeople\nIs\n\nconferences\n\nof major\n\nestimated\n\n2000\nIt\n\nattended\n\nan\nthat\n\nmore\n\non\n\nat\n\nBell\n\nAT&T's\nlaboratories\n'neurons' based as the nerve cells of\ncan simulate the learning of which the slug Is capable. succeeded\n\nhave\n\nsilicon\nbuilding\nthe garden slug. The model\n\nin\n\nAnother American company has developed a device which imitates\nthe retlrn of the eye while another has invented a device to read\nhandwriting and feed the Information to a computer. Japan has\nFrontiers' In which neurocomputing will play a major role. launched a major\n\nInitiative in science entitled \u2018Human\n\nof\n\nthe\n\nimportant discoveries\n\nresearch\nEuropean laboratories are very active In neuroblological\nhere. been made\nand many\nin European expertise. A\nAmerican companies are showing interest\nlarge\nAmerican\nan\nmade\nbeen\nPharmaceutical Company In the University of Oxford's pharmacology\ndepartment where research Is being carried out on the treatment\nof brain diseases. the company will\nIn return for Its Investment,\nget the Intellectual property rights to the work which It funds. Investment\n\nrecently\n\nhave\n\nhas\n\nby\n\n24. 236\n\n\fCommunlty Inltlatles lu Neur\u00fbblQlQgy\n\n(In\n\nthe\n\nresearch\n\nparticular\n\nsubject\nIn\nIts\nBRAIN ( Basic Reseach Adaptive\n\nThe Commission of\nneuroblologlcal\ncellular communication) under\nof\nInterest\nextension\nIntroduced\nthe\nNeurocomputing),\nrecommendations of\nScience and Technology (CODEST) which advises\nthe\nnew trends\nsupport\ncollaboration\npromote the design of machines\nEight project are currently being supported by BRAIN. These are :\n\nthe European Communities has been supporting\nInter\u00ac\nthe Science Plan since 1984. As an\nCommission\nand\nInitiative\nthe\n1987,\nthe Committee from the Development of European\nthe Commission on\nto\ninitiative\nof\nIs\nand\nbetween member\nto\nstates\nfunction. that emulate the brain's\n\nIntelligence\nfollowing\n\nIn Science. The\n\nresearch\n\npurpose\n\nstudy\n\nthe\n\nthe\n\nof\n\nIn\n\nthe development of connectlonlst models\n- a mathematical way of\ncapacity\n\nfor neurocomputing\nsimulating the brain's calculating\n\nthe design of a neurocomputer with learning abilities\n\nthe\nstudy\nprocessing\n\nof\n\nthe\n\nuse\n\nof\n\nneural\n\nnetworks\n\nfor\n\ndata\n\nthe determination of\na computer\nto start\nbraln\n\nthe level of complexity necessary for\nto function In a slmular way to the\n\nstudy\n\nthe\nrelationship between\neyes and of the head\n\nof\n\nthe\n\nneural\n\nnetworks\n\ndetermining\n\nthe brain and the movement of\n\nthe\nthe\n\nthe\nr\u00e9cognition of designs and graphs\n\ndynamic\n\nstudy\n\nof\n\nconnectlonlst models\n\nfor\n\nthe\n\nInvestigation of\n\nthe\nvisually guided arm movements with a view to applying this\n\nsensorimotor\n\nstrategies\n\ninvolved\n\nIn\n\nthe knowledge to robotics and computer vision\n\nthe study of\ncortex of primates In controlling a reaching movement. the basic operations Involved In the cerebral\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\nbeing\n\nOther\nInitiatives\nInclude a project\nIn the diagnosis of muscular\nIs being supported under\nProgramme for Research and Development\nand Involves five teams In the United Kingdom and Denmark. Community\nto develop a computer programme which will help\nand nervous diseases. This project\nthe ESPRIT programme (European Strategic\nIn Information Technology)\n\nsupported\n\nEuropean\n\nthe\n\nby\n\n25. 237\n\n\fsystem is capable of\n\ntaking Information from medical\nThis expert\nand\nequipment measuring the electrical characteristics of nerves\nas\nas well\nmuscles\nsuggesting tests\nextend the\nrange of diseases diagnosed to about five hundred and to further\ndevelop the follow-up provided by the software. likely list of diseases\nis\n\ntreatments. providing\n\nplanned\n\nand\n\nand\n\nIt\n\nto\n\na\n\nis\n\nreflect\n\nfield\nscience,\n\na multidisciplinary\n\npsychology, materials\n\nscience. The projects\n\nincludeds\nNeurocomputing\nand\nneurobiology. BRAIN\ncomputer\ninitiative\na\ncomprehensive base for Europe's participation in the development\nof\ntake\na\nthe first evaluation of BRAIN at Oxford University\npa Ac\nwhere the second stage of\nthe programme will also be discussed. Through such initiatives the European Community plans to Increase\nits support of neurobiology. neurocomputer. in\n\nIn September \u2018\u2018\"some\n\nwhich\ninformatics\n\nbeing\ndiversity\n\nsupported\nand. scientist will\n\nthe\nprovide\n\nthis\n\nwill\n\n80\n\nby\n\n26. 238\n\n\fF\n\nBiotechnology\n\nR&DinEuroge\n\nto\n\nan inadequate\n\nThe relative weakness of Europe in certain areas of biotechnology is not\ndue\noften very highly\ndeveloped , but to the fragmentation and isolation of national research and\ntraining efforts and to the absence , at national and transnational levels ,\nof adequate concertation and contextual support for research , development\nand exploitation. potential ,\n\nresearch\n\nwhich\n\nis\n\nnow\n\nplaced\nand\n\nbiotechnology\nincreased\n\nIt is with the aim of overcoming these deficiencies that all Member States\nnational\nhave\na\npriorities ,\nnational\naccordingly\ninstitutions. Policy awareness has become such that support is also been\norganised under different departments ,\nseveral professional\nbranches. The same occurred at the initiative of major European companies ,\nalthough it can be shown that these frequently invested as much research\nfunds overseas as within the Community. and across\n\ntheir\nto\n\nposition\n\nsupport\n\ntheir\n\nhigh\n\nin\n\nat\n\nto\n\nthe\n\nable\n\nfunding ,\n\nEuropean\n\nFederation\n\nintegration ,\n\ntransnational\n\nthe needs of\n\nnational and Community programmes have been\n\nNext\nto\nprovide a forum for research leaders to coordinate work at a large scale ,\navoiding gaps and emphasising priorities. The scientific community now\nrealises that biotechnology R&D must be carefully conducted , leaving room\nfor speculative research but addressing in priority\nthe\nsociety. Biotechnology operators have themselves developed a higher degree\nof\nof\nthrough\nBiotechnology ( EFB ) and through the establishment , on the industrial side ,\nof the European Biotechnology Coordination Group ( EBCG ), the constitution\nfor the Commission of the E. C. of a biotechnology working group attached to\nthe Industrial R&D Advisory Committee of the CEC ( IRDAC ), and the creation\ncf Green Industry Biotechnology Platform ( GTBiP ). Other major international\nresearch initiatives took shape more or less simultaneously : particularly\nrelevant to biotechnology R&D are EUREKA and the Human Frontier Science\nProgramme , respectively at the applied and the basic ends of biotechnology\nIn existence for\nand with which the Community established formal links. already three years , Eureka now comprises more than 200 projects involving\nabout 800 companies and research centres from 19 European countries. Of\n( as per July 1987 ) are falling under the biotechnology area. these ,\nEureka\nBiotechnology\nprojects can be strategically aligned , industry-led projects being put in a\nposition of taking up for development purposes scientific results which\nrapidly build up the framework of basic programmes. The Commission of the\nactions\nEuropean\nspecifically\nEuropean\nbiotechnology. Cue of these actions alms at the establishment of a Commu \u00ac\nnity network for training and research and has been executed , since 1982 ,\nin the framework of two successive Community programmes , the Biomolecular\nEngineering Programme ( BEP ) from April 1982 to March 1986 , and the ongoing\nBiotechnology Action Programme ( BAP ), for the period 1985-1989. priority\nof\n\ncompetitiveness\n\nimplementing\n\nimproving\n\nCommunity\n\nCommunity\n\ndesigned\n\nactions\n\ntypical\n\nseveral\n\nitself\n\nwhere\n\nfield\n\n13 %\n\nthe\n\nand\n\nfor\n\nis\n\nis\n\na\n\n\fThe pioneer programme : BEP\n\nto\n\nto\n\nand\n\nwere\n\nefforts\n\nthrough\n\nbiology\n\ncontracts\n\nobjectives\n\ncontribute ,\n\ntransnational\n\nagro-food\ntraining\n\ncellular\nand\nWith a budget of\ncost-shared\nthe\nin\n\nBEP was Che first Community initiative in the field of biotechnology. Its\nin\nto the removal of bottlenecks which inhibit the\nresearch and training ,\nto\napplication of molecular\nand\nsupported\nthe\nindustries. with\n91\npublic\nof\nprivate\nand\ngenetic engineering ,\na gene\nindustries ,\ncloning in Streptococcus bacteria exploited\nthe characterisation and isolation of more than 20 plant genes of high\nimportance\nspecies\nbelonging to the monocots , resulted from the programme ;\n53 cooperation\nagreements were established between laboratories in different Member States\nwhich involve the exchange of equipment and staff and the execution of\njoint experiments. Permanent transnational working parties have been set up\nfor each research sector in the programme {*). 103\nlaboratories\nseveral significant contributions ,\n\nfor agriculture or genetic\n\ncontracts\nthe\nsuch as\n\ntransformation in plant\n\n15 Mio ECU ,\nresearch\n\nagriculture\n\nthe cheese\n\nCommunity. area\n\nBEP\n\nIn\n\nby\n\nThe current programme ; BAP\n\nObjectives for research and_training\n\nprogramme ,\nThe\nterm\nlong\nand\nindustry\nEuropean\nfollowing aspects :\n\ninherently\nobjectives\nand\n\npre-competitive ,\nfor\n\nessential\n\nis\nthe\n\nEuropean\n\nagriculture. oriented\n\nstrategic\ndeals\n\nIt\n\ntowards medium\nof\nstrength\ntwo\nthe\n\nwith\n\n- the\n\nestablishment\n\nfor\nresearch in Europe ( sub-programme on contextual measures ). infrastructure\n\nsupportive\n\nof\n\na\n\nbiotechnology\n\n- the\n\nelimination ,\n\nwhich\n\nnecks\nof\n( sub-programme for basic biotechnology ). materials\n\nprevent\n\nand\n\nthe\n\nthrough\nthe\n\nresearch\nand\nexploitation\nmethods\n\nthrough\nby\noriginating\n\ntraining ,\nand\nmodern\n\nof\nbottle\u00ac\nagriculture\nbiology\n\nindustry\nfrom\n\n\u00c2reas ccvared\n\nResearch and training\n\nContextual measures\n\n- Bio- informatics :\n\nthe\n\ninformation\nter-assisted design , etc. )\n\ntechnology\n\ninterface\n( data\n\n\u00bb\n\nbetween\n\ncapture ,\n\nbiotechnology\nbanks ,\n\ndata\n\nand\ncompu\u00ac\n\n- Collections\n\nof\n\nbiotic materials\n\n(upgrading\n\nand\n\nintegration of\n\nexisting collections , enhancement of techniques )\n\n(*) For an evaluation and a detailed review of\n\nthe scientific results\nobtained in the framework of BEP , see the final report of the programme\n( Biomolecular\n1172 pages ,\nEngineering\nE. Magnien Ed ,, Martinus Nijhoff , 1986 ). Community ,\n\nEuropean\n\nthe\n\nin\n\n740\n\n\fBasic biotechnology\n\n- Enzyme\n\nengineering :\n\nbioreactors\n\nof\n\n2nd\n\ngeneration ,\n\nstability\n\nof enzymes , protein design\n\n- Genetic\n\nindustries ,\nhusbandry\n\nengineering :\nto\n\nplants\n\napplied\nand\n\nto\nsoil\n\nmicro-organisms\n\nmicro-organisms ,\n\nimportant\nto\n\nfor\nanimal\n\n- Technology\ncontinuous\nlogies for animal cells )\n\nof\ncultures ,\n\ncells\n\ncultured\n\nin\n\nregeneration of\n\nvitro\nplant\n\n( micro-organisms\ncells ,\n\nin\nnew methodo \u00ac\n\n- In vitro tests to screen new molecules created by industry for\n\ntheir biological activity and possible toxicity\n\n- Methods\n\nof\n\nassessing\n\npossible\n\nrisks\n\nassociated\n\nwith\n\nmodern\n\nbiotechnology. Concertation of national and Community policies\n\n- A\n\nrange\n\nof\n\ninformation ,\n\nto\n\ntasks\ntechnology are both relevant and\nsion and in relation to the outside world. ensure\n\nthat\n\nliaison ,\nCommunity\n\nevaluation\npolicies\n\ninitiation\nbio\u00ad\nconsistent within the Commis \u00ac\n\nand\naffecting\n\nImglementation of research and training_activiti. es (*)\n\n1. 2. 3. Long-duration\nsenior\ncountry to another. research\n\ntraining\n\ncontracts\n\navailable\n\nto\n\nboth\n\nscientists\n\ninvolving\n\ntravel\n\nfrom\n\none\n\njunior\n\nand\nCommunity\n\nMultiannual\nshared-cost\npublic sector or private research bodies. marginal-\n\nor\n\nresearch\n\ncontracts\n\nwith\n\nRegular\non-site visits. meetings ,\n\ndissemination\n\nof\n\ninformation\n\nand\n\nresults ,\n\nand\n\nDimensions\n\nThe programme ,\nPortugal ,\nextended\nbudget of 75 Mio ECU and foresees , for research and training :\n\nrecently\n\nSpain\n\nand\n\nto\n\nhas\n\na\n\ntotal\n\n300 - 350 training contracts\nsome 380 research contracts. (*) :\n\nyear\n\nevery\n\nfor information see the publications , available upon request ,\nissued\nmatters\nresearch ,\nreviews\nmain achievements ,\nfor proposals , statistics on cooperation. )\n\nthe\n( results\ncatalogue\non\n\nservices\nprogramme\nmeetings ,\n\nCommission\nof\n\nof\nresponse\n\nthe\nthe\nof\n\nproceedings\n\nstatistics\n\nrelated\n\non\nall\ncontractual\ncontracts ,\ncall\n\nto\n\nby\n\nof\n\nof\n\nto\n\n241\n\n\fResgonse to the call for research grogosals_and transnational! ty of\nthe programme. The selection\nproposals\nand\npartners. criteria\n\nincluded\n\nexpressions\n\nof\n\nthe\ninterest\n\ntransnationality\noriginating\n\nthe\n\nof\nfrom\n\nresearch\nindustrial\n\nof\n\nA\ntotal\nnational. were\nproposals could be accepted for funding. 1550\nBudgetary\n\nconstraints\n\nproposals\n\nwere\n\nreceived\nsuch\n\nParticigation of industries\n\nof\n\nwhich\n\n80%\n\nthat\n\nonly\n\nwere\nof\n\n387\n\ntrans\u00ac\nthese\n\nDecember 1988 ,\n\nThe research presently conducted in the framework of\nof\nexecuted\ntories which have agreed to join their efforts and\nFifteen per cent of\npartner. these transnational groups\n\n90 transnational\n\nby\n\nis\n\nBAP ,\nat the date\ngroups\nlabora\u00ac\nof\nto work together. include one industrial\n\nThe proportion of projects implemented\nBAP which\nare supported by an expression of interest from one or several indus \u00ac\ntrial firms amounts\nfor\nall ,\nspecific projects in the programme have been transmitted by industrial\nfirms to the services of the Commission. 150 expressions of\n\nthe framework of\n\ninterest\n\n83%. In\n\nto\n\nin\n\nof\n\nand\n\nwhich\n\nmeetings\n\nCommission\n\ninformation\n\n(\" sectoral\",\n\ncontractors\nthe\n\nservices\nBEP and BAP and\n\nthere is now a regular demand from industries to attend\nIn addition ,\n\"horizontal\",\ntypes\nvarious\nthe\nregular\n\" spontaneous \")\nto have access to all\nintervals in the framework of\nabstracts ,\nof\ndata\npro\u00ac\nthese\nfrom\nannual\npro\u00ac\nthe\nsector of\ngrammes. plants\nsoil\nof\nand\ngramme\nmicroorganisms , \" European laboratories without walls \"\n(ELWW) are presently\nbeing constituted which bring together the laboratories participating to\nCommunity research and\nthis\nresearch and the exploitation of its results (*). (proceedings\nof\nAs particularly well\n\nof\ncontracts. )\nillustrated\n\nin\nengineering\n\narising\nthe\nof\n\nspecifically\n\ncatalogue\n\nindustries\n\ninterested\n\nmeetings ,\n\norganise\n\nreports ,\n\ndealing\n\ngenetic\n\nbooks\n\nwith\n\nthe\n\nthe\n\nat\n\nby\n\nand\npart\n\nmaterials\nimportant\nintegrated\nand\n\n(*) Methods ,\nand\nan\ntotally\nconstituted\nerably\nopean\nresearch\",\nTrends in Biotechnology ,\n\njoint\nlaunched\n\nincrease within BRIDGE. Without\nLaboratories\n\nR. van der Meer ,\n\nFor\nWalls :\nE. Magnien\n5 : 318-321 , 1987. results\nthe\nof\neffort. BAP\nin\n\ncirculate\nresearch work is\nApproximately\nand\n\nfocused\n\n30 ELWWs\n\neach\nimplemented\nhave\n\nELWW\nas\na\nbeen\nconsid \u00ac\n\" Eur\u00ac\nprecompetitive\nin\n\nshould\n\nsee\n\nthis\nfurther\n\nnumber\ninformation\n\nand\n\nD. de Nettancourt\n\nfreely within\n\n30. 242\n\n\fThe future programme : BRIDGE\n\nprogramme\n\nof\nthe\nDevelopment\nthe succession of\n\nThe Commission services are now proposing orientations on the nature and\nfor\n( BRIDGE\nobjectives\nand\nInnovation ,\nin\nin\nBAP , These orientations have been defined on\n1990 ,\nthrough recommen\u00ac\npast achievements\nthe\ndations\nEuropean\npanel\nParliament , industrial organisations and the CGC Biotechnology. BEP\nBAP\nand\nIndependent\n\n-\nEurope )\n\nand\nExperts ,\n\nBiotechnology\n\nbasis of\n\nResearch\n\nreceived\n\nGrowth\n\nwhich\n\ntake ,\n\nwill\n\nin\nof\n\nfrom\n\nthe\n\na\n\nBRIDGE is to be subdivided , as was BAP , into two actions :\n\nAction I\nper cent of\nAction II. for Research and Training , Action II\n\nthe total budget will be devoted to Action T\n\nfor Concertation. Ninety\nto\n\nand\n\n10%\n\nAction I\n\nto\n\nin\n\nof\n\nbe\n\ngaps\n\nfrom\n\nmain\n\nwill\n\ntasks\n\nbasic\n\ndevelop\n\nAction I\n\nknowledge ,\n\ncooperative\n\nThe\nbasic\nresearch and training through research adapted to the long term needs\nfor the removal of bottlenecks result \u00ac\nof the Community. This implies ,\ning\nexisting\nreinforcement\nthe\nELWWs and their extension to new areas considered of high\nnetworks of\nAlternatively ,\nsignificance\npro \u00ac\nbottlenecks\nremoving\njects\nnecessary ,\nwill\noriginating\nsubstantial\nA very\nin particu\u00ac\neffort is foreseen in the area of normative research and ,\nlar , with regard to the assessment of risks possibly associated to the\nrelease\nand\ntraining programme outlined in tables 1 and 2 is to be subdivided into four\nsectors :\n\nCommunity. when\n\nmicroorganisms. implemented ,\n\nconstraints. genetically\n\nengineered\n\nstructural\n\ntargeted\n\nresearch\n\nbe\nfrom\n\nlarger\n\nscale\n\nThe\n\nfor\n\nthe\n\nfor\n\nor\n\nof\n\nof\n\n- information infrastructures\n- enabling technologies\n- cellular biology\n- normative research\n\nThe programme , as outlined , takes into account but still very insuffi\u00ac\nciently , the recommendations made in the present report for Community\nactivities on the \" molecular foundations of plant biotechnology \" and\non the \"molecular investigations of the genomes of complex organisms \". Action II\n\nAction II (Concertation ) will cover a range of monitoring , information\nand collaborative activities to provide and facilitate the effective\napplication of biotechnology to the social and economic objectives of\nthe Community and of the Member States ( table 2 ). 31. 243\n\n\fRelated R&D activities\n\nECLAIR ( 80 Mio ECU for the period 1989-1993 )\n(European Collaborative Linkage of Agriculture and Industry\nECLAIR\nthrough Research ) will be\nthe\nEuropean Communities for biotechnology-based agro-industrial research\nand technological development. Through such research development work ,\nit will contribute ,\nto enhancing\nEurope 's competitiveness in the economic activities - industrial and\nagricultural - based on the life sciences and biotechnology. first multiannual programme of\n\nin the medium and longer terms ,\n\nthe\n\nFLAIR ( 25 Mio ECU from 1989 to inid-1993 )\nFLAIR ( Food-Linked Agro-Industrial Research ) is a programme proposal\nconcentrating exclusively on the food sector and , particularly , on the\nprocessing-distribution-consumer end of the food chain. The long term\nobjective of FLAIR is to contribute to the competitiveness of Europe 's\nfood industries , and to improved consumer protection and confidence ,\nby strengthening the links between them through research and develop \u00ac\nment. The Commission proposes to achieve this objective by launching a\nprogramme of concerted actions and cost-shared actions. The projects\nseek to promote the close collaboration between research and indus\u00ac\ntrial groups , by their participation in research and technological\ndevelopment on food quality , hygiene , safety , toxicology , nutritional\nand wholesomeness values. Table 1\n\n: Biotechnology research and training activities proposed\nfor implementation in the framework of BRIDGE ( 1990-94 )\n\nInformation structure. culture collections ;. processing and analyses of bio ( techno ) logical data ;\n\nEnabling technologies. protein design /molecular modelling ;. bio transformation ;. gene mapping \u00bb genome sequencing , novel cloning methods ;\n\nCellular biology. physiology and molecular genetics of industrial microorganisms ;. basic biology of plants and associated organisms ;. biotechnology of animal cells ;\n\nNormative research. safety assessments associated with the release of genetically\n\nengineered organisms ;. in vitro evaluation of the toxicity and pharmacological activity\n\nof molecules. 32. 244\n\n\fTable 2\n\n: Biotechnology concertation activities proposed for\nimplementation in the framework of BRIDGE ( 1990-94 )\n\n- Coordination of Commission activities ;\n\n- Concertation of activities of Member States ;\n\n- Provision of information on the advantages ,\n\nsafety\nof\ngeneral public ;\n\nbiotechnology\n\nto\n\npoliticians ,\n\nlimitations\nand\n\nscientists\n\nand\nthe\n\n- Formation and growth of small and medium-sized biotechnology\n\nfirms. 33. 245\n\n\fRD&D Non Nuclear Energy\n\nMotivation\n\nProgress to date of the European RD&D action\n\nIndications for the future\n\nRD&D Orientations\n\nConclusion for the future\n\nANNEX 5\n\n3\n\n8\n\n10\n\n13\n\n246\n\n\fMotivation\n\n2. The need for Europe to face energy challenges has been reconfirmed\nnumerous times by the European Council over the past years. The energy\nstrategy of the Community emphasizes coherence of far-reaching planned\nactions in the energy field , as well as the necessity of an increased\n( energy-saving , development of\neffort to reduce the dependance on oil\nalternative\nto\nof\nfacilitate the adaptation of the European industry to the energy market. Since 1974 , these objectives constitute the most important Community\noptions in the domain of R&D. diversification\n\ndemand )\n\nsupply\n\nfuels ,\n\nand\n\nand\n\nthe\n\nyear\n\n2000 ,\n\nthese\n\noptions\n\npursuit\n\n:\nenvironmental\n\nindependance ,\nprotection , competitivity ,\n\nUntil\na\nof\nreinforcement and above all a larger scope of R&D activities according\nto the main aims\nterm\nsupply ,\nAt European\nlevel\nthe framework programme consists of 3 major themes on energy\nresearch : nuclear fission , controlled thermonuclear fusion , non-nuclear\nthe demonstration\nenergy and\nprogrammes for energy savings and coal\nand the support programme for\ntechnological development in the field of hydrocarbons have allowed to\nmake important progress in these fields. use of energy. Moreover ,\n\nsecurity regarding\n\nthe rational\n\nsafety. ensure\n\nshould\n\nlong\n\nthe\n\nachievements\n\nHowever ,\nNumerous\neconomic\ncontinuation\nis\nconditions temporarily favour access\nRD&D will\ndetermine the long term future of energy and if no actions are taken\ntoday , serious problems may result in the more or less distant future. in\nessential\nto energy. have\nresearch\n\nfield. though\n\neach\neven\n\nIn fact ,\n\nEnergy\n\nnoted\n\nbeen\n\nof\n\nThree major factors should influence the choice of the energy RD&D\noptions :\n\n*\n\n*\n\n*\n\nthe forecasts of energy demands in Europe and in the rest of the\nworld. the evolution of energy resources\nexhaustion. protection of the environment. and comprehension of their\n\nThese factors pose many responsibilities and R&D must establish the\nmeans for society to face them. At the dawn of the XXIst century , when\nalready one can perceive a limit to the availability of certain forms of\nenergy and the consequence of environmental damage at global level , it\nis vital to merge all research efforts by means of optimal management of\nthe energy policy. The establishment of the great internal market can only reinforce this\nconviction : the harmonisation of norms and laws and the necessity of\nmaintaining competitiveness often find their answer in technological\nresearch. 247\n\n\f3. Progress to date of the European RD&D action\n\nThe Commission has not allowed itself to be influenced by the temporary\nfluctuation of energy prices when defining its policy in the field of\nnon-nuclear energy R&D. At the european level neither its R&D programme\nlaunched in 1975 nor its demonstration programme , initiated three years\nlater , have suffered any harmful blows. as\n\ndo. show\n\ndo\nEven\n\nCommunity\n\nnot\nthough\n\nof\nnational\n\nthe\nbudgets\n\ncommitments\nsome\n\nyearly\nThe\nfinancial\nlast\noscilliations\nfour-year budget was reduced upon request of certain Member States , it\nstill continues in the range of previous budgets , with unaltered and\neven enriched objectives and has remained at a creditable level , in any\ncase above the minimal critical level. Generally speaking and despite a\nslow decrease\none may\nobserve that the relative shares for the three main poles between 1980\nand 1988 have remained stable : energy savings ( 28 % ), coal ( 34 % ) and\nhydrocarbons ( about 10 % ), renewable energies ( 28 % ). Nevertheless ,\na\nmore detailed survey of these aggregates may indicate substantial shifts\nbetween programmes. spending on non-nuclear research ,\n\npublic\n\nthe\n\nin\n\nMore precisely : What are the strong and weak points of the Community 's\nand the membre states programmes in the field of non-nuclear energy ?\n\nCommunity action , composed of three major fields : energy saving , fossil\nfuels and renewables , has backed the research of the member states. The\n( a;b ) illustrate respectively the budget of the EC member\ntables 4. 9\nstates and the Community in 1987. A lot has\nthat the\n\nFor 15 years Europe has worked in the field of energy conservation\nthanks to the vigorous R,D&D policy at national as well as at Community\nbeen said and written around the statement which\nlevel. implies\nthe only factor\ncost has\nresponsible for effecting a reduction of the consumption , and that is\ntrue for a large part. But , the influence of the cost itself has also\ngenerated research efforts which appear to be durable. The cumulative\nimpact of 15 years of efforts has procured great benefits thanks to the\nfundamental\nchanges which have occured in the production\nmachinery and also in the psychological approach of the individual and\ncollective actors. structural\n\nthe main ,\n\nif not\n\nbeen\n\nThe Community objectives have been achieved and even surpassed. Following a decrease of about 20 % between 1973 and 1980 ( preceded by an\nincrease of 63 % between 1960 and 1973 ) the European consumption of\nprimary energy stabilized , and only fluctuated between 1000 and 1100\nMtep. the sectors of R. D&D have shared this successful\n\nSpace\nAll\nheating which represents about 40 % of European consumption is the first\ndomain - at least in the new building sector - to make rapid progress. The insulation and ventilation techniques and also the recovery of heat\nhave led to a substantial increase in savings , currently up to 50 % and\nmore. The passive solar contributions have shown the strength of the\nEuropean R,D&D and the attempts to retrofit old buildings have been\nfruitful. Active solar contributions have been limited to water heating\nThe economic\nand\n\ndeveloped in southern Europe. are relatively well\n\nresult. 248\n\n\fconditions and certain technical constraints are the reasons that active\nsolar could not play its role as originally foreseen. The same holds\ntrue for heat pumps. They might come into play in a decade 's time. The\nunsolved technical difficulties and the lack of economic competitivity\nhave limited its application to the tertiary and industrial\nsectors\nwhere scale effects and \" intelligent \" putting into operation have given\nthem a chance. 4. in\n\nto\n\nthe\n\nuse\n\nrespect\n\nrational\n\nof energy\n\nWith\nR&D\nendeavours have been more diversified due to the numerous energy saving\npossibilities one might find and also due to the considerable potential\nto quantitatively reduce energy consumption ( European industrial consump\u00ac\ntion accounts for 35 1 of the total consumption ). New processes and\nindustrial products appear year upon year rendering older products obso \u00ac\nlete. This renovation , as well as the modernisation of the industrial\nequipment have unobtrusively introduced new techniques with a reduction\nin energy consumption and pollution ( the latter is also a consequence of\nindirect R&D effects ). industry ,\n\nthe\n\nNumerous factors have contributed to a reduction of the consumption in\nindustry ,\nis worthwhile to emphasize the remarkable results\nobtained in a dozen years in Europe and elsewhere on the thermal level ,\nas for example a better comprehension of combustion phenomena or heat\ntransfer. and\n\nit\n\nAmong the recent advances which have benefitted european technology\none should underline the importance of the improvements in measurement ,\nThey have benefitted\ncontrol and regulation of energetic processes. enormously\ncollection\nthe\nmethods , data gathering and processing. popularization\n\nelectronics ,\n\nfrom\n\nnew\n\nof\n\nLet us also refer to the development of heat distribution systems and\nco-generation which have undergone a satisfactory expansion in Europe. At present , Europe may be proud of an industry which knows how to apply\nthe most advanced techniques , regarding energy efficiency , even though\ndue to the historical ties in certain traditional branches penetration\nof new ideas has been somewhat slow in comparison to younger industrial\ncompetitors. Amongst other research to improve the energy efficiency and the endea \u00ac\nvours spent on primary energy ,\nit is necessary to highlight the R&D\nefforts devoted to the main secondary energy vector , i. e. electricity. From a classical electro-technical viewpoint , one should not forget the\nremarkable success of turbo-alternators , the unit power of which has\ndoubled every ten years , and also the modern methods of grid control ,\nrevolutionized by the use of computers. But the most advanced and ori \u00ac\nginal research concerns the field of fuels cells , electro-chemical stor\u00ac\nage and cryo- electricity. These sectors have been explored for years ,\nbut fundamental and subsequent applied research has given them a new\nyouth and an interest that will always be with us. Fossil fuels ( solid , liquid and gaseous ), the most spread out and used\nof all , used will remain the major resource for a very long period of\ntime. Whatever may be the economically interesting stock , fossil fuels\ntoday are of increasing concern as far as the scientists , environmen \u00ac\ntalists and even the public and politicians are concerned. 249\n\n\f5. Besides the toxicity of the pollution caused by their combustion ( S0? ,\nNOx , dust ) which can be controlled if one wants to pay for it , the fear\nof warming up the planet by a greenhouse effect due to CCL seems to be\nBecause we are\nmore and more justified , at least in the long run. to\n\" condemned \",\nmake\nthe more the\nabundant use of these fuels , we should appreciate all\nefforts that are made for their clean\nof their\nconsumption ,\nby means of savings and efficiency at the consumption\nlevel , by an improved efficiency and a better yield at every stage of\nexploitation , preparation , purification , transformation up to the end\nuse. The Community R&D has been in charge to respond to those concerns. generations ,\n\nreduction\n\nwithout\n\nseveral\n\ndoubt\n\nfor\n\nand\n\nand\n\nuse\n\nHydrocarbon research must increase the economically exploitable reser\u00ac\nves. Hence , exploration techniques have made big progress , allowing to\nincrease significantly the rate of success of drillings. The drilling\ntechniques reach a greater efficiency - drill ingspeed as well increased\nreliability - especially in the deep sea and offshore drillings. In this field , very promising techniques as horizontal drilling appear\u00ac\ned. The development of offshore production techniques , in particular in\ndeep sea , has achieved well performing submarin techniques using autom\u00ac\nation and robotics , whereas support of floating production units and new\nconcepts of platforms were developed. An extension of basic knowledge has accompanied technological research ,\nnotably in the geological field concerning the mechanism of formation\nand migration of hydrocarbons. More generally speaking , physico-chemical\nconversion problems have taken up an important share of the hydrocarbon\nR&D action. Endeavours of RD&D in the field of solid fuels are fully justified by\nthe coal potential and by the more immediate concern to protect the\nenvironment against the effects of very abundant impurities in solid\nfuels. The combustion and conversion techniques remain at the centre of\nresearch planning and are studied actively in Europe ( in particular in\nThese activities are rather\nthe FRG but also in the UK and the NL ). diversified and the obtained results are of varied importance. If in\nspite of its efforts Europe seems to be late in comparison with the USA\nand Japan regarding combustion techniques with coal-liquid mixtures , it\nshould be realized that fluidized bed combustion is an area where Europe\nhas a good research tradition. Prototypes exist in almost all Member States and some installations of\nimportant size are in operation. Other investigations have accompanied those just mentioned , as for exam\u00ac\nple liquefaction and gasification of coal , production of methanol deriv \u00ac\ned from coal and combustion of lean gases. The variety of RD&D areas is very vast and Europe occupies a more than\ncreditable place. Generally speaking , one might say that all the invest\u00ac\nigated processes operate well , or at least correctly , when applied to\ncoal of good quality. The problems arise when dealing with poor fuels ,\nwhich are abundant but more heterogeneous , less reactive , polluttant ,\ndirty and dusty. 250\n\n\f6. a vast area of renewable energies has seen intensive re\u00ac\nSince 1974 ,\nsearch activities in the whole world and more particularly in Europe. It consists of a wide variety of sources : solar , wind , small hydro-\npower , biomass plus urban waste , geothermal , marine energy. R. D & D. in all these\nDuring the last 15 years , Europe has carried out\nfields. Even if not the first , measured by the variable financial and\nmanpower input by different countries , Europe possesses in all these\nfields a high degree of theoretical and practical knowledge. As soon as\nthe economic circumstances allow or a technical breakthrough takes place\nEurope is highly likely to occupy almost immediately a favourable posi \u00ac\ntion. One should not forget that the majority of the renewables are\nnon-pollutant , and hence public opinion is favourable. In certain cases ,\nthe energetic aspect gives way to the protection of the environment , as\nfor instance in bacteriological treatment of animal and vegetable waste\nand the incineration of household waste , which renders these processes\ngenerally attractive , even if the energetic profit itself is not always\nsignificant. Given the broad domain of scientific disciplines and technologies used\nin the field of renewable energies , one can only present here a concise\noverview of some outstanding achievements which are characteristic for\nsome 15 years of European research and development. Photovoltaic conversion techniques have enjoyed , in Europe as well as in\nthe USA and Japan , a frank technical success , most certainly constrained\nby an economically less favourable context. The european industry , even\nif it only ranks in 3rd place with somewhat more than 10% of the global\nproduction , disposes of the most advanced techniques and has already\nattained a substantial turnover , especially with regard to export. The\nefforts of RD & D which have been skilfully coordinated by the Commis \u00ac\nsion ( incl. JRC ) include pilot installations and demonstrations concern \u00ac\ning tests and certifications in order to obtain world wide recognition\nof European norms and quality standards. The european countries have abandonned the idea of electricity produc\u00ac\ntion by concentration of solar energy by means of a field of heliostats. The technically difficult concept facing climatological\nhazards and\nunfavourable economic factors , explains this failure , although a number\nof interesting data has been obtained for other research areas. Wind energy has been strongly developed in northern Europe and several\neuropean countries have demonstrated the quasi-competitivity of this\nform of electricity production coupled to the grid. Concerning small\nunits , up to 2-300 KW , an industrial production exists where european\nmanufacturers are perfectly competitive. The utilisation of energy from biomass is in itself a broad and multi \u00ac\ndisciplinary area and the RD&D prior to this usage has several branches\n: harvest and transformation to energy of waste , which is strongly stimu \u00ac\nlated by european RD&D ;\nspecific cultures of energy production ; har\u00ac\nvest , transport and preparation of solid biomass including the develop \u00ac\nment of boilers on biomass fuel ;\ncombustion and gasification of bio\u00ac\nmass ; treatment of effluents and liquid waste. 251\n\n\f7. in addition Europe disposes of a\nThe potential of biomass is large ;\nconsiderable expertise in agriculture. These two elements have ensured\nthat R & D , in the field of biomass , should attract numerous applica \u00ac\ntions of which the first results are already encouraging. and increasingly used throughout the world ,\n\nWith respect to geothermal energy , Europe has also excellent R D & D and\nAlthough high enthalphy geothermal energy is\nexploitation experience. fully under control\nlow\nenthalphy energy on the contrary is difficult to exploit , due to the\nabsence of a continuous warm source close to the location of utiliza \u00ac\ntion. More fundamental research concerns very deep drilling in hot dry\nrocks , injecting water and recuperating steam at high pressure. These\nFinally , geothermal\nprojects are in progress in Europe , USA and Japan. information is readily\nis an area where technological and economical\ntransferred due to the association of public bodies , large energy pro\u00ac\nducers and important consumers. The Commission has , by its coordination\nand financing of numerous programmes , strongly contributed to this situa \u00ac\ntion. Concerning energy , environmental and economic modelling , Europe has a\nnumber of centres of excellence cooperating in the Commission 's pro \u00ac\ngramme. This is a field where the european studies are well recognized. They\nconcern both tools for analysing supply and demand of energy and those\nfor investigating the interface between energy , economy and environment. These well known studies , and in particular \" Energy 2000 \" and the \" Costs\nof Non-Europe \" have seen the light of the day , due to the tools for\nanalysis and modelling and have allowed decision-makers to clarify a\nnumber of political choices in the area of energy and economy. 252\n\n\f8. Indications for the future\n\nOf all the instruments at the disposal of the Community for managing its\nenergy policy , R&D is one of the essential elements determining the\nenergy future in the long run. The time horizons 2010-2020 and beyond\nHence , today 's research\nare of great interest to R&D endeavours today. is geared towards the hopes for resources that may be available in 25 or\n30 years. It is difficult to organize an energy research programme on a prospec \u00ac\ntive basis undistorted\nby temporary events. One may observe that during\nthe past six years , the dominant views on the future of energy changed\nconsiderably , and so have the principal objectives of the energy policy\nand the RD&D priorities. These rapid evolution of long term views illus \u00ac\ntrate the difficulty of designing an RD&D strategy , which by its very\nnature aims at the long term. Despite the difficulties of appreciation , RD&D has to ensure that three\nkey questions are answered. Will the energy available in 2020 meet the\nneeds of our economy ? Will this energy be available at a reasonable and\nstable price ? Shall this energy be clean ?\n\nThe outlook of the European Community on energy is such that an average\ngrowth rate of the needs in terms of primary energy of about 1. 1 % per\nyear from now on up to the year 2010 is foreseen. It will reach a level\nof annual consumption of around 1. 5 Milliard toe , against 1 Milliard toe\nin 1985. The world energy consumption might reach 14. 000 Mtoe , against\n( 2025 , 2030 ),\n7. 500 in 1985. With regard to forecasts on a longer term ,\nmany publications\nby different\npresented\nauthors. Even if one records a ratio of 3 between the highest and\nlowest predictions , one may nonetheless conclude from these studies that\n\nsubject\n\nhave\n\nbeen\n\nthe\n\non\n\n*\n\n*\n\nthe energy demand will in general maintain a slight increase in the\nindustrialized countries , slowed down by the progressive saturation\nof the pare of domestic equipment , the steady reducing speed of the\nactivities\nof\ntechniques ;\nthe technological\ncontinue sufficiently flexibly\nwith respect to the energy prices in order to follow the evolution\nof energy demand. development will\n\nindustry\n\nconstant\n\nprogress\n\nheavy\n\nand\n\nthe\n\nthe\n\nof\n\nThe development of technologies , using fuels other than oil , in order to\nreduce their costs and\nto pass the threshold to gain access to an\nunlimited resource ( e. g. fusion ) constitutes an important motivation for\nenergy research. In the long run , these perspectives will collide with two obstacles :\nthe availability of energy resources and the shorter-dated environmental\nconstraint. If one examines global energy resources of all kinds , one discovers an\nabundance of energy that could meet the requirements of mankind for the\nnext few centuries. But one must realise , on the one hand , that energy\nis unevenly dispersed in geographic terms and on the other hand , that it\nexists in forms not readily adaptable to consumption either due to the\nhigh extraction and transformation costs or due to serious ecological\nproblems , which may arise. 253\n\n\f9. To be more precise , the classical forms of energy ( oil , gas , uranium ,\ncoal ) should allow us to reach the beginning of the 21st century without\nphysical shortage nor any particular effort in prospection ( one should\nnot exclude tensions on the market resulting from psychological or poli \u00ac\ntical actions ). If a large prospection effort in oil , gas and uranium\nwere maintained , the reserves discovered could maintain a production\nBy that date , the\nlevel sufficient to secure the needs up to 2025-2030. physical limits will have been reached. However , coal is very abundant\nand will remain available for centuries. The production and utilisation of energy have their ecological conse\u00ac\nquences at every step in the fuel cycle. Public opinion was affected at\nthe end of the sixties by the energetic impact on environment. Different\nproblems appeared , notably the thermal\npollution of water by power\nplants , the destruction of soil and surfaces by the exploitation of open\npit mining , air pollution , acid rain , the reliability of nuclear reac\u00ac\ntors , waste treatment and storage of radioactive waste. Two problems are at present of major concern to the public. Primarily\nthe acid rain caused by the utilisation of fossil fuels ( S02 and NOx\nemission ) and secondly the radioactivity related to the operation of\nnuclear reactors and storage of nuclear waste. A third point regarding\nthe greenhouse effect caused by C02 , is starting to draw the attention\nof the public via the media ( as a consequence of the Toronto conference\nJune 1988 ). The increased consumption of fossil fuels will only rein\u00ac\nforce the need for pollutants emission constraints ,\na problem to be\nsolved by R&D. 254\n\n\f10. RD&D orientations\n\nWhat should european research do in view of these perspectives and con \u00ac\nstraints ? What can be expected from the technology ?\n\nFrom what has been said three time horizons can be distinguished and for\neach the problem of security of supply is of a different nature :\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\nUp to 2000 , the greatest threat lies in a sudden supply interruption\nor a steep price-increase of crude oil as a result of tensions of a\ngeopolitical character. The techniques employed for the use or the\nproduction of conventional fuels other than crude oil are not suffi \u00ac\nciently developed. \u2022 The strategy to be adopted in order to avoid\ntensions on the oil prices should be based on two themes : demand\nreduction and increase of supply capacities. In this respect it is\nnecessary to :\n\n*\n\n*\n\nDevelop techniques which reduce the liquid fuel demand , both by\nthe use of equipment with more efficient liquid fuel consum\u00ac\nption in cases where liquid fuel\nis specific and cannot be\nreplaced ( ex. transport ) and by means of equipment which is\nadaptable for the use of other forms of energy where substitu \u00ac\ntion is possible ( multi-fuel boilers ). Develop techniques which allow the increase in oil production ,\nin particular by prospection and exploitation of new fields and\nby reactivating drained oil fields. For the period 2000-2020 , one might hope that production technologies\nfor fuel , competitive to oil and produced from coal and gas will be\noperational. The generation of electricity will still rely on hydro ,\ncoal and nuclear. On a longer term , beyond 2020 , it will be required to find solutions\nfor the replacement of fossil fuels and uranium ( LWR ) for which the\nfields will be practically exhausted. In this period the only avail \u00ac\nable conventional source of energy will be coal. The mentioned elements have been broadly utilized as a basis for\nreflexion by numerous countries and by the Commission in order to\nestablish their RD&D programme , to develop energy technologies able\nto satisfy the energy supply at short , medium and long term and to\nsecure a smooth transition into the XXI century. It may be useful to structure RD&D programmes according to this main\nsense of direction into the following five categories according to an\nIEA classification :\n\n*\n\nTechnologies able to extend the availability of the energy\ncarriers of our present supply system at short and medium\nterms ;\n\n*\n\nTechnologies more efficient in energy consumption ;\n\n255\n\n\fTechnologies exploring renewabie energies ;\n\nTechnologies with a high production potential\nbut\nhigh\nwhich\neconomic risk ;\n\npresently\n\ncontain\n\nstill\n\na\n\n11. in the future ,\nand\ntechnical\n\nTechnologies with the same assets as the above categories , for\nwhich the R&D has a horizontal character. *\n\n*\n\n*\n\nThe first category concerns in the first place those technologies improv \u00ac\ning exploration and exploitation of liquid and gaseous fuels , and solid\nfuels. Regarding the offshore exploitations , the conception and design\nfor the achievement of submarine production at high sea require import \u00ac\nant progress. The same holds for techniques to protect health and envi \u00ac\nronment and to increase safety. Research on solid fuels should concentrate on rendering these resources\nless pollutant , more efficient { which will imply emissions' reduction )\nIt is urgent to do so because the quality of the\nand easier to use. main part of the world 's resources is low and particularly detrimental\nto the environment. It appears that the combustion in fluidized bed and\ngasification are interesting to develop on the short term , as they red \u00ac\nOn the longer term ,\nuce the pollution inherent to coal conversion. liquefaction , gasification in situ and combined cycles with magneto\u00ac\nhydrodynamic ( MHD ) energy conversion are promising. to the research on fossil\n\nParallel\ntechnologies for CC^ abatement at the source has to be examined. Research on conventional nuclear and fast breeders should also increase\nthe availability of energy in Europe on the short and medium terms. fuel , the possibility to develop\n\nConsiderations regarding nuclear safety can be found in annexe 9. The main but not exclusive objective of technologies that use energy in\na more efficient manner is the reduction of fuel demand and of invest \u00ac\nment needs for large power plants. These technologies may also reduce\nthe impact on the environment and in particular reduce the tension bet\u00ac\nween energy supply and demand. The necessary research items are :\n\n*\n\n*\n\n*\n\nintroduction of energy efficient vehicles in the transport sector ,\ndevelopment of engines with improved efficiency and lighter mater \u00ac\nials. Electric cars are also a possibility ; therefore it is neces \u00ac\nsary to develop low weight batteries of high energetic density\nwith multiple loading and unloading facilities. in the industrial sector : introduction in industry of efficient\nprocesses with reduced energy needs in high energy consuming sec \u00ac\ntors such as the iron , steel , aluminium and other basic material\nindustry\nindustries. should include measurements , control , regulations , recycling of\nlost energy , recycling of products of high energy intensity etc. energy management\n\ngeneral ,\n\nglobal\n\nin\n\nIn\n\nwith the residential and tertiary sectors reduction of the energy\ndemand is possible by refurnishing existing buildings and construc\u00ac\nThe techni-\ntion of new buildings with high energetic efficiency. 256\n\n\f12. are already well-known :\n\nques\npassive\nsystems ,\nsolar architecture ,\ndistrict heating and heatpumps. Regulation of control and measure \u00ac\nment techniques based on micro-electronics can strongly contribute\nto the demand reduction. An increase of energy efficiency in house \u00ac\nhold appliances should be clearly monitored. insulation ,\nheating\n\n\" intelligent \"\n\ncooling and\n\nfor example\n\nThe contribution of renewable energies to the global energy supply ( with\nthe exception of hydropower and biomass combustion ) will remain small in\nIt is well known that these energies can have a regio \u00ac\nthe near future. nal importance and could be adapted and utilized in the developing coun \u00ac\ntries reducing their demand for oil products and hence contributing to a\nrelaxation of world tension regarding the demand for oil. Even if some of them\nThese energies represent a very high potential. have already reached a commercial maturity ( passive solar heating , geo \u00ac\nthermal , wind energy , biomass and small\nscale photovoltaics ) , further\nimprovement and extension of their area of application is essential. Large scale solar photovoltaic must for that matter be considered on\nlong term from a cost reduction viewpoint. R & D in this field must be\ncontinued in order to improve the efficiency and to ensure a long life\ntime and low degree of maintenance of the installations. In general\ndevelopment of energy storage systems , improvement of knowledge regard \u00ac\ning the availability of resources , comprehension of energy needs which\ncan be met by renewable energies , examination of technological aspects\nand of\ncomponents for regional application\nand the assembling of information on the potential of renewable energies\nremain subjects for further development. production of small scale\n\nThe final objective of technologies of high potential , containing high\ntechnical and economic development risks is to substitute gas and oil\nsources , the reserves of which will unavoidably become exhausted. They\nconcern mainly ,\nbe dealt within\nannexe 6. subject will\n\nreactors. fusion\n\nThis\n\nHorizontal research concerns the four preceding fields of activity and\nincludes in particular basic technologies , reduction of the impact on\nthe environment , transport and storage of electricity and the develop \u00ac\nment of energy systems using hydrogen. Research and development in systems analysis and modelling is fundamen \u00ac\ntal and by its very nature horizontal. The research orientations which have been discussed are of interest for\nthe future of energy in Europe , but also in the world. A good number of\nthem have already been embarked upon in the United-States and in Japan\nand in particular those which concern the short and medium term energy\nfuture. The European Community has , by consequence ,\na double motivation\nto promote the research orientation already discussed and the next pluri -\nannual energy R&D programme illustrates this preoccupation. 257\n\n\f13. Conclusions for the future\n\nThe construction of a future for energy in Europe will be dominated by\ntwo factors : technological innovations and the protection of the envi \u00ac\nronment. The environmental dimension is steadily growing in importance due to the\nconciousness of the population. It is inconceivable to continue an impor\u00ac\ntant nuclear programme if one is not convinced of the safety of its\ninstallations. It is equally inconceivable to launch a large coal utili \u00ac\nzation programme without consideration of the effect that acid rain and\ngreenhouse effects have on the ecosystem. With respect to the energy problems on short and medium term it is abso\u00ac\nlutely necessary to continue research 1n energy saving because it is one\nof the best ways to increase the security of supply and to diminish the\nenergetic impact on the environment and to ensure cleaner and more effi \u00ac\ncient combustion of fuel , in particular that of coal. In function of the medium term problems , the main problem to be solved\nis the extension of liquid fuels available in Europe as well as the\ndevelopment of liquid or gaseous fuels derived from coal , gas or biomass\nin order to substitute oil. The efforts undertaken at the European level\nand in particular by the Commission are proportionally superior to those\nof the IAE , although signals from the US and Japan seem to indicate that\nresearch in this field has become more intense. The long term horizon for energy implies that a definite effort should\nbe undertaken in Europe in the field of nuclear reactors which should\nlead to a substantial cost reduction of fast breeder reactors and a\ndesign of intrinsically safe reactors and acceptable by the population. The effort in the field of renewables should be maintained because in\nthe long run renewables could contribute significantly to energy supply\nwhen prices and costs of other forms may have increased significantly\nand when the environmental constraints may become more difficult to\novercome. The main emphasis of this research should be laid on to reduc\u00ac\ntion of exploitation costs. Regarding fusion , there is still a very , very long way to go. When the\ntechnical\ntechnique\nhas\ndemonstration\nshould prove economically feasible. accomplished ,\n\nphase\n\nbeen\n\nthe\n\nOne should not forget that energy R&D will not be carried out in isola\u00ac\ntion but in parallel with other research , with possible cross fertili \u00ac\nsation , allowing the creation of new concepts by new combinations of\ntechnologies. All technologies may indirectly have spin-off on energy\ndemand and contribute to new technologies for energy production. For example , research on materials ( e. g. supraconductors ) can have a\nsignificant effect on the transportation and storage of energy. The\nsubject of radioprotection in the \" life quality \" programme of the EC may\nprovide impacts on the conception and acceptance of nuclear power by\npublic opinion. 258\n\n\fH. Thank to mankind 's inventivity\nand technological innovation , solutions\nto energetic problems should always be found , but they have come at the\nright moment so that the change-over from oil to other forms of energy\nmay be smooth. One should not , due to pressure of temporary events or action groups ,\nabandon a research subject without an in-depth analysis of the advan \u00ac\ntages and inconveniences of the techniques concerned. The Commission\nmust maintain and intensify its action considering the needs of energy\nRD&D in collaboration with its Member States , even if the oil price were\nat $10 per barril. 259\n\n\f1A. Thank to mankind 's inventivity\nand technological innovation , solutions\nto energetic problems should always be found , but they have come at the\nright moment so that the change-over from oil to other forms of energy\nmay be smooth. One should not , due to pressure of temporary events or action groups ,\nabandon a research subject without an in-depth analysis of the advan\u00ac\ntages and inconveniences of the techniques concerned. The Commission\nmust maintain and intensify its action considering the needs of energy\nRD&D in collaboration with its Member States , even if the oil price were\nat $10 per barril. 260\n\n\fCONTROLLED THERMONUCLEAR FUSION\n\nANNEX 6\n\nt\n\nthe\n\nfrom\n\nenergy\n\nof\npromise\n\na\nof\nwhich\nalso\n\ndiversity\nshow\nacceptable\n\nof energy has its own economic , health and environmental\n\n'\ndevelopment\n-\nsources\nbut\nfeasible\n\nwidely accessible\nof being not only\neconomic ,\nand proliferation points of view - is therefore\n\n1. Fusion as a potential energy source\nEvery source\ncosts , and risks. The need for the\nlong-term\ntechnologically\nsafety , environmental\nbeing perceived more and more accurately. Because controlled thermonuclear fusion has the\nthe energy\none of\nbeen grappling with R&D on a\nfield. Fusion\ngeneration ,\ninherent safety ,\naccessible fuels. As the\nwill\nthe\nvery\nfusion reactor will be dominated by capital investment. consumed\nfuel\nprimary\nthe\nelectricity in a fusion plant is about 35\ninto tritium\n240 tonnes of oil or 360 tonnes of hard coal in a\n\npotential of becoming\nfor , industrialized countries have\nin this\nlong-term potential to open a new way of power\nenvironment , having\nthe\nmoderate\npractically inexhaustible and readily\nand utilizing\nfusion reactors\nof future\nfuel consumption\nelectricity generating costs of a commercial\nFor instance ,\nto generate 1 Million kWh of\nlithium converted\ngrams of\ndeuterium , as compared to , for example\nfossil-fired plant. has the\na\n\nsources sought\n\nlong-term\n\npriority\n\ngrams of\n\nmaking\n\namount\n\nand 10\n\nimpact\n\nbasis\n\nand\n\nlow\n\nof\n\non\n\nbe\n\nit\n\nof\n\nfusion\n\nindicate\n\npreliminary\nsource ;\nan\nof\nis\nby fusion\n\nhowever , too early to make definite statements on fusion as an\nIt is. of the\neconomically competitive energy\norder of\nthat\ncost\nmagnitude. A substantial contribution\nworld energy\nsupply cannot be expected before well into the next century. The long \u00ac\nits\nterm\ndevelopment , whatever can be the short-term fluctuations of oil price. Fusion could bring an essential contribution\nreduction of the\neconomic , ecological and political vulnerability of Europe in the next\n\nacceptable\nto the\n\nvigorously\n\njustifies\n\npotential\n\ncontinue\n\nstudies\n\nto the\n\nfusion\n\nof\n\nto\n\ncentury. 2. European Actions\nIn view of fusion\u2019s potential advantages for Europe\nduration\nCommunity\nnational efforts\n\nsize and\nimplementation ,\nR&D\ntheir individual\ncountries\ninto a single European programme which would support\n\neventual\nintegrate\n\nof\nthe\nmember\n\nfor\ndecided\n\nrequired\n\nand the\n\nits\n\nto\n\n261\n\n\f2\n\nand\n\ncoordinate\n\nthe\n\nactivities\n\nof\n\nall the specialized laboratories\n\nthen ,\n\nthese\n\nexperts. laboratories\n\nfusion programme\n\nfor the\naddition ,\n\nhave been\nlocated in Member States. Since\nby contracts of association which provide for\nbound to\nthe Community\nThe Commission has\nand financing. Euratom participation in personnel\nthe programme and is assisted by a\nfull executive\nresponsibility for\n( CCFP ), composed of\nconsultative committee\nbeen\nundertaking\njoint\nIn\nnational\nestablished for the JET project ; a JET Council\nhas the responsibility\nfor the management of this undertaking whose chief executive and legal\ncollective nature\nrepresentative is the director of the\nremarkable spirit are\nprogramme\nof\nthe\ntestified to\nCouncil of\ndecisions\nby\nCommunity fusion programme as \"a long \u00ac\nMinisters. These\nout in the\nterm cooperative\nIt is\nMember States\n\nseveral\ndescribe the\nproject embracing\n\nproject. The\nand\nits\nof\n\nfield of controlled thermonuclear fusion. work carried\n\nCommunity 's\n\nCommunity\n\nall the\n\nfusion\n\nin the\n\nhas\n\nthe\n\na\n\na view\n\ndesigned to lead in due course to the joint construction\nreactors with\nto their\nSuch a venture is sufficiently\nwith full\nhave joined\n( Sweden , Switzerland ). The main reasons for conducting research and development\nof fusion on a Community basis are :\n\nof prototype\nindustrial production and marketing \". non-member\nstates to\nEuropean fusion effort\n\nfor\nduties the\n\nin the field\n\nrights and\n\nattractive\n\nof\n\nthe\n\nof the\n\neffort\n\nhuman and\n\nhardly be\n\n( extending\n\ntime-scale\n\ninto the next\n\nfinancial resources required , which\ncarried out on\n\nthe scale\nsuggests that such a development could\nnational basis ;\nthe\nlong\ncentury ) needed to arrive at the construction of the reactor ;\nthe existence of a collective need , common to all Member States ;\nthe realization of a European market\ndomains of h igh - technolog ies ;\nin\nsuccess ,\nmarket for the European reactor ;\nto provide a potential partner of comparable size to the\nworld\ncollaboration in the field of fusion ;\nthe\nposition\nSwitzerland are fully associated. whose leading\nwhich Sweden and\n\n3 other\ninternational\n\nopening-up of a wide Community\n\nthe\nof\nacknowledged\n\nProgramme\nto\nand\n\nquality\nis\n\nindustries in\n\nfor European\n\nprogrammes ,\n\nworldwide ,\n\nfostering\n\nEuropean\n\nthereby\n\nFusion\n\nfusion\n\nevent\n\nthe\n\nthe\n\nof\n\nFusion is therefore in line with\nR&D programmes. the criteria\n\npertinent to Community\n\n262\n\n\f3\n\n3. Objectives and content of the programme\n\nthe\n\nand\n\nthis\n\nstages :\n\ntoroidal\n\napproach\n\ninterfere\n\ninto three\n\nindependent\n\nThe path towards fusion reactors for energy production can be divided ,\ndemonstration of scientific\nalbeit arbitrarily ,\ntechnological feasibility , and eventually of economic\nfeasibility , of\nfeasibility. These steps are not\nin many\nCommunity fusion programme has been able to concentrate\nrespects. The\non the most promising line ,\nconfinement , and\nmagnetic\nmaintain the necessary breadth. Presently ,\nwithin\nto\nand their\nmedium-size tokamaks\nwith JET ( Joint European\nstill primarily in the scientific stage. foreign equivalents ,\nin\nThe Next\nis\nwhich\nshould fully confirm the\nconceived\nscientific\nthe\nfirst\na\ntechnological feasibility in a second stage. strategy\nWithin\nreactor ), the main objectives for the\n31 March 1992 ) recently adopted by the Council of Ministers are :\n\ntokamaks , NET , DEMOnstration\nJanuary 1988 to\n\nTorus\nas\nof\n\npresent\nfeasibility\n\nEuropean\nat\n\nnow\ndevice\n\nprogramme ( 1st\n\n( NET ),\na\n\nTorus ), the\n\npre-design\n\nwe are\n\nfusion\n\nphase ,\n\nother\n\nstage\n\n( JET\n\nthis\n\nand\n\nand\n\nthe\n\nin\n\nof\n\nthe\n\nthe\n\nfull\n\nfield\n\nphysics\n\nthe physics\n\nNET ;\nimplies\n\nand technology basis necessary for the\nto establish\nand plasma\nin\ndetailed design of\nexploitation of JET and of\nthis\nengineering\nseveral medium-sized\nor in\nconstruction , and in the field of technology the strengthening of\nthe current fusion technology programme ;\nto embark on the\nprogramme period\n( but not before\n\nend of the\nnecessary data base exists at that time\nJanuary 1st ,\n\ndetailed design\nif the\nthe\n\nspecialized\n\nbefore the\n\nexistence\n\nrevision\n\ntokamaks\n\nforeseen\n\nof NET\n\nnext\n\nfor\n\nin\n\n(\n\nof\n\nthe\n\nreactor\n\nexplore\n\npotential\n\nalternative lines\n\nadopted\nNET ,\nin\nthe Joint\n\n1991 ) ;\nsome\nto\n( mainly Stellarator and Reversed Field Pinch ). only\nconcerns\nabove-mentioned\nphysics\nand\nProgramme\nlaboratories ). The\nand the\nJET\nGeneral\nplasma\nand\nengineering conducted\nThe fusion\nactivities of\nResearch Centre , which from a scientific and\ntechnical point of view are fully integrated within the overall fusion\nanother Council decision. In\nprogramme ,\nresources\ncurrent money , the amount of\nfor the\navailable\nJRC , Sweden and\n( exclusive of\nperiod (4\nSwitzerland ) is estimated at 735 MioECU , of which :\n\nby\nCommunity\nmentioned above\n\nprogramme\nTechnology ,\nassociated\n\nare,' however ,\n\n1 / 4 years )\n\ngoverned\n\nthe\n\n263\n\n\f4\n\n- ~ 406 MioECU are for\n\nthe general\n\nCommunity\n\nthe\nvarying\npriority character of these activities )\n329 MioECU are for JET ( 80% financing by the Community ). between\n\n25%\n\nprogramme ( rate\nand\n\nof financing by\n100% according to the\n\nof\n\n735\n\namount\n\nMioECU\n\ncorresponds\n\nTo such an\nnearly\nCommunities ,\nnational administrations and other sectors at national level ,\nthe\noverall\nSwitzerland ) for 4\n\nof the\nMioECU to be incurred by the\nso that\nof JRC , Sweden and\n\n1 / 4 years will amount to about 1,800 MioECU. expenditure\n\n( exclusive\n\nincurred\n\nbudget\n\nfusion\n\n1,100\n\nthe\n\nfor\n\nby\n\n4. Present situation in Europe\n\nScientific and technical achievements place Europe in the forefront of\nit\nresearch ,\nworld-wide\nbeen\nas\nmagnetic\nthe International Atomic\norganized by\nacknowledged at the Conference\nEnergy Agency ( IAEA ) at Nice this year ( 12 to 19 October , 1988 ). recently\n\nfusion\n\nhas\n\nof\n\nits\n\nthe\n\nthe\n\nfusion programme ,\n\nbasic performance\n\nCommunity\nachieved\n\nis the\nflagship\nJET ,\ninitial objectives\nworld 's largest experiment. It\nfor the\ntime and in budget , and the\nphase on\nimplementation of the extension to full performance is well under\nstep towards the demonstration of the\nway. It\nscientific\nthe\nhalfway\nfusion. scheduled experimental programme , JET has not only reached plasma\n( ion and electron ) temperatures\nmillion degrees ( and ,\nabove 100\ntemperatures up to 150 million degrees , i. e. ten times\neven , ion\nachieved the\nsun )\nhotter than in the centre\n\nfeasibility\n\nhas made\n\na large\n\nstage\n\nalso\n\nbut\n\nthe\n\nof\n\nof\n\nAt\n\nof\n\nthe\n\nsame\n\ntime. Nevertheless ,\n\ndensity and the necessary confinement time for a\nthe highest\n( density x temperature x confinement time at the\nfourth of\nto one\n( total fusion power equal to\nto have\nthe\nsecond. The record\nthan one\nmore than twice\nAmperes is\n\nrequired plasma\nreactor , but not at\n\" fusion product \"\nsame time ) was obtained on JET and corresponds\nthe necessary\nadditional heating\nachieved confinement\nplasma heating current of\n7 million\nthat of any other fusion experiment. The European medium-size tokamaks contribute in a powerful way to\nthe progress of fusion and to the success of JET by experimenting\nexploring new heating methods\nwith different\n\nvalue for \" breakeven\"\nis\ntimes greater\n\nconfigurations and\n\nmachine\n\npower ). only\n\nJET\n\n264\n\n\f- 5 -\n\nand by developing new diagnostics. As\n\" magnetic divertor \"\nhas\n( D )\nconfinement. operation on\ndiscovery\n\nled\n\nthe\n\nto\n\nan example ,. the so-called\ntokamak at Garching\n\" H-mode \"\nfavourable\n\nthe ASDEX\nof\n\nthe\n\nof\n\nand\n\nnew\n\ninto\n\n1988\n\n- has\n\nOther\n\nshould\n\ndevices\n\n( Culham ,\n\noperation. seconds ) in\n\nconstruction\n\nalso leading\n\nCadarache ( F )\n\ncommissioning\n\nin research on Stellarators and Reversed\n\nEurope is\nField Pinches ( alternative configurations to the tokamak ). proceeds\nThe\naccording to schedule. The largest superconducting tokamak in the\nworld - TORE-SUPRA at\nstarted operation in\nreach its full performance ( 1. 7 million\nand\nApril\nAmperes and plasma pulse of 30\ntwo-year 's time. The\n( modular ) advanced Stellarator WENDELSTEIN-VI I-AS at Garching ( D )\nmachines : ASDEX-UPCRADE\nhas just come\nI ). ( Garching , D ), RFX and FTU ( Padova and Frascati respectively ,\nCOMPASS\nthe\nin\nTCV\nconstruction phase. ( to\ngive an\nEuropean\nindustry\nexample , more than 98% in cost of JET\nbeen placed\nwithin Europe ) and has already been entrusted with some long-term\nadvanced development. Its involvement\na qualitative\nand quantitative\nis taken on the start of\nthe engineering design of NET. NET\npre-design\nthe\nis\nspecifications\nbeen\ncoherent set of parameters\nfurther\n\nperformance\nThe\nselected , resulting in a\nused for\nbeing\ntechnology\nthe\n\nphase. tentatively\nwhich\nfor\n\ndevices\ncontracts has\n\npresently\nof\n\nis\nguidance\n\noptimization\n\nshould make\n\na decision\n\n( Lausanne ,\n\njump when\n\nbuilt\n\nthese\n\nmain\n\nhave\n\nand\n\nand\n\nall\n\nare\n\nhas\n\nCH )\n\nUK )\n\nin\n\nprogramme. of\nThe orderly implementation\nimportant achievement\nof the\nwork is oriented towards NET ,\nactivities. Efforts\n\nare\n\nthe\n\nprogramme\n\ntechnology\n\nis an\nrecent years. The main part of the\nlonger term\nbut\nof\nfields\nconcentrated\n\nalso\nthe\n\nthere\n\nare\n\nin\n\nsuperconducting\ntritium ,\nmaterials , safety and environment. magnets ,\n\nblanket ,\n\nremote\n\nhandling ,\n\nOutside magnetic\nthe field of laser-fusion , and\nreview. fusion , a\n\n\" keep in touch\u201d activity is maintained in\nkept under\n\nmuon-catalysed\n\nfusion\n\nis\n\nThe Community\nJET Joint Undertaking 0978 ) and of the NET-team ( 1983 ), has\n\napproach , which has made possible the setting up of the\nled also\n\n265\n\n\f6\n\nto the implementation of an intensive collaboration between the fusion\nlaboratories. Most of the Associations do work for another Association\n\nto\n\nable\n\na common\n\nCommunity\n\nProgramme\n\nof them\nand\n\nwork for\nagreements. a true\nlaboratories ,\n\nand all\ncontracts\nefficiently built\nand\nsmall\ndirected towards\nensure the true Community character\nmobility\nprofessionals ( out of a total of about 1,200\nvia \" mobility\nwork outside\ncontracts \", to\nperiods up to 1 year. JET represents an\nsince\nnational organizations ,\ntheir staff after termination of secondment to JET. JET and for NET through different types of\nhas\nFusion\nThe\nscientific and technical community of large\nreadily\nand\nwelcome\ngoal. Among the many dispositions taken to\nProgramme , staff\nFusion\nthan 200\nmore\nprofessionals ) are sent ,\ntheir home laboratory for\nin this domain ,\nby personnel from the\nto re-integrate\n\nextreme case\nis\ncommitted\n\nrun\nthemselves\n\nof\nmention\n\nmission-oriented\n\nnewcomers ,\n\ndeserves\n\nproject\n\nspecial\n\nthe\n:\n\nwhich\n\nyear\n\neach\n\nthis\n\na\n\n5. International collaboration\n\nThis leading\nan\nappealing\nbilateral\nmultinational\ninternational\nspecific points ,\n\nframes\n\nposition of\npartner\n\nfor\n( Canada ,\norganisations\ncollaboration\n\nJapan ,\n\ninternational\n\nthe Community fusion programme makes Europe\nin\nwithin\npast\nin\nthe object of agreements on\nmore substantial\n\ncollaboration\nStates )\n\n( OECD ,\nwas\nat\n\npresent\n\nUnited\n\nmostly\n\nIAEA ). While\n\nwider\n\nboth\n\nand\n\nand\n\nthe\n\nit\n\ntakes\n\naspects :\n\nBilateral\n\nFramework\n\nAgreements. The situation is the following\n\nwith :\n\nCanada : Memorandum of Understanding signed in March 1986. USA : Agreement of Cooperation signed in December 1986\nJapan : the text\ntechnical level\napproving the\n1988 , so that the signature is expected for the end of 1988. Agreement has\nprocedure aiming\n\nupon at the\nat a Council decision\nstarted in September\n\nof the\nand the\n\nConclusion of\n\nthe Agreement\n\nbeen agreed\n\nImplementing Agreements in the framework of the IEA ( OECD )\n\n*\n\no\no\n\nTokamaks :\n\nTEXTOR ( signed in 1977 ):\nASDEX and ASDEX-UPGRADE ( signed in 1985 ): 10 years duration\n\n15 years duration\n\nZ6 6\n\n\f7\n\nLARGE TOKAMAKS\n\nTHE THREE\n1986 ):\nAlternative lines :\n\n5 years duration\n\n( JET , TFTR\n\nand JF-60 ), signed in\n\nto be\n\nand possibly\n\n5 years duration\n\nSTELLARATORS ( signed in 1985 ):\nREVERSED FIELD PINCHES : in preparation\nconcluded at beginning 1989\nTechnology :\nLARGE\n:\nCOIL\nconcluded and final report in preparation\nFUSION MATERIALS\nduration of Annex II of 10 years. Annex III in preparation\nSAFETY AND\nand possibly to be concluded at beginning of 1989. ENVIRONMENTAL ASPECTS OF FUSION : in preparation\n\nAnnex I discontinued ,\n\nexperiment\n\n( signed in\n\n( signed\n\njoint\n\n1981 )\n\n1977 )\n\nTASK\n\nin\n\n:\n\no\n\n#\n\no\no\n\n*\no\n\no\n\no\n\nQuadripartite\n\ncooperation\n\non\n\nan\n\nInternational\n\nThermonuclear\n\nExperimental Reactor ( ITER ) under IAEA auspices\n\nof\n\nby\n\nat a\n\nAgreement\n\nin February\n\nparticipation\n\nUnion of\nAmerica , has\n\nSoviet Socialist\nbeen signed\n\nThe\nthe European Atomic Energy\nCommunity in the ITER Conceptual Design Activities , together with\nRepublics , and the United\nJapan , the\nStates of\n1988. The four\nprogrammes of the world ( EC , Japan , USA , USSR ) have\nlarge fusion\ndecided to coordinate their efforts aiming\nspecific goal :\n1990 through a collaborative effort of four parties\nproducing by\ncontributions a conceptual\nhaving equal status and\ndesign\nresearch\nITER ,\nmade possible because\nactivities. Such a collaboration\nhave\nthe\nthese\nstrategies\nactivity ,\nreactor. demonstration\nwill\ninternational solution\ncontinue\na\nuntil\nas\nStep , forms\noffering convincing guarantees is found for the Next\ncollaboration. Indeed , not only the\nthis\nthe\nfocal\ndesign\nwork\njoint\ntechnical\nactivities has been chosen to be the same as the site of the NET -\n\nprogrammes\nfusion\nplanned\n\nsimilar\nThe\nNET\npossible\n\ncoordinating\nhas been\n\ntowards\nwhich\n\npoint\nsite\n\nmaking equal\n\nconceptual\n\nsupportive\n\nfour\n\nITER\n\nand\n\nfor\n\nfor\n\non\n\nof\n\nan\n\nteam ( Garching , D ) ,\npreliminarily at\nsimilar to those of NET. but\nthe end\n\nthe\n\nalso\nof the\n\nreference\n\ndefinition phase\n\nparameters chosen\nfor ITER are\n\nworld-wide\n\nthis\n\nThe importance of\nexplicitly\nITER\nwas\nand\nWashington\nGeneral Secretary Gorbachev. Moscow\n\nmentioned\nsummits\n\nin\nbetween\n\nis\n\ncollaboration\n\nsuch that\nthe joint Statements of the\nand\np\n\nPresident\n\nReagan\n\n\u2022\n\n\f8\n\na\n\nof\n\nthe\n\nthe\n\nthe approval by the Council of-the conclusion\nFinally , following\nUnderstanding between\nof\nMemorandum\nCommission\nby\nEURATOM and the Government of Canada on the involvement of Canada\nDesign\nto\nEURATOM\nin\ncontribution\nMemorandum was signed on October 3rd. 1988. The\nActivities , this\nquadripartite collaboration on\nthat any\nITER by any other country should be implemented\ncollaboration to\nthrough one of the four partners. Conceptual\n\nstatutory\n\nITER\n\nITER\n\nthe\n\nso\n\nis\n\n6. Situation in the world\n\nlarge\n\nother\n\nthe EC\n\nprogrammes\n\nexists , besides\n\nAs already mentioned there\nthree\ndemonstration of scientific , technological\nwith some\nphases. also\nconfinement. fusion programme ,\nhaving similar strategies : sequential\nand commercial feasibility\nthe necessary overlapping between the three\neach programme is\nmagnetic\n\nAs far as staff and funding are concerned ,\n\ndifferences on\n\ncomparable\n\nprogramme\n\nfield\n\nthe\n\nthe\n\nEC\n\nof\n\nto\n\nin\n\nthe\n\napproach ,\n( the US\n\ntokamak\nline is\nequivalent of JET ), and\n\nconfinement approach\nof overall expenditure ) and the inertial confinement\n\nUS programme : It follows both the magnetic\n( two thirds\napproach ( one third ). Within the magnetic confinement\nintensively followed\nwith TFTR\nD III D mainly. the US\nhave\nScientific progress and limitation in\nnarrow its previously very broad\nmagnetices fusion\nsupporting its research\nspectrum of\nhas sharply\nwork\non\nA\ndecreased\nCompact Ignition Tokamak ( CIT )\nis in the design phase : this high\nfield tokamak should allow to study experimentally the physics of\na burning plasma. inertial\nThe\nUS\nworld :\nits\nparticular\n\nthe largest in the\nin\nmany links with military programmes\n\ndevelopment\nits\nof\n\nis\ndifficult\n\nprogramme\nis\n\ntoroidal\non\n\nfuture\nbecause\n\nconfigurations. configurations\n\nactivities. It\n\nprogramme to\n\nalternative\n\nis actively\n\nconfinement\n\nmagnetic\n\npredict ,\n\nefforts\n\nfunding\n\nmirror\n\nbut\n\nled\n\nits\n\nto\n\n( SDI ). 268\n\n\f9\n\nin\n\nthe\n\nJT-60\n\nunder\n\ninitiative\n\nparticular\n\nJapanese programme\nAlthough Japan is a late-comer , fusion research has received high\npriority in Japan\nof the\nEnergy Commission. The Japanese effort is now at\nJapanese Atomic\na level comparable to the one of the EC and of the US. the large\nThe magnetic confinement effort is well illustrated by\nof 2 MA could non -\na\nwhich\ntokamak\norder to\ninductively be driven. JT\n60\nimprove\nThe stellarator line ( Heliotron-E is\nthe largest stellarator in the world ) and other alternative lines\nare also investigated. A comprehensive inertial confinement programme of high quality is\nIt is\nInstitute of\nunderway in a specialized\ntotally unclassified. current\nmodifications\n\nOsaka University. plasma\nneeds\n\nperformances. its\n\nin\n\nin\n\nis\n\nof\n\nwell\n\ncharacterized\n\nSoviet programme\nThe Soviet Programme has produced brilliant results ( Tokamak is a\na large\nit\nSoviet concept !); at present\nmodest\nnumber\nphysicists ,\ntrained\ntechnological realizations ( no device of the size of\nJET ), and a\nwide spectrum of activities. Here also , the tokamak line receives\nmagnetic field\nthe largest attention. A new\n( TSP )\nit is\nof\noperation\ninto\ntokamak T 15 ,\ndesigned for tritium operation. similar\nis\nthe\nto\nnearing completion. by\nrelatively\n\nwith\nbeginning\n\nA superconducting\n\ntokamak\nthe\nat\n\nin operation ,\n\nTORE-SUPRA\n\nEuropean\n\nalready\n\n1988 ;\n\nhigh\n\ncame\n\n7. Near-term issues of fusion\n\nthe\n\noccupy\n\nforefront\n\nmost impressive\n\nmagnetic fusion\nof\nTokamaks will continue to\nresults so far in fusion research have\nresearch. The\n( ion temperature\nbeen obtained in these devices : the \" fusion product \"\ndensity times confinement time ), which is the best figure of\ntimes ion\nalmost four orders\nmerit on the way to the reactor , has\nyears and is now only a factor 4 away\nof magnitude during the past 20\nof magnitude from\nmore than\nfrom breakeven ,\nignition , which is our longed for milestone marking the achievement of\nthe proof of the scientific feasibility\nThe principal key\ngross machine parameters\nto such\n\nand slightly\n\nincreased by\n\nprogress has\n\nincrease in\n\nof fusion. one order\n\nbeen the\n\nand the relative simplicity of the tokamak concept. The last untouched 269\n\n\f10\n\na\n\nin\n\nso\n\nby\n\nown\n\nthe\n\nfar ,\n\nmany\n\ntheir\n\nlarge\n\ndepend\n\nmeasure\n\nproblem\n\n( tritium )\n\nconceptual\n\nlithium and\n\ntechnological\n\nheating ,\nyears from\n\nalpha-particle\nabout 3\n\nbecome\nshould\nnow , when TFTR ,\n\nrevealed\nthe world\nhave\nalso\nsafety\nand\nwill\nbut\n\nassociated with Deuterium-Tritium fusion\nin a\nfuel\nbreed\nsurrounding the reacting plasma , have\nreactors designs\nover more than a decade. fusion community\nthat\nevidenced\npotential\nthe\nachieving\nof fusion will not materialize\nadvantages\ndesigns\nto this end , in which the use of low-activation\nalso how\nand\n\nphysics\naccessible to experimentation in\nJET and TSP will enter their phase of tritium operation. problems\nThe\nreactors , which will have to\nblanket containing\nbeen\ngradually\nproduced within\nThese\nstudies\nenvironmental\nautomatically\nspecifically tailored\nmaterials could play an\neconomic\nengineering performances which are not yet assured. Although some mysteries still remain , the conclusion of the scientific\nphase of\nsight , and it is therefore timely to plan\nfor the Next Step device on the road towards a prototype reactor. Next Step machines are at present in the pre-design phase\nboth within\nthe\nlarge\nEuropean\nCommunity )\nITER , whose\ndefinition phase\nis conceived as a tokamak\ndevice which , to quote from its Terms of Reference ,\nprovide the\ndata\nnecessary for the design and\nis estimated\nconstruction of a demonstration fusion power\nthat three decades of R&D will be required before such a demonstration\nreactor can become operational. programmes\nthe\nhas just\n\nquadripartite\ncome to\n\nhave\nattaining\n\nimportant\nwill\n\ncompetitiveness\n\nrole. depend\n\nfusion\nin\nor\n\nin\nITER. technology\n\nplant \". It\n\nThey\non\n\nfusion is\n\nexample ,\n\nNET\n:\n\nphysics\n\nventure\n\nan end ,\n\nnow in\n\nplasma\n\nshown\n\n\"will\n\nbase\n\n( for\n\nand\n\nthe\n\non\n\nin\n\nthe need\n\nnot only\n\nWith the Next Step , there exists\nto develop , test\nand demonstrate technologies applicable to future fusion reactors , but\nwill be\nalso to define safety\nonly during the construction and exploitation of the Next Step that we\ncertainty the\nwill reach a sufficient basis\noverall potential of, fusion as an energy source. these reactors. standards for\n\nevaluate\n\nAnd it\n\nwith\n\nsome\n\nto\n\nAs in the case of any major decision on high technology , a decision to\nembark on the detailed\nhave a strong\npolitical\nshall be substantiated on three\ndifferent grounds :\n\ndesign of\nThis\n\nStep , will\n\ncomponent. decision\n\nthe Next\n\n270\n\n\f11\n\nA\n\nsound\n\nscientific\n\nand\n\ntechnical\n\nbasis\n\nis\n\nneeded : work in\n\nprogress on both the scientific and the technological sides makes\nus reasonably confident about this point. as\n\nshould\n\npresent\n\neconomic\n\npossible ,\n\nconvincing\n\nCommunity\nfar\n\nsafety ,\nThe\nscientific\nenvironmental and , as\narguments in\nfavour of fusion. So already now , long before the characteristics\nit is essential ,\nof a practical reactor are known in some detail ,\neven\nand\nsystematic\na\nto\nchallenging ,\ncontinuous assessment of fusion 's potential to achieve attractive\neconomic\ncombinations\nused to\ncharacteristics. International collaboration\n\nand\nshould\n\nenvironmental ,\n\nundertake\n\nsafety\n\nvery\n\nof\n\nif\n\nbe\n\nextent\n\nmaximum\n\nmake\nto\nits\nhelpful. could be particularly\ntaken in this direction in the framework of the IEA. progress in these fields where it\nare being\n\nIndeed ,\n\nsteps\n\nfirst\n\nplans\n\nshould\n\nbe\nfull\n\nthe major fusion\non\ndeveloped\nConcrete\nof\nwide international\nadvantage\nprogrammes could take\nlead to a single device or\nwhich could\ncooperation , cooperation\nStep\nIndeed\nactivities. of\nto\nplanning\njoint\nmore and more a necessity\nwill become\ninternational cooperation\nif we want to make the most efficient use of the resources of the\n\nhow\na\n\nNext\n\nthe\n\nworld fusion community. These include , as a particularly precious\nelement , a highly qualified staff ,\nbe a\ndedication\nsuccess of the Next Step , but whose\nnecessary condition\nfull utilization requires that the\nundertaken as\nsoon as technically feasible. for the\n\nwhose\n\nwill\n\nStep\n\nNext\n\nbe\n\nbe\n\nthat\n\neven\n\nshould\n\npresent\n\nstressed\n\ncooperation ,\n\nworking\nprovide , at\n\nIt\nextrapolated to an unprecedented\n\"domestic\u201d programmes. The four\nare\nat\nActivities to\nbe available for all Parties to\nprogramme or\nSome of the ITER Parties have also national\nthe same\ndesign of\ndifficult to make any prediction on\nStep(s ) will\n\nif\nInternational\nsubstitute for strong\nlevel , cannot\nlarge fusion programmes of the world\nin\nDesign\nof 1990 , a design which will then\nown national\ntheir\neither\nas part of a larger international cooperative programme. embark at about\nplans to\na similar Next Step. It is\nthe Next\nin which\neventually be built , but all options should be kept open\n\ntogether\nthe end\n\nthe framework\n\nthe detailed\n\nConceptual\n\ntime on\n\nITER\n\nuse ,\n\nthe\n\nin\n\n\f12\n\nin order\nthe Next Step(s ) early in the nineties. to lay the ground for a decision to start the realization of\n\n8. Financial Implications for Europe\n\nits\n\nR&D\n\nremain\n\nforeseen\n\nimportant\n\nCommunity\n\nexcellent\n\nprogrammes\n\nimportant\nand\nthe\n\nits\ninterest\nof\none\n\nobjectives ,\nrecord , its\nits absolute Community character , fusion\nof the\nmost\n\nBy virtue of\ntechnological\nshould\nCommunity. the recently adopted fusion\nfunding\nThe\n( including JRC fusion\nprogramme amounts to about 200 MioECU\nto an overall yearly expenditure for Fusion\nactivities ) corresponding\nin the\nin Europe of about 450 Mio Ecu. European fusion laboratories will have the tendency to decrease in the\nlong term , the technology will increase so that one could\nforesee the\na roughly constant level of funding for research outside ( but\nneed of\nsupporting of ) the Next Step proper. physics activities\n\nWhile the\n\nper year\n\nwithin\n\nat\n\n300\n\ni. e. will\n\nabout\n\ndesign\n\nestimates for\n\nsome 3,000\nfigure ,\n\nthe construction\nMioECU. The detailed design\nMioECU. Such\nleast three years so that almost 100\nproper during the\n\nThe present and very preliminary cost\nof the\nNext Step\namounts to\nwould cost about 10% of\nthis\nlast\ndetailed\nMioECU per year will be necessary for the Next Step\ndesign phase , to be initiated possibly in 1991 / 92. would\nsubsequent\nIn\nprogressively\n( with gradual\nexpansion ) in the use of the human , technical and financial resources. construction of the Next Step is concerned , this phase\nAs far\ncould start around\nThe necessary\n1995\nincrease of Community funding will depend on :\n\nout ,\ncontinuity\n\nJET\nmomentum\n\nyears ,\nup\n\ninsuring\n\nphased\n\nas the\n\nyears. would\n\nabout\n\ntake\n\nlast\n\nNET\n\nand\n\nand\n\nsix\n\nbe\n\nNext Step\n\nwhether such\nor at world level ( ITER ). The\nfour parties\nin spite of all difficulties , a\nfactor 3. instead of\n\nconstruction of\n\nwill be built on a Community basis ( NET )\nStep by\none alone would represent for each one ,\nabout a\nin\n\nreduction\n\nthe Next\n\ncost\n\nof\n\nwhich framework\nwill be\nUndertaking , as for JET ,\nother scheme ?). established at Community level (a Joint\nor some\nwith\n- ,\n\nCommunity\n\nfunding ,\n\n80%\n\n\f13\n\nbe\n\n( to\n\nstrategy\nthe\nWithin\nfor the assessment of\nrevision\nprogramme foreseen on\nappropriate\ntaking into\nactivities ( due to be completed at the end of 1990 ). the Community fusion programme , a milestone\nbe the next\nimplications will\nof\nthe\nevaluation )\nwould be\nit\nthat\ndetailed design of NET ,\nConceptual designed\n\nof\nthese financial\nby\nJanuary\nto\nwhen\nresults\n\nindependent\nAt\nthe\n\npreceded\n1\n\n1991. start\nof\n\nto\naccount\n\ndecide\n\ntime\n\nITER\n\nthe\n\nthe\n\nan\n\n273\n\n\fANNEX 7\n\nENVIRONMENT\n\nA. INTRODUCTION\n\n*\n\nand\n\nawareness\n\ncommunications\n\n1. The environment , Its protection , and the quality of life\nfor Man , are subjects of high public '\u2018and policy Interest. Pressures\nfor Improved environment protection , continue unabated. They are\nfueled by Incidents such as the pollution of the Rhine , the ozone\nhole , algal bloom In the North Sea and the death of seals ; by\nImproved\nand by\nrecreation and\ngreater public\nleisure activities. The Community 's policies inevitably reflect\nthese pressures. Environment protection is a Community issue In Its\nown right. It is also Included , under the European Single Act , as\nan Important element In other Community and wider policies for\nindustry , agriculture , fisheries and aid to developing countries. Such policies must increasingly seek to predict and prevent natural\nand man-made problems of the environment. We cannot continue to be\nreactive to the problems of the day ; we must probe the future. relentless press\nreinforced by growing\n\ncoverage ;\n\n*\n\nThus , environmental research , Is directly linked to a well\nIt has to respond to specific problems\nimposes\n\n2. defined Community policy. derived\ncertain prerequisites in the content of the programme. from the Environmental Action Programme ;\n\nthis\n\nThe term \" environmental research\" in this context does not\n\nInclude problems linked to nuclear energy and radioactive\npollution ( cf. annex 9 ). 274\n\n\f2\n\n3. Unlike\nother\nadvancing\nin order to increase Europe 's competitivity world\ntechnologies\nwide , environmental research has to identify the constraints to\n\nprogrammes\n\nwhich\n\naimed\n\nare\n\nat\n\ntechnological developments , imposed by the need to maintain or even\n\nImprove the quality of life in Europe and to protect our resources. It should help to overcome the conflict of interest between economy\n\nand ecology. The benefits from environmental research can therefore\n\nnot be measured in direct economic terms. 4. Under the pressure of environmental legislation , technologies\nfor the abatement of environmental pollution , without any doubt ,\nconsiderable\nhave\n\nsubstantial market. conquered\n\nThis\n\nof\n\nis\n\na\n\neconomic significance. The basis of such technologies is , however ,\nnot\nthe\nin\nfrom\na problem of\npromotion\nproduction\n\nsubstantially\ncycle. which\nvery much\n\ndifferent\nTheir\n\nthat\nis\n\napplies\n\nadaptation and demonstration and to a lesser extent of fundamental\n\nresearch. In\n\ncertain\n\nareas ,\n\nhowever ,\n\nin\n\nparticular\n\nin\n\nthe\n\ndevelopment of new , low-emission production technologies , Community\n\nenvironmental\n\nresearch\n\nhas\n\nan\n\nImportant\n\nrole. Through\n\nthe\n\ndefinition of\n\nnorms\n\nand\n\nstandards\n\nthe\n\nCommunity will have\n\na\n\nconsiderable Impact on Industry , and an association of industry to\n\nresearch activities in this field seems advisable. 5. Many environmental problems have a global dimension , such as\n\nglobal change or stratospheric ozone depletion. In such areas ,\nEuropean research cannot be separated from the world-wide effort\nwhich expresses itself in programmes such as IGBP ( International\nthe\nGeosphere-Biosphere Programme ). In these areas the role of\n\nCommunity programme is to assist in providing coordinated European\ninput to the global efforts , thus strengthening the position of\n\nEurope in a world-wide context. B. RESEARCH TRENDS AND NEEDS\n\n6. The complexity of environmental problems makes a breakdown to\n\nspecific research areas very difficult ; the traditional separation\nhas been abandoned in\nof problems by media ( air , water ,\nfavour of a holistic view. To a certain extent , research problems\n\nsoil )\n\nmay , however , be categorized under three Interdependent sets :\n\n275\n\n\f- 3 -\n\n-\n-\n-\n\nunderstanding the basic phenomena\ndetection and interpretation of environmental changes\nprevention of the degradation of the environment. The most Important environmental issues are addressed in the\nfollowing , with an indication , as far as possible , of the research\nrequirements identified. 7. dependent upon climate\nClimate controls\nand\nagriculture\ntransport\n\nClimate and Climate Change - the Greenhouse Effect. We are\nsurvival. supplies ,\nand\ncope with\n\nand\nthe basic\nforestry ,\n\nits variability\nparameters\n\nour\nour water\n\nSocieties have\n\nInfrastructure. requirements ,\n\nand water\n\nevolved\n\nenergy\n\nfor\n\nof\n\nto\n\ntheir characteristic climates and associated extremes. But climate\n\nis variable not only in terms of longer term oscillations\n( eg\nglaciations). Individual events and long term trends can have major\nImpacts upon the environment and on socio-economic structures. 8. There is a scientific consensus that a significant climate\nchange will occur during the next century as a result of human\nactivities. Greenhouse gases such as CO^ and their climatic effects\nmay be the biggest single issue or threat facing man and\nthe\nAs with all climate\nenvironment as we enter the 21st Century. issues , we will need to understand the processes involved and to\ndevelop the means to predict change and its consequences. This\nocean\nIncludes\ncirculation and air/ sea fluxes , and effects of CO^, warming upon\nthe melting of the ice caps together with the consequences for\nEurope and for developing countries. cloud-radiation\n\ninvestigation\n\ninteractions ,\n\nof\n\nIt is important to note that there is no complete explanation\n9. of natural and man-made fluctuations in climate , and that there are\n\nno reliable methods for their prediction especially at regional and\n\nlocal levels. Also , some interactions between\n\n276\n\n\f- 4 -\n\nclimate change and environmental pollution are obvious , but others\nare more subtle. There are , for example , strong suspicions of the\n\ninteractions between atmospheric pollutants , climate extremes and\n\nclimate change in the phenomena of forest decline. 10. Sea-Level\n\nRise\n\ncould\n\nbe\n\none\n\nof\n\nthe\n\nmost\n\nstriking\n\nlevel\n\nconsequences of climate change. Over the past 100 years , global\nmean sea\nthe\ngreenhouse effect could lead to a sea-level rise of 50-100 cm by\nBasin ,\nthe year 2025. Atlantic Seaboard and Mediterranean would be vulnerable to such a\n\nthe North Sea\n\nFuture warming\n\nThe coastal\n\nlowlands\n\nrisen\n\n10-15\n\nfrom\n\nhas\n\ncm. of\n\nThese include many of our most\n\nrise. fertile agricultural and\ndensely populated areas as well as deltas , estuaries , sand dunes\nand wetlands of recreation , amenity and conservation Interest. This\napplies equally to developing countries and especially to those\nalready under threat by frequent and extreme climatic events. They\n\nwould all be subject to erosion , inundation , salination and storm\nsurges which would overcome sea defences designed to meet lower\n\nmean and extreme sea levels. 1 1. Climatic\n\nChange\n\nImpacts\n\non\n\nLand ,\n\nWater\n\nand\n\nOther\n\nResources. This is a much more complex area because of the possible\nregional\nclimate\nvariations and changes affect our basic resources ? What are the\n\nvariations\n\nclimate\n\nchange. how\n\ncan\n\nBut\n\nin\n\nmeans of predicting climate extremes such as droughts ,\n\nfloods ,\n\nsevere frosts , snow storms ,\n\ntides and wave surges ?\n\nIt\n\nis these\n\nevents that cause such heavy tolls of life and property. How can we forespell the Impact of changes in temperature\n\nand rainfall and variations in extreme events upon agriculture ,\n\nforestry\nmeasures can be envisaged ?\n\nand water\n\nresources ,\n\nand\n\nwhich\n\nremedial\n\nor\n\nadaptive\n\n277\n\n\f5\n\n12. action\n\nNatural Hazards. Many natural hazards aggravated by the\nthus\nIssues\n\ndescribed\n\nabove\n\nwith\n\nlink\n\nman ,\n\nthe\n\nof\n\nunderlining the horizontal and vertical dimensions of environmental\n\nand climatological research. The interactions between these sectors\nare critical in terms of mutually reinforcing protection policies. Processes\n\nflash\nin\nflooding and wildfires have to be better understood to protect man ,\nlivestock , crops and forests from local catastrophies. salinisation ,\n\ninvolved\n\nerosion ,\n\n13. Seismic Hazards are also of concern especially in those\nareas in tectonicly active areas. No European country is entirely\nfree of risk. Man- induced hazards are also of concern in the older\n\nindustrialised countries with abandoned deep mine workings. Our\naims are to understand and measure strong motion phenomena , and to\nand\ndevelop\n\ninformation ,\n\nmonitoring ,\n\nseismic\n\nhazard\n\ndata\n\nand\n\nwarning systems. 14. Stratospheric Ozone. The appearance of holes above the\npolar regions alerted us to the depletion of the Earth 's protective\nand other chemicals. ozone layer by chlorof luorocarbons\nWhilst initial actions have been taken to control CFC emissions ,\n\n( CFC 's )\n\nare\n\nthere\nthat\nposing\nserious global threats to man and the environment from increased UV\n\ndepletion continues ,\n\nindications\n\nstrong\n\nirradiation. At\ncould\n\nthe\nhave\n\nsame\n\ntime ,\nfeedbacks\n\nozone\n\ndepletion and / or redistribution of\nof\nThe\n\npossibility\n\nclimate. on\n\nreinforcement of climate changes induced by the greenhouse effect\n\ncannot be ignored , over and above any possible effects of increased\nUV irradiation. Causes , processes and rates of change involved , and\ntheir possible consequences need to be better understood. 278\n\n\f- 6 -\n\n15. Air Pollution , and Its Effects on Terrestrial and Aquatic\nEcosystems. Increasing emphasis Is being placed upon problems of\nphotooxldant pollution ; and on more complex issues such as\nthe\ninteractive effects of mixtures of pollutant and other stresses\nupon trees and forests In relation to forest decline , of pollution\nand of defining pollution\nsystems ,\nand\n\nland use upon aquatic\n\nclimates\n\nIncluding\n\nthe\n\nactual\n\nfluxes\n\nand\n\ncritical\n\nloads\n\nto\n\nsensitive parts of ecosystems. 16. Assessment of Chemicals. There is a lack of standard\n\nof\n\ndevelopments\ncellular\n\nprocedures which reduce the use of vertebrate animals , and take\nthe\nin\nmutagenicity ,\nadvantage\ncarcinogenicity ,\nand\nactivity\ntoxicity ,\nstructural activity relationships of new and existing chemicals. Procedures for assessing both abiotic degradation , and the pathways\nand ecological effects of chemicals , must also be developed. assessment\n\nmetabolic\n\nof\n\nEnvironment and Human Health. A target orientated and\n17. preventive approach to the protection of the groups most at risk\nthroughout the Community includes , inter alia , the development of\npopulation monitoring methods and systems to identify such groups ,\nand to detect and measure preclinlcal effects ( eg nephrotoxicity ,\nneurotoxicity , biological markers ). These can be applied to studies\nof both indoor air quality and general environmental quality , and\n\ntheir effects on man. The most challenging and urgent priority ,\ndeveloping\nhowever ,\n\nthe notorious problems of\n\novercome\n\nto\n\nis\n\nCommunity-wide\nco-operation with WHO and other international agencies. epidemiological\n\napproaches\n\nto\n\nsurveillance\n\nin\n\n18. Toxic Waste Disposal. Intractable wastes\n\ncontinue\n\nto\n\ncreate problems of disposal. Often , advances come by changes in\nmanufacturing\nreduce\nin\nof\nmajor\nestablished\nenvironmental standards. Yet they sometimes create new problems. Modest advances will continue to be made but spectacular progress\n\nprocesses\n-\n\nproducts\nthe\nin\n\nnew\nforce\n\nimprovement\n\nproblems\n\nwhich\n\nand\n\na\n\n279\n\n\f7\n\nis unlikely without the development of new , clean technologies. The\npotential\ncomputer\nin\nassisted optimisation processes , although current evidence suggests\nthe latter need to be tailored to specific disposal processes and\n\nexceptions may\n\napplications\n\nthe\n\nlie\n\nof\n\nwastes. 19. Soils and Groundwaters. There is profound concern in\nEurope about the state of our soils , their conservation and their\noptimal management as a sustainable resource. Initiatives in the\nCommunity must be based on sound scientific guidelines. We need to\nunderstand the reactions of soils to management practices which\naccelerate\nexcessive\ndesertification ,\nfertilisation ; to waste disposal ; and to many forms of pollution\n( eg acidification) ,\ntogether with their mediating effects upon\nsurface and groundwater quality. The significance of soil-derived\nparticulates\nand\nin river ,\nmarine pollution , is becoming increasingly apparent. associated\n\nchemicals\n\nestuarine\n\nerosion ,\n\netc. ;\n\nand\n\nto\n\nand\n\npotentially\n\n20. Freshwater Quality. The primary need is to develop the\ntechniques and methodologies to sample rapidly , a wide range of\nthe\ncomplex\norgano-metalllc and non-volatile groups. These include pesticides ,\nin\nand\nsuch\nunderstanding\nchemicals. Increasing attention must be paid to the riverine Inputs\nof these chemicals to , and their behaviour and Impacts in estuarine\n\nproducts. transformations ,\n\nbreakdown\nthe\n\nProgress\nfates\n\nalso\neffects\n\nneeded\nof\n\nchemicals ,\n\nhazardous\n\nnotably\n\nis\nand\n\ntheir\n\nin\n\nand Inshore marine systems. events\n\nQuality of\nthe\n\nthe Marine Environment. main\n\n21. As examplified by\nand\nrecent\neutrophication\ncontamination of the rather closed regional seas surrounding the\nEuropean\nthe\nMediterranean. An understanding is needed of the sources , fates and\n\ncontinent ,\n\nBaltic\n\nNorth\n\nissue\n\nSea ,\n\nthe\n\nand\n\nthe\n\nthe\n\nis\n\nstresses of contaminants from rivers and other sources , of nutrient\n\ndynamics and of algal blooms. 280\n\n\f8\n\n22. Conservation of Species and Habitats. European ecosystems\nsupport a wide range of habitats and associated species , albeit\noften man-made in the past. Few are truly natural but they are the\nremnants of semi-natural ecosystems - the refuges and staging posts\nof endangered flora and fauna , and the last islands of natural\ngenetic diversity. Research must aim to define the critical loads\nwhich such systems can support , and to develop methods for their\nsustained management and restoration. Basic Research on Processes and Ecosystems. Progress on\n23. applied issues\nis frequently dependent upon advances in basic\nknowledge. For example , understanding the processes Involved in\nforest decline requires us to work on the basic physiology of trees\nto determine how they react to various stresses. Findings at the\nsub-cellular , cellular and whole organism level must be Interpreted\n\nin terms of Impacts upon populations and ecosystems. This , in turn ,\nrequires us to understand the behaviour and population dynamics of\nspecies , predator : prey relations , and the structure and functioning\nof\nImportant\nunderpinning to applied research on forest decline , acidification ,\nand the impacts of climate change. ecosystems. ecosystem\n\nresearch\n\nforest\n\nThus ,\n\nis\n\nEurope 's\n\ncultural heritage\n\nCultural Heritage. 24. our\nlegacy from the past , and our testament to the future. The academic\nand social values of this heritage are enormous , and they often\nplay a crucial role in the economies of member countries. We must ,\ntherefore , provide the scientific basis of protecting a vast range\nof Irreplaceable objects made with different materials and exposed\nto a wide range of climatic and environmental stresses. is\n\n25. Major\n\ntechnological hazards. To\n\na\n\nlarge\n\nextent ,\n\nman\n\nInteracts with his environment. Natural hazards such as erosion ,\noften exacerbated by man 's\nlandslides\nactivities. However , one has only to mention Seveso , Chernobyl ,\n\nseismic\n\nshocks\n\nand\n\nare\n\n281\n\n\f9\n\ninstallations\n\nFlixborough or Bhopal ,\n\nto realise that major\nFrenchman 's Flat ,\ntechnological\nhazards. imply\nStatistically , most dangers to the public and the environment arise\ntransport of bulk flammable\nand\nfrom the manufacture ,\nand /or\nearly\ntoxic\nand\ndispersion of\nand risk analysis\ntaking into account the human factor require further research. chemicals. chemical releases ,\n\nthe\ncombustion ,\n\nTherefore ,\n\nphenology\n\npotential\n\nstorage\n\nmajor\n\nof\n\nHowever ,\n\nproduction are bringing\nthey\n\n26. Biotechnology and the \" Sunrise\" Industries. Traditional\nheavy industries continue to loose importance. The effects of new\ntechnologies upon the environment are by and large , beneficial. economic\nNew technologies\nthe\nfor\nbenefits. greatest\nenvironment. public\ndeliberately or\nconcern\nin\ngenetic\naccidentally\nmaterial are scarcely understood. The need for adequate safeguards\nbased on science , 16 paramount. Other new technologies also pose\nuncertain\nof\nthreats\ntoxic and complex\nenvironmental impact and the\neffluents , albeit in small qualities. raise\nhas\nThe\nengineered\n\nBiotechnology\ncontext. attracted\nconsequences\n\nenormous\nquestions\n\nproduction of\n\nimportant\n\nthe\nof\n\nchemicals\n\nreleasing\n\norganisms\n\ncomplex\n\ntheir\n\nthis\n\neven\n\nuse\n\nby\n\nor\n\nof\n\nC. ACTIONS IN EUROPE\n\n27. The Community and its member countries rightly target\n\nin\n\nand\n\nupon\n\nImpact\n\nsocieties\n\nenvironments ,\n\ntheir resources upon the environmental Issues which concern their\ncitizens\nand\ntheir\n\u00e9conomies. These Issues may be of local concern or r\u00e9gional or\nmuch\nglobal\ncommonality\nand\ntechnologies for their investigation and amelioration. Europe is\nthus not\nthe global\ncommunity in terms of environmental problems , their study and their\nresolution. Appropriate co-operation between the Community and\n\nis\nthere\nmethodologies\n\neven with\nnatures ,\n\nis an Integral part of\n\nan island but it\n\nconcern\nthe\n\nscale. in\n\nBut\ntheir\n\nlocal\nin\n\nand\n\n282\n\n\f10\n\nnon-member European states ( eg EFTA) , Economic Summit countries ,\nand\ndeveloping\nboth\nnon-Governmental\n\nrange\nof\norganisations ,\n\nthe\nand\nInternational\n\nGovernmental\n\ncountries\n\nfull\n\nthus\n\nis\n\ninevitable and essential. A similar co-operation can be envisaged\n\nin the future with East European countries. Community research has to take ,\n\n28. fully into\naccount what is done by Industry , national research programmes , and\nwithin other transnational frameworks , in order to ensure optimum\n\nof course ,\n\nbenefits from its resources. in\n29. environmental matters , but makes now , under the pressure of tougher\n\ndefensive\n\nIndustry\n\nrecently\n\nrather\n\nuntil\n\nwas\n\nclosely\n\nresearch\n\nlegislation and public opinion , considerable efforts , also in R&D. in\nIndustrial\nto\nis\nproduction processes ;\nthe economic pressure to reduce energy and\nraw material consumption and to avoid unnecessary wastes leads to\nnew production processes which normally imply benefits for the\nenvironment. Environment-related R&D in industry can therefore not\n\nadvancement\n\nlinked\n\nthe\n\nbe considered on its own right ; substantial resources , however , are\n\nallocated to the Improvement of down-stream abatement processes. 30. All Member States have more or\n\nless\n\nsubstantial R&D\n\nprogrammes on the environment , which in part are , of course , aimed\nat problems of regional character and to monitoring environmental\nquality. national\nprogrammes of a very basic nature which should be progressively\nIntegrated into a European context. (\" concerted\nactions\") have been developed in the past for this purpose and they\n\nFlexible means\n\ncomponents of\n\nThere are ,\n\nimportant\n\nhowever ,\n\nturned out to be efficient. 31. Except for some EUREKA projects and a few cooperative\nprojects implemented in particular by ESF , no major cooperative\nthe\nmechanisms of\nfull\nenvironmental\nIntegration of the relevant sections of the Community programme. exist. Implemented\n\nEuropean\nfield\n\nAll COST projects\n\nthrough\n\nscale\n\nunder\n\nare\n\nand\n\nin\n\n283\n\n\f11\n\nEnvironment research has been part of the Community research\nthrough\nthe\n\n32. programmes\ncontract research and coordination within the COST framework. programme\n\nwithin\n\nsince\n\n1972 ,\n\nJRC\n\nand\n\nIn the context of the framework programme , a major review of\n33. the aims and the means of Implementation took place , leading to a\nreview of the JRC activities as well as to a proposal for two\nprogrammes through contract research :\n\n( Science and Technology for Environmental Protection)\n\n- STEP\n- EPOCH ( European Programme on Climatology and Natural Hazards )\n\nsubmitted to the Council in November 1988. These are complemented\nby a new programme on Marine Science and Technology (MAST ). important\n\n34. The new Community programmes STEP , EPOCH and MAST treat most\nto be\nof\nthe\npursued with vigor. While it is important generally to develop the\nmeans for flexible and responsive actions to emerging issues , the\nfollowing research requirements were given particular emphasis in\n\nissues mentioned\n\nenvironmental\n\nabove ,\n\nthese programmes. The\n\n( GER). Global\n\nEnvironmental\n\n35. Research\ncoincidental\ndevelopments mentioned earlier which are resulting in rethinking of\nour approaches to global environmental issues get due attention. The NSF Earth Systems Science Report is breathtaking in scope. The\nCommunity' 8\nsame\ndirection. contain\nimportant elements of GER which must be welded into a co-ordinated\nand multidisciplinary European efforts , an effort that encompass\naid and\nelements of other Community programmes in agriculture ,\nindustry. Europe\nshould play a major role in the 1GBP. But certain elements have immediate priority. sensing\nand\n\nstudy\nSTEP ,\n\nof\nEPOCH ,\n\nProgramme\n\npointed\n\nremote\n\nMAST\n\nR&D\n\nthe\n\nJRC\n\nthe\n\nin\n\n284\n\n\f12\n\n( i )\n\nClimate and climate change and its consequences are now seen\n\nas probably the biggest challenge to mankind over the next\nfew decades. The European Inputs to international research\n\non Global Climate Models and the development of scenarios\nappropriate to Europe and its regions , and to developing\ncountries ; and on priority problems such as sea-level rise\n\nthrow\n\nundoubtedly\n\nwill\nrequiring\nCommunity research action. Additional European Inputs will\nbe necessary to investigate climate change Implications for\nto developing\nEuropean\n\nand world\n\ntrading ,\n\nspecific\n\nissues\n\naid\n\nand\n\nfor\n\nup\n\ncountries. ( ii )\n\nozone\n\nStratospheric\nThe\nEuropean move to co-ordinate EC / EFTA research should be\ntreated by a special task force. depletion and\n\nconsequences. its\n\n( iii )\n\nWider Implications. The rapid evolution of GER is going to\n\nIt\n\nwill\n\nof earth resources ,\nsignificant\nrequire\n\nrequire co-ordinated European initiatives in remote sensing\n(with ESA and others )\nprocesses and\nfrom\nphenomena. biologists working on blogeochemlcal processes such as the\ncarbon cycle , at global level. The task is massive but must\nnot be shirked. We must also consider responsive policies\nand actions to climate change in terms of energy production\ngroundwater\nfences ,\nsea\noptions ,\nprotection ( eg against saline intrusion), etc. improved\n\ninputs\n\nflood\n\nand\n\nThese developments at global level impinge upon many other\n36. for\nEuropean\nexample ,\nThe\nproposed Conmunlty Initiative in Biology has a critical role to\nplay in respect of blogeochemlcal processes. technologies ,\noptions. work\nin deciding\n\nprogrammes. could\n\non\nfuture\n\nCurrent\n\nenergy\n\nassist\n\nclean\n\n285\n\n\f13\n\n37. Regional and local environmental issues. These issues which\n\nconcern the regional or local environment and human health are not\nless important than research dealing with the global environment. growing concern and require more\nfollowing\nThe\nCommunity action. issues\n\nare\n\nof\n\n( i)\n\nreversible\n\nDevelopment of highly sensitive and rapid\nHuman health. methods for identifying and estimating internal dose and\nof\nof\nearly\nenvironmental\nin\nin groups\nsuitable\nepidemiological\nenvironmental\ninterconnection\n\nto\nrisk ;\nthrough\nwith\n\nsurveillance\nhealth\n\nrange\na\nprogress\n\nstressors\n\nstatistics\n\nexposure\n\neffects\n\nat\n\nof\n\ndata. ( ii)\n\nAir Pollution and its effects. Research on such Issues as\n\nforest decline , early specific indicators for forest decline ,\nair / land use /water quality interactions ,\ntree physiology ,\nEuropean\nto\nand\n\nImprovements\n\nconserve\n\nmeans\n\nthe\n\nin\n\nmonuments. ( iii )\n\npolitical concern about\nPublic and\nSoils and Groundwaters. the state of our soils and groundwater is growing throughout\nEurope. to the study of problems of\ncontamination and , in Mediterranean countries , to those of\n\nPriority must be given\n\nerosion and desertification. More emphasis should be given\n\nto the off site consequences of contamination and erosion\nfor the quality of surface and groundwaters. ( iv )\n\nMarine research. Ways must be found of further co-ordinating\nEuropean actions and facilities in this field in flexible\nbut\nwith\nprogrammes ,\ncompetent international bodies. co-operation\n\neffective\n\ncost\n\nin\n\nThe Community has important roles to play in co-ordinating\nresearch which contributes to the North Sea Task Force and\n\nto similar activities in the Mediterranean. 286\n\n\f14\n\n( v )\n\nEcosystems\n\nResearch. The\n\nneed\n\nfor\n\nbaseline\n\necological\n\nmonitoring and research was stressed earlier. The need to\n\nunderstand the structure and functioning of\n\nterrestrial ,\n\naquatic\n\nand\n\nmarine\n\necosystems\n\nand\n\ntheir\n\nconstituent\n\norganisms\n\nIs\n\nassuming\n\nIncreasing\n\nImportance\n\nIn\n\nso\n\nmany\n\ncontexts - agriculture and environment , marine pollution -\nto name a few. There Is a particular need to study and\nunderstand relict and threatened European ecosystems such as\n\nwetlands ,\nsaltmarshes and lagoons and upland bogs. montalne\n\nsystems ,\n\nclean\n\ndeep\n\nlakes ,\n\ncoastal\n\nINFRASTRUCTURE AND FACILITY REQUIREMENTS\n\n38. The above environmental Issues raise the basic question of\nwhether or not Europe has the infrastructure and facilities to\nachieve Its ambitions in research at regional and global levels. In\nmany cases we have\nresearch\nvessels ) but they are deployed on a range of issues from local to\nglobal , and may be restricted In capacity or funding , or by age and\ndesign. A fundamental part of our research programmes must be to\n\nfacilities\n\nnational\n\nlevel\n\n( eg\n\nat\n\nreview Infrastructure and facilities to improve their co-ordination\n\nand cost effective deployment ,\nand to plan for future needs in\nsupport of likely research priorities. The following are important\n\nitems for consideration and assessment in Europe. ( 1 )\n\nResearch Vehicles. compatibility and the development of research vessels must be\nplanned at European level. The case for a European ocean\n\nlonger\n\ndesign\n\nterm ,\n\nthe\n\nand\n\nthe\n\nIn\n\ndrilling vessel to operate in support of , or In succession\nis already being examined. Work on\nto the US ODP ship ,\n\nmanned and autonomous submersibles for use in research must\n\nbe prosecuted. Also , aircraft for stratospheric research ;\nEurope must develop a co-operative facility. Industry has an\nImportant role to play in these areas. 287\n\n\f15\n\n( ii)\n\nseismic hazards ,\n\nInformation services\n\necological reference monitoring ). Data Networks and Bases. Global research will require much\nmore European effort devoted to developing scientific data\nand\npollution\n( eg\nEuropean policies\ndata ,\nfor these need to be developed , along with policies for\nresearch computing , not least for supercomputers capable of\nand\nstoring\nmodelling environmental processes on a global scale. The\nexperiences\nand\noceanographers ,\nclimatologists in Europe , will be vital here. meteorologists\n\nquantities\n\nanalysing\n\nmassive\n\ndata ,\n\nand\n\nthe\n\nof\n\nof\n\nE. SUMMARY\n\n39. The main issues for future environment and related research\n\nare\n\nprogrammes\n\nwere reviewed , and , at the hand of a few examples , the position and\nrole of the Community and of Europe in a larger sense in this\ncontext was indicated. The importance and priorities of Community\nresearch\nand\ncombatting current and future environmental problems. Also their\ncontributions to the well-being of society , to employment and the\neconomy , and to European trade are becoming increasingly evident\nwhile\nEurope\ncontributing in major ways to global sustainable development , and\nassistance to developing countries. detecting\n\nconfirmed\n\nprospects\n\nresearch\n\noffer\n\nterms\n\nareas\n\nreal\n\nnew\n\nin\n\nof\n\nof\n\nof\n\nAO. identified. A wide range of environmental issues requiring research was\nBut there are certain issues which require special\n\nattention. ( i)\n\nCo-ordinated European contributions to global environmental\nclimate\nresearch including stratospheric ozone depletion ,\n\nand\n\nclimate\n\nchange ,\n\ndesertification ,\n\nand\n\nresource\n\nmanagement. 288\n\n\f16\n\nBasic ecological monitoring and research on ecosystems end\nenvironmental processes - essential underpinning to a wide\nrange of applied problems. Co-ordinated European research on the marine environment and\nits problems , especially in our regional seas but linked to\nglobal programmes. Supporting socio-economic research on environmental problems\nand options for their solution. Development\ntechnologies for research and environmental improvement. co-operation\n\nindustry\n\nwith\n\nin\n\nof\n\nnew\n\n( li )\n\n( ill)\n\n( lv )\n\n(v )\n\nImportant Infrastructure Issues which must be tackled and\n41. solved to provide essential support to European research were also\n\nldentif ied. ( vi )\n\n(vli )\n\nDevelopment\nprocedures especially at EC / EFTA level. appropriate\n\nand\n\nof\n\nflexible\n\nco-ordination\n\nDevelopment of rigorous research assessment , planning ,\nImplementation ,\nefficient\nfor\n\nand evaluation procedures including those\nand\nconversion\n\nresults\n\npolicy\n\ninto\n\nof\n\npractical actions. (vlii ) Assessment , planning and provision of essential research\n\nfacilities and services such as research vessels , aircraft ,\n\ncomputers , data bases , Information networks , and advisory\n\nand information services. i\n\n( ix )\n\nSpecial investment in remote sensing and geographical\ninformation systems to support global environmental research\nand to exploit its results. 289\n\n\f17\n\n( x)\n\nImproved co-ordination with , and positive European inputs to\nbodies ,\ninternational\n\nnon-governmental\n\ngovernmental\n\nand\n\nworking in the above fields. These\n\nactions must be\n\n42. adequate resources ,\nespecially skilled manpower , efficient communications and equipment\nin the relevant organisations of the Commission , Europe and its\n\nsupported by\n\nMember Countries. ( is )\n\n290\n\n\f- 1 -\n\nANNEX 8\n\nHEALTH RESEARCH\n\n1. INTRODUCTION\n\nIn spite of the enormous progress trade in fundamental biology , several\ngroups of diseases threaten human health ; in the less-developed countries\nmalnutrition and parasitic diseases ( e. g. malaria , schistososniasis ,\nfilariasis , trypanosomiasis and leisltmaniasis ) dominate the scene , while\nthe newly developed viral disease AIDS spreads with appalling rapidity. A\nreal problem here is the need to support expensive R&D action for a market\nwhich , though driven by pressing needs , is dramatically deficient in\nfinancial resources. Various agencies , both public ( e. g. \\ torxd Health\nOrganization ) and private , are active in this field , yet , in spite of sofi*e\nrecent advances in the treatment of parasitic diseases , those needs are\nfar from being satisfied. ( more than 200,000 million ECU yearly in the EC ). In\n\nIn the industrialized world bacterial diseases are largely controlled\ntlirough antibiotics and hygiene , and many viral diseases are greatly\nreduced or inched eliminated ( e. g. smallpox ) through effective vaccination\ncampaigns. However , many health problems still require fundamental and\napplied research , namely some viral diseases ( e. g. AIDS , and diseases\ncaused by slow viruses ), degenerative and iimvane diseases , genetic\ndiseases , traumatology and poisoning , as well as problems of procreation\nand ageing. In these parts of the worla , the cost of health is high and\nstill increasing ,\nWestern European countries the health market has a very special feature ,\nnamely that the funds used to satisfy it are largely public ( about 60% cf\nthe EC health expenditure ) as compared with only 40% in the USA. At the\nsame time , however , public investment in medical and pharmaceutical\nresearch in the EC is only about half that of the USA. The European health\nindustry is generally competitive ; however , the relatively modest support\nwhich fundamental health sciences receive from European governments\ninduces seme large European firms to transfer their research laboratories\nto the USA. A key issue for the future is the interaction of health\npolicies with the large high-technology market of health industries ,\nexploiting , whenever possible , the economy of scale provided by the large\ninternal market. In human health ,\n\"half-way \" solutions ( e. g. the treatment\nof tuberculosis around the turn of this century - by lengthy isolation m\nsanatoria - or of poliomyelitis in the 19?Cs ) are often expensive while\n\" all the way\" solutions ( e. g. antibiotics in the treatment of tuberculosis\nor vaccines against poliomyelities ) are often cheaper in the longer term. Research has an irreplaceable role in the pursuit of \" ail the way \"\nsolutions , and Europe should deve lop a proper strategy\nfor their\ncontinued achievement on an appropriate scale. 291\n\n\f2. MAIN ISSUES FOR R & D\n\n- 2 -\n\nHealth has been defined by the World Health Organization as \"A state of\ncomplete physical , mental and social well-being and not merely the absence\nof disease or infirmity\" ( 1 ). That reflects a very positive and wide-\nranging outlook on this subject - which is by definition one that vitally\naffects every single citizen , whether living in Europe , U. S. A. , Japan or\nthe rest of the world. This universality of the importance of the subject\nis progressively being recognized by countries at governmental as well as\nat individual level , and there is a general tendency for richer nations to\nspend a higher proportion of their gross domestic product ( GDP ) on health. In September 1988 the Office of Health Economics in London published a\n'Briefing' on \"Health Services in Europe : 1988 \", and this provides a most\nvaluable and up-to-date commentary on the increasingly important and\nincreasingly costly question of the provision of health care in Member\nStates. Table 1 reveals the levels of public and private health expenditure as\na percentage of GDP ,\n\n( 1984 ):\n\nTotal\n\nPrivate\n\nPublic\n\nSweden\nFrance\nNetherlands\nWest Germany\nIreland\nSwitzerland\nItaly\nDenmark\nBelgium\nGreat Britain\nSpain\n\n9. 4\n9. 1\n8. 6\n8. 1\n8. 0\n7. 8\n7. 2\n6. 3\n6. 2\n5. 9\n5. 8\n\n0,8\n2. 6\n1. 8\n1. 7\n1. 1\n\n8. 6\n6. 5\n6. 8\n6. 4\n6. 9\n\n-\n\n-\n\n1. 1\n1. 0\n0. 5\n0. 6\n1. 5\n\n6. 1\n5. 3\n5. 7\n5. 3\n4. 3\n\nSource : OECD ( 1987 ) 'Financing and Delivering Health Care' , Paris\n\nThe author , George Teeling Snith , ccmnents :\n\"The table shows both the public expenditure on health and total\nexpenditure as a percentage of each country 's gross domestic\n( GDP ). description of the various countries' health schemes. example , shews the substantial margin between public finance and total\nexpenditure which is largely covered by private 'top-up' insurance. Sweden , on the other hand , which is another high spender , covers\n\nThe figures are largely what would be expected from the\n\nFrance , for\n\nproduct\n\nConstitution of the World Health Organization : Basic Documents ,\n15th edition , 1961. 292\n\n\f- 3 -\n\nThe amount covered by private\n\nalmost all its costs from public funds. expenditure in Sweden represents 0. 8 per cent of GDP , as against 2. 6\nBritain , also , covers almost all of its health\nper cent in France. expenditures from public funds : private expenditure accounts for only\n0. 6 per cent of GDP. By contrast , again , the Netherlands leaves 1. 8\nper cent of GDP to be covered by private expenditure , reflecting the\nIn\nlarge proportion of the population covered by private insurance. West Germany private expenditure amounts to 1. 7 per cent , suggesting a\nrelatively high expenditure for the 9 per cent of population privately\ninsured. for the public to spend directly on health care in addition to public\nexpenditure. Overall , Spain and Great Britain are the lowest spenders , and France\nand Sweden the highest. there is a general tendency for richer nations to spend a higher\nproportion of GDP on health \". In general , the continental schemes allow greater freedom\n\nAs has often been pointed out in the past ,\n\nHis conclusions are extremely pertinent to any consideration of health\nservices provision in the next decade and beyond :\n\n\" It is clear from these brief descriptions of the national health\nschemes in different European countries that there is a considerable\nvariation in their approaches to the problem. vary : the ownership and organisation of the facilities varies ; the way\ndoctors and others are employed and paid differs ; and the extent to\nwhich individuals must pay part of the costs themselves also\nvaries. believes that it has an entirely satisfactory solution to the question\nof how best to cover the health needs of its population at an\nacceptable price. There is , however , one common similarity. Methods of funding\n\nNo country\n\nMore fundamentally , in 1992 the European market is intended to be\nunified , and it might be expected that sate degree of uniformity in\nIt is clear that it\nthe provision of health care should follow. will be extremely difficult to introduce any integrated system of\nhealth insurance or European health service for the European Community\nas a whole. without any clear indication of which variant is superior. The\npriority must be for cautious experiment , and rigorous evaluation ,\nrather than radical change. Even within individual countries there are variations ,\n\nAbove all , what is lacking in such an evaluation is any measure of the\noutcomes of different systems of health care. The unique contribution\nof the European Commission after 1992 could be to organise and sponsor\nthe evaluative studies which have so far largely been absent. Any more drastic form of European Community interference , in the\npresent state of ignorance , would be unwise. in recent years been developing the tools with which to make the\nnecessary evaluations. scale. larger international studies should not now be undertaken. So far they have been used only on a limited\nHowever , there is no reason why , with appropriate resources ,\n\nHealth economists have\n\nOne concept under discussion at present is to limit the free\nprovision of health care to the relatively less affluent and to\nthose suffering from some form of medical catastrophe - whether\nit is a costly acute medical crisis or a long-term chronic\n\n293\n\n\f- 4 -\n\nThe nearest approach to this policy in Europe so far\n\ndisease. appears to be the Dutch model. A study scare years ago\nsuggested that the health status of the Netherlands was\nconparable to that in Britain and France. ( 2 )\ncountries had widely differing types of cover , but both\nprovided comprehensive health care for the whole population\nBut according to the\nthrough their national schemes. information received from the Netherlands during the\npreparation of this ' Briefing ' , the Dutch do not consider their\npresent position satisfactory. They are considering more\nextensive cover. Clearly , therefore , other countries - and\nEurope as a whole - need to be cautious in pursuing the concept\nof limited cover only for the less affluent and for the\ncatastrophically sick. These latter\n\nOn the other hand , there is almost universal concern at the rising\ncost of comprehensive free health care. be struck. reports from the various countries collected for this study still\nsuggest general public satisfaction with their health care , even\nthough the providers and the organisers realise its shortcomings. But once again the keynote must be evaluation. The brief\n\nPerhaps scare balance needs to\n\nIf changes are to be made , and in particular if a greater degree of\nuniformity across Europe is to be achieved, the changes must increase\nan already relatively high level of public satisfaction rather than\nreduce it. 1992 approaches. \"\n\nThis , above all , must be the message for the Eurocrats as\n\nAs well as these economic and organizational factors another major\naspect must increasingly be taken into account - the ageing of the\npopulation , often called the \"Greying of Europe \". been explored in an Occasional Paper written in March 1988 by Mr. M. Freisinger for the European Commission 1 s own Division of \"Forecasting\nand Assessment in the field of Science and Technology\". Under the\ntitle of \"The Over-Fifties \", Mr. Freisinger has summarized the\nposition as follows :\n\nThis key issue has\n\n\"The interest in the demographic processes today results mostly from\nthe apprehension that these changes could affect the efficiency ,\nstability and equity ( 3 ) of societies which are in an internationally\ncompetitive environment. 1 ) Some Selected Demographic Trends :\n\nStagnation and Decline\n\n1 Explosion 1 , Ageing Populations ,\n\nMaynard A and Ludbrook A ( 1981 ) \u2018Thirty years of Fruitless\nEndeavour? 1 In : Van der Gaag J and Perlman M ( Editors ), Proceedings\nof the World Congress of Health Economics , North Holland. See Chapter : 'Seme Theoretical Propositions and Concepts' in Padoa-\nSchioppa , T. , et al ; 'Efficiency , Stability and Equity - A Strategy\nfor the Evolution of the Economic Systems of the European\nCommunity' , Oxford , 1987 , p. 17. 294\n\n\f- 5 -\n\nUntil the year 2050 , it is estimated that the global population\nwill double to 10 billion. As a consequence of the changing\nfertility trends , the future demographic increase will be lower\nthan at the tine of the so-called 'population explosion 1. Given\nthe assumption of an increasing average life expectation , there\nwill be a further cause for the relative shift in the ageing\npopulation on a global level. This ageing process is significant in industrialised countries. Compared with the USA and Japan , Europe has an exceptional\nposition. Until the year 2000 , the population of the European\nCommunities , the United States and Japan will still increase ( 2000 :\nEUR 12 - 330 million , USA - 268 million , Japan - 120 million\ncompared to 1984 : EUR 12 - 321 million , USA - 236 million , Japan -\n120 million ) but after the year 2000 the demographic development of\nthe total population will be marked by stagnation , and in the case\nof Europe ( EUR 12 ) by a partial decrease. Between 1900 and 1950 the proportion of elderly ( more than 65 years\nIn the period 1975 to\nold ) in Europe had increased by about 50%. 2075 this proportion of the population will increase in the more\nenveloped countries by about 72% ,\n\n( from 10. 5% to 18. 1% ). In the age group of eighty years and over the estimated rate of\ngrowth in the more developed countries is 153% ,\n4. 3% ). As a consequence of this trend , the average life\nexpectation in this period would increase from 33. 6 to 39. 6 years. ( from 1. 7% to\n\nWithin the European CotrmunitY , the total population figures until\nthe year 2000 will Decrease in Belgium and the Federal Republic of\nGermany. Luxembourg and the Netherlands. The same will apply after the year 2000 in Denmark ,\n\nBecause of the net reproduction rates of the 1980s , the population\nfigures in Greece , Portugal and Spain will be more stable. countries in the European Ccrmunity - including Ireland - now\nreveal decreasing reproduction rates between 1970 and 1980. All\n\nThe large number of births of the so-called 'Baby Boomer\nGeneration 1 will represent in the first half of the twenty-first\ncentury the growing proportion of the elderly. The proportion of Over-Fifties in Europe until the year 2000 will\nonly increase from 31% to 33%. group of about 10. 4 million people , bringing it to a total of 110\nIn the Federal Republic of Germany , Belgium and Denmark ,\nmillion. the population share of the Over-Fifties until the year 2020 will\nincrease to 49% , 41% and 42% respectively. This means a growth in this age\n\nWith regard to the increase in the Over-Fifties age group from\n1985-2000 France , the Netherlands , the Federal Republic of Germany ,\nPortugal and Spain will be above the average European growth rate\n( 10. 4%) in the European Community. Until the year 2010 , this\ngrowth rate will be 48% in the Netherlands , and 31% in France. 295\n\n\f- 6 -\n\nThe number of very old people ( more than 70 years of age ) in the\nEuropean Community will decrease at a negligible rate until 1990\n( 1985 - 33. 1 million to 1990 - 32. 7 million ). this number will increase again to 37. 4 million. Around the year 2000\n\nThe number of women in the elderly age group will increase\nconsiderably compared to the number of men. distribution of both sexes will be very significant , especially in\nNorth America , Europe and the Soviet Union. This unsymmetrical\n\nFrom a regional point of view the demographic ageing process in the\nEuropean Community is presented very differently. in industrial centres and overcrowed regions it would seem that the\nageing process of the regional populations will be above\naverage'1. In particular ,\n\n\" In the field of health , the demographical changes create a\nquantitative increase of age-typical illnesses. At the same time ,\nthe estimated number of persons in family networks which would be\nWith regard to the\nable to give care to the elderly will decrease. experience that nowadays only 5 - 10% of the older people requiring\ncare live in special institutions and the assumption that the\nnumber of single households - especially within the older\npopulation - will undergo a large increase , the question is posed:\nwhat are the possible and probable other forms of organisations and\nconditions for organising the everyday life and care of older and\nvery old persons ? Many elements in this sphere will depend on\nchanging life-styles and mental attitudes. The growing demand cn services for the elderly leads in the health\nsector to the necessity for a reorganisation in part ( education ,\ninternal care , structure in hospitals ) and beyond it to an\nincreasing relevance in medical , medico-technological and\npharmaceutical performance in prophylactics , early perceptions and\ntherapy of age-specific illnesses. \"\n\nAgainst the above background information it can be seen how\ncrucially important health provision is ; this underlines the need\nfor a continuing expansion of research into all aspects of the\nsubject , so that individuals can justifiably expect to benefit from\nadvances in knowledge denied to their forebears. in particular\npossible a greater degree of progress in health research than has\never been possible previously - these efforts must be strongly\nencouraged and steadily enlarged. those of molecular biology , have started to make\n\nNew techniques ,\n\n3. INTERNATIONAL COLLABORATION\n\nPerhaps uniquely , and probably reflecting its universality of\npersonal relevance and importance , health is a research field where\ninternational cooperation is not only readily forthcoming but is\nactively sought on a steadily increasing scale. The tradition of\nwidespread dissemination of research results by publication is a\nlong-established one in health matters and so , fortunately , health\nis not a \"competitive \" subject vis-a-vis the U. S. A. and Japan as is\n\n296\n\n\f- 7 -\n\nthe case in so many other areas such as information technology or\nMany research workers do not consider their\ntelecommunications. careers to be sufficiently rounded without having spent some tine\nin the U. S. A. , so much so that the acquisition of a \" BTA\" is widely\nthought essential for professional advancement to top research\nposts -the acronym stands for \" Been to America \". international experience-gathering is one of the most benefical and\nself-evidently valuable aspects of modem career progression in\nhealth research , and all Member States must continue to play their\npart in this. This degree of\n\n4. WHAT NEEDS TO BE DONE IN EUROPE\n\nTo look ahead to the developments needed in Europe , both in the\nnext few years and beyond , necessitates a careful and thoughtful\nlook at the nature of health research itself and the goals which\nshould be sought. Dr D. F. Horrobin , Director of the Efamol Research\nInstitute in Kentville , Nova Scotia , Canada ( 4 ), has expressed this\npoint well :\n\n\" One of the simplest and best definitions of science is John\nZiman 's ( 5 ) term 'reliable knowledge'. Medicine is a science with a\npurpose , the improvement of patient care. When reliable knowledge\nhas been used to improve patient care , the record shows that\nscientific medicine has been a resounding success. But recently we\nhave failed to keep firmly in view the true aim of medicine. Medicine has acquired the attitudes of pure science where things\nare done with no clear practical end in terms of benefit to the\npatient. It is the damaging proliferation of technologies which\nhave no proven value in terms of cure , care or comfort which has\nled to soaring costs without any patient perception of\nsubstantially greater clinical success. Unless we rigorously keep\nin mind the idea that the standards we now apply to new drugs\nshould be applied also to every form of innovation in medical care ,\nwe face the spectre of arbitrary and unreasoning political and\neconomic intervention in the medical care system. \"\n\nDr M. King , University of Leeds , United Kingdom ( \u00ae ) has enlarged on\nthis concept , stressing the patient 's point of view and rightly\ndrawing attention to the international aspects of the subject :\n\n\"Make the community master\n\nThe best interests of the individual sick patient in bed have always\nbeen the ultimate objective of the best medical care. The ultimate\nauthority , economy , and convenience of patients collectively , rather\n\nOxford Textbook of Medicine , Oxford University Press , Oxford ; 1987 ,\np. 2. 3. Ziman , J. 'Reliable Knowledge'. Cambridge University Press ,\nCambridge. Oxford Textbook of Medicine , p. 3. 1. 2S7\n\n\f- 8 -\n\nthan that of ourselves , their physicians , have been given less\nattention. Hence the increasing dissatisfaction of many corrmunities ,\nboth rich and poor , with the services they get , and the importance\nof making these services acutely sensitive to communal need. Communities must , wherever possible , be given a bigger say , and\nindeed the ultimate responsibility for the services they get. Listening for this still small voice , obeying it , and encouraging it\nto speak up , decide , and take charge , must in future beccxne an\nintegral part of medicine. It is\nof the section which follows. also one of the major inspirations\n\nHealth for all by the year 2000\nComprehensive primary health care (PBC )\n\nWhat can we do to prevent disease , disability , and untimely death in\ntwo-thirds of the world 's people , especially those locked into\nabsolute poverty? The most hopeful solution is comprehensive primary\nhealth care , and this was defined at the international conference\nheld by WHO and UNICEF at Alma Ata in Soviet Asia in 1978. The\nDeclaration of Alma Ata which followed this meeting has as its aim :\n\nThe attainment by all people of the world by the year 2000 , of a\nlevel of health that will permit them to lead a socially and\neconomically productive life. Primary health care includes , at\nleast , education concerning the prevailing health problems and\nthe methods of preventing and controlling thou , the promotion of\nan adequate food supply and proper nutrition together with a\nsufficient supply of safe water and basic sanitation. It also\nincludes maternal and child health , family planning , and\nimmunization against the major infectious diseases , as well as\nthe prevention and control of locally endemic diseases , the\nappropriate treatment of the common diseases and injuries , and\nthe provision of essential drugs. \"\n\nA worthwile research organization in health - such as will help to\nachieve the above aims - demands nowadays an increasingly wide range\nof skills , and this need in Europe is certainly in line with the\nneeds as seen from outside this continent. Professor P. Wasi from\nMahidol University , Bangkok , Thailand 0 ) has made a particularly\nrelevant comment concerning this breadth of need and closeness of\ncooperation :\n\n\"Vast areas of research are needed to support PHC including health\npolicies research , information research and development , health\nservices and health manpower research , health economy research ,\nmanagement and evaluation research and technical research needed to\nsupport health services. While biomedical research may concern\nindividual scientists or research units , health services research is\nan integrated approach which may involve on the one hand the policy\nmakers and programme administrators and on the other the people and\nthe community. This new type of research needs a new mechanism for\nresearch promotion and management. Medical Research Councils , while\ngood for biomedical research promotion and management , may not be\n\nOxford Textbook of Medicine , p. 3. 7. 298\n\n\f- 9 -\n\nequipped to deal with health services research. A co-ordinating\nmechanism involving the Ministry of Public Health , the Universities ,\nand the Medical Research Councils is desirable. \"\n\nIt is precisely that balance between \"Governmental \" health\nactivities and those of \"Medical Research Councils \" which is so well\nstruck and maintained in the cormittee structure for the\nConmission 1 s own Medical and Health Research progrannie ( vide infra ),\nand which is so necessary if research discoveries are to be\nimplemented at an early date by policy-makers on the Governmental\nside - it is a very efficient mechanism supported by all MS. The subjects which particularly need to be concentrated upon in the\ncaning years include AIDS and Cancer , as well as diseases which\nparticularly affect an ageing population , as will increasingly cotre\nto be the case in Europe. There has been an excellent recent survey\nof the scene by Sir Walter Bodmer in his Presidential Address to the\nBritish Association for the Advancement of Science in September\n1988 , and some short extracts indicate the v/ay ahead :\n\n\"The new biological revolution is having its impact in most areas of\nbiological and medical research. Had AIDS been discovered as a\ndisease even just 15 years earlier , it would not then have been\npossible to identify the causative agent as a virus , through that to\ndevise tests to identify those that have been exposed to the virus ,\nand then begin to design effective strategies for the development of\nvaccines against the virus and for treating the disease. All of\nthese possibilities are taking place within an incredibly short\ntime , following the initial description of AIDS only a few years\nago. AIDS may now , and for some years in the future , be a serious\nepidemic but were it not for the genetic revolution , the disease\ncould have been a total catastrophe. Cancer is not a single disease but a wide variety of diseases which\ncan affect any organ or tissue of the body. Nearly one third of the\npopulation will at some time be affected by cancer , and about one\nfifth will die from it. Though many advances have been made in\ncancer treatment , and simply stopping cigarette smoking could\nprevent 30 % of all the cancers , effective prevention and treatment\nespecially of the relatively common cancers such as those affecting\nthe bcwel , the breast , the stomach and the lungs , is still a\nchallenge for future research. In these cancers only treatment at\nearly stages is usually truly effective. A better understanding of\ncancer at a fundamental level is undoubtedly the best and ,\nultimately , the only effective way to advance substantially its\nprevention and treatment. This , again , is where the new biology is\nleading to major advances. The techniques of genetic engineering and working with cells that\ncan be manipulated in the laboratory are beginning to reveal those\nerrors which are critical for the development of cancer. Through\nthis we are beginning to learn how the fine processes which control\nthe normal growth of cells are deranged in a cancer and so , how\nthese changes may either be detected sufficiently early for\ntreatment to be effective or may form the basis for more specific\nand effective forms of treatment. When , at some time in the future ,\n\n299\n\n\f- 10 -\n\ncancer is a disease which can be prevented and treated as\neffectively as tuberculosis and most other infectious diseases can\nnow , the credit for this will largely be due to the new revolution\nin biology. A similar story could be told for the study of heart\ndisease , or of mental disease which is accompanied by the great\nchallenge of understanding the detailed functioning of the human\nbrain. Advances in physics and in chemistry have been as essential for the\nstudy of biology as they have , for example , for the development of\ncomputers. X-rays and radioactivity , and the instruments which use\nand measure than, have been particularly important in biomedical\nresearch. X-rays are not only used to diagnose and treat cancer and other\ndiseases , but also to probe the structure of complex molecules. Structure largely determines function , and so it is only through\nestablishing the three-dimensional structure or shape of proteins\nthat we can hope , eventually , to understand the way they work. Then\nthe protein engineer can design modifications , or chemicals to\nenhance or block a protein 's function , and so provide new\n' designer ' drugs for effective disease treatment. The higher the\npower of the X-ray source , the larger and more carplex the\nstructures that can be solved. In these areas the biologists and\nphysicists now work hand in hand, helped by the power of modem\ncomputers. Radioactivity is used at each step in the analysis of the genetic\nlanguage. Thus radioactive tracers , and the films and instruments\nwhich measure radioactive decay , are essential tools for the genetic\nengineer. X-rays , because they can penetrate bodily tissues , have been the\nclassical basis for imaging the body from the outside in order to\ndiagnose abnormalities indicative of disease. ' CAT ' scanners , which\nare dependent on the application of sophisticated computer analysis ,\nhave enormously refined the X-ray picture. Recently , even more\nremarkable advances in imaging have come from new physical\ntechniques , based on 'nuclear magnetic resonance' or MRI , for\nmagnetic resonance imaging as it is now called. Using MRI , pictures\nof the brain appear to come to life and , may for example , reveal the\nsmallest tumours. Radioactive tracers , which when injected into a\npatient can home in CHI a particular organ or tumour and then be\nviewed fran the outside like X-rays , provide another new approach to\nthe diagnosis of diseases. Using yet another new type of scanner , a\nsmall amount of radioactive fluid injected into the blood stream can\nyield pictures of the blood flow in the brain , which can identify\nregions involved in the control of speech and reasoning. There seems to be no limit to the ingenuity of the physicists and\nthe electronic engineers in providing new approaches and instruments\nfor the measurement and ctetection of biological functions in living\norganisms. The power of computers is as important for the control of\nthese instruments and the analysis of the data they produce , as it\nis for the banker , the airline company , the aeroplane or the\nphysicist with his huge machines for studying the fundamental\nproperties of matter. Science , including technology and engineering , now pervades\nvirtually all aspects of our daily lives and is the essential basis\n\n300\n\n\f- 11 -\n\nfor our future health and prosperity. Our industry depends on it ,\nand therefore so does the whole basis of our economy. There is\nhardly any public policy issue that does not in some way , involve\nscientific questions. The advances I have described in the\nbiological and physical sciences , and their prospects , show that the\nscientific revolution now has a greater potential than ever before\nfor imneasurable improvement of our wealth and welfare. The\nchallenge is to achieve this potential. The Nobel Prize in Economics for 1987 was awarded to Solow for his\ndemonstration that technology is the main determinant of economic\ngrowth. Since today 's basic science is largely the foundation for\ntomorcw 's technology , Solcw 's conclusions clearly imply a good\neconomic return for an investment in scientific research. Technology in its broadest sense is the application of science or\nknowledge to practical ends , most often in an industrial context. Though scientific understanding is not a pre-requisite by any means\nfor the success of a technology , technological progress nowadays\nincreasingly depends on scientific advances. Major new technologies ,\nsuch as genetic engineering , often depend , as I have described , on\nthe combination of a series of scientific advances in technique and\nunderstanding , brought together to create a new technology. Once\nthat major step has been taken , many further gradual changes ,\nimprovements and additions to the technology , in due course\nenormously improve its efficiency. This improvement is a form of\nevolutionary process , whereby pivotal changes are followed by\ngradual evolution , and only the fittest , namely those which are most\nproductive economically , survive in the long run. \"\n\nOne most topical development , and one which is certain to prove most\nproductive economically is that of Predictive liadicine :\n\nPredictive Medicine : Human Genere Analysis\n\nThe DC has recognized the great and still increasing. importance of\ngenome research , and details of current and planned activities are\ngiven in Annex 4 ,\ngenomes. Research involving the human genome will take place under\nthe heading of \"Predictive Medicine \", as indicated above. \" Biology \" , notably those involving yeast and plant\n\nIt has become clear that having access to a \" human gene dictionary \"\nwill prove as fundamental to biology and medicine as a working\nknowledge of anatomy or chemistry. But to date , nolxxly even knows\nexactly how many genes we have. The best estimate leaves a very wide\nmargin : from 50,000 to 100,000 human genes. Each gene is a unique fragment of DMA ( deoxyribonucleic acid ), the\nlong , thread-like substance that contains the instructions for the\nsurvival and propagation of every living organism , from , a blade of\ngrass to an elephant. In the nucleus of each human cell , these genes\nare strung along the 23 pairs of chromosomes. Finding the location\nof individual genes on a chromosome and analyzing these genes down\nto their chemical components ( nucleotides ) is only\nnow becoming\npossible on a large scale , thanks to new techniques derived from\nreccmb inant DNA technology. 3C1\n\n\f- 12 -\n\nKnowing the position of these genes and then zeroing in on them are\nmajor steps towards finding new methods of preventing or treating\nthe 4,000 inherited diseases recognized so far that are caused by\nsingle-gene defects. Beyond these rarer conditions , gene mapping will give doctors a new\nunderstanding of such widespread ills as hypertension , heart\ndisease , certain cancers and diabetes , which are caused by the joint\naction of several genes. It will explain who is particularly\nvulnerable to these disorders and how to prevent their onset , or at\nleast reduce their symptoms. Most significantly , research on these aberrant genes will enable\nscientists to analyze normal life processes with extraordinary\nprecision. Gene mapping and analysis will be key tools of biology in\nthe 21st century. They will enable scientists to decipher how human\nbeings function at their molecular level - how the information\nstored in DNA becomes translated into the myriad messages and\ncomplex feedback systems that tell the billions of cells in our\nbodies how to keep us alive and healthy. Since about one third of human genes are turned on in the brain , for\ninstance , gene mapping will give researchers powerful new ways to\ninvestigate how the brain functions. And as researchers identify the\ngenes responsible for growth and development , they will find clues\nto the enduring mystery of how a fertilized egg evolves into a\nunique , mature human being. Two kinds of gene maps are now being created. One , the genetic\nlinkage map , shows the distance between various genes and markers as\ncalculated from the frequency with which they are inherited\ntogether. Genes that lie close together on a chromosome generally\nstay together during meiosis - the formation of egg and sperm cells\n- when some segnents of the chromosomes recombine. Geneticists have\ncalculated that if a gene and a marker on the same chromosome are\nseparated only 1 percent of the time , the distance between them is\napproximately 1 million base-pairs of DNA. of complementary nucleotides that form the DNA double helix ). ( Base-pairs are the pairs\n\nBy contrast , physical maps show the actual distances between\nlandmarks on the chromosomes , regardless of inheritance. These\ndistances are measured in base-pairs of DNA , and the ultimate\nphysical map would be the precise sequence of base-pairs in a given\nstretch of DNA. So far , only small portions of the human gene dictionary are\navailable. But even these have , for example , unravelled the basis\nfor the corrmonest form of muscular dystrophy , and solved at a\nbiochemical level the age-old riddle of the control of colour\nblindness , which is a comparatively common defect amongst European\nmen. The Predictive Medicine Programme will contain the following\nstrands :\n\n302\n\n\f- 13 -\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\nimprovement of the resolution of the human genetic map , i. e. creation of a map of the human genome , consisting of DNA markers ,\nwhich would enable researchers to locate genes easily and\nquickly ;\n\nthe setting up of ordered clone libraries , i. e. of collections or\nordered\npresent in the entire genome , selected chromosomes or chromosomal\nfragments ;\n\nsets of DNA fragments which fully represent the DNA\n\nthe improvement of advanced genetic technologies and , through a\ntraining programme , the spreading of these advanced technologies\nthroughout the Member States. In the course of the programme , new genes will be localized , cloned\nand sequenced - many of these will be disease reiaced. In addition ,\nsubstantial improvements will be made in the following advanced\ngenetic technologies :\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\nNew reagents , such as restriction enzymes ,\n\nMethodology for cloning large DNA fragments and for the\ntransfection of chromosomes ,\n\nGene vectors adapted to human cells in vitro ,\n\nMethods for the detection of a particular gene in a cell ,\n\n- New computer software for the storage , collation and analysis of\n\nDNA sequence data. Medical and Health Research\n\nThe Commission itself has had a research programme in the medical\nand health field since 1978 , and its steady enlargement has been a\nvery significant one. The current Medical and Health Research\n( MiTR4 ), and the growth of\nProgramme ( 1987-1991 ) is the fourth one ,\nthe programme clearly reflects both the increasing knowledge of it\nin Member States and the increasing interest of research workers in\ntaking part in transnational collaboration through \"Concerted\nActions \" without the award of direct research support from the EC :\n\nProgramme\n\nDuration\n\nNo of Concerted\nActions\n\nNational teams\nparticipating\n\nFirst\nSecond\nThird\nFourth\n\n1978-1981\n1980-1983\n1982-1986\n1987-1991\n\n3\n7\n34\n72\n\n100\n230\n1,400\n2,500 +\n\n303\n\n\f- 14 -\n\nThe main reasons for conducting MHR4 by means of the concerted\naction method arise from the following two facts :. most national research programmes in the field of medecine and\nhealth consist of a large number of relatively small projects ,\npredominantly orientated to disease-related targets and carried\nout by many scattered and relatively small research teams , often\nworking independently at universities , hospitals , etc. there is not yet a cannon health policy and , therefore , the\n\nexisting national research policies /strategies differ widely as\nbetween the national organizations competent in medical and\nhealth research. Accordingly there are also differences in the structure of these\norganizations as well as variations in their ways of working , of\ncategorizing research work at national level , and of ctefining\npriorities. The principal characteristics of such a coordination programme are\nthat the Member States themselves :. select the research projects for coordination at Community level\nand hence participate wholly or partly in the programme according\nto their interests and available facilities ;. execute the actual R & D work in their participating institutes\nand totally finance it from national resources according to the\nrules and procedures applicable to their national programmes ; and. consequently determine the scale of the coordinating activities\n\nand ensure the overall programme management. The Commission is responsible for the coordination at Community\nlevel of the national research contributions to the prograimie and\nthe finances needed for that purpose , which are modest ( about 3-4\n% of the global costs of the research contributions from the Member\nStates ) but of high return value due to their great catalytic\neffect. In the EC it is estimated that the yearly global\nexpenditure on health care is at least 200,000 million ECU ; of this\nsum around 1,500 million ECU is spent on medical and health\nresearch. The MI3R4 programme aims at promoting :. Community actions in jointly defined research areas considered\n\ncritically relevant to the solution of major health problems , and. Coordination of national research policies / strategies through\nprogramme implementation by , or in close association with , the\ncompetent research organizations of the Member States. The main objectives of this European collaboration are to :\n\n- optimize the capacity and economic efficiency of health care\nefforts , and thus to combat their steadily mounting costs , by\ninitiating or implementing concerted projects in defined areas\nconsidered as critically relevant to the solution of major health\nproblems and their effects on occupational health ;\n\n304\n\n\f- 15 -\n\n- increase the efficiency of relevant R&D efforts in the Member\nStates through the mobilization of the available research\npotential of national programmes and through their gradual co\u00ac\nordination at Community level ; and\n\n- improve scientific and technical knowledge in the R&D areas\n\nselected for their importance by all the Member States , and to\npromote its efficient transfer into practical application , taking\nparticular account of potential industrial and economic\ndevelopment in the areas concerned. Specific research and coordination EG programmes are advised upon\nby Management and Coordination Advisory Committees ( CGCs ), and the\nMHR4 programme has CGC No 9 which is itself entitled \"Medical and\nHealth Research \". It is made up of senior medical , scientific and\nadministrative Member State representatives who work at policy\u00ac\nmaking levels in their own countries , and they are therefore well\nqualified , together with their own nomin\u00a3ited national experts , to\nconsider future health research needs for the DC. They accordingly\nset up earlier in 1988 special Programme Working Parties ( made up\nof experts in the subject fields within the six MHR4 research\nTargets ) to review the content of the fourth programme and to help\nto establish as a basis for discussion the subjects to be included\nin the fifth programme ,\n( already being planned for 1992-1996 ). The\ndeliberations of all the expert Working Parties were considered by\nthe parent CGC in June 1988 , and a consolidated document agreed\nentitled \" Research Gaps and/or Research Opportunities \". expresses in the form of research needs the current state of the\nart in Medical and Health Research in the opinion of the most\nsenior EC committee in this field , and accordingly it warrants\ninclusion in full in this Annex. Tne order follows that of the six\nresearch Targets formally agreed upon prior to the approval of the\nMHR4 programme in 1587 , and those Targets provide between them a\nfull coverage of Medical and Health research :\n\nThis\n\n1. )\n\nTARGET 1. 1\n\nCANCER RESEARCH\n\nArea 1. 1. 1\n\nCancer research training scheme\n\nIn order to promote training in cancer research in Europe , a fellowship\nprogramme is considered to be an extremely important and effective means of\nsupport ; this is the single most immediately constructive measure which can\nbe taken , and the first 22 fellowships were awarded in June 1988. Workshops to provide for further education of European oncologists will also\nbe most valuable. Area 1. 1. 2\n\nClinical treatment research\n\nSupport for clinical treatment research has so far been channelled mainly\nthrough the European Organization for Research and Treatment of Cancer\n( EQRTC ), but it could also be directed towards other groups if sufficiently\npremising projects are submitted in the future. Area 1. 1. 3\n\nEpidemiological research\n\n305\n\n\f- 16 -\n\nMain areas for research on cancer epidemiology in the EC could best be\ndetermined on the basis of tliree criteria : the global importance of a\nparticular problem which could be tackled by European scientists ; the\nexistence of favourable conditions in the EC as a whole or in part for the\nstudy of specific cancers or of exposure to particular carcinogenic\nsubstances ; and the existence of EC-specific cancer-related public health\nproblems. Area 1. 1. 4\n\nEarly detection and diagnosis\n\nDevelopment , or further development , of methods regarding :\n\nColorectal cancer\nProstatic cancer\nMalignant melanoma\nEarly diagnosis of cancer using monoclonal antibodies\nRadioimmunoasssays of various markers\nDNA analysis with probes\nChromosome analyses. -\n\nRegarding breast cancer and cervical cancer , major questions remain open :\n\nSpecific methodological aspects\nSocial aspects , e. g. compliance\nEvaluation of screening and early diagnosis programmes\nExchange of information between various screening groups. Area 1. 1. 5\n\nDrug development\n\nClinical testing of high-technology biological products , especially of\nthose products which cannot be tested in experimental animal tumour\nsystems. Examples are interferons , cytokines , interleukins , growth\nfactors , etc. Preclinical studies in human tumour xenografts in nude mice\nTumour targeting , using synthetic microspheres , liposomes and\nmonoclonal antibodies linked to chemotherapeutic agents , cell-toxins\nor radio-active isotopes\nDevelopment of the methodology for large-scale chemo-intervention\nstudies ,\nIn vitro studies on human tumour cells for preclinical screening. ( with retinoides for instance )\n\nArea 1. 1. 6\n\nExperimental ( fundamental ) research\n\nOncogenes , growth factors and their receptors , cytokines\nAnti-oncogenes and repressor-substances\nGene r\u00e9gulation\nHereditary cancers\nGenomic changes in cancer cells\nDNA-repair\nCell adhesion and de-adhesion\nPlasma membrane composition and cell surface mol\u00e9cules\nProteases , s\u00e9cr\u00e9tion and r\u00e9gulation\nAngiogenesis factors\nViral integration in the genome\nSoluble mediators. 306\n\n\f17 -\n\n2 ). TARGET 1. 2\n\nAIDS RESEARCH\n\nThis Target is so recent that what follows is , exceptionally , a list of work\nplanned or already in progress in 1988 - the research gaps and/ or\nopportunities thus mainly fall between the various headings below. Area 1. 2. 1\n\nAIDS Disease Control and Prevention\n\n1. 1\n1. 2\n1. 3\n1. 4\n1. 5\n1. 6\n\nMonitoring of trends of HIV infections in specific population groups\nStatistical analysis and mathematical modelling of HIV infections\nHeterosexual transmission - prospective follow-up\nProspective study of children born to HIV-positive mothers\nAssessment of preventive strategies\nHIV infections among intravenous drag abusers. Area 1. 2. 2\n\nViro- immunological Research\n\n2. 1\n2. 2\n\n2. 3\n2. 4\n2. 5\n2. 6\n2. 7\n2. 8\n\nProduction and assessment of purified research reagents\nTesting and quantitation of HIV infections ,\nand nucleic acids )\nPathophysiology and immunology of HIV-related diseases\nInmunogenetics of AIDS\nDesign , synthesis and evciluation of new antiviral compounds\nHIV variability at genomic , antigenic and biological level\nVaccine davelooinent\nDevelopment of animal models ,\n\n( excluding chimpanzees ). ( antigens , antibodies\n\nArea 1. 2. 3\n\nClinical Research\n\n3. 1\n3. 2\n3. 3\n\nClinical trials on opport unis tic infections\nOral problems related to HIV infections\nClinical studies and trials of HIV infections. 3. )\n\nTARGCT 1. 3\n\nAGE-RE!ATi-D HI AJ. TH PROHfJjgS\n\nArea 1. 3. 2 is considered to be particularly relevant to present and fut\u2019ire\nneeds , as has already been mentioned earlier. Although diseases occurring at\nall ages need research studies , and the Mull programme provides for chis , an\nemphasis will be placed on those diseases of particular relevance to the\nincreasing proportion of older people in Member State populate ons. Area 1. 3. 1\n\nReproduction\n\n-\n\nEnvironmental and genetic influences en reproduction and development\nMale reproductive functions with specific reference to infertility. Area 1. 3. 2\n\nAgeing and Disease\n\nIdentification of the biological , psychosocial , cultural ,\nenvironmental and economic determinants of healthy ageing , e. g. cross-\n\n307\n\n\f- 18 -\n\nnational longitudinal studies to describe the age-related transition\nfrom health and autonomy through handicap to dependence\nIdentification of risk factors for an older person 's loss of autonomy ,\nand minimization of that risk through preventive measures and more\neffective services , e. g. community intervention studies on elderly\npopulations\nProduction of meaningful data which can be compared internationally\nMultidimensional assessment of functional disability. Multidisciplinary activities will be particularly encouraged. Area 1. 3. 3\n\nDisabilities\n\nPrevention of disability\nProspects for the treatment of disability where the present state of\nknowledge permits\nStrategies for medical and social care. 4. )\n\nTM85ET 1. 4\n\nBWHOaMEm1 AND LLEFE-ST\u00a3LE RELATED HEALTH PRQBLB4S\n\nArea 1. 4. 1\n\nBreakdown in human adaptation\n\nHealth risks assessment\nEarly pathological markers of environmental exposure (mechanisms of\nhomeostatic breakdown )\nResearch into environmental and life-style factors relating to :. Cardiovascular diseases. Neurobehavioural and neurotoxicity problems. Biological monitoring of individual exposure. Iimvonotoxicity. \" Sick building syndrome \". Area 1. 4. 2\n\nNutrition\n\nMethodological issues of the nutrition-health relationship\nResearch into objective biological markers of those dietary patterns\nwhich could be related to specific diseases\nEvaluation of the effects of different national prevention prograitmes\nat EC level\nResearch into the effects of certain food products , of chemical\nadditives and of contaminants including human milk. -\n\n-\n\nArea 1. 4. 3\n\nConsumption of illicit drugs\n\n( Illicit drugs , tobacco , alcohol and prescribed drugs )\n\n-\n\n-\n\nComparable databases\nMonitoring of school-age populations\nDrug abuse and the iitmune System\nDetection of the effects of newly-synthesized drugs of abuse\nEvaluation both of existing treatment prograitmes such as methadone\nprograitmes and of social rehabilitation or self-help prograitmes\nAbuse liability , i. e. the factors affecting the maintenance of\ncompulsive drug-seeking behaviour\n\n308\n\n\fChanges in life-style due to European mobility and drug consumption\nEvaluation of the impact of completion of the EC Internal Market , tax\nharmonization , and national drug control policies. Area 1. 4. 4\n\nInfections\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\nHospital infections\nHypersensitivity and allergy\nChronic respiratory distress and asthma\nEnteric infections ( immune response ; use of municipal sludge in\nagricultural applications ;\nUsers of illicit drugs\nCongenital toxoplasmosis\nInfectious mononucleosis\nL\u00e9gionnaires 1 disease\nLyme disease\nTumour patients. \"Montezuma 1 s revenge \")\n\n5. )\n\nTARGET II. 1\n\nMfcDICAL TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT\n\nArea II. 1. 1\n\nDiagnostic Methods and Monitoring\n\nBiom\u00e9dical signal acquisition\nImaging techniques. Area II. 1. 2\n\nTreatment and Rehabilitation\n\n-\n\nSimplified and low-cost technology\nAmbulatory monitoring technology. Area II. 1. 3\n\nTec'nnical and Clinical Evaluation\n\nLithotripsy\nPercutaneous transluminal coronary angioplasty\nNew biomaterials and implants\nAppropriate techniques for the relief of urinary incontinence\nAppropriate techniques for the relief of speech impairment. 6. )\n\nTARGET II. 2\n\nHEALTH SERVICES RESEARCH\n\nArea I I. 2. 1\n\nResearch on prevention\n\nDiseases of the locomotor system such as arthritis and low back pain. Area II. 2. 2\n\nResearch on care delivery systems\n\nAppropriate care for terminally ili people\nImpact of \" non-orthodox \" medicine ( e. g. homoeopathy , acupuncture ,\nchiropractice ) on health care expenditure. Area I I. 2. 3\n\nResearch on health care organization\n\n3\u00dc9\n\n\f- 20 -\n\n-\n\nCommunity expectations and consumer participation in health care\norgani zation\nHealth care in disaster situations\nHealth interview surveys as part of health information systems\nQuality assurance in health care. Area II. 2. 4\n\nHealth technology assessment\n\nHealth scenarios in respect of technological envelopments and health\neconomy\nEconomic appraisal linked with clinical outcome , both in condition-\nspecific and in general health status. InplsDentation\n\nThe continued expansion of the MHR programme along the lines mentioned above\nwill implement the wishes of the Member States with regard to health research ,\nand the success of this programme is clearly shown by the steadily increasing\nnumbers of European terms wishing to work on a transnational basis. countries participating in 'COST *\nScientific and Technical Research ) are eligible to take part in the programme\nor in any combination of its six research Targets ; in addition to the EC Member\nStates , five other COST members are already participating , namely Austria ,\nFinland , Norway , Sweden and Switzerland - all of these have chosen to work in\nbetween three and five of the six Targets. Informal liaison arrangements also\nexist with the National Institutes of Health in the USA and with the Canadian\nnational health research authorities. ( European Cooperation in the field of\n\nAll member\n\no o o o o\n\n310\n\n\f1\n\nANNEX 9\n\nNuclear Fission energy - Safety\n\nIntroduction\n\nof\n\nof the\n\ntime , a\n\nbuilt in\n\nhave been\n\nconstruction\n\npolicies. The\n\npower stations\n\nCommunity , because of their different degrees of\nThe Countries\neconomical\nhave applied\ndevelopment\nenergy dependance and levels\ndisparities found during the 70 's have\ndifferent energy\nHowever a\ngreat number\nlately increased after the Chernobyl accident. Europe. Initially they\nof nuclear\nreactors at\nwere of the gas-graphite type , followed by the light water\nthe development of liquid metal fast\nthe beginning\n70' s while\nof the\npowerful nuclear industry\nbreeders was continued. At the same\nin the most committed countries ( France , United Kingdom ,\nwas developed\nof the\nW. Germany ) both in the\nupstream and\ndownstream fuel cycle. The power stations which have been\ncommissioned , namely the light water reactors have reached a remarkable\ndegree of maturity , both in their design and their exploitation. While\nprogrammes financed\nthis maturity has been confirmed the\nby\naspects of the\non\nprotection of man and\nspecific development\nagainst\nthe production of nuclear energy compared to oil and\naspects. Although\ncoal is less polluting for man and the environment , this\nevolution was\nrisk by wrongly controlled use of\npotential\nlogical\nnuclear energy and in case of an accident. The TMI accident in\nthe USA\ntrend. The impact of TMI on public opinion has\nconfirmed this\nin 1979\nthe\nrevived\nthe\nmost\nin\ntoward nuclear risks. This preoccupation involves\nEcologists\u2019 movement\nnuclear power stations , fuel cycle facilities , problems of\nstorage and\nthe elimination of radioactive wastes. funds\nenvironments\n\ncommunity\nthe\n\nnational R&D\n\ncountries\n\nfocussed\n\nEuropean\n\nstations\n\nbecause\n\nworries\n\npublic\n\nsafety\n\npower\n\nand\n\nthe\n\nand\n\nthe\n\nof\n\nof\n\nof\n\nof\n\na\n\nwas\n\nthe\n\nthis\n\npresent\n\nCommunity\n\ndevelopment\n\nachieved\nRegarding\n\nThe Community 's activities in this field derive from the Euratora Treaty\nthat recognized the development of a strong European\nnuclear industry. with respect to health of the\nThis\nbe\nto\npublic and of involved workers. number of\ncertain\narrangements were foreseen in chapter III of the Treaty. Programmes in the nuclear energy\nAt\nradioprotection ; the\nsafety\nfission field are mainly related\nand the actinides ,\nnuclear fuel\nexceptions are\nand the\nreactors\nof\npart of which is\nsafeguards and fissile materials management that supports\nprogramme on\nof\nthe\nactivities\ninternational\nResearch on radioprotection has been a major Community\nnuclear energy. action since the enforcement of the\non the\nEuratom Treaty. safety of reactors , on the management and storage of radioactive wastes\nwhere Community\nand on the decommissioning of nuclear\naction is\nthe world context and\nvery important ,\nalso in the Community perspective. Research\nto\non the\ndevelopment\n\nthe programme\nto\nrelated\n\npower stations ,\n\nexamined in\n\nutilisation\n\ncontrolling\n\nResearch\n\npeaceful\n\nwill be\n\nfast\n\nand\n\n311\n\n\f2\n\nA. Reactor and Safety\n\n1. Principal objectives\n\nthe\n\nthe\n\nbased\n\nreduction\n\nstations ,\nof\n\nmeasures\nto\n\npreventive\napplied\n\nThe measures\non\n\npower\nprevention\nthe\nif\n\ndesign , the\nconcerns the\nis\nand\nit\nand\naccidents\n\nconstruction and the\nThe safety of reactors\nachieved by acting on two\noperation\nof\nthe\nthe\nlevels :\nwere not able to avoid the\nconsequences\nobjectives are\nat\naccident. The\nresearch\nlargely\nas the\ninfluenced\norientation of these programmes\nis concerned by the TMI accident. Before TMI\nsafety of\nacquired\nof maturity. this type of power station had\na better understanding and improvement\nPrevention was\ndirected toward\ncomponents and systems\nof the quality and reliability of materials , of\nof design. The limitation of\nrather\nthan\naccident consequences\ndesign basis\nof\naccidents , that is those events which could be dealt with by the safety\nsystems working as assumed in the design of power stations. improvement\nwas\n\nprogrammes. as\n\nthe\nrestricted\n\narrive\nthe\nbeen\n\nwater reactors\n\nresults\n\ndegree\n\nthese\n\nlevel\n\nhigh\n\narea\n\nhas\n\nfar\n\nthe\n\nof\n\nat\n\nof\n\nto\n\na\n\nin\n\nof\n\nthe\n\nand\n\nrisk\n\ntowards\n\nstudies\n\na number\n\nSince TMI\n\nof studies\n\nprevention\n\ndevelopment of\n\nof operators\nsafety\n\nAfter TMI , emphasis shifted\naccidents by\nsystematic utilisation of experience and , because of the important role\nplayed by the operator in the\non human\nthis accident ,\nare devoted to human reliability. factors. Quite\nThere is an attempt to simulate\nand to include\nthe role\nthem\nstudies , where the\nprobabilistic\nprincipal aim is to verify that all possible scenarios of incidents and\nbeen taken into account in the design and the operating\naccidents have\naccidents has\nrules. of severe accidents beyond the design basis\nshifted towards\nmargins\nin order to evaluate the\nand to\nhas not changed\noptimise accident\nform but\nthis orientation of safety which is presented in\nincreased the necessity to take into account more and more\nhas greatly\nsevere accidents whose probability of occurrence is very low. For the\nproblem of safety is considered differently\nfast breeder\nreactors the\nand the research programmes are intended\nthe phenomenology\naccident and the behaviour of materials , components and systems\nof the\nwith the aim of improving the design and conception of future plants. safety\nChernobyl accident\n\nthe\nthe study\n\nmanagement. The\n\nconsequences\n\na schematic\n\nto analyse\n\nlimitation\n\nexisting\n\nextent\n\nof\n\nof\n\nof\n\nOne can say that now research\non\noperational\njustified\nconditions , and for reactors now\ncons truct ion leve 1. the\n\nat\n\nthe\nlevel ,\nbeing\n\nsafety\nin\n\ndeveloped\n\nof\nnormal\nat\n\nproven\nand\nthe\n\nreactors is\naccidental\ndesign and\n\n2. The safety of reactors outside Europe\n\nthe\n\n60' s\n\nthe beginning\n\nof\nAt\nthe\nthe construction\nof light\nprogramme on\nthis programme\nwas slowed\ndevelopment of fast reactors was retarded\nin 1979\nAmerican light water reactors was based\n\na very important\nplants. In 1976 ,\ndown by the Carter administration while the\npractically stopped\nand construction of\non multi-disciplinary research\n\nlaunched\nwater power\nand was\nThe development\n\nTMI accident. after the\n\nUSA\n\n312\n\n\f3\n\nthose\n\nof this\n\naccident\n\navailable\n\nlarge part\n\nprogrammes. A\nresearch dealt with safety , notably\nall the work used by the NRC to establish the\ndetailed regulations for\nthe construction\nand operation of these reactors. The results of these\nprogrammes have been largely\ncountries importing\nto\nreactors from\nUSA , in the frame of licensing and bilateral agreements. the\n1979\nIn\nresearch\nTMI\nprogrammes on\nsafety in the USA and other countries. Without doubt the\nTMI accident has led to a\nof American\nsystematic internationalisation\nprogrammes\nparticipation of European and\nJapanese\nthe\nthese programmes in American laboratories. At the time of\nexecution of\nthe TMI accident the American budget for the research of water reactors\nbigger than European budget. When new programmes following TMI\nwas 50%\nbudget was\nhad been completed this\ncan notice\nlevel and governmental organisation a trend to\nthe industrial\nboth on\nR&D research on inherently safe reactors. financial\ninvolvement\n\nwith\npartners\n\ndecreased and\n\nreorientation\n\ndirect\nthe\n\npartners\n\nprovoked\n\nnow one\n\nthese\n\nand\n\nthe\n\nof\n\nof\n\nin\n\na\n\na\n\na\n\nas\n\nthe\n\nmeans\n\nbudget\n\nto\nEuropean\nprogrammes have\n\nR&D\nfor\nbudget\nof\nlately been\n\nThe Japanese have at present\nreactors\nsimilar\nreactors. Japanese\ncountries\ninformation on research programmes of USSR but it\naccelerated\nconstruction\nwater ) and RBMK ( graphite\nfast breeders\nare based\nChernobyl accident caused by a RMBK reactor has\nmain\nis\ncountries. Since the Chernobyl accident there\nSoviets for\non nuclear safety. water\nand fast\nfor\n1970\nfor light water\ndisclosed to European\nfor international cooperation. There is little\nis clear\nthat their\nthe VVR type ( light\ndevelopment work on\non a very big research programme. However the\nthe USSR\u2019s\nthe Western\noverture from the\nin the field of research namely\n\ninternational cooperation\n\nof\nnuclear\nlight water )\n\nshown that\nin\nas\n\nof\nand their\n\npreoccupation\n\nplants\n\nlevel\n\nis an\n\nsame\n\nnot\n\nthe\n\nat\n\nthe\n\nBesides\nabove\nsafety for\nimportant research\nheavy water moderated and light water cooled. mentioned\nprogrammes on\n\nthree\n\ncountries\n\nCanada\n\nhas developed\nthe CANDU type reactors ,\n\n3. The safety of reactors in Europe -\ninternational context - successes and failures\n\nwhat is Europe 's position in the\n\nof European\n\nThe development\ndue to a major effort at the research level. One\none\nwater reactors and on the other hand the R&D of fast breeder reactors. nuclear programmes has only been possible\non the\nresearch and applied research on light\n\nmust consider\n\ngeneric\n\nsafety\n\nhand\n\nthe\n\nIn the first area\nmore or less the size of their nuclear power programmes. of competence\n\nof member\n\nthe level\n\nstates reflects\n\nand\n\nGerman ,\n\nBritish\n\nare\nmulti \u00ac\nThe\nFrench ,\nsafety. The\ndisciplinary and cover many problems\nBritish programme has been directed lately towards specific problems of\nwater reactors but it has profited from the experience acquired\nat the\nthe 60\u2019s on SGHWRs. The Italian programme is smaller than those\nend of\nof Germany , France\nactivities in\nBelgium , Netherlands and Spain are of a more specific nature. programmes\nwith\n\nItalian\nin\n\nconnection\n\nresearch\n\nKingdom. United\n\nThe\n\nand\n\n313\n\n\f4\n\nas\n\nand\n\nvery\n\nEuropeans\n\nrelied\nagreements\n\ncountries\ncooperation\n\nEuropean\nthrough\npermitting\n\nOriginally\nAmerican\nheavily\nprogrammes\nof\nthe\nconfirm American results and to\ninformation\nacquire knowledge and a level of competitive competence. Specific areas\ncomponents , structure of primary circuits ,\nsuch\nthe\nphenomena were\naccidents\nstudy of design basis\nhave progressively\nW. in\nProgrammes\nfavoured. increased and now benefit\nof information with\nfrom a\nthe USA. In 1978 prior to the TMI accident , the USA boasted a budget on\nresearch of safety reactors that was\nof the all\nthe Members States of the Community combined. thermo-hydraulic\nFrance\nand\nsteady exchange\n\non\nexchange\n\nand\nGermany\n\n50% higher\n\nthan that\n\nstrength\n\nof\n\nto\n\nof\n\nTMI\n\n1979\n\nshifted\n\nemphasis\n\naccident\n\nof occurrence. research\nThe\nEuropean\nto their\nprogrammes towards severe accidents , until then neglected due\nlow probability\nmuch work was\nspent on the evaluation of source terms in various levels of accidents. Thermohydraulic accidents\nthe\nmethods of probabilistic safety analysis and\nrisks were\nhuman factor as a\ndeveloped\ninclusion\nbecame the\ncontributing element of significant\nsubject of many investigations. loss of coolant accidents ;\nevaluation of\nof\n\nattention and\n\nglobal risks\n\nfocussed on\n\nimproved. value to\n\nSpecial\n\nThe\n\nand\n\nthe\n\nof\n\nBy 1985 as these programmes reached completion , there was a tendency to\nthe allocation of funds to safety research programmes\nthe USA\nThe Chernobyl accident\nas well\nhowever put a stop to this tendency by renewing the\nnecessity to study\nthe phenomenology and severe accident management more systematically. the Community. countries of\n\nin both\n\nas the\n\non the safety of reactors progressed along\nresearch programme\nThe JRC\nexpended by\nStates and\nthe Member\nparallel lines. In 1987 the amount\nthe JRC\nreactors was more than twice that of\nwater\nthe USA ( 238 MECU to 113 MECU of USA ). The JRC programme alone accounts\nfor 15% of the combined European effort. safety of\n\non the\n\nbeen\n\nreactors ,\n\nis better\n\nwater\non an\n\nespecially\n\nTheir design\n\nreactors\nan\nhave\nindustrial and technical\nEuropean power plants that accumulate more\nexistence free of\nboast an\noperation can\nregulation safety are on a\nsafety and\nthat of control\nwhere a certain complacency\n\nProven\nlight\nundisputed success in Europe , not only\nbut also on a safety level. reactor-years of\nthan 1000\nsevere accidents. par with American plants and their operational safety ,\nand operation\ncontributed to TMI. The concentration of operating\nnumber of\ncompanies , the standardisation of equipment and vigilance at all stages\nhave allowed Europe to attain a higher level of reliability and safety. programmes are now competitive with\nAs\nEuropean\neven envisaging\nis\nlatter\nthose in the USA to the\nparticipating\n\"PHEBUS-f ission\nprogramme\na\nproducts\u201d. In the past it was mainly European partners who participated\nin USA programmes. research\npoint\nFrench\n\nthe\nCommunity\n\nresponsibility to\n\na limited\n\nthan in\n\nthe USA\n\nresult ,\n\nwhere\n\nin\n\na\n\nIn the area of fast reactors. R&D activities are very closely connected\nthe\nand are coordinated\nFive consortium\nClub\nand Belgium ) and the scientific and technical\n( France , RFA ,\nresults are at the level of the extensive resources utilized. The JRC\nresearch in the area of fuels ,\nparticipates significantly\n\nin\nUK , Italy\n\nin European\n\nframe\n\nthe\n\nof\n\nof\n\n314\n\n\f5\n\nAs\n\naccidents. the modelling\n\nand analytical and experimental\nactivities in\nof large\nas\ncore\nfar\nthe fast breeder is concerned European\nof the\nbetween\nsuccess in joint development\nSUPERPHENIX prototype plant and its failure would certainly question in\npolitical influence\nthe future this type of\nan accident in\ncaused by\nthe Chernobyl\nto do\n198 ? of the auxiliary system of\nthe station , risks to delay or even jeopardise the\nwith the\nsafety of\ncommercial advent of\nEFR reactor\nthis\n( European Fast\nwas launched by a group of utilities of\nReactor ) which\nthe countries of the Club of Five ( EFR'JG ). SUPERPHENIX , which\n\nconjunction with\n\nhad nothing\n\nquestioning\n\naccident in\n\nreactor :\n\nreactor\n\nFrance ,\n\nItaly\n\nfact\n\nRFA\n\nand\n\nand\n\nthe\n\nthe\n\nin\n\n4. What remains to be done in Europe ? Which are the gaps to\nwhat are the new opportunities to seize ?\n\nfill and\n\nthe\n\nHowever ,\n\nof light\n\nChernobyl\n\nlaunched 10\n\ntaking into\n\nthe programmes\n\nwater reactors\n\nwill finish\nterms. the safety\nA great number of\n\nResearch on\nhas to be pursued in\nEurope. years ago have\nfinished or\nsoon , especially the work on thermohydraulics\nand source\nreactivated the\naccount the possibility of severe accidents ,\nnecessity of\nand leads to the analyses of the phenomology of less probable accidents\nincreasing number of accidental scenarios. The phenomena for\nwithin an\nmore thoroughly falls\nbe conducted\nwhich some\nresearch will\nnot exhaustive : cooling of\nlist is\nfollowing areas\ninto the\ncorium inside and outside\nof interaction\nphenomena\nthe production of aerosols ,\nbetween corium\nphenomena\nthe\nhydrogen\nthe\nin\ncontainment , a leaktightness , possibility of venting and filtration and\nevaluation of corresponding releases. and concrete\nconnection\n\nvessel ,\nresulting in\n\nhave to\nbut the\nthe\n\nbehaviour\n\naccident\n\nwith\n\nthe\n\nof\n\nin\n\nof these\nmanagement\n\nThe results\naccidents\nhandling should be worked out. The study of\noperators in\nalso be pursued. investigations should\nprocedure ,\n\ndisturbed situations\n\nand\n\nto include\n\nbe used\n\nto define severe\nmethods of sophisticated remote\nmodeling of\nin probabilistic should\n\nbehaviour and\n\nis\n\nit\n\non\n\nthe\n\nout\n\nhave\n\nbeen\n\nexists\n\nstudies\n\ncarried\n\ninvolved\n\nnecessary\n\nstructure\n\nthe importance\n\nfor economical\nIn recent years some\nreasons on the possibility of extending the life of the plants to 35-40\nyears instead of the 25-30 years initially foreseen. Some research work\nalready\nof primary circuits especially the\nsteel of the vessels. Also other materials , components and systems will\nto study the combined effect of\nbe\nwhere\nageing in hazardous environments\netc. ). In\nof these research topics which need some more\nspite of\ninvestigations , the high degree of performance\nof the\npresent installations is the consequence of the solution of most of the\nproblems in the corresponding research programmes. is likely that\nthe level of safety research activities will decrease progressively. Therefore one\ncompetent researchers and research facilities with\nefficiently the\npertaining to the operation of the\nreliability and\nsafety. This\nand promptly in case of an accident s tuation. a team of\nto maintain\nto utilise\nthe aim\nto say all knowledge\nto improve\nbe able to cope effectively\n\n( radiation , temperature ,\n\nexperience accumulated ,\n\nshould understand\n\nand reliability\n\nthe necessity\n\nbe utilised\n\nteam should\n\nplants can\n\nthat is\n\nIt\n\n315\n\n\f6\n\nthat of\n\nresearch\n\nlight water\n\nFast breeder reactors safety\nopposed to\nthe political choice of the member states regarding the future\ntype\nof\ndelayed as to\nknowledge will\ncompetence. conducted , as\nbeing\nreactors , and the work will depend on\nof this\nhypothesis that a decision is so\nof acquired\nsalvage\nonly by maintaining a minimum activity and\n\nIn\ncorrespond\nbe obtained\n\nmoratorium\n\npossible\n\nreactor. still\n\nthe\n\nthe\n\nto\n\nis\n\na\n\nthe new\n\nreactors of\n\n( spectral-shift\n\nhas arisen\nAs far as new opportunities to be taken , increased interest\n: optimisation of fuel\nwith the\nutilisation\nimproved\nof\ndesigns\nreactors ),\ninherently safe reactors ( power limited to 100 MWe ). The development of\nthese reactors will require studies and research on safety. It is noted\nthat\nfor small inherently safe reactors by\nsmaller countries and by those where the Chernobyl accident has made an\nimpact. generation i. e. new\n\ninterest\n\nshown\n\nbeen\n\nhas\n\nthe\n\none\n\nenergy\n\nregards\n\nstrategy\n\nAs\ncan see that the production of\nnuclear energy is a necessity in the short term for a certain number of\nand in the long term for most of them. This form of\nEuropean countries\nenergy in normal conditions of operation\npolluting than other\nis less\nfossil origin. Requirements in connection with the\nforms of\nenergy of\nprotection of the population\nthe environment\npreservation of\nare the necessary counterparts for the development of human activities ,\nthe Commission ,\nindustrial\nin\nthe potential risks of nuclear energy utilisation from\nconfronted with\nbad control or in\ngiven broad\nhad in\npriority to actions in the area of safety. an accident ,\n\nactivities. particular\n\nthe 70 's\n\nand the\n\ncase of\n\nThis\n\nwhy\n\nis\n\npresent\n\nconcerning\n\nAt\nstrategy , some member states have made\nsome irreversible choices , others under the pressure of public opinion ,\nparticularly after the Chernobyl accident , are hesitating or are on the\nverge of renouncing the use of nuclear energy. energy\n\nEuropean\nThe Commission must play its\npublic\nservice in\nreinforcing\nin\nactivities\nits\nthe area of reactor\nsafety in order to ensure that the countries of the\nCommunity who have\nthe possible guaranties with\nchosen\nregard to the health of the population and the environment and to bring\nto these\nthe guaranty of a thorough\ntheir neighbours\nindependent evaluation. as\na\ninitiatives\n\npopulations and\n\nrole\nand\n\nnuclear\n\nenergy\n\ntaken\n\nhave\n\nall\n\nCommission\u2019s\n\nThe\nthe\nCommunity who are as yet non-nuclear to reach a decision not influenced\nby pressure groups and subjective psychological arguments but\nbased on\nobjective technical arguments. countries\n\nactions\n\nshould\n\nhelp\n\nalso\n\nthe\n\nof\n\non\n\nresearch\n\nas the action to be initiated or perceived to be pursued at the\nAs far\nIn the past\nCommunity level one can make the following considerations. Community\nsafety covered generally speaking the\nreactor\narea where member states carried out national programmes. The Community\ncontribution was complementary to this programme and benefited from the\nsupport\nresearch\ndid\nof\nthe future taking into account the general trend of\ninfrastructure. In\ninternationalisation of safety research\ndecreasing of\na\nit will assist most probably in a better\nthese activities ,\nfunding of\n\ncountries\n\ncertain\n\nwhich\n\nlarge\n\nhave\n\nnot\n\nand\n\na\n\n316\n\n\f7\n\noptimisation\nAccordingly , Community\nthe JRC has the appropriate means to do so. existing\nresearch can\n\nhuman\n\nthe\n\nplay a\n\nof\n\nresources\n\nfacilities. significant role and with\n\nand\n\nAs an example one can choose two categories of action\nadvantages be treated at Community level :\n\nwhich could with\n\n- problems\n\nwhere\n\nthe\n\nphenomenology\n\ntranscends frontiers : the source\n\nterm is a typical programme in this connection\n\n- general safety problems not\nmaterial\n\nand\n\nspecific\nproblems ,\n\nto\n\ncertain\naging ,\n\ntypes\n\nprobabilistic\n\nmethodology\n\nhuman\n\nfactors ,\n\nphenomenology\n\nof plants :\nrisk\nsevere\n\nof\n\nmechanical\nassessment\naccidents. on\n\nto\n\nout\n\nPRA\n\ncarried\n\nused to\n\nactivity\n\nsuch as Round Robins ( for example the PISC programme )\nCommon exercises\nor source\nor benchmark exercises ( such as those\ncarry out such actions. One should foresee an\nterms ) should be\nextension of this type of\ncomparison of\nexercises\nmethodologies followed in different countries , comparison of the system\nof codes employed , modelling , safety margins\naim being the\nsafety in various\ndemonstration\ncountries of the Community and an incentive in member states\nto choose\ntools ( modelling code packages ) validated and proven\ncommon analytical\nIn accident management and the reduction of radiation doses of\nby all. play an\nhandling\nworkers\nthe\nfor\nof\nimportant\na\nrole. nuclear\nhazardous\nTelemanipulation\nof much\nto\nenvironments ( TELEMAN )\nneeded knowledge. will\nCommission\ndisordered\ndevelopment\n\nremote\nproposition\nin\n\nThe\nprogramme\nwill\n\ntechniques\nthe\n\netc. The\nof\n\nequivalent\n\ncontribute\n\nprogress\n\nand\nthe\n\nmargins\n\nthe\n\nthe\n\nof\n\nof\n\nof\n\nof\n\nsecond\n\ngeneration\n\ndevelopment\n\nThe\ninherently safe characteristics and a range of advanced\ntemperature\nwill\ndemand\nbig\naccompanied\nCommission should support the action carried out in\nparticipate in related studies. those with\nreactors ( high\nthe years to come and will\nto\nbe\nsafety. The\nthis direction and\n\ncommence\nconstructors. research\n\nreactors ),\nefforts\nby\n\nEfforts\nthe\n\nreactors ,\n\nstudies\n\nnamely\n\narea\n\nneed\n\nfrom\n\nwill\n\nand\n\nof\n\nin\n\nin\n\n317\n\n\f8\n\nB. Nuclear fuel cycle , Radioactive waste management and\nDecommissioning of nuclear installations\n\n1. General\n\nThe nuclear fuel cycle includes the total of activities which is\nnecessary for the supply of fuel for nuclear power plants (\" front-end\"\nof the cycle) and for the treatment and possibly recycle of spent fuel\n-\u25a0 Extraction and treatment of\n(\"back-end\" of the cycle )\nuranium ore - Conversion into appropriate form for enrichment -\nEnrichment ( increase in U-235 contents ) - Manufacture of fuel elements\nfor reactors ; Back-end : - Reprocessing of spent fuel (possibly ) -\nSemanufacture of fuel elements (possibly) \u2013 Management and disposal of\nthe produced waste (and of the spent fuel if not reprocessed )\n\n: Front-end :\n\nSome of these activities raise from classical industrial sectors , e. g. mining industry ; others are special industrial activities often of\nhigh technology character such as enrichment and reprocessing ; finally\nthe management and the disposal of radioactive waste produced by the\nnuclear power plants and the associated fuel cycle facilities ,\nto\nwhich should be added the decommissioning of nuclear Installations\nshut down , are activities linked with environmental safety and protec\u00ac\ntion and don't contribute (at least directly) to the development of\nnuclear energy. All these industrial activities are characterized by\nthe presence of radioactivity and by the necessity to respect the\nstrict rules of radioprotection. Mastering of the front-end of fuel cycle emancipates from the depen\u00ac\ndence on supply of enriched uranium Mastering of the back-end , charac\u00ac\nterized by the mastering of the reprocessing process , gives access to\nplutonium , governs the supply of fuel for fast reactors and permits ,\non longer term , a quasi-total Independence in nuclear energy matters. Such mastering however has appeared to be out of reach for the majo\u00ac\nrity of the Countries , because of the high technology and the impor\u00ac\ntant Investments necessary and finally because of the links existing\nbetween the applied technologies and the production of fissile mate\u00ac\nrial for military use which give rise to various constraints ( secret ,\ninternational treaties like NPT ). In summary , the nuclear fuel cycle Includes a number of activities\noften of a high technology character and of strategical and commercial\nImportance. 2. Situation outside the Community\n\nthe\n\nthe\n\nthen ,\n\nearly\n\nseventies. Outside the Community , the USA not only mastered but had the world\nmonopoly for the production of enriched uranium from after the war\nuntil\nGovernment\nSince\nfollowed a policy of disengagement , leaving to the private industry\nthe possibility to finance on its own both the R&D and the new fuel\nGiven this situation and the one on the domestic\ncycle facilities. nuclear market , there was no reply from the private industry ;\nthe\nhas been stopped\nfacilities\ncivil reprocessing\ndismantled ;\nold\nsurvived\nindustry\ninstallations which were successively shut down as they were low\nprofitable in using the old gaseous diffusion technology ; the indus\u00ac\ntrialization of the ultracentrifuge process has been stopped ; the R&D\nprogramme is focussed on the laser enrichment process which could put\n\nindustry\nenrichment\n\nand\nthanks\n\nFederal\n\nthe\n\nthe\n\nthe\n\nto\n\n318\n\n\f9\n\nToday Europe is\nnew life into this US industrial sector by mid \u2019SO. exporting enriched uranium to the USA. One can however state that ,\nthanks to the military programmes , the USA keep the knowledge to a\nlevel which enables a possible revival by the end of the century. The\nmanagement of radioactive waste is not much developed in spite of the\nlarge budget provided by the electricity producers. All progress is\nin fact blocked by the complex political-social-juridical machinery of\na federal state which is faced to the problem of storing in one or\nseveral states the waste produced on the whole territory. The USSR masters the total fuel cycle and is in particular an impor\u00ac\ntant exporter of\nreprocessing activities on an\nIndustrial scale are practised as well with a view to supply the\nrussian fast reactors and for military use ; little detail is known\nabout these facilities. enriched uranium ;\n\nJapan continues with persistence its effort to master the total of\nfuel cycle phases ; success was already achieved on reprocessing thanks\nto a close cooperation with France which provided the technology and\nknow-how ; at present spent fuel is being reprocessed in the Tokai-Mura\nprototype plant or in the United Kingdom and/ or France ; a large plant\nwith a capacity of 800 t /y is under construction at Rokkasho Mura and\nJapan considers it necessary\nis scheduled to be operational by 1995. to develop the utilization of plutonium as nuclear fuel in order to\nguarantee its nuclear independence (Japan has no uranium ore mines ). Japan remains still dependent upon USA and France for supply of\na prototype with a capacity of 200 tons\nenriched uranium ; however ,\nthe\nof\nSWU / year\nfollowed\nultra-centrifuge\nthe\nshould\nJapanese supply ; for the long term the advanced enrichment technique\nA long and important effort is made on the\nby laser is being studied. management and disposal of radioactive waste ; vitrification of high\nlevel waste should start from 1990 onwards and disposal in geological\nformations in the beginning of next century. a\ntechnology ,\n\nusing\nguarantee\n\nSWU/year ,\nterm\n\ntons\n6hort\n\n1500\non\n\nplant\n\nby\n\nof\n\nits military programmes ;\n\nChina masters also to a certain degree the fuel cycle , mainly as a\nconsequence\nby\ngaseous diffusion , is operational since 1965 and a pilot facility for\nthe reprocessing of LWR fuel should go into service in 1996. The\nmanagement of radioactive waste is the subject of a recent effort and\na long term programme has been launched for the study of disposal of\nwaste in deep geological formations. enrichment\n\nplant ,\n\nan\n\nIndia , Pakistan , South Africa , Brazil , Argentina , etc. do not master\non an industrial scale the entire fuel cycle , but have prototype or\npilot installations for enrichment or reprocessing. Their development\nis curbed by international measures concerning exchange of technology\nwith proliferation risk. 3. Situation in Europe - What has to be done ?\n\nThe Community is the part of the world where the fuel cycle has been\nmastered at the most in all its phases ,\nand developed both on an\nindustrial scale and in a commercial sense. Large uranium enrichment facilities are operational since at least one\ndecade ; they apply the gaseous diffusion technique ( Eurodif company ,\nplant in France ) or the ultra centrifuge process ( Urenco company , with\nplants in the Netherlands , the Federal Republic of Germany and the\n\n\f10\n\nthey supply Europe and export on the world market\nUnited Kingdom) ;\nthis in competition with the USSR and USA. The enrichment by laser\nwhich process should replace by the end of the century the too expen\u00ac\nis subject to important research\nsive gaseous diffusion technique ,\nIt concerns here a sector of high\nprogrammes , especially in France. scientific qualify and of very advanced technology , of which mastering\non an industrial scale could contribute to the energy independence of\nthe Community in the first part of the next century. Taking into\naccount the difficulties , the cost and the stake , a cooperation within\nthe Community could be most desirable. The reprocessing of spent fuel is likewise applied on an industrial\nscale at different levels in France ,\nthe United Kingdom and the\nThe plant at La Hague in France is the\nFederal Republic of Germany. largest in the world and would within\na few years be accompanied by\nthe Thorp plant at Sellafleld in the United Kingdom and by the\nWackersdorf plant in Germany , the latter with a lower capacity. A\ncertain concertatlon exists between these three big ones on repro\u00ac\ncessing via the United Reprocessors company. Finally the industrial\ndevelopment of the fuel cycle stages involving uranium - plutonium for\nlight water reactors is under way in these same three countries which ,\nonly together with Japan , seem to achieve its complete mastering in\nthe near future. The importance of investments to consent to these different installa\u00ac\ntions , in order to obtain a profitable capacity , excludes practically\nNevertheless , other Member States\ninitiatives from smaller countries. of the Community , in particular Belgium , are closely associated with\nthe countries mentioned above on various fuel cycle phases ( e. g. fuel\nfabrication). The management of radioactive waste is in particular developed and\nsupported at R&D level in most of the countries of the Community\n(For example , the two existing commercial\nhaving a nuclear programme. vitrification processes are\nThe\ndisposal in deep geological formations is likewise being studied with\nlarge financial means. from french and german origin). Research in the area of radioactive waste has been and is currently\nsupported at Community level by a shared cost programme 1985-1989 ,\nwith a budget of 62 million ECU which is already the third five year\nprogramme on this subject , and a directly research programme 1984-1987\nexecuted by the Joint Research Centre at Ispra. and\n\ntreatment\n\nin its first part , studies on\nThe shared cost programme Includes ,\non system\nactions\ndevelopment\nresearch and\nwaste management\nstudies ,\nwaste ,\nradioactive\nconditioning\nand\nqualification of engineered barriers , the development of repositories ,\nthe safety of geological disposal and the elaboration of management\nA second part concerns the construction and /or exploitation\npolicies. of\nthe\n:\nunderground facility in the clay at Mol , Belgium ,\n(HADES project ) the\nBelgian nuclear research centre SCK/CEN cooperates with french and\nbritish companies in the framework of activities supported by the\nCommunity programme and the tests in the Asse salt mine in Germany\ncontinue with participation from the Netherlands , France and Spain. underground\n\nactivities\n\nfacilities\n\njoint\n\nopen\n\nin\n\nto\n\nof\n\nThe programme of the Joint Research Centre at Ispra covers three big\nitems : management of radioactive waste and fuel cycle , safety of\n\n12 0\n\n\f11\n\nwaste disposal\nIn geological\ndisposal into ocean sediments. formations\n\nand feasibility of waste\n\nin\n\nin\n\nand\n\nthis\n\narea\n\nand ,\n\nmore\n\nmore\n\nbeen\n\nfuture ,\n\ndismantled\n\nEurope were\n\nMoreover , in all countries having nuclear power programmes there exist\nnuclear installations being shut down of which only a small number\nlarge\nthe\nhave\nResearch\ninstallations will arrive at their end of normal lifetime. in\nactivities\nthe\nbeginning. A more systematic and coherent action has been undertaken\nat communitary level and a shared cost community programme 1984-1988 ,\nwith a budget of 12. 1 millions of ECU , has been put in place , which\naims at a joint development of the management of installations shut\ndown and the waste arising at dismantling. This programme covers\nmainly ,\nin its first part , research and development actions on the\ndismantling\nlong\ntechniques , treatment of specific waste , containers of large dimen\u00ac\nsions and system studies ,\ntrial of new\nin\ntechniques under real conditions in the framework of decommissioning\noperations at large scale. its second part ,\n\ndecontamination ,\n\nstructures ,\n\nintegrity\n\ndispersed\n\nrather\n\nterm\n\nand ,\n\nof\n\nat\n\nPolitico-strategical , military end commercial aspects have generally\nImpeded or discouraged possibly Initiatives at community level on most\nof the nuclear fuel cycle phases of which some are moreover safe\u00ac\nguarded by secrets. This explains also the present concentration of\ncommunity R&D on activities having a public service or safety charac\u00ac\nter (Community R&D programmes on management and storage of radioactive\nwaste , the decommissioning of nuclear installations ). In the future , the main action should remain on safety and the envi\u00ac\nronment , that is to say the storage of waste and the dismantling of\ninstallations. To a much lower degree than the industrial toxic waste\nthese are the two main daily nuclear problems in the\nis true ,\nit\nbeginning of the next century. waste\n\nreprocessing waste ,\n\nWith regard to nuclear waste* the new programme 1988-1991 of the Joint\nResearch Centre Includes studies on the treatment and solidification\nof\nof\ngeological disposal. A new five year 1990-1994 shared cost programme\non management and disposal of radioactive waste is under preparation. The main lines of the present programme will be maintained by intro\u00ac\nducing some modifications , for example , in Increasing the activities\non natural analogues and in enlarging the supporting activities to the\nprojects on construction and / or exploitation of underground facili\u00ac\nties. characterization\n\nsafety\n\nand\n\nthe\n\nIn the field of decommissioning of nuclear installations ,\nthe new\nshared cost programme 1989-1993 , approved by the Commission on the\n19th of July 1988 with a budget of 31. 5 million ECU , conserves also\nthe main lines of the previous programme. However , to the research\nand development actions , an action on qualification and adaptation of\nsemi-autonomous telecommanded handling systems has been added. The\npart regarding practical testing of new techniques should be carried\nout in the framework of decommissioning operations performed at large\nscale in the Member States. 321\n\n\f12\n\nAs regards the basic research supporting the fuel cycle activities^\nresearch on actinides constitutes an element of importance. This research implies high cost , high risk , licensing problems and\nunusual safety precautions , which exclude universities and conventio\u00ac\nnal national research institutions from entering into the field. It\nthus constitutes an excellent examples for the beneficial effect of\nCommunity efforts providing facilities which otherwise could not have\nbeen available. Actinide\nEuropean\nalmost\nInstitute for Transuranium Elements , is dealing with the investigation\nof properties ,\ntechnological\nand\napplication of the heaviest elements in the Periodic Table , elements\nall of which are radioactive and some fissile. possibilities\n\nexclusively\n\nResearch ,\n\nhandling\n\nexecuted\n\nrisks\n\nthe\n\nof\n\nat\n\nAll the activities related to fuel cycle have to be carried out in\nsuch a way as to guarantee the peaceful use of the nuclear materials\nconcerned and the work on safeguards and fissile materials management\nresponds to a Community obligation to implement nuclear safeguards in\nthe framework of the Euratom Treaty , the Non Proliferation Treaty and\nnuclear material supply agreements with third countries. The JRC\nthrough its research and development programme , acquires the basic\nscientific knowledge and gets acquainted with new technologies needed\nto provide , later on , an effective support to safeguards inspectorates\nof the Commission (DG XVII ) and of IAEA. Fissile materials management\nby plant operators , which has an impact on the implementation of\nsafeguards , will influence the orientations of\nthe JRC 's specific\nprogramme. Efficient cooperation , including task sharing , with ESARDA\nand with\n( European Safeguards Research and Development Association)\nthe US Department of Energy , has been established to minimize duplica\u00ac\ntion efforts in R&D activities. In the safeguards area , the research will be oriented towards :. The study of the safeguards and fissile material management techni\u00ac\nques and the demonstration of the way they can be integrated in the\ninspection and plant operation activity. The performance assessment Instruments and devices under realistic\n\nfield conditions. Due to the strong demand for training of Euratom and IAEA inspectors\nin\nthis\nthe use of measurement\ntraining activity is foreseen. increase of\n\nsubstantial\n\nsystems ,\n\n322\n\n\f13\n\nC. Radiation Protection. ORIGINAL ENGLISH\n\n1 ) Aims of Radiation Protection. Radiation Protection aims to protect man and his environment from\nthe possible harmful action of ionizing radiation. Man is exposed to\nthe following sources of radiation of which natural exposure followed\nby medical diagnostics are the most important one :\n\n- natural sources ( cosmic radiation ,\n\n\" external \" radiation from natural\nradionuclides\nfrom\nnatural radionuclides in the body including inhaled radon and its\ndaughter nuclides ),\n\nenvironment ,\n\n\" internal \"\n\nradiation\n\nin man 's\n\n- exposure in the context of radiological medical diagnostics ,\n- exposure\n\nactivities\n\nindustrial\n\nnuclear\n\nfrom\n\nsuch\n\nas\n\nproduction. power\n\nIn line with the expanding use of ionizing radiation in nuclear\nindustries and medicine and the increased concern of the public about\nit is imperative that man and his environment be\nradiation risks ,\nadequately protected. The persons of concern in this respect are\nworkers in nuclear industries who receive their exposure mainly in an\noccupational context and the general public which is exposed primarily\nto natural sources and medical diagnostic irradiation. Radiation\nprotection research is needed to provide the scientific background for\nthe\nand\nregulations in radiation protection. Such research must also help the\nrelevant authorities to reach rational decisions on the development of\ntechnologies involving exposure to radiation and on crisis management\nin case of an accident. Radiation protection research in general and\nthe CEC Radiation Protection Programme in particular thus have a\ncentral role in all policies related to nuclear development. establishment\n\nstandards\n\nupdating\n\nsafety\n\nbasic\n\nand\n\nof\n\nConsequently , research in radiation protection aims to define more\n\naccurately :\n\n- the various sources of natural , medical and industrial exposure , how\nthese sources reach man via environmental and other pathways and how\nthey contribute to human exposure ,\n\n- the biological effects of radiation , particularly from low doses ,\nthe most prevalent type of exposure , as well as the consequences of\naccidental exposure to high doses and how these can be prevented or\ntreated ,\n\n- the problems related to the management of radiation protection of\nworkers in nuclear industries as well as the possible consequences\nsuch\nof\ninstallations ,\n\nneighborhood\n\npopulation\n\nexposure\n\nthe\n\nthe\n\nto\n\nin\n\nof\n\n- the potential radiological consequences of radiation accidents ,\n\ntheir management and the development of countermeasures ,\n\n- the realistic\n\nradiation\nindustrialized\nand\nimplemented in an optimal way. exposure ,\n\nsociety ,\n\nassessment of the risks from the different types of\nthe\nbe\n\nrisks\nprotection\n\nhow they\n\nradiation\n\ncompare\n\nin\ncan\n\nother\n\nhow\n\nto\n\n323\n\n\f2. Kistorv and Present Status of Radiation Protection :\n\nmade\n\nRadiation protection research and regulatory activities started soon\nafter the discovery of X-rays and artificial radioactivity. Interest\nin radiation protection research expanded rapidly during the fifties\nand sixties in response to the development of nuclear energy and the\nfear of nuclear warfare. It has declined somewhat in recent years , but\ninterest in radiation protection has been renewed as a consequence of\nthe\nin many\nrespects , a pacesetter for protection against other harmful agents in\nman 's environment. The understanding of radiation exposure , effects and\nrisks\nprotection\nhas\nclosely the\nphilosophy ,\nexpanding scientific knowledge , providing a stimulus and methods for\nprotection from other harmful agents. Chernobyl accident. Radiation protection has\n\nradiation\nfollowed\n\nand practices\n\nconsiderable\n\nregulations\n\nprogress ,\n\nand\nhave\n\nNevertheless , as a result of this progress , the remaining gaps and\nuncertainties have become more apparent , and other problems have arisen\nin relation to the development of new technologies involving radiation\nexposure and the management of radiation accidents. Public acceptance\nof such technologies will depend on an understanding of what radiation\nis , how it acts , what hazards it presents under operational conditions\nand after accidents and how the benefits of radiation application are\nperceived. Substantial social and economic considerations are obviously\ninvolved in the development of technologies involving exposure to\nradiation. been ,\n\nThe scientific information used to develop radiation protection\nphilosophy , concepts and practices comes from many various sources and\nrequires the integration of information from several disciplines. Research in the Community is of a high scientific and technical level\nand , largely as a result of the Commission' s programme , has achieved\na large degree of coordination and integration. It is crucial , however ,\nthat adequate research effort be continued so that the expertise now\navailable in the Community , needed for the every-day protection of man\nand essential for crisis management in times of an emergency be\nmaintained in the future. in\n\nresearch\n\nradiation\n\nCommunity\n\nprotection\n\nin the order of one third ,\n\ncontributes\na\nto the worldwide\nconsiderable share ,\nactivities in this area , and the interchange of information ,\nthe\ndiscussion on common research priorities and even joint experiments\namong Community institutes and those in other countries are very\nintensive. This interchange has recently received a boost through newly\nconcluded memoranda of understandings by the CEC with the USA and\nCanada. It is characteristics for radiation protection that certain\ninternational organizations play an important role in the scientific\nassessment of risks and in recommendations for regulations , for example\nthe International Commission on Radiological Protection ( ICRP ), the\nInternational Commission on Radiation Units and Measures ( ICRU ), the\nUnited Nations Committee on the Effects of Atomic Radiation ( UNSCEAR ). Programme\nCommunity scientists\nCEC\nparticipate actively and decisively in\nthese\nof\norganizations. Protection\nactivities\n\nRadiation\nthe\n\nand\n\nthe\n\n3 ) The Role of the Commission in Radiation Protection\nThe EURATOM Treaty has given the Commission an important task in both\nregulatory and research activities in radiation protection in the\n\n324\n\n\f15\n\nCommunity and has linked these two activities together. Indeed , since\nits conception the Radiation Protection Programme of the Commission of\nthe European Communities has become an integral and important part of\nEuropean research efforts in radiation protection sponsoring directly\nmore than 30 % of all the relevant research in the Community and\ncoordinating about 80 % of this work. This coordination and cooperation\nof research have allowed Member States to concentrate on those topics\nwhich they considered of priority with respect to energy production ,\nhealth and environmental protection , and underlying basic research\nwhile relying on their partners in the Community and the coordination\nby the Commission 's Programme for information on other subjects or for\nthe use of special installations. This complementary structure with\nintensive cooperation and very little duplication of effort has been\none of the most successful aspects of the Commission 's Radiation\nProtection Programme resulting not only in a remarkable interdependence\nof European radiation protection research but also in substantial\nsavings to Member States. 4 ) Future Needs in Radiation Protection :\n\nProtection of human health , i. e. , of workers and the general public ,\nand of the environment are goals which will continue to be important\nfor the future. The Radiation Protection Programme thus remains an\nessential element in the Commission 's policies to protect human health\nand\nradiation\nprotection research in Member States as well as the Commission 's\nRadiation Protection Programme should continue at the present level of\nfunding thereby maintaining the scientific ,\neconomic and politic\nadvantages gained by the Community approach. Consequently ,\n\nto develop\n\nsources\n\nenergy. safe\n\nof\n\nphase\n\ncritical\n\nIt should be emphasized , that radiation protection has now entered\na\ncompetent\nparticularly\nscientists has declined substantially and will continue to do so unless\nsupport for training and research can be provided. At a time when\ntechnologies involving radiation in general and nuclear power in\nof\nparticular meet\nCommunity expertise in this field could have economic and social\nconsequences\na\nwhich\nconsiderable extent. increasing resistance by the public ,\n\ndevelopment\n\nEuropean\n\nbecause\n\nnumber\n\ncould\n\nharm\n\nloss\n\nthe\n\nthe\n\nof\n\nto\n\na\n\nThe Commission 's services have prepared a document of the Community\nResearch Needs in the Field of Radiation Protection for the Period\n1930-1994. These needs concentrate on\n\nA ) Human exposure to radiation and radioactivity. - Measurement of radiation dose and its interpretation. - Transfer and behavior of radionuclides in the environment. B ) Consequences\n\nof\n\nradiation\n\nexposure\n\nto man ;\n\nprevention and treatment. - Stochastic effects of radiation. - Non-stochastic effects of radiation. - Radiation effects on the developing organism. their\n\nassessment ,\n\nC ) Risks and management of radiation exposure. - Assessment of human exposure and risks. - Optimization and management of radiation protection. 325\n\n\f- 1 -\n\nBASIC RESEARCH ANNEX 10\n\nof science and technology. The speed of scientific development in the later 20th century\ndictates that scientists must grapple with processes of change\nboth at the macro and micro scale. So a comprehension of dynamic\nnon linear and complex phenomena is fundamental to progress in\nIn many cases the\nall spheres\ngreatest benefits from science have been derived from what was\noriginally Judged to be 'useless' scientific enquiry. Despite\nthe ever decreasing gap between fundamental investigations and\neconomically significant applications the view is still current\namong science policy makers and Industrial leaders that science\n(at least publicly funded science) has to be practioed not for\nthe pursuit of new knowledge but for the sake of technological\nand industrial applications with direct economic benefits. By\nits very nature basic research moves into unknown territory and\nfew can judge in advance what might be the future consequences or\napplications of the new knowledge to be acquired. It was Faraday\nwho most neatly compared asking about the usefulness of new\nscientific discoveries with asking what a newly bom baby was\nTo take a crude example , if past scientific research\ngood for. had been limited to ml salon-oriented and socially relevant topics\nwe might now have better candles and oil\nlamps than our\nforefathers but nothing making use of electricity. is\n\nfor\n\nhowever. hundreds\n\nAlthough\n\nno room\n\nThere\nBasic\ncomplacency\nResearch has led to breakthroughs on many fronts and is both\nfuelling transformations in society and helping it to adapt to\nthese changes it is subject to fashion and inertia at oertain\nThus there are topics which for years polarise the\npoints. efforts\nway ,\nscientists. of\ntechnologists and industrialists find themselves trapped in the\ninertia and rigidity of a ^system where attitudes still block free\nbetween disciplines and between\ninterchange between countries ,\nthe academic and industrial sectors. So there is a tendency to\npursue marginal improvements in fields which are already well\nIt must\ndeveloped rather than more topical or promising themes. that many politicians , often more interested in short\nbe\nterm\nsubstantial\ninnovations. are also\n\noriented\n\nresults\n\nlittle\n\nsame\n\nthe\n\ntoo\n\nIn\n\nto\n\nof\n\nIn this context Europe , with its wealth of humanistic , scientific\nand technological culture , with its pluralism and diversity of\nits\ntraditions ,\npatrimony of knowledge , experience , history , professionalism and\nn-rha-n centres (as Professor Colombo , Chairman of ENEA , wrote ten\nyears ago) is ideally placed , indeed better placed than any other\n\nits methods of organization and production ,\n\n326\n\n\f- 2 -\n\nto maintain a fresh dynamic and unfettered approach to\nzona ,\nAnd we must do so if we are to keep abreast of\nBasio Research. social\nthat\nEurope 's citizens have of its scientists and of its politicians ,\nand overcome the continuing imbalances in the world economy so\nthat an countries can develop their full potential. transformations ,\n\nexpectations\n\nlive\n\nthe\n\nup\n\nto\n\nFor the purposes of this report\nthe rapidly expanding and\ncombining fields of science have been grouped into four main\nareas :\n\n1 )- Physics\n\n2 ) - Mathematics\n\n3 )- Chemistry\n\n4 ) - Earth Sciences\n\nThis is by no means to ignore the importance of life sciences\nwhich are dealt with in other annexes to this document. - 3 -\n\n1 ) PHYSICS\n\nFrom the subnucloar world, of elsnentary particle to the whole of\nphysics examines phenomena across a range whose\nthe cosmos ,\nbreadth and diversity is truly breathtaking. Although it is\nconcerned with fundamental questions about the origins of the\nuniverse and the structure of matter , its impact extends far\nbeyond the satisfaction of man's desire to understand nature. has\n\nevery\n\nscience ,\n\nin physics\n\ntouched almost\n\nPhysics bears a special relationship with most of the sciences. Progress\nby\ncontributing -theoretical concepts and experimental techniques and\nits applications have changed cur daily lives. Inventions such\nas the transistor and the laser have generated entire industries\n- microelectronics and optical technology for instance - with\nrevolutionary consequences that will continue to transform our\nsociety. At the same time remarkable developments such as X-rays\nand the most recent nuclear magnetio-resonanoe imaging have\nWhether it is the magnifloent\nimproved the human condition. complexity of proteins and nucleic acids or the grandeur of the\nuniverse , physics provides the principles and models to carry out\nthe necessary studies. Recent discoveries in physics axe among the greatest achievements\ntunneling\nof\nmicroscopy have made possible new classes of experiments. Fusion\nresearch continues to progress towards the goal of new energy\nsources ;\nParticle accelerators and telescopes are being used in\norder to give the answer to the nature of energy and matter and\ntheir transformations. All these developments confirm the old\naxiom that physics is fundamental to all the natural sciences , a\nfield where the sum of the parts accounts for more than the\ntotal. Synchrotron\n\nradiation\n\nsources\n\ntime. and\n\nour\n\nEurope 's position in physics is a reflection of the position\ncommon to \u00ab. n the natural sciences. Here as elsewhere Europe has\na long scientific tradition , promising scientiflo potential and\nresults which are first rate , especially in basic research ;\nat\nthe same time , however , there are chronic weaknesses such as a\ncontinuing seepage of talent into better resourced environments\noutside\ninfrastucture ,\nbarriers between traditional areas and between physics and other\ndisciplines , between the different sectors (whether academic or\nindustrial) and of oourse between the various national scientifio\ncommunities. By no means the least of the weaknesses in European\nphysics is the widespread difficulty that is experienced in\nturning\n\nknowledge into successful industrial applications. inadequate\n\noutdated\n\nEurope ,\n\nand\n\nan\n\n328\n\n\f- 4 -\n\nthe\n\nmore\n\nperhaps\n\nphysics\n\nelsewhere ,\n\nexperimental\nthan\nIn\nAt\nfacilities needed are increasingly sophisticated and costly. obsolescent\nthe same time existing equipment grows more rapidly\nas technological breakthroughs are made. There remain barriers\nof mutual suspicion at least between basio and applications-\noriented research although it is increasingly difficult and\nunreal istlo to separate the two. In many fields physics is\nmoving closer to other disciplines and this is reflected by a\ngrowing awareness of the need for a matching imiltidisciplinarity\nof approach and the development of altogether new fields at the\ninterfaces. Lastly and again in common with other areas of science one of\nEurope 's biggest weaknesses is the fragmentation of physics into\nrestricted national scientific circles and the wasted strength\nand potential this represents compared with our competitors. together\n\nPhysicists have always sought to uncover the ultimate structure\nelementary particles from which the infinite\nof matter , the\nvariety around us is built , and to formulate the laws that bind\nthese\natoms ,\nconstituents\nmolecules , stars and galaxies. Progress in the last few years has led to the belief that the\nanswers to these questions are close at hand. The subnuclear\nworld of 'elementary particles' , which was onoe\nlikened to a\nzoo , has became a gratifyingly orderly place : we now possess a\nstandard model of the universe as being made of\nquarks and leptons , bound together by foroe-carrying particles. up nuclei ,\n\nbuilding\n\ntheory\nQiantum chroraodynamics seems to be proving the\nWeak and electromagnetic forces\nof the strong nuclear force. have been unified in a single gauge-field theory. And the\ncurrent objective 1s to develop a Grand Unification scheme which\nwill embrace the three fundamental forces , gravity , the unified\nelectromagnetic-weak and the strong nuclear force , that control\nthe behaviour of all bulk matter aid. of biological , chemical and\nnuclear phenomena. correct\n\nmade ,\n\nboth at\n\nthe most\n\nrecent\nwhere many of\nThe contribution of Europe ,\noutstanding ,\nthe\ndiscoveries\nbeen\nhas\nwere\ntheoretical and experimental level. Much of the success is due\nto CERN , the European centre for High Energy Particle Physics. Designed initially to respond to the ever growing costs of\nexperimental facilities for Subnuclear\nPhysics , it has become\nthe meeting place of the European scientific community working in\nthe melting pot for new ideas and a centre of\nthe field ,\nexcellence ,\nthe\nwhere major advances\n-meson ' s rare decay mode which bad escaped\ndiscovery of a\ndetection in previous U. S. A. experiments , was followed some years\nlater by the discovery of neutral currents and more recently by\nthe discovery of the W & Z particles , which established the\ntheoretical predictions for a unified electromagnetic and weak\n\nhave been achieved\n\n:\n\n329\n\n\f- 5 -\n\nart ,\n\nThese\n\nresults\n\ntriumphs\n\ntechnique\n\nrepresent\n\nimpressive\n\nexperimental\n\nof\nforce. theoretical\naccelerator\nreasoning. In fact , GERN 's engineering skills as well as the\naccumulated know-how and the numerous spin-offs such as the\nsuperconducting magnets technology are additional sources of\nis\nThe world 's biggest particle accelerator ,\nsuccess. currently under construction , an undertaking whose forbidding\nCERN ha-q inri<=*yi\ncosts at national level dictated a joint effort. served\njoint\nsi mi i AT-\nmany\nexample\ninitiatives , either in the sams field such as HERA in Hamburg or\nin other fields such as Space (ESA) and Nuclear Fusion (JET). an encouraging\n\nLEP ,\n\nfor\n\nand\n\nas\n\nRecent progress in particle physics has generated stimulating\nideas in cosmology which is also concerned with the nature of\nGrand Unified theories are\nforces and constituents of matter. tested through their cosmological implications and questions on\nthe origin and the evolution of the universe might find the right\nanswer in scenarios inspired by elementary particle physics. Astrophysics is not the only discipline to have benefited from\nThe same is true for\nits interaction with particle physics. statistical mechanics and condensed matter physics. Further , the\nneeds of particle physics for advanced computational methods have\nled to\nthe development and implementation of new computer\narchitectures. of\n\nthe\n\nhandful\n\ndiscoveries\n\nWithin\nhave\nscientific\nrevolutionized society is the discovery of semiconductors , upon\nwhich the computer and communication technologies were based. A\nstream of new materials with remarkable qualities is already\nflowing from laboratories : glass that bends without breaking ,\nplastics as tough as steel , metals that stretch. Plastics and composite materials , transistors and semiconductor\nchips are but a few of the practical oonsequeaoes of research in\n\nthat\n\nmore\n\nresearch. fundamental\n\nthis has the greatest impact on\nour daily lives through the technological developments to which\nit gave and gives rise. The field 's claim is in fact that it\nholds the reoord for converting basio science into sophisticated\nindustrial technology on a time scale of 5 to 10 years. It is\nequally true that technological achievements provide a feed-back\nfor\nthe\ninterplay between science and technology is unique and therefore\na field where joint community effort is required in order to face\nCommunity activities\nthe challenge from both the U. S. and Japan. should in particular encourage initiatives that will help break\ndown the barriers between basic and applied research. Moreover ,\nthe experimental infrastructure required becomes quite rapidly\nobsolete and the new equipment even more expensive. Community\n\u00bb. im at a better exploitation of the existing\nefforts phrmiri\nfacilities\nwhether\nghmild\n\u00abrri\nexisting , as in the oase of ILL at Grenoble , or not. collaboration ,\n\nis a field ,\n\nreinforce\n\nwhere\n\nthe\n\nIt\n\n3\n\n\f- 6 -\n\nIn fact , in recent years the emphaais has shifted towards non-\nclassical systems : from organic conductors and liquid crystals\nto superconductors and superfluids , from amorphous ani metastahle\nmaterials to the highly speculative quasi-cxrystals , spectacular\nresults have been produced. Much of the early oollabor&tive research in these fields financed\nby the Community has been supported by the Stimulation Action. the ability of electrical currents to flow\nEuperoavriuotlvity. is a phenomenon of\nwithout resistance in pertain conductors ,\nremarkable and essential\ngreat\napplications\nan\nexplosive growth in the technical and industrial spin-offs : from\nmedical diagnostics imaging to the world 's biggest particle\naccelerator , from fast-switching devioes to fusion research. intricacy ,\nin\n\nthat has\nmost\nthe\n\nled to\nambitious\n\ntechnologies ,\n\nwith\n\nIt is estimated that by the year 2000 , the worldwide economic\nimpact of superconductivity will be tens of hid lions of ECOS\nwhich may explain why reoent discoveries in novel superconducting\nmaterials have created such an excitement in the world scientific\ncommunity. The high potential for still wider applications makes\nsuperconductivity an attractive and challenging area for further\nresearch and development. This is indeed a field where joint\nEuropean action 1s urgently needed , a reality which has already\nbeen\nthe\nCommission. departments\n\nscientific\n\nfaced by\n\nrelevant\n\nthe\n\nof\n\na\n\nfor\n\ntool\n\nwith\n\nreality\n\nstriking\n\nphysical\n\nunderstanding\n\nto be a theoretical\n\nGnoe held\n3-\ndimensional real systems ,\none-and two-dimensional models have\nbecome\ntechnological\napplications. We now have quasi-ane-dirrensional magnetio systems\nThese\nand quasi-two-dimensional systems of layered compounds. modern low-dlmensl oral material s have properties which include a\nnon-classical behaviour of the electronic conductivity and apart\ntechnological interest they have themselves been the\nfrom their\nfractionally\nfundamental discoveries\nof\nsource\nquantised\nquantum-well\nheterostructures and superlattices , that is deliberately designed\ncpiasi-two-dimensional\na\nrevolutionary nature for the future of more sophisticated lasers ,\ndetectors , higher-speed transistors and advanced optoelectronic\ndevioes. HeteroJunctions ,\n\nachievements\n\nstructures ,\n\nsuch as\n\neffect. Hall\n\nare\n\nthe\n\nof\n\nstructured\n\ntwo-dimensional\n\na-rt. 1 f1 o1 all y\nand\n\nOne of the most remarkable advances in the last decade was the\nincluding\nof\ncreation\nsuperlattioes\nThese\nmaterials possess properties that can differ considerably from\nthose\nthese\nproperties can be tuned in desirable ways. In particular the\nmethod of ion implantation has made it possible to create\nmaterials with new properties that oan not be produced by more\nclassical means. constituents\n\nmaterl als. electron\n\nin the\n\ngases. state\n\ntheir\n\nbulk\n\nand\n\nof\n\n\f- 7 -\n\nResearch, within the past decade has shown also that as materials\naxe subjected to more extreme physical conditions , they display\nnew or special properties. On the other hand , the development of\nnew experimental tools , such, as the intense synchrotron radiation\nsource and vacuum tunneling microscopy ,\ncapable of a high\nresolution probe , have Shifted the emphasis in condensed-matter\nphysics to systems more interesting than the classical ones from\na scientifio and technological joint of view ,\nTo\nas\ntheoretical\nrenormalization group methods and the imaginative use of the\ncomputer have been used to embrace ever-more complex phenomena :\niiirperfect aid disordered systems , strongly perturbed rather than\nare now\n\ncomplement\n\nthese ,\n\ntools ,\n\nsuch\n\nnew\n\nof\n\nat\n\nand\n\never\n\nlower\n\nmatter\n\ncondensed\n\nat the forefront of scientists ' attention. higher\nStudies\ntemperatures , at higher magnetic and electric fields , at higher\nand lower pressures and at much higher purities will continue to\nprovide us with materials and properties ever more surprising and\ninteresting from a technological point of view. It is a field where progress has and will depend on highly\nsuch as Molecular Beam\nsophisticated and modem equipment ,\nThe high\nEpitaxy (MBE) machines and vacuum tunneling microscopy. cost\nEuropean\nmany\nlaboratories , and a Stimulation activity of scientifio exchanges\ncould give access\nfor more European\nsoientists. forbidding\n\napparatus\n\nequipment\n\nexisting\n\nsuch\n\nfor\n\nis\n\nof\n\nto\n\nThe variety of\n\nHaving started from the study of liquid crystals based on small\norganio molecules , more effort is currently being devoted to\nthose formed by polymers , colloidal, suspensions and biological\nstructures. the large\nnumber of unusual macroscopic phenomena found uniquely in the\nliquid-crystal phase is In fact the reason why a great deal of\nresearch\npresent. Their non-linear response to rather simple external forces and\nthe subsequent complex structural charges have provided a rich\ntesting ground for theoretical ideas in the fields of non-linear\nphenomena , molecular ordering and phase transitions. exhibiting\n\nsubstances\n\nundertaken\n\nbeing\n\nat\n\nis\n\nan even more recent discovery ,\n\nare materials\nOna-gj -c-ry^-hal a. which may prove to possess major industrial interest. The study\nof their physical properties and their atomic arrangement has\njust started , following the fabrication of large samples in the\nlaboratory. 332\n\n\f- 6 -\n\nIts uses Include atmosphere analysis ,\nprinting ,\nas\n\nThe most dramatio device created am used in optics , as well as\nin almost every branch of science , medicine and industry , is the\nlaser surgery ,\nlaser. laser\nand\nelectrord. cs\noptical\nmanufacturing\ninto\nthe\ntoday 's\npossible\nproperties\nultralong-distance optical-fibre communications systems. Semioonduotor\nbillion\nbits\nmagneto-optlo\nspeciality applications. lasers can nowadays\nof\nper\ninformation\nand\n\nexceeding a\nelectro-optic ,\nfound\nalready\n\nlaser\nwell\nmaterials ,\n\nchemistry ,\nbasic\nwhich\n\nhome\nresearch\nmade\nhas\n\nsignals\nand\nhave\n\nacouto-optio\n\nsend\nsecond\n\ndevices\n\nas\n\nof\n\nCommunity Stimulation support to the European Joint\noptical\nBistability (EdOB) project made it possible to produce not just\nthe first optical version of a transistor in the world , but also\nproved the\nOptical\nbistability has also became a new arena for tire study of non\u00ac\nlinear systems , turbulence and chaotic motion. of an all-optical\n\nfeasibility\n\ncomputer. complex\n\ndynamics. The field of nnnl 1 nmr dynamics. Instabilities and, chaos is in\nfact undergoing a period of rapid extension. A new mathematical\nlanguage and way of thinking about nonlinear dynamics has been\ndeveloped by mathematicians and , more recently , by physicists. Computer techniques have been essential for experimental studies\nof\nalso\nis\nIt is a field of\nperforming crucial research in fiuid mechanics. possible\na highly\napplications\nand\nbiology. It is a field where the Stimulation Action con play an\nimportant role by encouraging and strengthening mult^disciplinary\nactivities ,\nand multisectoral\nresults and future trends will be neniioned in the chapter on\nMathematics. interdisciplinary\n\nsuperconducting\n\nwi th\ndevices ,\n\nastrophysics\n\nengineering\n\nwidespread\n\ncommunity\n\nresearch. Details\n\ncurrent\n\nnature\n\nThe\n\nto\n\nof\n\nof\n\ntiie\n\nbasic\n\nfields\n\nsciences ,\n\nprinciples\n\nAlthough the physics of the nucleus itself is among the least\nunderstood\nand\ntechniques of nuclear physics have been used for years in a large\nnumber of applications : from solid-state physics to molecular\ngenetics , from food technology to forensic medicine , from mineral\nto\nprospecting to career therapy , with nuclear fusion promising\nNuclear medicine has by now been firmly\nbe a new energy souroe. established as a standard port\npratlce. of modem medical\nSpecifically tailored radioisotopes and accelerator beams are\nused for both diagnostic and therapeutic procedures and X-ray\nradiology and nuclear magnetic recoiexce tomography are two of\nthe most valued techniques for diagnosing disorders of the brain\nand blood circulation as well as malignancy. Medical instrumentation is in fact one of the many areas where\nthe contribution of physics has been outstanding and where\nCommunity support will produce results that will directly improve\nthe human oondltion. 333\n\n\f- e -\n\n2) MA33\u0152M\u00c2TICS\n\nthe\n\nThe\n\nSome\n\nlong\n\nhave\n\nadvent\n\nUnlike\n\nScience ,\n\nresults. Physical\n\nstanding\n\nproblems\n\nprogress\n\nSciences ,\n\nlike all\n\nIn the history of Modem Mathssstics one does not speak of\n'Revolutions'. in\nMathematics does not necessarily require you. to prove yourself\nwrong as scon as possible' (ELP. Feynman). A proven mathematical\nresult stands for ever. Nevertheless we can distinguish periods\nof intense activity during which, new trends appear resulting in\ndeep and lasting changes in methodology , goals and perspectives. Is currently\nsciences\nother\nMathematical\nundergoing such a period of transition. This is manifest, in a\nFirst , we are witnessing rapid progress in\nvariety of ways. soientifio\nbeen\nNew fields are opening\nsolved , new ones are being formulated. up in the frontiers of knowledge (topology , geometry etc. ). Entire branches , which, have been developed separately , are coining\ninto contact. has\nof\nrevolutionized whole subjects from abstract mathematical logic\nand number theory to the most applied areas of numerical analysis\nBut what may be more important is the change in\nand modelling. methods\ndifferent\nbarriers\nperspectives. branches are gradually disappearing. The old distinction between\npure and applied mathematics is becoming lees and less visible. Mathematics and mathematicians are earning out from their ivory\ntowers and. their inspiration in contact with other\nsciences. In this respect they go back to the tradition of the\nold Masters such as Poincard , Hilbert or Cartan whose fundamental\ncontributions in pore mathematics were often made in response to\nIn the same way we see\noutstanding problems in other sciences. today\nnon-\nfields\ncoinmutatlve geometry which are finding direct applications to the\nclassification of defects in crystals or the theory of elementary\nparticles. Even more important is the fact that some of these\nmathematical theories are being developed precisely to answer\nquestions raised in the context of problems in physics. The\ntheory of infinite dimensional Lie algebras is being developed\njointly by mathematicians and physicists. computers\n\ntopology ,\n\nabstract\n\nK-theory\n\nsuch as\n\nbetween\n\nfinding\n\nspeed\n\nhigh\n\nand\n\nThe\n\nor\n\nIn the limited space available we cannot review the whole of this\nexciting and rapidly changing field. We choose to mention only a\nsingle example not because it is intrinsically more important but\nsimply because it illustrates very clearly the interdisciplinary\nThe example chosen is\ncharacter of modern mathematical research. the\nphenomena\nnon-linear\nthe\nmathematical\nand\nthe\nrevolutionising\nideas\ngeometrical\napplications of dynamical systems. theory\nthat\n\nand\ntheory\n\nof\nare\n\nMost real, -world problems confronting the analyst being neither\nthe domain of\n1 1 -nAa-p nor even nearly linear\nfall\ntraditional closed-form analysis. At ^ present time we are\nwitnessing a spectacular blossoming of non-linear dynamics made\nstrides in\npossible on the\nPoincar6 ' s topological approach and on the other by the wide\n\none hard, by great\n\ntheoretical\n\noutside\n\n334\n\n\f- 10 -\n\navailability of powerful digital and analogue computers. This\nhas been stimulated end sustained by important am exciting new\napplications that have multi piled throughout the biological ,\necological , social aid economic sciences , far beyond the still\nvibrant tradional fields of mechanics , physics and chanistry. Indeed ,\nsystem needs\nversatile\ninvoked. 'wherever the time evolution of a natural or man-made\nsubtle and\ntheory are being\n\nto he modelled and explored ,\n\nof dynamical\n\ntechniques\n\nsystems\n\nthe\n\nin\n\nits\n\nthis\n\nmajor\n\nthrust\n\nadvanced\n\nsignificant\n\ntheoretical ,\n\nelement\nmost\n\nnicely\nA\nepitomises\nand\nexperimental features is the discovery and delineation of chaotic\nmotions In remarkably simple deterministic medals from a galaxy\nof disciplines ranging from population dynamics and meteorology\nto lasers and particle accelerators. The recent discovery of\nquite large regimes of chaos in the long-famildar , sinusoidally\ndriven Duffing aid van tier Fol oscillators emphasizes just how\nmuch\nordinary\nby\ndifferential equations. which\nc:arputiaual\n\nclassical\n\nanalysis\n\nmissed\n\nwas\n\ntlie\n\nof\n\nWith the advent of high speed computers , it might have seemed\nBut quite\nthat dynamical systems theory would simply fade away. the reverse is true and it is indeed one of the fastest growing\nfields of interdisciplinary mathematics. The reason is that on\nthe one hand the problems it raises and tlie challenges it sets to\npure mathematics are truly fascinating and on the other its broad\nyet precise geometrical ideas are vitally needed to guide the\nanalyst through the\nbewildering variety of complex behavior that\nhe is likely to eroounter. Tims evolutions must normally be modeled by nrn-lin>ear equations\nfor which closed form analytical solutions are unobtainable. Tney axe however\nreadily integrated numerically by routine\ncomputer algorithms so that the response from given starting\nBut the starting conditions of\nconditions is easily established. a real\nsystem are rever known precisely and may be totally\nunknown : wnat initial conditions should be assumed for a complex\nmodel of the atmosphere or mi oilrig at sea in a developing'\nSo since tie motions of a non-linear system can depend\nstorm ?\ncrucially an these conditions ,\nto\nemerge. How can we hope to explore the responses from all\npossible starts ?\n\na formidable\n\ntask begins\n\nthis\n\ntheory in the\n\na system and how\n\nClearly we need seme overview of what- can happen In the evolution\nof\nstarting\nis\nHere we have our first major guidance from dynamical\nconditions. systems\nTypical ,\nof an\ndissipative dynamioal systems exhibit a start-up transient , after\nwhich the action settles down towards some form of long-term\nrecurrent\nto\nconverge towards sldhlfi attracting solutions. Toe simplest is e stationary equilibri-rc point at which all\n\nIniTaenoed. attractor \u25a0\n\nbehaviour ,\n\nadjacent\n\nconcept\n\nholloas\n\nstarts\n\nfrom\n\ntend\n\nthe\n\nby\n\n335\n\n\f- 11 -\n\nstvdied\nmotion has ceased. whatever\nexperimentally\nby\nstarting values of position end velocity ,\n'this returns to its\nvertical hanging state , damped by air resistance and other forms\nof energy dissipation. The archetypal example of this ,\nFran\nNewton ,\n\npendulum. the\n\nis\n\nabstract\n\nIntroducing more technical language , we say that in the two-\ndimensional\nare\nphase-Rp^rsA\ndisplacement and velocity all possible motions appear as non-\ncrossing spirals converging asymptotically towards the resting\nstate at the origin. phase portrait of all\nThis focus in the\npossible motions is called a point attractor. co-ordinates\n\nwhose\n\ninto\n\ndriven\n\nresonance by an electromagnet\n\nSecondly we have the periodic attractor. If a thin steel strip\nan\nis\nalternating current , the strip will normally settle into a steady\nAfter a small knock ,\nvibration at the frequency of the forcing. fundamental\nslowly\ntransients\nstable\nthe\nbigger\na\ngiven\nbe\noscillation\ndisturbance an entirely new state my be observed. Different\nstarts of a given system my thus lead to alternative final\nstates with multiple attractors coexisting in a state of\ncompetition. re-established. carrying\n\ndecay\n\nwill\n\nwill\n\nand\n\nBut\n\nwhose\n\nchaos. recently\n\nperpetual\n\nattractor ,\n\n-unexpected\nA third ,\ndiscovered ,\nstrange\nfeatux-es have generated an explosion of interest , is the\nor\nchaotic attractor that captures the solution of a perfectly\ndeterministic and well defined equation into a state of steady\nbut\nhistory\npossesses an aspect of true randomness , a comprehensive phase-\nspace investigation reveals an underlying order in the ensemble\nof all trajectories whose elucidation is a major topic of\nIt is the final\nresearch amongst mathematicians and physicists. settling\nlarge\na\ndissipative system to attractors of low dimension that validates\nour presentation of general concepts via specific equations of\nlow dimension. multidimensional\n\nalthough\n\nsingle\n\nphase\n\nspace\n\ntime\n\nBut\n\nthe\n\nin\n\nof\n\na\n\nMultiplicities cf all three\nattractors can coexist in the phase\nportrait of a given, system so that in simulations and experiments\na bewilderi-tig variety\" of final time histories may be generated by\ndifferent starts. Clearly analysts and experimentalists should\nbe vitally aware that such apparently random non-periodic outputs\nmay be the correct answer and should not be attributed to bad\ntechnique\nhas\nthe\nurdoubtedly happened in the past. wastepaper\n\nassigned\n\nbasket\n\nand\n\nas\n\nto\n\nThis description of\nfanciful or\" rare. ii-a\u25a0;,dixg. \u201e\nsimple non-linear systests (eg Doffing 's equation). Multiplicities of competing steady states ,\nare constantly being discovered even for very\n\nmultiple attractors is not in the least\n\neven\n\nHow\ncoefficients\n\nthe\n\nof\n\nmost\nany\n\nexact\nmodal\n\nof\nare\n\nthe\nnever\n\nphysical\nknown\n\nsciences ,\nwith\n\nthe\nabsolute\n\n336\n\n\f- 12 -\n\nprecision. So having previously discussed the physical stability\nof final states of a given system , we must explore the standiity\nWould ve get roughly the same\nof the modelling process itself. answers if our equations had been slightly different. This\nquestion is formalized in tie couoept of the striictursl stability\nof a phase portrait. Many systems are in a slowly evolving environment so their\ncoefficients and parameters urdex 40 gradual change. Then , if the\nevolving system is in a steady state of equilibrium , periodio\noscillation or chaos , the prediction of any sudden change is of\nof behaviour will occur\ncrucial importance. when the phase portrait urdergoes a qualitative charge\nof\ntopological form at a point of s. note! al Inst ability. catastrophic\nis\nAn\nbifurcations at which, there is fi. r5. te rapid jump to a new steady\nsubtle bifurcation in whituh the criange in response\nstate and\nmanifests\nitself in the smooth growth, of a new local attractor\nafter the bifurcation point. between those\n\ndistinction\n\nimportant\n\nSuch. As we mentioned already tils fascinating theory grew out of a\ncooperative effort among mathematicians a. d scientists from all\ndisciplines. It has already revolutionized our understanding of\nlong standing problems suen as the problem of turbulence which\nhave resisted all previous attempts at quanti. tat\u00b1ve analysis. It\nhas been a long time since we last witnessed such, a fruitful\ncollaboration. Ve are still actively\ninvolved in it and we are looking oonil. dentiy forward to even\ngreater discoveries. Nor is it yet; at an ei. - 13 -\n\n3 ) GHEMISTflY\n\nThe Chemical industry has been one of the most important factors\nin the economic development aM social change that has taken\nThis is an\nplace in Western Europe over the last thirty years. intrinsically innovative sector characterised by the manufacture\nof new products and materials which integrate with and replace\nnatural ones , calling for different processes and technologies\nfrom those known hitherto. in\n\nit. involved\n\ncomplexity\n\nFor example ,\n\nThis growth\n\nAs indicated in many recent reports on the subject , notably that\nwhich surveyed opportunities in the Chemical sciences under the\nchairmanship of Professor George Pimentel of the University of\nCalifornia , this is a time of major opportunity for advances on a\nnumber of fronts. These advances arise from continuing progress\nin our understanding cf the plienomena of Chemical change and the\nmolecular\nin\nunderstanding is ref3 ected in the ever more rapid rate of\nAt the same time techniques used in\ndiscovery of new ccorpoiurds. Chemistry ere expanding and more and more importance is being\nattached to the use of new instrumental techniques , which, hold\nout the premise of an excellent ratio of results to expenditure\nthe chemist is now using extremely\non machinery ,\nsophisticated and more and more costly instruments and diagnostic\naids\nelectron\nmicroscope , the tunnel-effect microscope , NMR neutron diffraction\nand synchrotron light. Many laboratories can afford no more than\nthe same time a great deal of\na few of these instruments. At\nwork on the frontiers of the discipline and on the interface\nbetween it and disciplines such as physics or biochemistry is\nheavily dependent on modelling and computing facilities. It\nwould seem that at a European level there is a need for existing\ninstrument resources to be pooled and made available to chemists\nin Member States which might not yet be in a position to provide\ntechniques\nof\naccess\nto\nthemselves. of\ntime ,\ndevelopments in instrumentation certain existing facilities could\nmake good use of assistance with the expense of necessary\nupgrading activities. spectroscopic instruments ,\n\nrange\nsame\n\ninstruments\n\nwhole\nthe\n\nrapidity\n\nlasers ,\n\nthe\nAt\n\ngiven\n\nand\n\nthe\n\nthe\n\n:\n\nforefront of\nExciting dicoveries in a number of areas at the\nchemistry can be anticipated. For example in chemical kinetics\n(to use a term coined in the Pimentel report ), the effect of\nphoton absorption by an atom or molecule can be studied. The\nbest-known example which has captured the attention and motivated\nthe work of numerous chemists and biologists is photosynthesis. Even though the hopes placed in the use of solar radiation to\ndissociate the water molecule into hydrogen and oxygen on the\npattern of living mechanisms have not yet been crowned with\nsuccess , the research, done has nevertheless led to the discovery\n\n338\n\n\f- 14 -\n\nnew\n\nThese\n\nactive\n\nprocesses\n\naminoacids. of an Impressive series of stages in photosynthesis and has laid\nthe foundation for extremely fruitful applications , for example\nhydrogen production by dissociating alcohol or the production of\noptically\nin which\nmolecules interact in intense photon fields are made possible by\nwhich can probe chanical\nthe powerful lasers now available ,\nreactions on a time soale that is short compared to the lifetime\nof any transient substances that can be said to possess a\nmolecular identity. Another field highlighted in ' Opportuniti. es\nin Chemistry' is theoretical chemistry (application of quantum\none of the fields in which Europe\nmechanics to chemistry ) ,\ndominates. It should be emphasized that its leadership has been\nmade possible by measures such as the estahl 1 shment of major\ncomputer\nand\nto\nnumerous\nwhich have\ncomputer programmes ,\nopportunities\nencouraged widespread cooperation at European level. accessible\nexchanging\n\ncentres\nof\n\nlaboratories\n\nto\n\ntransform\n\nOne of the areas of quantum chemistry now undergoing major\ndevelopment involves the calculation and liaracterization of\nintermediate structures and transition structures in organic\nreaction models. The possibility of calculating analytically the\nenergy gradients and second derivatives of wave functions has\nstarted\nchemical\nmethods\nreactions. It Is possible to study the various reaction paths and\nto\nthe\ncalculations are carried out on models of simple chemical systems\nand are used as a reference for a family of similar systems. Qualitative models of the topology and energy properties of\npotential surfaces have been developed so that it is now possible\nto interpolate between the available experimental data , given\nthat oily a limitod number of models can be analysed numerical 1 y\nin detail. the most probable. select\n\nstudy\n\nthose\n\nused\n\nMost\n\nthat\n\nare\n\nthe\n\nto\n\nof\n\nis\n\nare\n\nfield\n\nenzymatic\n\nanother\nadvancesin\nand\n\nundergoing major\nheterogeneous. catalysis\n\ntransformation. Cato-lysis\nelectrochemical ,\nFundamental\nAs\nbeing\nphotochemical\neconomically converting\nchemistry is essentially the art of\nabundant substances into useful products , the study of chemical\nprocesses and the\ncan be\nimproved and speeded up Inevitably accounts for much of the\nresearch\nand\ncatalysts , i. e. substances that can speed up chemical reactions\nwithout themselves being consumed In the reactions , has always\nplayed an Important role from both trie scientific and the\neconomic aspects. It is even more useful to be able selectively\nto modify the role of various intermediate reaction so as to\npromote a given\n\nfinal product at the expense of others. under which reactions\n\nIn particular\n\nconditions\n\ncatalysis\n\neffort. study\n\nmade. the\n\nof\n\nResearch into catalysis is today enjoying a new lease of life as\na result of the new ins trur. rcr. ts available and the analytical aid\ndigital techniques that have recently been developed. Relatively\nsimple models have been developed to represent the electron\nproperties of simple molecules (carbon monoxide , hydrogen) during\ntheoretical\ncrucial\n\ncatalytioal\n\nreactions ;\n\nstages\n\nthese\n\nof\n\n339\n\n\f- 15 -\n\nbe\n\ncan\n\nthen\n\nresults\nones ,\ncompared\nWith these models it has been passible to collect essential data\non the elementary stages of catalysis. An understanding of these\nmodels will eventually facilitate the design and development of\nnew oatalysts for industry. experimental\n\nwith\n\nshould be pointed\n\nIt\nof\nthat\nfavourable conditions has emerged and should lead to interesting\nresults. extremely\nNumerous new techniques and a range of\nefficient instruments are now available to researchers. recently a combination\n\nout\n\nSurface chemistry and, the study of metallic clusters have also\nundergone significant developments in recent years\nthat\ncatalysis research, has now ceased to be \"black magic \", as it was\nsometimes dubbed in the past , and become an exact science. so\n\nIn\n\nthis\n\n'most dramatic\n\nThe American analysis highlighted the role of chemistry in\nsystematic strategies for the discovery and design of novel\nmaterials\nfrontier\nmaterials. of\nscience' several techniques are being developed. One of them is\nIntercalation chemi stry. Some solids consist of layers or fibres. Under certain conditions foreign substances , ions or molecules ,\ncan be accommodated between these layers or fibres. Originally ,\nintercalation chemistry was developed in the field of lamellar\nNow the concept has spread to all phenomena where guest\nsolids. ions or molecules are reversibly inserted into a solid. There\nare numerous intercalation compounds in nature \u2022 some of the\nmost\nmicas ,\nattractive applications of intercalation compounds are to be\nfound in the area of materials. bones and our\n\nteeth are\n\nexamples. The\n\nour\n\nSeveral examples can be given. By intercalating lithium or\nsodium ions in lamellar dichalcogsnides (derived compounds of\nsulphur , tellurium or selenium), the conductivity of the system\nis greatly improved. The advantage of such systems is that\nenergy per unit mass is four to five times higher than that of\nconventional lead, accumulators. Manufacturers have also shown interest in the applications of\nintercalation compounds of graphite\ngraphite compounds are\noften good conductors (In some cases nearly as good as copper )\nwhich would give exceptional energies per unit mass ( ten times\nthat of lead accumulators ). :\n\nAs progress in chemistry accelerates the traditional border\norganic and inorganic chemistry is disappearing and the\nbetween\nuse of modern instrumentation is leading to techniques which\nquicken the discovery aid testing of new reaction pathways aid\nstrategies involving\nsynthesis. Some of the most spectacular\nresults have been obtained with zeolites (silicates in which\nOther applications have been found in\nsites are wide tunnels ). Over\nlight displays ,\nand above their\n\nin particular with tungsten axdde XO3. 340\n\n\f- 16 -\n\nHI. y applications ,\nnew and extremely premising synthesis routes\nhue been developed , based in. particular on topctactic reactions\n(. ^actions after which, some of the rain structural elements\npresent in the initial compound are found in the final compound). n this way a new titanium oocULe lias been developed and is today\na\nused\nas\nbeen\ncompound\nsuccessfully prepared. Vanadium\npreviously ,\n\ndisulphide\nhas\n\nsupport. known\n\ncatalyst\nwas\n\na\nthat\n\nalso\n\nVS2 ,\n\nnot. allowing on from the synthesis of materials and making use of\ncoeir ability to deal with molecular complexity chemists are\nh elping to investigate a ad cl arlfy the molecular origins of\nX lologlcal processes ^\n\nC'oemists are today faced with increasingly complex problems of\nsynthesis. They need to produce mere and more sophisticated\njoleculas but ofuen the conventional organic synthesis methods\nThere are in nature\nore no longer adequate for this work. into\nE. ibs tanoes\nmolecules\ntransforming\nhaving\ntiousands\nmolecules\nhundreds\nare\nof\natoms. carried out with outstanding efficiency and accuracy. Chemists\nrave therefore started to study the abilities of enzymes and are\n\u2022trying to profit from the lessons to be learned from nature. of\ndifferent\nthousands\n\nmacrcmolecules\n\ntransformations\n\ncapable\n\nsimple\n\nof\nof\n\nThese\n\nXu any organism the coistituerts of living natter are synthesized\nby means of chauical reactions catalyzed by specific effective\nsubstances , the enzymes. Tie extraordinary speed and enormous\nselectivity of the reactions induce! by enzymes are due to their\nconformation in space - the reagent is trapped in a cavity of the\ni ozvme. without\ncopying their complete chemical structure is one of the ambitious\naims of synthesis chemists. action of\n\nchemical\n\nimitate\n\nenzymes\n\nthe\n\nTo\n\nlie roost promising approach , although also the most complex , is\nio synthesize a molecule of a different chemical nature from an\nenzyme tut behaving in the same way , so as to catalyze a sp*3Cif\u00b1c\nproduct that is useful to the chemist. The aim is to manufacture\ncatalysts based on enzymes that are just as efficient but differ\nfundamentally from the usual catalysts by their organisation in\nspace. The artificial enzyme must be capable of recognizing its\nsubstrate and transforming it into one product only , even if\nseveral are theoretically possible. Tne artificial enzyme must\n>. uve a genuine catalytic activity - it must not be consumed in\nzee reaction , must be capable of producting the reaction on a\nlarge number of substrate molecules one after the other and\nfinally must release the product into tlie environment. Vrilst the benefits of achieving this will be very great it is\nczear\nthat major progress can be made only by encouraging\nluterdiscd. pllnary research collaboration , between biological and\ncaemical research teams. - 17 -\n\n4) \u0415\u0410\u041a\u0428 mmICEa\n\nAs the preservation of crur environment through intelligent and\nsensible use of the earth 's resources assumes ever greater\nthe earth sciences are gaining fresh eoonomio and\nimportance ,\npolitical significance. At the same time , this scientific sector\nis undergoing radical change as it moves on from the disciplines\nexperimentation and modelling. of\nof\nMoreover , because its very subject 1s the whole earth ,\nthis\nresearch is essentially of an international nature. observation\n\nthose\n\nto\n\nWith this shift from making observations of static and successive\nsituations to the reconstruction and explanation of the mechanism\nof evolution , the earth sciences as they are conceived today call\nfor a global approach supported by numerous accurate analyses. The research relates to both structures and materials on ell\nscales from the atomic structure of crystals to the texture of\nrocks and even the dynamics of plate tectonics. Several types of activities can play a federating and stimulating\nrole for the European scientific camraunity. The direct and\nindirect study of the deep structure of the lithosphere is one\nexample : today more is known about the surface of the moon , Mars\nor Venus than the sub-soil of the earth. the very constituents of the earth ,\n\nstill present\nCrystals ,\nnumerous problems , if not as regards their structure at least in\ntheir genesis. flawless\nThe demand in high technology\ncrystals has led to considerable advances in the knowledge of\ncrystalline\nphase\nboth\ntransitions\ntheoretical and experimental research. This is a field in which\nthe transfer of basic research results to applications could be\nparticularly fast and beneficial. growth inodes. still\n\nimperfections\nand\n\nHowever ,\nfor\ncall\n\ninterface\n\nproblems\n\nand\n\nfor\n\nSpace observations provide the key to the study of the Earth as\nan integrated system. From these observations by satellites and\nspace platforms a large volume of detailed data can be collected. This data can be utilised in numerical and conceptual modelling\nwhich together with the traditional earth-science disciplines can\nhelp to obtain a scientific understanding of the earth as a\nwhole. One of the most obvious benefits of this increase in\nurderstarring ha. q been the improvement in the accuracy of weather\nprediction which resulted from the numerical simulation of the\natmosphere with high-speed computers. - 18 -\n\nllie Atmosph\u00e8re\n\nThe effect of human activity cn the atmosphere has caused marked\nSince the industrial revolution alone ,\ncharges \u00b1Q reoent years. tire air through the\nthe amount of Carbon dioxide released into\nburning of fossil fuels has increased by almost 25% ard this is\nCarbon dioxide\nanticipated to double within the next 100 years. insulates the earth preventing heat radiation. As a result , the\ntemperature of the earth has been rising at an unprecedented rate\nsuch that there have been noticahle changes in precipitation\npatterns. been\nIncreasing in concentration at an even greater rate than Carbon\ndioxide and it is estimated that their effects can be even more\npronounced than 002. \u201cgreenhouse \"\n\nso-called\n\nOther\n\ngases\n\nhave\n\nfossil\n\nApart from causing changes to the atmosphere through the burning\nof\nof\nalso\nvegetation resulting in a further increase in atmosphere Carbon\ndioxide levels and a depletion of Oxygen sources. destroyed\n\nnan has\n\ntracts\n\nfuels ,\n\nlarge\n\nThe changes in the atmosphere as a result of the activities of\nnan are difficult to assess but they are clearly of great\nthese\nimportance. changes globally and to identify catusal relationships between\nthem. necessary to measure end document\n\nIt\n\nis\n\nThe ocean sciences are a relatively new and highly promising area\nof research, and development. Scientific activity has ,\nin a very\nmoved from the descriptive to the explanatory or even\nfew years ,\nthe predictive stage. It touches on a sphere of essential\nknowledge which our vanishing resources and the need to protect\nour environment have put in the spotlight. Since it is , at one and the same time an enormous reserve of raw\nmaterials and foodstuffs , a gigantic dustbin , a primary factor in\nclimatic balance\nan\nworld\nenvironment\nthe\nthe\nfruitfulness of numerous branches of the life sciences , the ocean\nis a hugely rewarding field of study. and\nthe\nunderstanding\n\necology ,\nwhich\n\nlastly ,\nto\n\nand ,\ncan\n\nadd\n\nof\n\nOceanography is an inter and multidisciplinary of a field in\nwhich there is hardly any real demarcation between basic research\nand more applied research activities. Cross-fertilization between\ndisciplines is essential here. 343\n\n\f- 19 -\n\nIt is also a science in which the scale of the problems is such\nthat they naturally call for international cooperation and in\nwhich the size of the technical resources needed leads (and\nshould more often lead) to the joint establishment , between\nvarious partners in different countries , of one shared research\ntool. very\nare\ndifficult\ncooperation is\nrequired between the Community and the developing nations who\npossess vast tracts of sea. study\norganize and\n\nlarge-scale\nfinance. Programmes\nto\n\nphenomena\n\nLastly ,\n\nto\n\nAs far as sectors of scientific activity are concerned (physical ,\nchemical or biological oceanography) , there is at present a need\nto focus more on large-scale phenomena (in time or space), tut\nchoosing the appropriate scale in tine or space poses many\nproblems because studies of the various dimensions are closely\ninterdependent. Coastal zones\n\nStretching as they do right to the edge of the continental shelf ,\nthese zones axe the locus of strong interactions between the\ncontinent and the ooeans and for this reason they are doubly\ninteresting. On the one hand the key to an understanding of the\noverall workings of the ooeanio system is a basic knowledge of\nooean. continent interface phenomena ;\nwhich can be studied in\nthese zones. On the other hand they are an area of the sea where\nintense biological activity (in the form of wastes ) is most\nmarked. Bearing in mind the direct socio-economic implications of a\nchemical and biological\ngreater knowledge of\nphenomena\ninto\nzones ,\ncontinent/ocean interactions and into coastal ecosociology is of\nparamount\nreinforoed\ncalls\nimportance. interdisciplinary work. the physical ,\nthese\n\ntaking place\n\nresearch\n\nnew\n\nfor\n\nIt\n\nin\n\nor\n\nOn the basis of work undertaken in this way by a number of\ndisciplines it is possible to move towards the development of\nconceptual and forecasting models which will lead to a better\nunderstanding and by the same token a more thorough mastery of\nthe workings of coastal ecosystems. will\n\nbasically\n\nResearch\nan\nrequire\ninfrastructure of marine stations and experimental installations. The Community has great potential in this respect , a quality\nwhich currently constitutes a considerable asset. avail ability\n\nthe\n\nof\n\n344\n\n\f- 20 -\n\nSecondly the vitality of scientific; aid. technical progress in\nthis field, is very much a function of the rt3s>Turoes (particularly\nhuman resources ) which are available , aid tne extent to which\nintegrated approaches within a muItMtsodplinary system are\npossible. At this level certain weaknesses must be admitted ,\narising In part from the lack of rescniroes dedicated to certain\nsectors\nof work\na\nfragmentation\n(particularly so far as the universities are concerned). But if the Conmmity ean :\n\ncertain\n\nalso\n\nfrom\n\nand\n\nup\n\nbuild\nresearch\nspecialized centres ;\n\nthe\ncentres\n\nmilriiilroJ pllnary\nthe\n\naid\n\ncooperation\n\ncharacter\n\nof\nbetween\n\npromote cooperation between marine stations ard\nuniversity\nwidely\nwhich\nseparated geographical ly. centres ,\n\noften\n\nare\n\nThe effectiveness of European R & D in this field could be\ngreatly enhanced. The Great Deeps\n\nto\n\nor\n\nThe deep ooean is a gigantic ecosystem , a deeper knowledge of\nwhich is a vital prerequisite for making use of or exploiting the\nmaterial which lies hidden there. Whether , for example , to ensure\nthat waste products dumped into the abyss by man are safe and\ninnocuous ,\npolymetallic\nnodules , it is first necessary to learn more about the meiofauna ,\nthe\nrelief and the phenomena ( e. g. hydrothermal ) which exist at\nthese depths. Ibis knowledge will only be gained via interlinked\ngeochemistry ,\nR y D work in a number of sectors\nmaritime\nchemistry ,\ngeophysics ,\nengineering ,\nand. ). etc. frequently onerous observation aid analysis techniques. ( geology ,\nbacteriology ,\n\nbiology ,\ntne\n\navailability\n\ncental nlng\n\ncomplex\n\nexploit\n\nareas\n\nand\n\nthe\n\nof\n\nIn the overall world R S\u2019 D ranking in this field ,\nEurope 's\nscientific community occupies an entirely honorable position ,\nwith some particularly strong points ( in geology , geophysics ,\nsedimentology aid research techniques , for instance ). However , it\nis clear that where the Community has the advantage , its lead is\ntrue so far as methods of\nprecarious. exploring and analysing the great deeps are concerned. Hie\nCommunity was the first to have multibeam acoustic sounders ,\nwhich were a revolutionary tool. This is particularly\n\nToday this method is being aver taken and new technologies are\nincluding lateral sonars which are able to\ncoming forward ,\nanalyse a greater volume of acoustic information from much larger\nareas of ooean floor. These new technologies are emerging outside\nthe Community , which might give attention therefore to the joint\ndevelopment of large \" instruments \"\n( such as ships ) aid major\nprojects. 345\n\n\f- 21 -\n\nstorage ,\n\nThe ooean is one of the vital components of the climatic system\nand as far as the atmosphere is oonoemed ,\nit fulfils three\ntransport and interchange of\n:\nessential functions\nenergy. These are not independent functions in the ooean since\nthey are bound by the law of energy conservation ; they are not\nindependent of interchanges with the atmosphere either since the\nocean is a system which is coupled to it. At the interface ,\nenergy is exchanged in various forms (heat , mass ani movement)\nand on various scales. All this therefore makes up a group of\ncomplex physical phenomena , which are further complicated by the\ndifferences\nthe\natmosphere. reaction\n\nbetween\n\nooean\n\ntime\n\nani\n\nthe\n\nin\n\nKnowledge of \" ooean and atmosphere \" phenomena is closely linked\nto and interdependent with climatology know-how ,\nof which it\nforms a subset. Depending on progress in the science of earth-\natmosphere exchange phenomena , a natural complement to this\nscience , and understanding of these phenomena is essential in\norder to be able to predict climatio variability over a longer\nperiod than is possible at the moment. In this way tools more\nat present could be made\nrigorous than those which, exist\navailable\nbalances\neconomio\nvarious\nof\nthe\n(particularly in agriculture) or to warn of the irreversible\nimbalances which human activity can bring about (the danger of\ntoo great a quantity of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere , for\nexample). planning\n\nfor\n\ncomplete\n\nunderstanding\n\nTo this end it will be necessary first to have available a fund\nof basic knowledge which is still lacking in order to arrive at a\nphysical\nof\nmore\nphenomena related to the ooean/ atmosphere link. To develop this\nknowledge will mean first of all continuous systematio and wide-\nscale observation of the ooean , with aooess to considerable\ngrid\nrescruroes\nsquaring ,\nand ,\nlastly , a capacity to analyse and assimilate the data which has\nbeen gathered. (satellite\nautomatic measurements via groups\n\ntomographic\nof buoys )\n\nremote measurement ,\n\nooean dynamics\n\nor\n\nThe very size of the problem and of the field in question has\nbrought about the implementation of huge international projects\nin which the European scientific community has played a large\npart. In this way major discoveries have been made (about energy\ntransfers for example ) which axe a promising basis for future\ndevelopments. beyond\nThe\nthe\nthe\nproblems\nNevertheless it\nCommunity 's geographical limits and interests. is very much in the Community 's interest to strengthen still\nfurther the scientific and technical potential it possesses in\nthis sphere. involved\n\nfield\n\nwell\n\nand\n\ngo\n\n346\n\n\f- 22 -\n\nCertain specific objectives should therefore be pursued :\n\nthe improvement of mathematical models to simulate\nintraooeanio flows ,\n\n-\n\na\n\ncontribution\n\nthe encouragement of cooperation between teams of\ndifferent disciplines (physical\noceanography and\nchemical dynamics by way of example) in order to\nmake\nof\nto\nconceptual tools facilitating the explanation of\nsuch basio phenomena as the nitrogen or carbon\ncycle at ooean/atmosphere level ;\nbuilding up the human resources\nfor\nresearch work in this field by giving aid for\ntraining and the recruitment of new researchers for\nexisting teams. development\n\navailable\n\nthe\n\nBiological aspects of earth sciences\n\nBiological processes exert an important influence on the global\nThi=> earth's ecosystems are highly vulnerable to changes\nsystem. in the external environment. The diversity that is to be found\nhas developed over billions of years and evolution can be\naocuratedly documented through the study of sedimentary rocks ,\nooean sediments and ioe-oores. The changes which have occurred\nin the climatio conditions Kay also be monitored in this way and\ntheir influence on the biota estimated. This knowledge is of\nvital importance to the understanding of recent changes. Tho distribution of life on earth is largely determined by the\nphysical climate system which in turns depends on the variation\non solar heating with latitude. The physical climate processes\nwhich Include circulation patterns , precipitation , evaporation ,\nvegetation etc axe currently being elucidated using satellite\ntechniques. The cycling of the principal chemical constituents of the earth\n(Carbon , Nitrogen , Sulphur and Oxygen) are all dependent at some\nstage on biological processes. This cycling ties in with the\nproduction of \u201cgreenhouse \u201c gases and determines the extent of the\nWhile satellite observations are a\npollution of the atmosphere. it must be\nuseful tool for studying hiogeochemioal cycling ,\nsupplemented by in-situ sampling. The distribution of rainfall , snow , evaporation and runoff on the\nChanges in\nearth governs the extent and productivity of biomass. land use can affect the global climate through hydrological\nalterations. 347\n\n\f- 23 -\n\nCurrent areas of investigation of the solid earth irvyiiv^ the\nstudy of continental deformation and evolution , the structure and\nconvective patters in the mantle and the dynawv-nvy;Ka-ni gm of the\nNew tools such as Very T^ng Baseline\nearth's core itself. Interferometry (VLBI) and satellite laser ranging are being used\nBy gaining an insight into\nto measure continental separation. plate deformation,\nearthquakes may be predicted with greater\nSatellites are now able to provide date for mrrfpig of\naccuracy. plate\nmantle\nestablish\ncirculation and tectonic activity. connections\n\nmotions\n\nbetween\n\nand\n\nThe source of earth 's magnetic field arises from the core , the\nBy studying\ndetailed structure of which is not yet well known. the earths' magnetic field the core 's structure may be elucidated\nand geological history calibrated. The evolution of the earth is closely interlinked with the\nevolution of life upon it and by continuing to study geology a\nbetter comprehension of the evolution of the Earth may be\nachieved. THE EXPLOITATION OF SPACE\n\nSpace can be tackled from a number of different angles\n:\nknowledge , getting there , using it as a field of human activity. At a national and/or multinational level (the ESA for example),\nall of these aspects are now being tackled and are the subject of\nconsiderable work. Nevertheless ,\nbearing in mind the Community 's scientific and\ntechnical objectives and the needs as well as the existing\npotential\nscientific\ncompetitiveness , a Community activity would seem to be both\nnecessary and opportune in one particular sector : the use of\nspace as a study medium. Europe 's\n\nfield\n\nterms\n\nthis\n\nin\n\nin\n\nof\n\nFor space Is , as a laboratory , something special. Whilst it is\npossible to create hypergravity situations\non earth it is not\npossible to create prolonged conditions of weightlessness. And\nalready micrograyity seems to be useful , sometimes even vital ,\nfor the study of many phenomena. 348\n\n\f- TA -\n\nTwo subjects are of particular concern in this respect :\n\n(a)\n\n(b)\n\nSpace biology and. medicine , which seems certain to\nbe at the origin of major practical spin-offs (so\nfar as biology and basic physiology are concerned ,\nthrough the knowledge that will be gained about the\ncosmio rays and gravity on living\neffects\nof\norganisms ). Dp to new the knowledge gained by (and\nfor ) space flights has made it possible to develop\natraumatio systems of measuring circulation the\nechotamographio study of organs , the use of which\ncan now be anticipated in hospital medicine. of\n\nnew\n\nstudy\n\nprocesses\n\nof\n( electrical ,\n\nunder\nphysioo-chemioal\nThe\nconditions of micro gravity and the discovery and\nspecial\ndevelopment\nproperties\nor\nmechanical ). Apart for these problems , which, are\nlinked to the development of raw materials in\nclassic\nalso\nimportant in this sector to improve our knowledge\nof the role of microgravity in materials science. \u201c terrestrial \"\n\nmagnetic ,\n\nconditions ,\n\nmaterials\n\noptical\n\nwith\n\nit\n\nis\n\nFor whilst gravity cannot have an influence\nideal\nstructure of a solid it certainly can on fluids. Furthemore as\nsolid materials are often prepared via a fluid phase ( steam ,\nmelting pot or solution) gravity might be expected to have an\neffect on the properties of the growth environment and hence the\nactual structure of a solid , that is to say its properties. on the\n\nBearing in mind the knowledge which is already available here ,\ntogether with its interest (both scientific and practical ) and\nthe promising prospects which these two sectors hold out , they\nseem to be excellent bets for the future and really ought to\nThis would mean\nbenefit\nsupporting\nthe\nwork\ntheoretical foundation now to hand , and it would also mean that\nthere would have to be adequate resources\n(both human and\nfinancial ) as well as the \" tools \" for weightlessness studies\n(towers , aircraft , rockets , satellites , orbiting space stations ). from an increased R & D effort. complement\n\nresearch\n\nbasic\n\nso\n\nto\n\nas\n\nand the U. S. S. R. Only the U. S. A. themselves posses all the\nnecessary facilities for this type of R 8f D. It would seem that\nthese two countries devote considerable resources to the field. In the Community only a few countries (acting on their own , via\nbilateral cooperation or collectively within the ESA) play any\npart in the exploration of this new area of scientific and\ntechnological investigation , and they only devote fairly modest\nresources to it , for a number of reasons. 349\n\n\f1\n\nAUJtEX 11\n\nSPACE\n\nits\n\n417\n\nand\n\n( COM\na\n\n88\nCoherent\n\ncommunication\nSpace :\n\n\" The\nIn\nCommunity\nCommission\nreviews Europe 's position in space , its strengths and weaknesses ;\nand activities\nit shows that , increasingly ,\nand vice-versa ; it\nhave a\nfor the Community\nconcludes that there is a need and opportunity\na role which\nto play\nmust\nthe national\nbe\nagencies. active role\nof\none\nthe\n\nfinal )\nApproach \",\n\nin space ,\nand\nESA\n\nof July 1988 ,\n\nthe evolving\n\nspace field\n\ncomplementary\n\nbearing on\n\na broader\n\nCommunity\n\nand more\n\npolicies\n\nthe\n\nto\n\nAs things stand , the overall verdict on Europe 's space activities\nwhich , by\nseems to be altogether positive : space\nfor\nestablishing\ncooperation ,\nsome\nthe Ariane launcher , Spacelab ,\nspectacular\nMeteosat , the Giotto\nEuropean Communication\nsatellite system. cooperation\nsuch\nmission ,\n\nESA ,\nthat\nsuccesses ,\n\narea in\nthe\n\nrapidly\n\nEurope\n\noutset\n\nthe\nand\n\nis an\n\nopted\n\nfrom\n\nhas\n\nand\n\nled\n\nthe\n\nas\n\nto\n\nin\n\nthe\n\nout\n\n1975\n\nEuropean\nCreated\nof\nthe European\ncooperative structures ( ESRO and ELDO ), the task of\nis to develop and promote , for exclusively peaceful\nSpace Agency\npurposes , cooperation among European states in space research and\napplications , with a view to their\ntechnology\nbeing used for\noperational space\napplications systems. scientific\n\npurposes\n\nmerger\n\ntheir\n\nspace\n\nfirst\n\nand\n\nand\n\nthe\n\nfor\n\nof\n\nof\n\ntheir\n\nfirst\n\nEurope\n\ngiving\n\ntechnology\n\nobjectives\n\ngeneration\n\ndeciding in\n\napplications\n\ntechnological\n\nprogrammes developed by the ESA amply\nThe\nand\nattained\nin particular through the Ariane launcher\nindustrial capability ,\nand\nthe\nand\nmeteorology ). By\nin 1987 to launch a new\ngeneration of programmes ( the heavy launcher ARIANE V , the Hermes\nthe international Space\nspaceplane ,\nfirmly\nEurope\nStation\nestablished its presence and its ambitions in the field of space. The new ESA long-term plan not\nthe continuity of\nthe scientific\nresearch programmes and the continued development\nof applications technology , but also represents a leap forward in\nboth qualitative and quantitative terms. participation\nColumbus\n\n( telecommunications\n\nonly maintains\n\nprogramme )\n\nThe Hague\n\nthrough\n\nand\n\nthe\n\nthe\n\nin\n\nHowever ,\nalongside\ntestify , Europe 's space effort\nweaknesses. Uhile\ndevelopment of\nmatching\n\nsystems ,\nencourage\n\nspace\nto\n\na great\n\neffort\n\nthe\n\nstrenghts\nalso\n\ndeal of\n\nwhich\n\nthese\na\n\nto\nsuffers\n\nsuccesses\nnumber of\neffort has been pu-t into the\nfor a\na\npotential\nthe\n\nstill\nof\n\nneed\n\nfrom\n\nthere\nexploitation\n\nis\n\n350\n\n\foffered by these techniques. 2\n\nits\n\nthe\n\nCommunication ,\n\ncan\nIn\nthe realisation of Europe 's ambitions in space and\ncontribute to\nfuture development\nproposes six action lines that will guide the\nof\nfield of space. These action lines\nin\nconcern R&D and also other aspects of space relating to Community\npolicies or competences ( industrial , commercial , legal , etc. ). Commission\n\nactivities\n\ndefines\n\nthis\n\nhow\n\nits\n\nit\n\nFor what\nareas\ntechnological development\nresearch effort of the space agencies. concerns R\nwhich\n\nCommunity\n\nthe Commission has identified several\nand\n( RTD ) could complement and support the\n\nresearch\n\nstrategy\n\n& D ,\n\nfor\n\nthe\n\nin. Improvement\n\n1\nprogrammes and those of the space agencies. synergy between\n\nof the\n\nthe Community technology\n\nand\n\nthe new\n\nESA programmes\n\n( Ariane V , Hermes and\nImplementation of\nacquisition\nof new\nColumbus in particular ) will\nknowledge\na number of generic\nfields also relevant to other industrial sectors : information and\nmaterials ,\ncommunications\nsafety of\naerodynamics , man-machine interface ,\ncomplex\nmedical\nsciences and technologies , etc. reliability\nenergy\n\nand\nsources ,\n\ntechnological\n\ntechnologies ,\n\nexpertise\n\nrobotics ,\n\ncontrol ,\n\nsystems ,\n\nadvanced\n\nquality\n\nthe\nin\n\ncall\n\nfor\n\nand\n\nprogrammes\n\nA comparative analysis of\nESA\nthe\nprogramme shows many points of\nCommunity programmes\nmedical and health\nenergy ,\naeronautical\n( Teleman )\n\nresearch ,\n\nseveral\n\nsector\n\nJRC\n\nand. convergence. the technological\nrequirements of the\nobjectives of the Community 's research\nnumber of\nA\nlarge\nEsprit , Brite , Euram , RACE ,\nprotection , non-nuclear\nthe\nhostile environments\n\nand\nrobotics\n\nprogrammes\n\nradiation\n\nnew\nin\n\nin\n\non\n\nprogrammes\n\nare concerned :\n\nof information\n\nRegular exchanges\nwith the ESA\nare therefore indispensable both at the planning level and in the\nresearch programmes so as to avoid duplication\nimplementation of\nthe technologies\nand facilitate use by\ndeveloped under Community programmes. and coordination\n\nindustry\n\nspace\n\nthe\n\nof\n\nThe space programmes also generate new knowledge and technologies\nthat could be used by non-space industries. space\n\nThe\nopportunities could\nCommunity\nthe\ninnovation. agencies'\n\nefforts\n\ntechnological\nbenefit from the experience and support from\ntransfer and\n\ntechnology\n\npromote\n\nexploit\n\nto\n\nto\n\nactivities\n\n351\n\n\f3\n\nSpace\n2. research. technologies\n\nand\n\nfacilities : tools at the service of\n\n2. 1\n\nStudy_of_our\nhuman activities. planet :\n\nclimate. environment\n\nand\n\nimpact of\n\nobservation\n\nEarth\ninformation for\nstudy\nof\nenvironment. the\n\nsatellites\nthe development\nof\nimpact\n\nhuman\n\na\n\nmajor\n\nare\nof climate\n\nof\nsource\nmodels and the ;\nactivities on climate and !\n\nremote\n\nThe development of new\ngradual establishment\nmake it\nplanet\nglobal\neffect and depletion of\nacquisition\nmanagement of our environment and of human activities. and the ]\nworld space observation network ;\nstudy of the !\nparticular greenhouse !\nto the :\nefficient !\n\npossible to\nits\n\nthe systematic\n\nleading\nmore\n\nlayer )\nthe\n\ntechniques\n\nknowledge\n\nplan for\n\nsensing\n\nchange\n\nozone\n\nvital\n\nof a\n\nand\n\nthe\n\n( in\n\nof\n\nto\n\nto\n\nmajor issues\n\nSince this is a problem that\nhas international implications\nand raises\nEurope must organize ,\nitself so as\nrole in !\ninternational\nareas\n( in\nparticular\nMission to\nrapidly define its objectives and\nPlanet\npriorities and set up the necessary mechanisms and resources\nenabling it\non a more even footing with the\nto participate\nUnited States and the USSR. for society ,\nactive\nrelevant\nGlobal\n\nconsistent\nthese\nand\n\nprogrammes\nIt\n\nplay\nprogrammes\n\nthe\nEarth ). Change\n\nmust\n\nand\n\nan\n\nto\n\ndefine\n\nConsultations with the parties\nto\ncoordinate efforts at\nthere\nrequirements of the scientific community. being pursued\nand\nensure that\nand\nbalance between space missions and the\n\nmodalities\nlevel\n\nconcerned are\n\nappropriate\n\nstimulate\n\nEuropean\n\nproper\n\nthe\n\nto\n\nto\n\nis\n\na\n\n2. 2\n\nMicrogravitv : encouraging preparations for\norbital infrastructure\n\nthe\n\nuse\n\nof the\n\non\n\nwhich\n\nUnited States\n\nand Japan , Europe is spending large\nan orbital\nthe\nexperiments , in particular ,\n\nLike the\namounts , mainly within the ESA ,\ninfrastructure\nwill\nopportunities\nin the fields of advanced materials and biotechnology. The ESA activities are focused essentially on the financing ;\na major additional effort is therefore needed to prepare for\nthe use of this experimental potential. Under existing research programmes the Commission intends to\nwill bring\nencourage\n\nup\nincrease\n\ncollaborative\n\nmicrogravity\n\nprojects\n\nsetting\n\ngreatly\n\nthat\n\nfew\n\nfor\n\na\n\n352\n\n\f4\n\nAt\n\nuser\n\ngroups\n\nvarious\n\ntogether\nsubjects. the\nconsultations with\norder to determine more\nand\na\nwider and\nactivities of the ESA and the Member States. promising\nwill\nits\nparties concerned in\npriority objectives\nCommunity programme , on a\nwould complement the\n\nfor\nmore ambitious\n\nprecisely\npossible\n\nsame\nthe ESA\n\nparticularly\n\nscale , that\n\nprocedures\n\nand other\n\ncontinue\n\ntime\n\nthe\n\non\n\nit\n\nResearch\n\n3. systems\n\nand\n\ndevelopment\n\nto\n\npromote applications of space\n\n3. 1\n\nEarth observation\n\nsensing\n\nThe Community is already active in this field with the JRC 's\nremote\nand\ndevelopment on methods and techniques for the interpretation\npilot projects to demonstrate applications\nof\nuseful\npolicies\n( agriculture , aid to development , environment ) and training. implementation\n\ndata ,\nthe\n\nCommunity\n\nprogramme\n\nresearch\n\ncovers :\n\nwhich\n\nspace\n\nto\n\nof\n\nThe Commission intends to broaden and expand its efforts not\nbut also to\nof its\nonly for the requirements\ncontribute to ensuring the optimal exploitation of the space\nsensing techniques in general. own policies\n\nAdditional\nparticular :\n\nactions\n\nconsidered\n\nnecessary\n\ninclude\n\nin\n\n- to\n\nstimulate\n\nthrough\n\nshared-cost\n\ncooperation and\ntechniques\nfor\ndata with particular\nusers. coordination\nprocessing\n\nattention\n\nin\n\nprojects , European\nmethods and\nand interpreting satellite\nof the\n\nneeds\n\nR & D\n\nthe\n\non\n\nto\n\n- to promote\n\n,\n\nin\n\nthe establishment of\n( in particular\nthe use of data produced by new types of sensors. the space agencies ,\nexperimental facilities\nairborne sensors ) needed to prepare for\n\ncooperation with\nEuropean\n\n3. 2\n\nT\u00e9l\u00e9communications\n\nR&D\n\nthe\n\nactivities\n\nThrough its\npromote\ndevelopment\nsystems , whether under the\ntechnologies\nfor\ntelecommunications\n( distance\nconcerning the adaptation of\nUorld Market. learning\n\nnetwork ),\n\na\n\nthe\n\nof\nRACE\n\nCommission\napplications\nprogramme\n\npan-European\n\nthe\n\napplications )\n\nintegrated\nDelta\nspecific\n\nnew\nor\n\nground equipment\n\nwill\nof\n\nhelp to\nsatellite\n( development of\nbroadband\nprogramme\nprojects\nto the Third\n\n353\n\n\fSCIENCE\n\n&\n\nTECHNOLOGY_POLICIES\n\nAND\n\nTRENDS\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nHEHBER\n\nSTATES\n\nANNEX 12\n\n354\n\n\f8 & T\n\nIN\n\nBELGIUH\n\nNov. 1988\n\n1. General policv objectives. At the beginning of 1986 the Minister for Science Policy declared\ncompared with\nthat spending level of Belgium for\nthe G. D. P. uas insufficient and Belgium had to catch up uith its\nneighbours and mainly uith its closest neighbour : Netherlands. R&D activities\n\nis\n\non\n\nthe\n\nthe\n\nhas\n\ntime\n\nmore\n\nchanged\n\nsituation\n\nmeans\ninvestments\n\nSince that\nemphasis\nindustry to increase its\nthan increasing\nin choosing\nshould become more selective\ninvestment\nnational\nsupport\nfundamental research uill be the subject\nA number\nhave been\nof measures\nstructure of the public financed\nstatute for government researchers. and the\nto encourage\nactivities rather\nthe public budget for research. Public financing\nresearch programmes to\nHowever ,\nprogrammes. of increased attention. devised to streamline the whole\na new\nR&D\n\nincentives\n\nincluding\n\nsomeuhat\n\ndrafting\n\npublic\n\nand\n\nR&D\n\nin\n\nAnother\nparticipation in European research programmes. science\n\npolicy\n\ntopic\n\nof\n\nis\n\nincreased\n\nBelgian\n\n2. Priorities. In the period from 1983 to 1986 , the\npriority\nfor\nindustrial and scientific potential :\n\nprojects\n\nareas\n\ndesigned\n\nfollowing were\n\nregarded as\nto \" mobilize \" Belgium 's\n\n- data processing ;\n- aero-space ( E. S. A. activities and new airliners );\n- neu materials ;\n- microelectronics ( mainly\n\nintroduction\n\nof\n\nmicroelectronics in\n\nSHE )\n\n;\n\n- t\u00e9l\u00e9communications ;\n- oceanography ( pollution control ). In these\nattention was paid to possible ways of\nintegrating national initiatives within the framework of a common\nEuropean approach. fields , special\n\nIn the\nprogrammes and these relate , among others , to :\n\nperiod since 1986 , more emphasis was put in \" stimulation \"\n\n- artificial intelligence ;\n-\n\n1 if e sc iences. R&D activities in space sector have also increased. 355\n\n\fThe following\nin Government funded research. table gives\n\nsome hints of\n\nthe shift in priorities\n\n2\n\nBr. fiaKdatfa-. af\u2013ex. 0vl3lanal R&D budgets bv objectives In 1 986 and 1 987 ( % ). Ob J ectives\n\nProvisional budgets\n1 986\n\n1 98 7\n\nExploration and exploitation of the earth\nInfrastructures and general land-use planning\nControl of environmental pollution\nProtection and improvement of human health\nProduction , distribution and rational\n\nutilization of energy\nAgricultural productivity and technology\nIndustrial productivity and technology\nSocial structures and relationships\nExploration and exploitation of space\nResearch financed from general university funds\nNon-oriented research\nOther research\n\nTotal financing of civil R&D\n\nDefence\n\nTotal financing\n\n2. 5\n0. 6\n2. 4\n2. 1\n\n10. 1\n7. 2\n16. 2\n0. 7\n7. 3\n22. 8\n20. 5\n6. 1\n\n98. 5\n\n1. 5\n\n3. 1\n0. 7\n2. 2\n3. 0\n\n9. 5\n7. 6\n12. 8\n0. 5\n9. 8\n22. 3\n23. 6\n3. 8\n\n98. 9\n\n1. 1\n\n100. 0\n\n100. 0\n\nSource : EUROSTAT : Government financing of R&D in Community countries. 3. impl\u00e9mentation. the\n\nGovernment\nR&D\nwith\n\n3. 1. Legal framework and institutional mechenlgJLS^-\nMinistries ,\nFor\nInterministerial\nconcerned\nbudget proposals which\nCommittee for\nannual \" programme \" through the Minister for\nare presented\nScience\nis\neventually taken by the Ministerial Committee for Science Policy. Science Policy\nin an\n\nfunded\nactivities. \" programme \"\n\nwith their\n\ndecision\n\ndifferent\n\nresearch ,\n\nPolicy. supply\n\nfinal\n\nthis\n\nThe\n\nthe\n\non\n\nfor Science\n\nThe Minister\nPolicy ( also Deputy Prime Minister and\nMinister for the Budget ) plays\nwithin the\nwith\ngovernment\ntechnological\nto whole\nHowever ,\ndevelopment. \" science budget \" because a significant part of this budget is the\nMinisterial Departments\ndirect responsibility of\nconcerned. coordinating\nscientific\ndoes\n\nto\ncoordination\n\ndifferent\n\nextend\n\nregard\n\nrole\n\nnot\n\nand\n\nthe\n\na\n\nfor\n\nIt must\nstructures\nthe\nresponsibilities in\namong the regions , the\nauthority. international R&D activities rests with the national authority. be noted that a recent law ( August 1988 ) sets up federal\nthe\nof science policy is shared\nto national\nand\nand\n\nthe formulation\nlinguistic\n\nresponsibility\n\nNevertheless ,\n\ncommunities\n\nCommunity\n\nBelgian\n\nState\n\npart\n\nfor\n\nand\n\nof\n\na\n\n356\n\n\f3. 2. Strategy and research bodies. 3\n\nfive\n\nThe\ncurrent\npolicy :\n\nfollowing\n\nstrategy\n\nfor\n\n\" action\nthe\n\nlines \"\n\nimplementation\n\nare another element in the\nscience\nBelgian\n\nof\n\n1. Increased support for fundamental research ;\n2. Increased cooperation between universities and industry ;\n3. Promotion of\n\ngreater private sector investment in R&D through\n\nState \" incentives \";\n\n4. Large scale coordination of\n\npublic\n\nauthority\n\ninvolvement in\n\nscience policy ;\n\n5. Maximum\n\nencouragement\n\nof\n\nparticipation\n\nin\n\ninternational\n\nprojects. Among the most important bodies implementing RD activities , other\nthan University research institutes are the following :\n\n- F. N. R. S. National\n\nFunds\n\nfor Scientific Research ( fundamental\n\nresearch )\n;\n- I. R. S. I. A. the\nResearch in Industry and in Agriculture ( applied research );\n\nencouragement\n\nInstitute\n\nfor\n\nof\n\nscientific\n\n- C. E. N. Centre for Nuclear radioelements. - I. R. E. Institute for radioelements. 4. National Resources. PersonneL ( 1\n\n)\n\nExact\nyears. It is estimated that :\n\nfigures\n\nR&D\n\nfor\n\npersonnel\n\nare not available for recent\n\nTotal\n32,000 units ( 1983 )\n\npersonnel\n\nR&D\n\n( full\n\ntime\n\n\u00e9quivalent\n\nf. t. e. )\n\n:\n\nabout\n\nAbout 10,000 units ( 1985 ) are scientists or engineers employed by\nindustry. New administrative measures are being prepared to give scientists\nopportunities to move from university to private industry without\njeopardising their career. 4 ,. 2 , FinppCljil pnegn ?\n\n( 2 1\n\nGovernment financing of R&D in 1987 : 673. 2\nbudget )\n\nHio ECU ( provisional\n\n( 1\n\n)\n\nSource : SPPS ( 1988 ). ( 2 )\n\nSource : OSCE ( 1988 )\n\n357\n\n\fas %\n\nDefence R&D\n( 1 987 )\nGross domestic Expenditure\n( est. )\n\n( 1985 )\n\nof total R&D Government appropriations :\n\nfor\n\nR&D\n\nCGERD )\n\n:\n\n1,542. 6\n\nMio ECU\n\n4\n\n1. 1 V. 5. international coop\u00e9ration. Senior\nofficials\nparticipation in present and\nfield of RTD is a priority element in Belgian research policy. that\nstate\ncooperation in the\n\nfuture European\n\nresearch\n\ncharge\n\nS&T\n\nof\n\nin\n\nof\n\nby\n\nthe\n\nEuropean\n\ncommitment\n\nSo ,\nimplemented\nparticipates\nnecessitate the allocations of appropriate resources\nlevel. Belgium\norganizations ( CERN , EMBO , ESA , Airbus 330-340 ). Belgium 's\nCommunities\nprojects ,\n\npotential\nto\nor\n\nrepresented\n\nEUREKA\n\nalmost\n\nall\n\nof\n\n27\n\nas\n\nin\n\nin\n\nis\n\nprogrammes\nto\nEUREKA\n( Belgium\n01. 07. 1988 ) will\nat national\n\ninternational research\n\n358\n\n\f1. General policv objectives. S & T\n\nIN\n\nDENHARK. Nov. 1988\n\nTechnology has\n\nScience and\nDenmark. mid-1980s in\nincreased in\nthe 1980-86\n100 ), one of the highest trends in the\nhave\n2. 28 X of GDP by the year 2000. period by\n\nResearch\n\nnational\n\nPublic\n\nbeen a\n\nglobal\n\na\n\nResearch\n\ntop priority\n&\n\narea since the\nDevelopment spending\nX per year ( 1980 =\naim is to\n& Development Expenditure of\n\nCommunity. The\n\nabout 8\n\nIn 1985 total R&D expenditure ( GERD ) amounted to\nthe GDP. This placed\nStates uith a medium degree of\nsame level\nIreland , Spain , Portugal and Greece. about 1. 26 X of\nof the EC Member\n( at the\nfor example ) but in a better position than\n\nR&D spending\n\nthe category\n\nper capita\n\nDenmark in\n\nas Italy ,\n\nR&D is performed\neducation sector\nreference to R&D expenditure\nlike\nexecution\ntowards the business sector. in\n( 24 X )\n\nindicates ,\n\nthe\n\nbusiness\n\nsector\n\n( 55\n\n% ),\n\nand in\n\npublic institutes\n\n1985\n\nfigures ). the\n\ntrend\n\nin\n\nThe\n\ntrend\nR&D funding ,\n\n( 21 X )\n\nthe higher\n( uith\nin R&D\na shift\n\nThe policy objective uith respect to research at universities and\nof higher education is to maintain freedom of\nother institutions\nresearch and a large measure of\nsame time\nautonomy , but\ndesired in the research and teaching world. To great\nchanges are\nextend , this demand for\nbudget planning\nand in terms of appropriations. reflected in\n\nchange is\n\nat the\n\n2. Priorities. The Government\nrelevant technical\nemphasis\npromising short or long terms economic prospects. intends to increase the collaboration between the\nto put more\ndevelopments areas uith\n\nconcentrated\n\nabroad , and\n\nbodies at\n\nhome and\n\ninputs\n\ninto\n\non\n\nThe newer initiatives include :\n\n- Encouragement of collaboration between\n\n- Implementation of co-ordinated development\n\nexpertise\n\nof\ngovernment co-financing\n\nin\n\nDanish trade\n\nvital to\ninter-ministerial\ninitiatives\ndevelopment and diffusion. support\n\neffort\n\nin\n\nlong-term\n\ntechnological\n\nenterprises and centres\nwith\ndevelopment\n\nof co-operative industrial projects ;\n\nprogrammes in areas\nand industry which call for a concerted\ncomprehensive\ngovernment\nresearch and technological\n\nand\nbasic\n\nof\n\nEmphasis will be put on :\n\n- Improvement\nplanning ;\n- Increased\n\ncoordination\neffort aimed at urban activities ;\n\nand\n\npriority\n\nof\n\nresearcher\n\ntraining\n\nand\n\nstrategic\n\nresearch\n\nsetting\n\nin the overall\n\n359\n\n\f- Statements on agricultural and fisheries policies emphasize the\nwhich primary production industries are\n\nincreasing\ndependent on development efforts in the processing industry. degree\n\nto\n\n2\n\noriented\n\nThe technology -\nin the\nmanufacturing\nfor 20 % of the country 's\ngiven to\nGDP. In the field of high technology , priority has been\nthe following topics : Information Technology , Materials Research\nand Basic Biotechnological R&D. is\naccounts\n\nconcentrated\n\nsector\n\nmainly\n\nwhich\n\nR&D\n\nThe break down of the public R&D funding by groups\nindicates the priorities of the Government. of objectives\n\nBreakdown of Provisional R&D budgets bv objectives in 1986 \u00bb nH 198 7\n\n< % )\n\nObj ectives\n\nProvisional budgets\n1 986\n\n1987\n\nExploration and exploitation of the earth\nInfrastructures and general land-use planning\nControl of environmental pollution\nProtection and improvement of human health\nProduction , distribution and rational\n\nutilization of energy\n\nAgricultural productivity and technology\nIndustrial productivity and technology\nSocial structures and relationships\nExploration and exploitation of space\nResearch financed from general university funds\nNon-oriented research\nOther research\n\nTotal financing of civil R&D\n\nDefence\n\nTotal financing\n\n1. 3\n2. 4\n1. 5\n3. 3\n\n6. 7\n7. 0\n20. 6\n4. 3\n3. 1\n29. 5\n19. 7\n0. 1\n\n99. 5\n\n0. 5\n\n1. 5\n2. 3\n1. 3\n4. a\n\n4. 4\n8. 5\n16. 2\n3. 6\n2. 6\n32. 1\n22. 3\n\n-\n\n99. 6\n\n0. 4\n\n100. 0\n\n100. 0\n\nSource : EUROSTAT : Government financing of R&D in Community countries. 3^ Impl\u00e9ment\u00e2t ion\n\nand\n\nThe\n\nResearch. Research in\nof\nEducation\nresponsible for\nIn fact each ministry has responsibility\nrelated\ncoordination\nResearch. The\nresponsible for the coordination\nthe EC\nfield of S / T. Denmark is mainly the responsibility of the Ministry\nis\ntechnological development in trade and industry. for supporting research\nThe\nand\nwithin this Ministry is also\nDanish participation to\nof the\nResearch and Demonstration Programmes , and to OECD in the\n\n( agriculture ,\nMinistry\nthe\n\nResearch Directorate\n\netc ). Education\n\nfunctions\n\nMinistry\n\nIndustry\n\nassured\n\nenergy ,\n\nits\nis\n\nby\n\nof\n\nto\n\nof\n\n360\n\n\f3\n\nis\n\nfunding\n\nThe trend in R&D\nEC Member\nStates , to more industrial financed R&D. At present , the business\nthe\nsector funds about\nThis places\nStates where the business sector\u2019s\nDenmark\nnational\ncontribution\nDevelopment\nspending\nGermany and in the\nthe\nin\nis\nNetherlands the share of this sector was higher in 1985. of\nMember\nglobal\nOnly\n\nthose\nto\nthe\nhighest. shifting ,\n\ncountry 's\n\nResearch\n\namong\n\nGERD. roost\n\nFR\n\nof\n\nas\n\nin\n\n49\n\nX\n\n&\n\nIn Denmark there are no giant manufacturing enterprises which can\nmost European countries. The\nprovide a\nas in\nof small and\nby enterprises\nmanufacturing Industry is dominated\nmedium\n80\nabout\nmanufacturers have a workforce of more than 500. \" technical drive \"\n\ninternational\n\nstandards. Only\n\nsize\n\nby\n\nnational\n\nThe\nnew\ndevelop\nindustries through a service network , development\nco - f inane ing. industrial\ntechnologies\n\nresearch\nto\n\nobjective\n\ndiffuse\n\nand\n\nof\n\nthese\n\npolicy\n\nis to\nrather small\nprogrammes and\n\nThe Developing Fund and g ove rnment P roduct D eve lopm e n t Gran ts are\nthe\nof\ntwo\ntechnological\nto the co-financing of\nenterprise development activities. administer\n\npromotion\n\ndevoted\n\njointly\n\nschemes\n\npolicy\n\nwhich\n\npart\n\nthe\n\nIn 1986 , the commitments\nMio\nDKr\nrespectively. approximatively half\nindustry. 40\nThe\n\n( about\n\nMECU )\nsum\n\nthrough these\n\nto 314\n21 MECU )\nrepresent\nthe total R&D costs of the Danish trade and\n\nschemes amounted\n\nschemes\n\nand\nof\n\n( about\n\ntwo\n\nthe\n\nDKr\n\nMio\n\n171\n\ninnovation. According\n\nTax Incentives are additional\nR&D and\nof research can be deducted from taxable income. from\nDecember\nexpenditures in the\nRACE , ESPRIT and EUREKA. promote industrial\nto a tax law from july 1981 costs\nnew tax law\ntax deduction for\nin BRITE ,\n\nprovides\nframework\n\ninstruments to\n\nparticipation\n\nfor\nof\n\na\nthe\n\n1987\n\n125\n\nX\n\nA\n\n4. N ati ona l B <? agy. r\u00a3s_s-\u00ab_\n\n4. 1. Human Resources ( 1\n\n)\n\ntotal\n\nThe\n( full time equivalent ),\n43 X , technicians and others 57 X. workers\n\nbroken\n\nR&D\n\nof\n\nin Denmark in 1985 was about 20,000\n: researchers\n\nfollows\n\ndown\n\nas\n\nThe industrial\nsector and the Government institutions about 25 X each. sector employed\n\nabout 50 X , the higher education\n\nThe number\n( 1985 ). of researchers\n\nper 1000\n\nlabour force\n\nequals to 3. 1\n\n( 1\n\n)\n\nSource : Danish research administration and OECD. 361\n\n\f4\n\nA. 2. Financial Resources. The Danish R&D funding in 1985 showed the following break down :\n\nBusiness sector\n:\nGovernment funds :\n:\nOther fund\n\n3,759 Mio DKr\n3 , 567 Mio DKr\n366 Mio DKr\n\n469 Mio ECU\n445 Mio ECU\n45 Mio ECU\n\n49 X\n46 X\n5 X\n\nTotal\n\n7,692 Mio DKr\n\n959 Mio ECU\n\n1 00 X\n\nSource : Danish Research Administration. The national\nECU ) in 1986. This corresponded to\nbudget\nbudget\nnational\nnational\nappropriated 0. 4 X of the\n( 1 986 )\n\nR&D budget amounted to 4,036 Mio DKr ( about 509 Mio\nnational R&D\na ratio\nGovernment\nof\ndefence R&D\n\n1. 55 X. budget\n\nof the\n\nThe\nto\n\nR&D\n\nthe\n\n( 1 ). to\n\nfinancial\n\nThe\npublic sector in 1985 came mainly from the\nand Research\nMinistry of Energy (7 X )\n\ncontribution\n\nthe Ministry\n\ntowards\n\n( 54 X ),\n\n( 2 ). the R&D Expenditure in the\nMinistry of Education\nof Agriculture (8 X ) and the\n\nFor R&D promotion in Danish\nof Industry\n1 / 4 of the public R&D expenditure. Estimates in\nprovided roughly\nthe 1987 Finance Act indicate 1,050 Mio DKr ( nearly 135 MECU ) for\nthis purpose ( 3 )\n\nMinistry\n\nindustry\n\nthe. 5. _International Coop\u00e9ration. of\n\nand\n\nresearch\n\nregardless\n\nco-operation\n\ntechnology\nsource ,\n\nrelies on the accessibility of\nDanish\nwide\ndependent\nand\nresults ,\nand\nInternational\nMio DKr\nlaboratories irrespective of nationality. About 5 X ( 225\nMECU ) of the national Research & Development resources are\nor 32\ninternational co-operation\nin\nattributed to\nincluding the\n& Development programmes. Furthermore\nthe participation in the Nordic research co-operation is of great\ninterest to the country. are\nresearchers ,\n\nthe\nEC Research\n\nparticipation\n\ninstitutes\n\namong\n\non\n\nEUREKA\n\nThe\nThe\nhighly\nGovernment 's Action Plan earmarks 110 Mio DKr ( about 14 MECU ) for\nparticipation in the period 1986-1990. Denmark participates in 27\nof the 213 EUREKA project ( situation as of 01. 07. 1988 ). welcomed\n\nDenmark. scheme\n\nwas\n\nby\n\n( 1 )\n\nSource : OECD. ( 2 )\n\nSource : Danish research administration. ( 3 )\n\nSource : OECD. 362\n\n\fS & T\n\nPOLICY IN FRANCE\n\nNov. 1988\n\n1. Objectives. The Government 's Research Policy can be summarized as follows\n- priority to industrial research ;\n- to maintain\nresearch ;\n\nincrease , in volume , the means for basic\n\nand even\n\n:\n\n- to encourage or develop\n\ncollaboration between\n\nfundamental and\n\napplied research ;\n\n- to encourage the involvement of the entire industrial sector in\n\nthe national research effort ;\n\n- to provide a reasonable support to\n\nthe \" grands\n\nprogrammes \" of\n\ntechnical development ;\n\n- to promote the development of european co-operation. During recent\nas percentage of GDP from 2. 01 in 1981 to 2. 31 X in\ntarget\ndesignated as a national priority. years , there has been an increase in R&D financing\n1985 and the\nby 1990. In France research has been\n\nreach\n\nto\n\nis\n\n%\n\n3\n\n2. Priorities. The on-going programmes give a clear indication of the prevailing\npriority choices. Programmes are of two main types :\n\n- technological development_Programmes ( PDT )\n\nto achieve large technological\naeronautics , telecommunications , electronuclear equipments ;\n\ngoals in\n\nwith the objective\nnuclear energy , space\n\n- national programmes\n\nwhich regroup\n\nand Technology Funds ( FRT ) and aim to promote\nbasic technologies through many industrial branches. the actions of the Research\nthe diffusing of\n\nare subdivided in thirty-three\n\nwhich\n\nnational\n\nprogrammes ,\n\nThe\npriority research actions , are the following :\n- Biotechnology\n- Alimentation\n- Medical research\n- Human and social sciences\n- Technology and production\n- Electronics\n- Research on land use & Transports\n- Natural resources\n- New materials\n- New chemistry\n- Research for development. 363\n\n\f2\n\nBreakdown of _pefl. V-l. sl on a 1 R&D budgets bv objectives in 1 986 and 1 987 c/. i\n\nObjectives\n\nProvisional budgets\n1 986\n\n1 987\n\nExploration and exploitation of the earth\nInfrastructures and general land-use planning\nControl of environmental pollution\nProtection and improvement of human health\nProduction , distribution and rational\n\nutilization of energy\n\nAgricultural productivity and technology\nIndustrial productivity and technology\nSocial structures and relationships\nExploration and exploitation of space\nResearch financed from general university funds\nNon-oriented research\nOther research\n\nTotal financing of civil R&D\n\nDefence\n\nTotal financing\n\n1. 5\n3. 2\n0. 5\n3. 8\n\n7. 1\n3. 6\n12. 1\n2. 9\n5. 8\n11. 8\n15. 1\n1. 6\n\n69. 0\n\n31. 0\n\n1. 4\n3. 2\n0. A\n3. 6\n\n6. 7\n3. 6\n10. 6\n2. 7\n5. 9\n12. 0\n14. 7\n1. 1\n\n65. 9\n\n34. 1\n\n100. 0\n\n100. 0\n\nSource : EUROSTAT : Government financing of R&D in Community countries. 3. Impl\u00e9mentation \u25a0\n\n3. 1. Leg al Framework an d Institutional Mechanisms\n\nthe\n\nyear ,\n\nEach\ngreat details\nTechnological Development \"\nde Loi de Finance ). in a\n\nR&D\n\nnational\n\nreport entitled\n\npolicy in France is described in\nof Research and\nthe annual Budget ( Projet\n\n\" The State\n\nannexed to\n\nSince June 1988 ,\na new Ministry for Research and Technology ( MRT )\nhas been created who is responsible for the S&T policy. The Space\npolicy is under\nTelecommunications and\nof\nMinistries have also an important rol e in animating\nSpace. Other\nscientific and technical activities. assumed by\nestablishment of the Civil\nMRT\nBudget for R&D ( BCRD ). Coordination is\n\nprocedure\n\nMinistry\n\nthrough\n\nPost ,\n\nthe\n\nthe\n\nthe\n\nof\n\n3. 2. Decentralization\n\nAmong the\nmention the following :\n\nseveral actions\n\nto promote\n\ndecentralization , one can\n\n- The\n\n\" Contrats\n\nde\nlinking\n\nagreements\nregions , have\nto the periphery. The central state\nmover. joint\nthe\nbeen devised to bring the decision making closer\nthe prime\n\nEtats-RSgions \". research\n\nwell\ninstitutes\n\nremains however\n\nPlan\nnational\n\nas\nwith\n\nas\n\n- The\n\nof\n\nnumber\n\nregional\ncentres ( CRITTs ) has been\nconcern\nregional industrial structure of small and medium-sized firms. technology transfen\nactivities mainly\nessential to the development of the\n\ninnovation\nincreased. and\nTheir\n\nwhich\n\nareas\n\nare\n\nto\n\nSome of the main actors for a concerted regional policy are\n- Regional Delegates\n\nand Techn ology_( D RB. T ) with a\nrole\nof the\nregions concerning the national policy ; to co-ordinate research\nand technological\ndevelopment activities at regional level ; to\norganize the technology transfer ; to encourage the diffusion of\nscientific and technical culture and information ;\n\nfor Research\ninformation\n\nawareness\n\npromote\n\nprovide\n\nand\n\n:\n\n564\n\n\f- The representation of research organisms in the regions. 3\n\nprincipal\nThe\nrepresentatives in\ndialogue between the different research partners. organisms\nin\n\nresearch\nthe\n\nhave\norder\n\nbeen\nto\n\nregions\n\nendowed\n\nwith\nfacilitate the\n\n3. 3 Industrial Research\n\nof\n\nterms\n\nresearch\n\nfinancing\n\nIndustrial research\nin France as compared to public research has\nnot yet reached a level similar to its main competitors , not only\nin\nby the companies , but also in\nterms of the share they are taking in research execution. This is\ndue to the fact that in France the public research centres have a\nlong tradition of being the main research actors and as such they\ncontinue to weigh heavily in the overall national R&D structure. In 1986 ,\nopposed to 57 X by the administrations and 58 X of the\nperformed\nenterprises\nadministrations. The largest share of the\nexpenditures on\nR&D came\ntechnology groups. the enterprises as\nwas\nthe\nincrease in industrial\nfrom big national enterprises and high\n\nfinanced by\n\nGERD\nby\n\nGERD was\n\nopposed\n\nof the\n\n43 X\n\nthe\n\nby\n\nas\n\nto\n\n42\n\nX\n\nresults\n\nANVAR has the mission to help companies to take more benefit from\ndevelopment programmes , and will\nthe\nof\ncompanies ( for which\nmore and more favour small and\nit devoted\nof its credits in 1987 ) as well as the creation\nof new enterprises. technological\n\nmedium size\n\n80 X\n\ncollaboration between\n\nLoans on favorable terms provided mainly by the ANVAR should help\nset up applied and goal oriented Research programmes with the aim\nto develop\nbodies involved :\npublic research establishments , industry or firms in the services\nsector , technical centres and research companies under contract. Such programmes should make it possible to allocate\nto sectors\nbeing felt. public funds\nthe need for strong research stimulation is\n\nthe various\n\nin which\n\n3. 3. 1. Direct Support to Industrial Research\n\nDirect support goes through\nby the\nthematic\n\" Fonds de la Recherche et de la Technologie - FRT \" mainly devoted\nto\n\" diffusing\nbasic\ntechnology \". technology ,\n\nprogrammes\n\nso-called\n\n\" generic \"\n\nfunded\n\nthe\n\nor\n\nThere has been a significant increase in direct aid to industrial\nresearch granted in the form of subsidies or repayable aids which\nfor\ngive\nthe\ninnovation projects or research presented by industrialists. establishments\n\npublic\n\nState\n\ntend\n\nits\n\nor\n\nto\n\nIndirect Support\n\nof enterprises\n\nThe tax credit in favour of research consists\nincome tax\nvolume , from one year to the\nceiling of 5 millions F. In 1988 , this ceiling of 5 millions francs will be raised to\nenterprises\ncases\n10 million\nresearch programme in collaboration with a university ,\ncentre , or another enterprise. reduction in\nX of the increase in\neffort , with a\n\npresent a\na research\n\nrepresenting 50\n\ntheir R&D\n\nnext , in\n\nfrancs\n\nwhere\n\nof a\n\nthe\n\nin\n\n365\n\n\fANVAR has proposed for Small Medium Enterprises ( SME )\naid in hiring high level researchers. For each\n150,000 F\nthe SME\nmoment of recruitment and the rest one year after hiring. a financial\nresearcher hired ,\n( 22,000 ECU ), half of it at the\n\nwill receive\n\n4\n\n3. 4. Research Training\nThe French government has devised the following mechanisms\n- Research grants\n\nthe\nresponsible for Research and higher Education\nby\n\ndirectly\n\nfinanced\n\ntraining\n\ndirectly\n\nfinanced\n\n- Aids\n\nby\n\n:\n\nprevious ministry\n\npublic\n\nresearch\n\nfor\norganisms\n\n- Industrial agreements for training by research ( CIFRE )\n- Centres for the technology training of engineers by research\n\n4. National Resources\n\n4. 1. Human Resources ( 1 )\nIn 1985 , there were 273. 014 people ( full time equivalent ) working\nin Research , from which 102. 336 researchers. Product\n\nDomestic\n\n4. 2. Financial Resources ( 2 )\nGross\nprices and exchange rates ( 1985 )\nGross Doraestic Expenditure for R&D ( GERD ) : 15,587. 4 Mio ECU ( 1985 )\nGERD / GDP : 2. 31 X (1 985 )\n:\nR&D Budget\nR&D Budget / National Budget\n\n( 3 )\n6. 34 X ( 1986 )\n\n674. 8 Billion ECU ( at current\n\n10273. 1 Mio ECU ( 1986 )\n\n( GDP )\n\n:\n\n:\n\nlow\n\nIn 1986 , 43 X of GERD was financed by enterprises. This figure is\nand Japan and that is the\nto\nconsidered\nreason why the strengthening of industrial research figures among\nthe top priorities of the French government. In\n32. 5 X of the total R&D government appropriations. financing for research in Defence represents\n\ncompared\n\n1986 ,\n\nR&D\n\nthe\n\nFRG\n\nas\n\n5. _International Coop\u00e9ration^\n\ngreat\n\nthe programmes\n\nFrance participates in all\nframework Programme. A\nimportance\noperation in R&D. Under\ninitiatives have so far been launched :\nthe\nGrowth\nNETWORKS ( Council of Europe , Paris 1984 ) and EUREKA ( July 1985 ). France participates in 105 EUREKA projects ( as of 01. 07. 1988 ). attached to the International co \u00ac\nthree international\n\nof Technology ,\nthe EUROPEAN\n\nInternational\n\nCo-operation\n\n( Versailles\n\nincluded in\n\nEmployment\n\nthe E. C. impulse ,\n\ndomain\n\nFrench\n\n1982 ),\n\n( TGE )\n\nalso\n\nand\n\nthe\n\nin\n\nis\n\na\n\nEuropean\n\nAmong\nfollowing can be mentioned\nSYNCHROTRON\nequipments ;\n\nRADIATION. cooperation. in\n\nwhich\n: C. O. S. T. ;\n\nFrance participates , the\nTHE EUROPEAN\nCERN ; ESA ,\nheavy\nother\nand\n\nFACILITY\n\n( E. S. R. F. )\n\n( 1\n\n)\n\nSource : Projet de Loi de Finances pour 1988. ( 2 )\n\nSource : OCDE\n\n( 3 )\n\nSource : OSCE\n\n366\n\n\fS & T\n\nIH\n\nTHE FEDERAL REPUBLIC OF GERMANY. 1. Gen er al policy objectives. Nov. 1988\n\nresearch\n\nScience ,\nand\nof the German economy 's\nthe S\nby the following closely interrelated precepts :\n- adherence\n\ntechnological development are a mainstay\nThe orientation of\ninnovative capacity. policy in the Federal Republic of Germany is directed\n\nresearch \"\n\nand\n\nprinciple\n\n\" freedom\n\n& T\n\nthe\n\nof\n\nof\n\nto\n\npromotion of individual initiative ;\n\n- accordance\nGovernment\nindustry and acknowledges \" entrepreneurial self-reliance \";\n\n\" subsidiary funding \"; the\nR&D in\nvis - S - vis\n\nthe\nwith\ntherefore\n\nprinciple\nacts\n\nrestraint\n\nwith\n\nof\n\n- a\n\npositive\n\nattitude\n\nto\n\ntechnological\n\nprogress and economie\n\ngrowth. in 1985. The country 's gross domestic Expenditure on R&D ( GERD ) was 2. 66 %\n1987 indicate a GERD of 2. 8 % of\nof GDP\nGDP. the comparable indicators\non the world market USA and JAPAN\nof Germany 's\nand ranks it in first place amongst its partners in the EC. These figures are very\n\nmain competitors\n\nEstimates for\n\nclose to\n\n^\u2013Prloritisa. In accordance with\nGovernment will focus on the following fields :\n\nguidelines\n\nand\n\nthe\n\nobjectives\n\nthe Federal\n\nIncreased promotion\nFederal and\nby the\nagreements. of basic research through joint financing\naccording to existing\nLander governments\n\nExpansion\nhealth , climate research ). \" preventive \"\n\nof\n\nresearch ( particularly : ecology ,\n\nPromotion of\nthe area of market-oriented technologies particularly :\n\nsubsidiary funding\n\nresearch and\n\nof industry in\n\n- information technologies and materials research ;\n- the completion of the Airbus family ;\non\n- biotechnology\n\nemphasis\n\ngenetic\n\nwith\n\nengineering ,\n\nmolecular biology and regenerative raw materials ;\n\n- selected\n\nphysical\n\ntechnologies\n\n( laser ,\n\nthin-film\n\ntechnology )\n\n;\n\n- regenerative energy technologies. basic\nImprovement\ninnovations in small and medium-sized companies. conditions\n\nfor\n\nthe\n\nof\n\nintroduction\n\nof\n\nStrengthening of areas of\n( nuclear fusion , polar research , apace research ). research\n\nwith\n\nlong-term prospects\n\nExpansion and intensification of international cooperation. Research\nresponsible\nimplication of technology. and\n\ndiscussion\n\nabout\n\nthe\n\nimpact and\n\n36 7\n\n\fThe percentage\nobjectives indicates the priorities\nGovernment. break down of the public R&D funding in groups of\nattributed by the\n\nwhich are\n\n2\n\nBreakdown of provisional R&D budgets bv objectives In 1986 and 1987 ( 7. )\n\nObjectives\n\nProvisional budgets\n1 986\n\n1 987\n\nExploration and exploitation of the earth\nInfrastructures and general land-use planning\nControl of environmental pollution\nProtection and improvement of human health\nProduction , distribution and rational\n\nutilization of energy\n\nAgricultural productivity and technology\nIndustrial productivity and technology\nSocial structures and relationships\nExploration and exploitation of space\nResearch financed from general university funds\nNon-oriented research\nOther research\n\nTotal financing of civil R&D\n\nDefence\n\nTotal financing\n\n2. 1\n1. 9\n3. 3\n3. 0\n\n10. 5\n2. 0\n14. 3\n2. 3\n4. 5\n31. 8\n11. 8\n0. 1\n\n87. 6\n\n12. 4\n\n1. 9\n1. 9\n3. 3\n3. 2\n\n8. 7\n2. 0\n15. 3\n2. 3\nA. 9\n31. 5\n12. 3\n0. 2\n\n87. 5\n\n12. 5\n\n100. 0\n\n100. 0\n\nSource : EUROSTAT : Government financing of R&D in Community countries. 3. Impl\u00e9mentation. The responsibility\nGerman S / T policy is partly with the\nLander Governments , which are\nresponsible\nthe universities\nFederal Government mainly with the\nwith the\nR&D , and\nand their\nFederal Ministry for Research and Technology ( BMFT ) which directs\nthe non-university R&D. for the\n\nfor\n\ndown the\n\nits policy the Government is\nIn laying\nsupported by independent institutions\nGerman Research\nSociety ( DFG ) , and the Max Planck Society ( MPG ). The link between\nscience and industry is provided by the Fraunhofer Society ( FhG ). guidelines for\n\nlike\n\nthe\n\nof\n\nR&D\n\ntasks\nand\n\nexpenditure ,\n\nResearch , development and innovation , which today\npart\nas\nnecessary\ngovernment\ncannot\ncompetition\nappropriate efforts\ngovernment 's\nenvironment\nperformance and growth. form the major\nfundamental and\nbetween\nof\nthe\ninternational\nindustry\nfinancing. The\nbe\nhave to be made by the firms themselves , the\nan\npolicy\nto\nprivate\n\nare\nfirms. that\novercome\n\nin\ngovernment\n\nthe\ninnovation\n\ncreating\nconducive\n\ndisadvantages\n\nconsidered\n\nagreement\n\ntask\nthat\n\nhaving\n\nR&D\nfor\n\nof\nis\n\nThere\n\nby\n\nis\n\nParticular importance however is attached to the role of the SMEs\nwhich , in\nthe Government 's view , are an important factor for the\nperformance and competitiveness of German industry. The promotion\nreductions\nis\ncontent\nof\ndevelopment\nindustry over the last years gives the following pictures :\n\nby indirect\u2013measures and tas. but the definition of the\nThe\nto\n\nin industry\non\nis\nappropriations\n\nof R&D\nbased\nR&D\nthese\n\nthemselves. concessions\n\nincentives ,\nleft\n\nfirms\ntax\n\nthe\nof\n\nand\n\nthe\n\nto\n\n368\n\n\fYear\n\n1 983\n\n1 984\n\n1 985\n\n1 986\n\n1 987 *\n\nGlobal Government Mio DM\ncontributions\n\nMio ECU\n\n852\n375\n\n982\n439\n\n1,185\n532\n\n1,258\n591\n\n1,139\n550\n\nSource : Bundesbericht Forschung 1988\n\n( BUFO )\n\n*\n\n: estimates\n\n3\n\nof\n\npromotion\n\nThe\nproduct groups focused mainly\ntechniques ,\ndevelopment of this spending ,\nf inane ino. are as follows :\n\nmicroperiphery\n\nR&D\n\nin\n\nspecific\n\nareas\n\nof technology or of\non microelectronics , manufacturing\nThe\nindirect specific\n\nbiotechnology. and\ncalled\n\nthe\n\nso\n\ncomponents\n\nYear\n\n1 983\n\n1 984\n\n1 985\n\n1 986\n\n1 987 *\n\nGlobal Government Mio DM\nspending\n\nMio ECU\n\n1 51\n66\n\n1 61\n72\n\n1 33\n60\n\n1 35\n63\n\n1 1 7\n57\n\nSource : BUFO 1988\n\n*\n\n: estim\u00e2tes\n\n4. National Resources. 4. 1. Human Resources ( 1\n\n)\n\nof researchers\n\nThe number\nin 1983. The total of R&D\nGermany in\nas follows : researchers 36 X , technicians 30 X , others 34 X. per 1000 labour force equalled to 4. 8\nRepublic of\n398,328 ( full time equivalent ), broken down\n\n1985 was\n\nworkers\n\nFederal\n\nthe\n\nin\n\nThe industrial sector employs by far the largest part of\npersonnel ( about\ntechnicians. An increase of\nregistered between 1983 and 1985 in this sector. the R&D\nX are researchers and 31. 4 X\npersonnel was\n\nwhich 34\n10. 3\n\n2 / 3 ) of\n\nR&D\n\nthe\n\nof\n\nX\n\nother sectors\n\nIn the\nthe R&D\nthis figure was slightly decreasing between 1983 and 1985. form the greatest part of\nare researchers but\n\nthe researchers\n\nthe universities\n\nstaff. In\n\n42. 7 X\n\n4. 2. Financial Resources ( 2 )\n\nR&D budget\n\nThe national\nECU ) in 1986. This corresponded to\nbudget\nto\nappropriated 12. 4\n( 1 986 )\n\nnational\n\nX of\n\nthe\n\nbudget\n\nthe national\n\namounted to. 21,375 Mio\n\na ratio\n\nof the\n\nof\n\n4. 2\n\n%. R&D budget\n\nDM ( 10,049 Mio\nnational R&D\nGovernment\nto defence R&D\n\nThe\n\n( 1 )\n\nSource : BUFO. ( 2 )\n\nSource : OECD ( provisional data ). 369\n\n\f4\n\ncountry 's\n\nThe\nrecent years , mainly the industry 's part\nexpenditure in\nover the last years. increased substantially in\ntotal R&D\ntables belou indicate the development\n\nexpenditure\n\n1987 ). The\n\nof the\n\n( 61 X\n\nhas\n\nR&D\n\nR&D expenditure share by financing sectors. Federal Government\nAs X of total R&D spending\nL\u00e4nder Governments\nAs X of total R&D spending\nIndustry\nAs X of total R&D spending\nPrivate non-profit inst. As X of total R&D spending\nTotal domestic financed R&D\nAs X of total R&D spending\n\nFrom abroad funded R&D\nAs X of total R&D spending\n\nSource : BUFO 1988\n\n1981\n\n1 983\n\n1 985\n\n1 986\n\n1 987\n\n26. 3\n\n25. 9\n\n24. 6\n\n24. 0\n\n24. 3\n\n16. 2\n\n14. 7\n\n13. 7\n\n13. 5\n\n13. 4\n\n56. 1\n\n57. 9\n\n60. 3\n\n61. 1\n\n61. 0\n\n0. 4\n\n0. 4\n\n0. 3\n\n0. 3\n\n0. 3\n\n99. 1\n\n98. 9\n\n98. 9\n\n98. 9\n\n98. 9\n\n0. 9\n\n1. 1\n\n1. 1\n\n1. 1\n\n1. 1\n\nministries , the\n\nOver 90 X of the Federal research appropriations\nfour Federal\nTechnology ( BMFT ),\nFederal\nMinistry\nMinistry of Education and Science ( BMBU ). The BMFT\n55 X of the funds in 1987. Federal Ministry\nMinistry of\nAffairs\n\nthe Federal\nEconomic\n\nare provided by\nfor Research and\nDefence ( BMVg ), the\nand the Federal\nsupplied some\n\n( BMUi )\n\nof\n\n5. _International Coop\u00e9ration. The Federal Republic of Germany , with its heavily export-oriented\neconomy , has a great interest in international cooperation. 1987\n\nfunds\n\nIn\nthe\norganizations amounted\nto about\nR&D appropriations. According to\ngovernment\n( about 630 million ECU ) in 1987. industry\n\nwhich\n\nwill\n\nand\n\nwent\n\nor\n\nabroad\n\ninternational\nto\n8 % of the Federal Government 's\nexpenditure from\nestimates the\nto some DM 1,700 million\n\namount\n\nThe Government\ntechnology\nindustrial and\npromoting R&D as another means of uniting Europe. attaches\nIt\ntechnological\n\nimportance\nsafeguarding\n\ncapabilities\n\ngreat\nsees\n\npolicy. by\n\nto\n\nEC\nEurope\u2019s\n\nresearch and\neconomic ,\ncoordinating and\n\nis\n\nas\n\nseen\n\neconomic\n\nactivities\n\na cooperation beyond national boundaries in\nEUREKA\nappropriate\npursued\nwhich\ncoordination. The German industry particularly wants standards to\nbe harmonized at an early stage and in parallel with research and\ndevelopment. are\nThe German\nparticipating in\nEUREKA\nparticipation\nwas estimated to 1,150 Mio DM\n( about 575 Mio ECU )\n\nfirms\n213\nthe\nprojects\n\n( as of June 1988 ). institutes\n\nof\nthese\n\nprojects. research\n\nGerman\n\nand\n\ncan\n\n66\n\nbe\n\nto\n\nby\n\n370\n\n\f3 & T_POLICY\n\nIN\n\nGREECE. Nov. 1988\n\nThe main objectives set by the 1988-92 National plan for research\nand technology are :\n\nof\n\nthe\n\nnecessary\n\ninfrastructure\n\nwith increasing\nthe creation of human research and managerial\n\nCreation of\nimportance to\npotential. Formulation\nagriculture , industry ,\nbe made to promote the development of high technology. Diffusion of S & T information ( creation of networks ). Promotion\ncooperation. Encouragement of innovation. in\nenergy , etc. Particular efforts will\n\ninternational\n\nspecialised\n\nprogrammes\n\ntechnology\n\nsectoral\n\ntransfer\n\nand\n\nof\n\nGERD as a percentage of GDP has increased steadily from 0. 21 X in\n1981 to 0. 35 X in 1985. The aim is to reach 0. 65 X in 1992. 2. Priorities. High priority has been given to :\n\nIndustrial research Development Programme ;\nSocial and human sciences ;\nInformation technology ;\nBiotechnology ;\nEnergy ;\nAgriculture. Breakdown of provisional_R&D budgets bv objectives in 1986 and 1 9 8 7\n\n( X )\n\nObjectives\n\nProvisional budgets\n1 986\n\n1 987\n\nExploration and exploitation of the earth\nInfrastructures and general land-uee planning\nControl of environmental pollution\nProtection and improvement of human health\nProduction , distribution and rational\n\nutilization of energy\n\nAgricultural productivity and technology\nIndustrial productivity and technology\nSocial structures and relationships\nExploration and exploitation of space\nResearch financed from general university funds\nNon-oriented research\nOther research\n\nTotal financing of civil R&D\n\nDefence\n\n5. 5\n0. 4\n3. 4\n9. 3\n\n2. 6\n24. 9\n8. 7\n6. 4\n0. 6\n26. 9\n6. 1\n2. 2\n\n97. 1\n\n2. 9\n\n1\n7. 0. 3\n2. 1\n7. 4\n\n3. 6\n26. 0\n11. 2\n7. 3\n0. 4\n25. 3\n6. 7\n0. 3\n\n97. 7\n\n2. 3\n\nTotal financing\nL\nSource : EUROSTAT : Government financing of R&D in Community countries. 100. 0\n\n100. 0\n\n371\n\n\f3. Impl\u00e9mentation. 3. 1. \u2013Legal Framework and i nstitutional mechanisms. 2\n\nlau\n\n( 1514 / 85 )\n\nThe\nof\non\nTechnological Research \" has been promulgated and\na\nthe\norganization of the R & T\neconomic development. Scientific\nand\naims at setting\nnew policy with concrete objectives and\nto Greece 's socio \u00ac\n\nactivities related\n\n\" Development\n\nfoundations\n\nfor\n\nthe\n\nis\n\nand\n\nThe General Secretariat for Research and Technology ( G. S. R. T. ) is\nEnergy and\nan autonomous body within\nthe Ministry\nthe\nTechnology\nimplementation\nand\nfive-year\nTechnological Development , the elaboration of new programmes , the\ndevelopment ,\npromotion\nand\nTechnology potential , the importing\ndevelopment of\nand exporting of know-how ,\nand coordination\nof R&D activities between the various actors. of Industry ,\ndrawing\nfor\n\ntechnological\nResearch and\n\nresponsible\nthe\n\nresearch evaluation\n\nand\nResearch\n\nactivation\n\nthe\nplan\n\nfor\n\nthe\n\nup\n\nof\n\nof\n\nThere are , however , other ministries that organise and fund their\nown R&D activities over which the G. S. R. T\nso far , any\njurisdiction. To improve consistency and to promote coordination ,\nall the competent ministries have participated in the preparation\nof the new Plan ( 1988-1992 ). has not ,\n\n3. 2. Research Centres and Universities. efforts\n\nthe larger possible\nIntense\nparticipation of Greece in programmes issued within the framework\nof bilateral agreements. attain\n\nmade\n\nwill\n\nbe\n\nto\n\nto\n\norder\n\nIn\nmade to draw a greater advantage from the\netc. and\nequipments by the research units and universities. the technical infrastructure , efforts are\nEEC programmes , FEDER ,\nefficient use of the existing research\n\nto make\n\nimprove\n\na more\n\nexception of\n\nUith the\nto choose the\nUniversities who\ntopic of their research , public financing of research centres and\ninstitutes will depend on their\ngrants from\nthird parties\n( specially from the EEC ), to work closely with the\nproduction sector , to contribute in the technological development\nof a greater national or\nof the\nsocial interest and to\nin the\ndomain of research. execute programmes\npromote the\n\ncountry 's reputation\n\ncountry , to\n\nare free\n\nability\n\nobtain\n\nto\n\nEfforts are made to institutionalize concrete research incentives\ntheir own initiative\nto researchers and technicians ,\nexternal\nwill\ncentre\nresearch\nthe\nfrom services ,\nsubsidies from financing organizations\nor selling of products. or\nor income\n\ninstitution\n\nwhich with\n\nbring\n\nto\n\nIn order\nCofinanclng Programme has been devised according\nEducation Institutions\n\nResearch closer to the production sector , the\nto which Higher\nTechnical Colleges ), or\n\n( Universities or\n\nto bring\n\n372\n\n\fresearch centres\ncan submit proposals for financial subsidies of\nsome research projects provided that they have previously managed\n30 X financing of the total cost of the project from a\nto obtain\nproduction unit or a social body. 3. 3. Industry^\n\n3\n\nUntil\nGreek\nrecently\ntechnological research\nout in\nState research\nproductive branches of the economy. have\n\nfirms\nin\nactivities , and the research work carried\noff from the\ninstitutions have\n\ninvolved\n\nbeen cut\n\nlittle\n\nbeen\n\nThe following\nresearch in the industry :\n\nmeasures have\n\nbeen adopted\n\nin order to encourage\n\nit\n\nlaw\n\nResearch\n\nsubsidy of\n\nProgramme ,\n\nIndustrial\n\nDevelopment\n\nit is\n40-50 X of the research work carried\n\nIn the\nforeseen a\nout by an enterprise. 1262 / 87 ,\nIn the\nestablishment\nor\nenterprises. There is a possibility\nresearch expenses from\nof deducting\nthe taxable sum and amortization of research equipment costs\nwithin three years ( Law 1731 / 1987 ). Financing\nOrganization for\nR & T. prototypes\nof\nhandicraft ( EOMMEX )\n\nGreek\nand the G. S. for the\nthe\nin\n\nlaboratories\n\nexpansion\n\nforeseen\n\ncreation\n\nSHE and\n\nsubsidy\n\nthe\n\nthe\n\nby\n\nof\n\nis\n\na\n\n3. 4. Technology Transfer. A new law 1733 / 22. 09. 1987 on \" Transfer\nand\nTechnological\naims to assist the\nand\nthe establishment\nrights which\nthis law. of Technology , Inventions\nbeen recently passed which\nInnovations \"\ntechnology transfer\ninto Greece ,\nfirms with\ndevelopment. The law provides for\ntechnological\nan\nindustrial property\nin charge of monitoring the application of\n\nof\nwill be\n\norganization\n\nendogenous\n\nfor\n\nhas\n\nselected industrial\n\nIn order to solve effectively the problems of technology transfer\nsectors and the linkage of research\nin some\nwith production , some\nhave been\ncreated\nto the existing SME in those\nfor\nsectors. assistance\n\ncompanies\n\ntechnical\n\nsectorial\n\ntechnical\n\n3. 5. _Patents and \" Know-how \". of\n\nand\n\nrole\n\npatents\n\nthe\nresults\n\nTo promote\nresearch\nnational legislation covering this\nthe\nmentioned\n1733 / 1987\nEuropean Patent Convention. In\nPatent Organization ,\nfor the development of the corresponding Greek Organism ( OBI ). of the\nthe\nthe enactment of\nabove and the ratification of the\nthe European\nwith\ncollaboration\nhas been formulated\n\nyear programme\n\nexploitation\n\nsector with\n\ninnovation ,\n\nmodernised\n\nGreece\n\na five\n\nthe\n\nthe\n\nlaw\n\nin\n\n373\n\n\f3. 6. Innovation. the Greek\n\nOrganization of Small and Medium Enterprises\nIn 1982 ,\nand Handicraft ( EOMMEX ) started a programme for the\npromotion of\ninnovation in the SHE in Greece. In this way a Central Innovation\nand Technological Development Directorate ( DIKTA ) was\ncreated as\nwell as 5 local offices of innovation in five different cities of\nGreece. 4. National resources. 4,1. Human Resources ( 1 )\n\nreverse\n\nNumber of researchers per 1000 labour force : 0. 8 ( 1983 ). To\ndetermined\nconditions in\nscientists who work abroad. is\nthe creation of the proper working\nthe eminent Greek\n\nwith\nattract back\n\nacute\nproceed\norder to\n\n\" brain-drain \"\n\nproblem\n\nsome of\n\nGreece\n\nthe\n\nto\n\nof\n\n4. 2 ^Financial Resources ( 2 )\n\n( at\n\n( GDP )\n\nProduct\n\nDomestic\n: 42. 8 Billion ECU ( 1985 )\n\nGross\nrates )\nGross Domestic Expenditure for R&D ( GERD )\nGERD / GDP : 0. 35 X ( 1985 )\nPercentage of GERD financed by industry : 26. 3 X ( 1985 )\nR&D Budget : 99. 5 Mio ECU ( 1986 )\nR&D Budget / National Budget : 0. 67 X ( 1986 )\nDefence R&D as a\n( 1 986 )\n\ntotal Government\n\ni of\n\n( 3 ). current prices and exchange\n\n: 148. 9 Mio ECU ( 1985 )\n\nappropriations :\n\n2. 7 X\n\n5. International Coop\u00e9ration. of Greece\n\nThe participation\nincreased substantially over the period 1984-1987 ,\nCommunity\nECU. Millions\ncooperation on\nR &\nfrom the Western and Eastern bloc. in the Community R&D programmes has\nand the total\nof 38. 6\nfor\nT exist between Greece and several countries\n\nsum\nagreements\n\nfor\nBilateral\n\nmultilateral\n\nfunding\n\nreached\n\nperiod\n\nthis\n\nand\n\nthe\n\nexample ,\n\nFor\nbetween Greece\ndwellings utilising\nconstructed in the Athens area. and Germany ,\n\nwithin\n\nseven\n\nthe\n\nframework\n\na unique\n\ndifferent\n\na\n\nof\n\nbilateral agreement\nsolar energy village ( 435\nhas been\n\nsystems )\n\nenergy\n\nAmong the\ncollaboration ,\nscientists\n60\nGreece participates in 8 EUREKA projects ( as of 01. 07. 1988 ). framework of bilateral\nof\njoint application programmes. activities devised\nX\n\nwithin the\nwill\n\nnumber )\nX\n\n( in\nother\n\nexchange\n\nconcern\n\nand\n\nthe\n\n40\n\n( 1 )\n\nSource : OECD. ( 2 )\n\nSource : OECD\n\n( 3 )\n\nSource : OSCE\n\n374\n\n\fS & T\n\nIH\n\nIBELAND\n\nNov. 1988\n\n1\n\nGeneral. Policv ,\n\nIrish\n\nfirst time. Science\nA Minister for Science and\n\nDuring\n1987\nreorganised. for the\nThe Ministry\nlocated within the Department of Industry and Commerce. Within a wide general programme of\nactivity ,\nIreland 's\ninstitutions were amalgamated. Technology\n\nof Science\n\npublic\n\nmajor\n\nand\n\nwas\n\nconsiderably\nTechnology was appointed\nand Technology is\n\nrationalization of Government\nscientific and technological\n\nT\n\nfocus\n\ntowards\n\naccompanied this\n\nGovernment has\nS &\nfirms in science and technology. At a time of\nMinister for\nadditional to earlier\nplayed a major part in the programme set out ( 1 ). widespread cuts\nGovernment expenditure the\nScience and Technology allocated \u00a3 2. 5 m ( 3. 2 MECU )\nIndigenous development\n\na shift of\na greater effort by indigenous\n\nreorganization with\n\nprovision. fostering\n\nbudget\n\nin all\n\n\" This programme :\n- will support\n\nthe placement\n\nof the\n\nbest and brightest science\n\nand engineering graduates in industry ;\n\n- will develop centres of excellence and applied research\n\nin our\n\nhigher education institutes ;\n\nand\n\nextend\n\n- will establish a national programme of technological innovation\nto\nschemes\nexisting\nadministered by the National Board for Science and Technology ;\n- Institute for Industrial Research and Standards to acquire much\nneeded test equipment so as to give Irish industry the range of\nservices needed in today 's circumstances. \"\n\nresearch\n\nenhance\n\ngrant\n\n2. Pr iorities. Strategic\n\nS&T\norientated\nEngineering , Advanced Materials and Information Technology as\npriorities. application-\nBiotechnology ,\n\nemphasizes\n\nidentified\n\nProgramme\n\nResearch\n\nresearch\n\nhas\n\nand\n\naims consistent with concentrating natural S&T\n\nAdditional Policy\neffort on indigenous firms are :\ni )\nii )\n\nincreasing the innovation rate in Irish enterprises ;\nof industry\ntackling the structural barriers\nbetter technological capacity and performance. which inhibit\n\niii ) developing a modern information and intelligence network. iv )\n\naccelerating the\ntechnologies. creating greater awareness of the importance\ntechnology and an improved climate for entrepreneurship. adoption and application of new industrial\n\nof science and\n\nNew Science and Technology Development Programme \"\nDr\nMinister\nDublin , 11th June 1987. Science\n\nCarthy ,\n\nfor\n\nMe\n\nS. and Technology ,\n\n375\n\nv )\n\n( 1\n\n)\n\n\f2\n\nvi )\n\nfunded S\n\nprogrammes\n\n& T\nservices in support of the innovation drive by\nand\n\nmobilising and optimising public and publicly\nagencies and\ncoordinated\nensuring\nbetween agencies by :\nsupporting mobility of personnel ;\nmaking efficient use of scarce national facilities ;\ngaining maximum benefit from international cooperation ;\nfocussing\npriorities ;\nensuring\nsuccessful outcome\ncapability of the teams. of\nassumed by good management and technical\n\nof technology assessed as\n\nselectively\n\nprogrammes\n\nprospects\n\nquality\n\nactions\n\nviable\n\nwithin\n\nareas\n\nwith\n\non\n\nof\n\nvii ) partic ipating wherever possible in collaborative R&D. The South East Region , one of the weaker regions in S&T , has been\ndeclared a pilot region for S&T related economic development. Table 1\n\nBreakdown of provisional RAD budgets bv objectives In 19B6 and 19B7 ( X )\n\nObjectives\n\nProvisional budgets\n1 986\n\n1 987\n\nExploration and exploitation of the earth\nInfrastructures and general land-use planning\nControl of environmental pollution\nProtection and Improvement of human health\nProduction , distribution and rational\n\nutilization of energy\n\nAgricultural productivity and technology\nIndustrial productivity and technology\nSocial structures and relationships\nExploration and exploitation of space\nResearch financed from general university funds\nNon-orlented research\nOther research\n\n0. 7\n3. 9\n0. 8\n4. 9\n\n1. 2\n27. 3\n26. 1\n8. 0\n1. 1\n23. 9\n2. 1\n\n0. 6\n4. 2\n1. 0\n3. 9\n\n1. 1\n24. 2\n27. 2\n10. 0\n2. 3\n23. 0\n2. 5\n\n-\n\nTotal financing of civil RAD\n\nDefence\n\nTotal financing\n\n100. 0\n\n100. 0\n\n-\n\n-\n\n100. 0\n\n100. 0\n\nSource : EUROSTAT : Government financing of RAD In Community countries. 3. Impl\u00e9mentation. In the\n1988 , the primary policy\nchanged. wide ranging changes conducted in 1987 and implemented in\nmanagement agencies were\n\nand resources\n\nBoard\n\nThe\nNational\nprimary S&T policy\nInstitute\nprimary S&T application agency - have been amalgated\nnew body EOLAS. for\nadvising\n\nand\nResearch\n\nco-ordination\n\nTechnology\n\nIndustrial\n\nScience\n\nand\n\nand\n\nfor\n\nagency\n\n( NBST )\n\n- the\nand the\n- the\nto form the\n\nStandards ( IIRS )\n\nForas\n\nTaluntais\n\nAn\nprimary agency for agricultural research and\nagricultural\ntraining\namalgamated to form the\nFood Development Agency. development\n\nTEAGASC -\n\nnew body\n\nAgricultural Institute - the\nthe primary\nACOT -\nagency\nbeen\nThe Agriculture and\n\n( AFT )\n\nhave\n\nand\n\nthe\n\n-\n\n376\n\n\f3\n\nof\n\nfunctions\n\nThe\nhave been either taken into the Dept of\nTEAGASC\nMedical Social Research Board\nsubsumed into the neu Health Research Board. Research Institute ( AFF )-\ngiven to\nfunctions previously carried out by the\nResearch Council were\n\nEnvironment or\n\nenvironmental\n\nand Medical\n\nEOLAS. The\n\nthe\n\nor\n\nfee\n\nS&T\n\nearning\nAll\nreturns. Dependence on fee\ngreater efficiency\nin the\ndanger , however , that non-fee earning developmental\ncurtailed at the expense of fee-earning activities. have been forced to seek higher\nincome\nresulted in\nundoubtedly\nprovision of S&T services. There is a\nwork will be\n\nservices\n\nhas\n\nreduction\n\nOverall\nresulted\nparticularly those which are not fee earning. in\ncurtailment\n\nexchequer\n\nfunding\n\ncertain\n\nthe\n\nof\n\nin\n\nof S&T activities has\nactivities ,\n\nS&T\n\n4. National Resources. 4. 1. Personnel < 1 >\n\nreductions\n\nmain\nS&T\npublic\nConsiderable\ninstitutes have also been sought\nIreland 's general\ndrive to reduce public expenditure in its attempt to overcome the\neconomic difficulties arising form its foreign debt. The number\n2. 8 X. Labour force is\n\nof researchers\n\nstaff\nas\n\nin Ireland\n\nat\npart\n\nper 1000\n\nthe\nof\n\nin\n\n2. Financial Resources. had a\n\nreal terms\n\nsmall budget\n\nincreased in\n\nspending departments. increase in 1987 despite widespread\nS&T has\nGovernment Expenditure\ncuts in most other\non S&T. 4 X per annum average from\n1981-87. Current expenditure on S&T increased by 3 X per annum in\nreal\nas X of GDP has\nremained around 0. 8 X of GDP. All of Ireland 's R&D expenditure is\nCivilian R&D. S&T\nincreased in S&T for the Manufacturing Sector. Table 2 provides pattern of expenditure. Expenditure\n\nAgriculture\n\nExpenditure\n\nEnergy and\n\ndeclined\n\n1985-87. However\n\nterms\n\nby 1\n\nhas\n\nand\n\nR&D\n\nin\n\nTable 2\n\nGOVERNMENT EXPENDITURE ON SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, 1982-1986 IRE MILLION\n\nVoted Current Monies\n\nVoted Capital Monies\n\nNon-Exchequer Monies\n\n1982\n\n(IRC m )\n\n213. 2\n\n342\n\n24. 4\n\n1983\n\n(IRCm)\n\n221. 5\n\n38. 5\n\n49. 4\n\n1984\n\n( IRC m |\n\n237. 7\n\n34. 4\n\n62. 9\n\n1985\n\n(IRC ml\n\n258. 9\n\n34 7\n\n70. 4\n\n1986 *\n\n(IRC ml\n\n( MECU )\n\n278. 4\n\n363\n\n46. 6\n\n73. 3\n\n61\n\n96\n\nTotal\n\n271. 8\n\n309 4\n\n33S. 0\n\n364 0\n\n3983\n\n520\n\n\u2022 Budgened expenditure\n\nSource NBST\n\n( 1 )\n\nSource : NBST Annual report. 377\n\n\fexpenditure ,\n\nCurrent\ncosts ,\nprovides a better guide to overall activity levels. Total current\nbetween 1985 and\nX in\nexpenditure increased\n1 986. represents\n\nreal terms\n\nmainly\n\nlabour\n\nby 3. 1\n\nwhich\n\n4\n\nin\n\nreal\n\nGovernment\n\nof\nthis\nbetween\n\ncomponent\nterms\n\nhowever ,\nhas ,\nand 1986 , with current\nThis decrease\nfunding had been matched by a real increase in non -\n\nThe\ndecreased\nexpenditure decreasing by 2 X and capital by\nin exchequer\nexchequer income of 68 X between 1981 and 1986. expenditure by\nIndigenous firms contribute one\nfirms in Ireland on R&D. In 1982 of 5,652 owned firms only 74 had\nformal R&D departments , only 231 conducted any R&D. expenditure\n1981\n\nthird\n\ntotal\n\n1 X. of\n\nThere was\nreduction\nAgricultural R&D\n17. 7 X since 1 981. a drop\nin\n\nin funding\n\nfor R&D\n\ndue almost\n\nGovernment\n\nexpenditure\n\nsupport\nhas\n\nthe\n\nfor\ndecreased\n\nentirely to a\nAgriculture Sector. terms by\n\nreal\n\nin\n\nGovernment support\nsteadily however\nover the\nsupport manufacturing is now the\nactivities. for R&D in the Manufacturing sector has grown\ngrowth of 99 X\nX. R&D to\nState R&D\n\n1986. GERD / GDP\n\n- recording\n\nis 0. 8\nof\n\nsince 1981\n\nperiod to\n\nfive year\n\nlargest\n\nelement\n\na real\n\nhigher\n\neducation\nfor\n\nThe\nGovernment\neducation block-grant\nEducation\nHigher\nresearch - support schemes. funds\n\nsector\nR&D ,\n\nfrom the\n\nAuthority ,\n\nwas\nindirectly\n\nthe other major recipient of\ngeneral\nEducation and the\nspecific\nthrough\n\nDepartment of\ndirectly\n\nthrough\n\nthe\n\nand\n\na\n\nsmall\n\nAs\ninternational S&T participation of\nparticipation. participates , it is very successful relative to population size. regards\nand seeks\nIreland\n\ncrucial importance\n\nperipherally\n\nprogrammes\n\nCommunity\n\neconomy ,\n\nlocated ,\n\nIreland\n\nwhich\n\nIn\n\nin\n\nIt regards the main benefits as enhancement of the scientific and\ntechnological competence by offering it :\nto\ni )\n\norientation\n\nand\n\nan\n\nmeans\n\nthe\ndevelop\nparticipation in the wider world of science ;\nopportunities for sharing\nprogrammes and facilities ;\nto\n\nscientific\n\nspecific\n\noutward\n\nmeans\n\ncosts\n\nthe\n\nof\n\niii ) the\n\nspecific research\n\nand\n\ninformation\nintelligence ;\nopportunities for acquiring technology through licensing and\nother methods of transfer. technological\n\ngather\n\nand\n\nand\n\ntechnical\ncommercial\n\nii )\n\niv )\n\naccess\nto\n\nIreland participates as of July 1988 in 6 EUREKA projects. 378\n\n\fS\n\n&\n\nT\n\nIN\n\nITALY\n\nNov. 1988\n\n1. General Policv Objectives. Scientific research\npriority for the Italian Government and business enterprises. and technological\n\ndevelopment are a current\n\nThe\nratio\nDomestic Product\nin 1988. Gross_domestic_Expenditure_\u00a3U_ _( GEPD ) / Gross\nfrom 0. 74 X in 1980 to 1. 40\n\n( G. D. P. ) increased\n\nThe overall objective is to increase the GERD for the next 4 or 5\nyears in a such way as to reach the ratio GERD / GDP value of about\ncountries such as\n2. 4 X\nFrance and U. K. other Community\n\ncomparable to\n\nthat of\n\nresearch\n\npersonnel. For\nsecond country\nhighest annual increase rate for researchers ( about 5. 9 */. )\nA particular effort will be made in training and recruiting young\nscientists for which a serious shortage\nin the near\nfuture. 1985 Italy was the\nshow the\n\n1969\ngeographical\n\nis foreseen\n\nbetween\n\narea )\n\nOECD\n\nthe\n\nand\n\n( of\n\nto. Italian researchers are also eager to develop more than before as\nmuch international cooperation as possible. The\nscientists\ncountries. percentage\n\nof\n\nscientific\n\npapers\n\nwith\n\nforeign\n\nco-authors\n\npublished\n\nItalian\nis the highest of all OECD\n\nby\n\n2. Priorities-\n\nSpecific priorities are set in the field of advanced technologies\nin order\nan edge to Italian industry in the competition\nfor supplying the internal and foreign markets. to give\n\nA major emphasis will be put on the following sectors :\n\n( micro -\n\ndata\n;\n\nprocessing\n\nbiotechnologies and fine chemicals ;\nelectronic\nelectronics )\nnew materials ( semi-conductors , ceramics , etc. )\nthermonuclear fusion ;\nbroadband t\u00e9l\u00e9communications ;\noptics and lasers ;\nadvanced transport ;\nsatellites and space crafts ;\nbiom\u00e9dical instrumentation ;\neducational training technique. and\n\nmolecular\n\n;\n\n379\n\n\fof\n\nfield\n\nresearch\n\nOne\nreduced in importance , viz ,\nnuclear fission because the majority , in a national referendum in\nposition towards the continuation of\na negative\n1987 , expressed\nelectricity production with\nof nuclear\nthe\npresent\nreactors. However ,\ncontinuing at a reduced scale on\nan \" intrinsically safe \" fission reactor. research is\n\ngeneration\n\nbe\n\nto\n\nis\n\n2\n\nThe\nbetween 1986 and 1987 in government funded research. highlights\n\nfollowing\n\ntable\n\nshift\n\nthe\n\nin\n\nthe priorities\n\nBreakdown of provisional R&D budgets bv objectives in 19B6 and 1 987 m\n\nOb j ectlves\n\nProvisional budgets\n1 986\n\n1987\n\nExploration and exploitation of the earth\nInfrastructures and general land-use planning\nControl of environmental pollution\nProtection and improvement of human health\nProduction , distribution and rational\n\nutilization of energy\n\nAgricultural productivity and technology\nIndustrial productivity and technology\nSocial structures and relationships\nExploration and exploitation of space\nResearch financed from general university funds\nNon-oriented research\nOther research\n\nTotal financing of civil R&D\n\nDefence\n\nTotal financing\n\n1. 1\n0. 9\n1. 0\n4. 4\n\n17. 4\n3. 7\n19. 1\n1. 1\n6. 9\n28. 6\n7. 0\n0. 4\n\n91. 6\n\n8. 4\n\n1. 4\n0. 8\n0. 9\n4. 5\n\n11. 1\n3. 5\n19. 1\n1. 2\n9. 3\n31. 9\n6. 6\n1. 9\n\n92. 2\n\n7. 8\n\n100. 0\n\n100. 0\n\nSource : EUROSTAT : Government financing of R&D In Community countries. 3. Impl\u00e9mentation\n\nSeveral ministries ,\nfor carrying out R&D activities. At present the\nresearch\npublic financed R&D. presented to\nMinistry\ntechnological research. research bodies and industry are responsible\nMinister for S&T\ncoordination power for the\nand now\nthe Parliament , will set up a\nand\n\nA\nthe other\n\nlaw ,\nbranch of\n\nresponsible\n\nUniversity\n\nscientific\n\napproved\n\ncertain\n\nSenate\n\namount\n\nhas\n\nthe\n\nfor\n\nand\n\nthe\n\nby\n\nof\n\na\n\nfor University\n\nThe Minister\nresearch will have his own\nbudget and should be in a position to coordinate the whole public\nfinanced R&D\nguidelines for the private\nfunded research via fiscal and other incentives to industry. activities and\n\nto draw\n\nand S&T\n\nThe most Important\nwhich\nhas\nItalian economy , is the C. I. P. E. ( Intermlnisterial\nEconomic\npermanent member of C. I. P. E. body\nministerial level ,\nin all matter concerning the\nCommittee for\nMinister , above quoted , will be a\n\ndecision-making\ncompetence\n\nPlanning ). overall\n\nnew\n\nThe\n\nat\n\nan\n\n380\n\n\f3\n\nthe\n\nAmong\nInstitutes , responsible for\ncan be quoted :\n\nlargest\n\nbodies ,\n\ncarrying out\n\nother\n\nUniversity\nresearch , the following\n\nthan\n\n( National\n\nC. N. R. ( National Research Council )\nNuclear\nI. N. F. N. responsible for research in high energy physics ;\nA. S. I. ( Italian Space Agency ) established in June 1988 ;\nI. S. S. ( Central Institute for Public Health )\nR&D of\nE. N. E. A. ( National Organization for\nEnergy sources )\n\nInstitute\n\nfor\n\n;. ;\nNuclear and new\n\nPhysics )\n\nprojects\nreference\n\nThe\ntargeted\nresearch with\nadoption\nintegrated\nUniversities ,\nlocal administrative bodies. scientific\nC. N. R. ,\n\nof\n\nmulti-disciplinary\n\nto\n\nwell-defined\n\n(\" progetti f inal izzati \" ) promote applied\ninvolving the\nand having recourse to\nthe\nand other central , regional and\n\nskills\nindustry\n\ndifferent\n\nmethods\n\nlevels ,\n\ntopics\n\ne. g. at\n\nIn addition to the attainment of specific economic relevant goals\nthe targeted projects are concerned with the\nin the\nmedium - /long - term examination\nproblems affecting\nof\nproduction and social development. short term ,\n\nparticular\n\nas industrial R&D is concerned ,\n\nit must be noted that the\nAs far\ngeneral picture\nof the statistical\nindicators of industrial research reveals the tendency of Italian\naverage\nto\nto\nindustry\ntechnological content. the examination\n\nproduced by\n\npriority\n\nproducts\n\nhaving\n\ngive\n\nan\n\nshare\n\nThe\nthese last years been\nshare as a performer of R&D was about 57 X in 1985. in the formation of the GERD has\nbut industry 's\nX of\n\nR&D\nabout 50\n\nthe total ,\n\nindustrial\n\nof\n\n4. National Resources\n\n\u00e9 * l. i. Pe rso n nel ( 1 )\n\nTotal R&D personnel ( full time \u00e9quivalent f. t. e. )\n\n: 117,887 units\n\n( 1985 )\n\nTotal R&D Scientists and Engineers , Researchers\n\n( f. t. e. )\n\n: 63,759\n\nunits ( 1985 )\n\nNumber of researchers for 1000 labour force : 2. 7\n\n( 1 )\n\nSource : O. C. D. E. , Paris : Main S&T Indicators 1988. 381\n\n\f4\n\nof\n\nThe higher education system of Italian universities delivers only\none qualification in natural sciences and engineering while three\nand\ndegree\nqualifications\nuniversity\ntypes\ndoctorate ) are required\nmost Western\nin\nbeing\nfor\ncountries. In order\nthe\nplanned\nresearchers in the next five years. shortage of researchers forecast for\nyoung\n\n( diploma ,\nwith\n\nwith the\nis\n\nto cope\nyears\n\nrecruit\n\ncoming\n\n50,000\n\nline\n\nto\n\nit\n\n4. 2. Financial Means ( 1\n\n)\n\nGovernment financing of R&D in 1987 : 4,754. 5 Mio\n\nECU\n\n( provisional budget )\n\nDefence R&D as X of Total R&D Government Budget : 7. 8 X ( 1987 )\n\nGross domestic Expenditure for R&D ( GERD)in 1985 : 6,307. 3 Mio ECU\n\nGERD / GDP : 1. 33 X ( 1985 )\n\n5. International Coop\u00e9ration\n\nofficials\n\nSenior\nparticipation\ncooperation at\nfor maintaining Italian science\nmore advanced countries. that\ninternational\nboth European and non-European level is essential\norbit of\nand technology\n\nresearch\n\nprojects\n\nresearch\n\ncharge\n\nin the\n\nbased\n\nthink\n\nS&T\n\non\n\nof\n\nin\n\nin\n\nMoreover , there\nprogramme to international cooperation on a broad scale\na\ninternational programmes and national projects. attempt to open Italy 's science\nbut also\nand adjustments between Community or\n\ninteraction\n\nonly an\n\nis not\n\ndesire\n\nfor\n\nparticipation\n\nTherefore the Italian scientific world has expressed its interest\nfirst and second Community framework\nfor\nprogrammes mainly in\nas ESPRIT ,\nCommunity\nRACE , Fusion , BRITE and EURAM. the\nlarge\n\nactions\n\nsuch\n\nin\n\nItaly is\nparticipates\norganizations. present in\n\n59 EUREKA\n\nto\n\nEMBO\n\nand\n\nprojects ( as\nother\n\ninternational\n\nof 01. 07. 1988 ) and\nresearch\n\nItaly is\nof the European\nSpace Agency ( ESA ) and about one half the Italian funds for space\nresearch are allocated to the ESA projects. member of\n\nan active\n\nwell as\n\nCERN as\n\n( 1\n\n)\n\nSource : OSCE\n\n382\n\n\f1. General Policv Objectives. S & T\n\nIN\n\nLUXEMBOURG\n\nNov. 1988\n\nUp to 1987 all the R&D activities in the Grand-Duchy were carried\nby the\nout by private enterprises. to set up a certain\nParliament\nto\ngave\nnumber of Public Research\nwill be\nMoreover a certain amount of public\nfinanced\nby\nmoney is set aside for\nto train\nresearchers. A law approved in\n\nCentres ( PRC ). scholarships\n\nThese centres\n\nMarch 1987\n\nGovernment\n\ndesigned\n\nspecial\n\npublic\n\nfunds. power\n\nthe\n\nthe\n\nestablishment\n\nUith\nPRC the Government wishes to foster\nindustrial innovation through the transfer of research results to\nGovernment in the\nprivate enterprise. whole process of technological\nremain only and\nexclusively\nrole , with business enterprises\nmanaging entirely the function of innovating their products. Nevertheless the\n\ninnovation shall\n\nencouraging\n\nrole of\n\nas\n\nan\n\nof\n\n2. Priorities. The broad guidelines\nfinanced research\nand Innovation \" of the\nconsulted for advice. of\nare set\n\nthe\n\nscience\n\nthe publicly\nout by a special Commission \" Research\nGuilds are\nprofessional\n\npolicy\n\nfor\n\nand\n\nParliament\n\nimportant priorities\nOne of\nspecialised researchers in all fields. the most\n\nis the training of highly\n\nCooperation with foreign scientists is also considered of primary\nfields of coverage of the PRCs now\nimportance given\noperational. the limited\n\nParticular attention\ngathered\ninnovation. public\n\nin\n\nis\n\ndevoted\n\nto\n\nthe\n\ntransfer\n\nresearch\n\nestablishments ,\n\nto\n\nof results ,\nindustrial\n\nSp\u00e9cifie priorities are the following :\n\n- data processing and bureautics ( software );\n- raicro-electronics ;\n- biotechnology for the protection\n\nof the\n\nthe environment ;\n\nhuman health\n\nand for\n\n- new materials ( mainly for steel and chemical products , ceramics\n\nand composite materials ). \u00ce^Implem ent\u00e2t ion. and Technological\nThe Interministerial\nis\nDevelopment , whose\nresponsible for coordination and\nGovernment financed\nresearch and training scholarships. Moreover , this Committee acts\nfor scientific\nas an advisory body for the\nand applied research ( the Minister for Education and Youth ). for\nappointed by\nfunding of\n\nCommittee\nmembers are\n\nMinister responsible\n\nthe Government ,\n\nResearch\n\n383\n\n\fAt present\nPRCs are\nfour more are planned and they will be\nin the next four or five years. only three\n\noperational but\n\n2\nother three or\nprogressively established\n\nIndustry\ntotally\nresearch activities which are mainly\nsectors :\n\npresent ,\n\nis ,\n\nat\n\nresponsible for funding its\nabout ten\ncarried\n\nout\n\nin\n\n- steel , rubber and metal products ;\n- metallic building structures ;\n- chemistry , thermoplastics and pcwder metallurgy ;\n- electric house appliances. More than\none half\ncooperation with foreign firms. of the\n\nindustrial research\n\nis performed in\n\nThe new Government structure for fostering\nindustrial innovation\nset up measures and incentives to industry for investments in R&D\nactivities and in :\n\n- feasibility studies in SHE ;\n- prototypes ;\n- pilot plants ;\n- services processes ;\n\n4 , National resources. data\n\nStatistical\nactivities\nstatisticians , however\nset up , shall be in position to do so in the very near future. research\nsystematically collected by Luxembourg\nministerial structures , recently\n\n( expenditure\n\npersonnel )\n\nthe new\n\nnot\n\nyet\n\nand\n\nare\n\non\n\n5_. _International ce operation. authorities\n\nNational\ntheir interest for Community\nthis is\nthe PRCs of Luxembourg is also offered to foreign scientists. scientists have indicated\ncooperation and\ndemonstrated by the fact that the possibility to work in\n\ninternational\n\nLuxembourg\n\nand\n\nand\n\nLuxembourg cannot be present in all the research\nchoice of\nthe need\nparticipation. so the\ninternational projects is imposed by\nby international\n\nparticipating in\ncomplement\nto\n\nnational\n\neffort\n\nfields\n\nthe\n\nLuxembourg 's participation in international programmes is limited\nto two\nto three EUREKA\nCommunity programmes , ESPRIT , and BRITE and to COST. projects\n\n( CERISE ,\n\nIQ133 ),\n\nCOSINE\n\nand\n\n384\n\n\fS & I\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nNETHERLANDS. Nov. 1988\n\n1. General Policv Objectives. The formulation of the Dutch science policy for the next 10 to 15\nyears will be determined by the following three issues :\n\n- Aspiration of a scientific basis in the 1990 's\n\nfor the benefit\n\nof its key societal functions. - Achievement of\n\nan important role in research in the process of\n\ninternationalization. - Endeavour for\n\na well\n\nbalanced development_and application of\n\nscience and technology at economic , social and cultural needs. R&D\n\ntotal\n\nexpenditure\n\nThe\nrecent years and will\n1988. This\nranks the\nMember States. The Netherlands will spend\n4,600 MECU )\nwith reference to 1987. the FR of Germany contribute more than 2 X of the GDP for R&D. increased remarkably in the\namount to\ncountry 's GDP in\nof the\nNetherlands under the high R&D spending EC\nGld ( about\nincrease of 3,7 X\nU. K. and\n\nNetherlands , France ,\n\nThis corresponds\n\n10,682 Mio\n\nOnly the\n\nin 1988. ( GERD )\n\n2. 4 X\n\nto an\n\n2 ^ Priori t les ,. share\n\nlargest\n\nThe\n( about\nexpansion\ntechnological\nSMEs , is a key target of the Dutch technology policy. performed by the private sector\ngeneral\nbase in industry mainly in the\n\ncorporations ). multinational\n\nThe\n\nR&D\n\nthe\n\nthe\n\n2 / 3\n\nby\n\nof\n\nof\n\nis\n\nConcerning the Government financed R&D five main issues have been\nset out in the 1988 plan :\n- fundamental and strategic research ;\n- replacement of and investment in research equipment ;\n- international orientation and cooperation ;\n- promotion of and innovation in specific research fields ;\n- throughput\nsociety. system and the\n\nknow-how\n\nresearch\n\nwithin\n\nthe\n\nof\n\nBeside the general priorities ,\nnumber of specific subjects or medium term trends :\n- Major developments in biology with emphasis on : biotechnology ,\nenvironmental problems ( cross -\n\nScience Budget\n\nthe 1988\n\nnotes a\n\nmarine and\necological research\nboundaries ), energy , healthcare. of\n\nthe\n\n- In\n\nfields\n\nfundamental and strategic research : high -\nenergy physics , neuro - inf orroat ic , geophysics , microelectronics ,\nInformation Technology , optical techniques and superconductors. science and humanities the gaps between\nto be\n\n- In medical / behavioural\n\nprofessional\n\nresearch\n\npractice\n\nhave\n\nand\n\nfundamental\nclosed. - The assessment\n\ndiffusion to these new technologies\nto avoid unforeseen consequence for society is a major concern. and public\n\n385\n\n\fThe percentage\nobjectives indicates the priorities which are\nGovernment. break down of the public R&D funding in groups of\nattributed by the\n\n2\n\nBreakdown\u2013fif provisional R&D budgets by objectives in 1 986 and 1987 m\n\nOb j ec t ives\n\nProvisional budgets\n1 986\n\n1 987\n\nExploration and exploitation of the earth\nInfrastructures and general land-use planning\nControl of environmental pollution\nProtection and improvement of human health\nProduction , distribution and rational\n\nutilization of energy\n\nAgricultural productivity and technology\nIndustrial productivity and technology\nSocial structures and relationships\nExploration and exploitation of space\nResearch financed from general university funds\nNon-oriented research\nOther research\n\nTotal financing of civil R&D\n\nDefence\n\nTotal financing\n\n0. 6\n4. 2\n3. 0\n2. 2\n\n4. 6\n4. 4\n14. 8\n3. 5\n2. 9\n43. 1\n9. 8\n4. 3\n\n97. 4\n\n2. 6\n\n0. 6\n4. 6\n3. 1\n2. 5\n\n4. 0\n4. 3\n17. 6\n2. 4\n2. 8\n40. 7\n10. 3\n4. 3\n\n97. 2\n\n2. 8\n\n100. 0\n\n100. 0\n\nSourc e\n\n: EUROSTAT : Government financing of R&D in Community countries. 3. Impl\u00e9mentation ,\n\nThe Government 's responsibility for S / T is borne by :\n\n- The Ministry\n\nas regards fundamental\nand long term research. This Ministry administers a large share\nof the Government financed R&D ( about 54 % in 1988 ). of Education\n\nand Science\n\n- The Ministry of Economic Affairs deals with innovation-oriented\nin 1 988 ). R&D and the different stimulation schemes ( about 24\n\n- Other Ministries are responsible for the\n\nsupport of particular\n\nresearch related to their functions. making is\n\nbased on a broadly structured network of\nThe decision\nadvisory bodies. Council for\nis\nScience and Technology , chaired by the Prime Minister. The Policy\nis partly market-oriented , aiming to improve competitive strength\nof the Dutch industry. prepared\n\nPolicy\n\nS / T\n\nthe\n\nby\n\nThe\nfollows :\n\nstructure\n\nfor\n\nR&D\n\nfunding\n\nand\n\npromotion is organised as\n\na ) Government-financed\n\nfundamental\nsubmitted to the principles of task-related funding. strategic\n\nand\n\nresearch\n\nis\n\nBlock grants apply for free research at the universities and\nOrganizations for\nthe research promoted by\nApplied Scientific Research ( TNO );\n\nthe Netherlands\n\n15 )\n\n386\n\n\f3\n\nSpecific grants\nprogrammes ;\nCustomer\ndesigned\nexceptional cases. provide for the performance of well defined\n\nprojects\n\nor\n\nconditional\n\nfunding\n\nare\n\nb ) Policy-oriented research\n\n( at specific research institutes ) is\n\ncontracted out by various ministries. c ) Innovation-oriented R&D schemes to stimulate the effort of the\nindustry are promoted by the Ministry of Economic Affairs. The\nare :\n\nprogrammes in this context\n\nimportant\n\nschemes\n\nmost\n\nand\n\n-\n\n-\n\n-\n\nThe INNOVATION\nprogramme ) focusses\nvolume amounted\nlabour cost , its financial\n( nearly 150 MECU ) for the 1984-1989 period. five year\nIt provides support to the R&D\nMio Gld\n\nSTIMULATION\n\non SMEs. ( INSTIR )\n\nSCHEME\n\nto 360\n\n(a\n\nTECHNOLOGICAL\n\nThe\nbearing loans at 5 % interest. DEVELOPMENT\n\nSCHEME\n\n( TOK )\n\noffers risk -\n\nThe SHE Business Research Programme ( OMK Project ) stimulates\nfirms to\ncarry out advanced research by granting about half\nof the project costs. The STIMULATION of BUSINESS-ORIENTED RESEARCH by COLLECTIVES\noffered 10 Mio Gld ( about 4. 3 Mio ECU )\nin 1987 ( for research\nand feasibility studies ). BUSINESS-ORIENTED\n\nThe\n( PBTS )\nspecific\nTechnology , Biotechnology and Medical Technology. STIMULATION\nsuch\n\nTECHNOLOGY\n\nfocuses\n\nareas\n\non\n\nas\n\nPROGRAMME\nIT , Material\n\nd ) The Government as purchaser and first buyer plays an important\n\nrole in the Dutch innovation stimulation policy. 4. National Resources. 4. 1. Human Resources ( 1\n\n)\n\nThe number\nThe total of R&D workers in the Netherlands in 1985\nabove 61,000 ( full-time equivalent ). of researchers per 1000 labour force was 3. 7 in 1983. was slightly\n\nThe\nmainly in the electrical and the chemical sectors. industrial\n\nemploys\n\nsector\n\nabout\n\nhalf of the R&D manpower\n\nThe\nDutch\nworkers in\nthe universities and technical universities. R&D\nR&D\n1 985. The overwhelming part ( 54 *4 ) carried out R&D at\n\nOrganizations\n\nPerforming\n\nemployed\n\n27,550\n\n( 1 )\n\nSource : OECD. 387\n\n\f4. 2. Financial Resources C 1 )\n\n4\n\nR&D budget\n\nThe national\nMio ECU ) in 1986. This corresponded\nR&D\nappropriated 2. 6 X of the\n( 1 988 )\n\nnational\n\nnational\n\nbudget\n\nthe\n\namounted to\n\nto\n\nbudget. to a\n\nratio of\n\n4,093 Mio Gld ( about 1,700\nthe national\n2. 4 \u20194. The Government\ndefence R&D\n\nbudget\n\nto\n\nof\n\nR&D\n\nThe trend\nmore\ncontribution\n50. 2 X to 55. 3 X ( estimate ). The total R&D expenditure by source of funds is given below :\n\nin R&D funding shifted , as in most EC Member States to\nit\nThis\nGERD between 1985 and 1988 from\n\nindustrial\nto\n\nR&D. country 's\n\nfinanced\nthe\n\nincreased\n\nsector\n\nPublic sector (% of total )\nof which\n\nUniversities\nOther public\n\nPrivate sector ( % of total )\nOthers IX of total )\n\n1 985\n\n1986\n\n1 987\n\n1 988 *\n\n43. 5\n\n41. 6\n\n40. 6\n\n40. 1\n\n18. 4\n25. 1\n\n51. 1\n5. 4\n\n17. 1\n24. 5\n\n53. 5\n4. 9\n\n16. 8\n23. 8\n\n54. 7\n4. 7\n\n15. 4\n24. 7\n\n55. 3\n4. \u00f3\n\nTotal\n\nMio Gld\nMio ECU\nas X of GDP\n\n9,119\n3,632\n2. 18\n\n9 , 909 1 0 , 297 10,682\n4 , 577\n4,412\n4,127\n2. 39\n2. 31\n2. 40\n\nSource :\n\nUetenschapsbudget\nSc ience\n\n*\n\n: estim\u00e2tes\n\n1989 ,\n\nMinistry\n\nof\n\nEducation\n\nand\n\nIndustry and Government are convinced that the high costs and the\nrapid succession of innovation cycles in new technologies require\nan\ninternational\nadequate\nEducation and\ncooperation. Science published a comprehensive report dealing exclusively with\n\" the Internationalization of Education and Research \". consequently\nthe\n\na\nMinistry\n\nbroad\nof\n\ncontext\n\nmarket\n\nthis\n\nand\n\nIn\n\nGovernment\n\nThe\nlines\nprogrammes\nindustry\nand\ncooperation beyond national border. with\noriented\n\nappreciates\n\nprogrammes\n\naction\n\nthe\n\nits\n\nshape\n\nand\n\nthe\n\nof\n\nEC\n\nthe\n\nFramework\nthe strong emphasis on\nthe\n\nwelcomes\n\nindustry\n\nThe Dutch\n550 MECU or 14,4 X\ncosts. The\ninvolved in 52 of the 213 projects ( as of 01. 07. 1988 ). participation in EUREKA is very important amounting to\ncountry is\n\ntotal project\n\nof the\n\n( 1 )\n\nSource : OECD. 388\n\n\fS & T\n\nIN\n\nPORTUGAL\n\nNov. 1988\n\n1. General Policy Objectives ,\n\nIn the\nR&D development were announced as follows :\n\nprogramme ( APRIL\n\nXI Government\n\n1987 ) the main goals for\n\nand\n\nmaximum\n\nutilization\n\nThe\nresources of every type ;\nPromotion of innovation ;\nNational\nknowledge ;\nPromotion of public expenditure\nexpenditure , in\ndeveloped countries ; creation\nscience and technology. contribution\n\nto\n\nthe\n\nvalorization\n\nof\n\nall national\n\nenlargement\n\nof\n\nscientific\n\nprivate\norder to bring Portuguese level towards other\nheading for\nnew\n\nas well\n\non R&D ,\n\nbudget\n\nas\n\nof\n\na\n\n2 , Priorities ,\n\nmethodology\n\nThe\napplied\ninstitutionalize a \" budget for science and\nexpenditure in this sector. A long\nother aims\nalso included in the Government programme. which must\n\nachieve\n\nlist of\n\nto\n\nthese\n\ngoals\n\nbe to\ntechnology \" to define\n\nwill\n\nbe taken into account is\n\nThey concentrate on :\n\nthe\n\nthe\n\nlinkage\n\nbetween\n\nquality\n\nresearch\n\nincrease greater\n\nresearch activity\n\nMeasures to stimulate and\nby Portuguese firms and especially within firms ;\nIncrease\neducation domain and firms ;\nImprove\nof\nopportunities for researchers ;\nStimulate and support the S&T r\u00e9gional demand ;\nStrengthen S&T information services and improve the technology\ntransfer process ;\nEncourage\nparticipation\nprogrammes , particularly EEC programmes. Seek research\n( Portuguese speaking ). programme opportunities\n\nwith African countries\n\ninternational\n\nPortuguese\n\nfacilities\n\npersonnel\n\ncareer\n\nS&T\n\nand\n\nthe\n\nthe\n\nin\n\nin\n\nBreakdown of provisional R&D budgets by objectives in 1986 and 1907 < % >\n\nObjectives\n\nExploration and exploitation of the earth\nInfrastructures and general land-use planning\nControl of environmental pollution\nProtection and improvement of human health\nProduction , distribution and rational\n\nutilization of energy\n\nAgricultural productivity and technology\nIndustrial productivity and technology\nSocial structures and relationships\nExploration and exploitation of space\nResearch financed from general university funds\nNon-orlented research\nOther research\n\nTotal financing of civil R&D\n\nDefence\n\nTotal financing\n\nProvisional budgets\n1986\n\n1 987\n\n10. 2\n8. 9\n3. 0\n0. 2\n\n5. 0\n14. 4\n7. 3\n0. 2\n\n9 0\n10. 5\n3. 4\n0. 2\n\n4. 7\n14. 2\n6. 2. 3\n1\n\n-\n\n-\n\n35. 5. 8\n1\n13. 5\n\n30. 5\n0. 5\n19. 5\n\n100. 0\n\n100. 0\n\n-\n\n-\n\n100. 0\n\n100. 0\n\nSource : EUROSTAT : Government financing of R&D in Community countries. 389\n\n\f3. Impl\u00e9mentation. 2\n\nthere has been considerable change and new investment\nSince 1986\nof the\nin Portuguese Science and Technology. Superior\nin\nconjunction with JNICT ( Junta Nacional de Investigacao Cientifica\ncontributes to the planning , global co-ordination\ne Tecnologica )\nand\nresearch\nof\nbalancing\npolicy. The establishment\n\ntechnology\n\nTechnology\n\nsectoral\n\nscience ,\n\nworking\n\nScience\n\nCouncil\n\nand\n\nand\n\nfor\n\nis under\n\nof the Ministry for Planning\nJNICT , which\nand Territorial Administrations plays a unique role in Portuguese\nS & T Policy since it simultaneously represents the \" supply \" side\nas well as the \" demand \" side of S & T\npromotes the\nbest interests of all , internationally and nationally. and steadily\n\nthe auspice\n\nAction Programmes. R&D\n\nintegrated\n\nfrom fundamental\nin industrial application\neffort to stimulate Portuguese scientific groups. The\nof the\nmedium-term\nits strategic position in the national\n\nprogrammes ,\nvalues\n\ndevelopment\n\ngoing\n\nthe\n\nby\n\nare\n\nThese\nresearch to increase research\nthrough an\naim of these programmes is\nS&T\ndevelopment. JNICT started by\nfields :\n\nlaunching\n\nselected\n\nfield ,\n\n\" action\n\nprogrammes \"\n\nfor horizontal\n\nBiotechnologies ;\nMicroelectronics , Informatics , Robotics ;\nMaterial Sciences and Technologies ;\nMarine Sciences and Technologies. These actions programmes are privileged instruments of scientific\npolicy , which enable through the co-ordination of human , material\nand financial efforts\n\nthe following actions to be undertaken\n\n:\n\nhuman\n\nresources\n\nof\nTraining\nprobations , training -;\nreinforcement of R&D strategy\nfor productive\nestablished , involving firms and universities ;\ntechnological\nto\nsignificance within the Portuguese industrial body. approach\n\nfields ,\n\nnew\n\nsectors already\n\nas yet with limited\n\nin three areas - scholarships ,\n\n( National\n\nLaboratory\n\nand\nLNETI\nTechnology )\nbetween\nresearch units , universities and firms and promotes the technical\nbase for development of high technology units. It devotes much of\nits research ( 60 X ) to industrial technologies. institution\n\nEngineering\n\nconnecting\n\nIndustrial\n\nresearch\n\nthe\n\nfor\n\nis\n\n390\n\n\f4. National Resources. 4,1. Personnel\n\n3\n\n2\n\nTable\nNational Research Laboratories and\nin Industrial and Agriculture Research. summarizes\n\nthe\n\nallocation of personnel numbers of the\nillustrates the concentration\n\nTable 2\n\nS&E Staff of the National Research Laboratories. Laboratories\n\nField of activity\n\nS&E Staff\n\nI N I A\nINIP\nLNIV\nLNETI\n\nLNEC\nI NMG\nIICT\n\nIH\n\nTOTAL\n\nAgricultural Field\nFishing\nVeterinary Sciences\nIndustrial and Energy\ntechnologies\nCivil Engineering\nMeteorology\nTropical\nSc iences\nHydrography\n\n296\n1 50\n1 03\n\n493\n300\n1 1 2\n\n1 50\n71\n\n1. 675\n\nSource : JNICT 1987. 4. 2. Financial Resources. ( Table 3 )\n\nR&D Expenditure\nto steadily increase it to reach 1\nhas been increased 4. 5 fold during the last four years. doubled 1985 's allocation with plans\n% of GDP by 1990. JNICT budget\n\nin 1986 / 87\n\nTable 3\n\nR&D Expenditure\n( end of period values )\n\nYears\n\nPubi ic\ninstitutions\n\nTotal\n\nAgainst\nprevious\nYear %\n\n7. GDP\n\nM Esc\n\nMECU\n\nM Esc\n\nMECU\n\n1 986\n1 987\n1 988 ( * )\n1 990 ( * )\n\n13. 470,4\n1 8. 554 , 3\n22. 108,2\n43. 136,0\n\n96 , 2\n115,9\n130,15\n227,0\n\n20. 440,7\n28. 440 , 7\n35. 370,7\n65. 456,8\n\n146,0\n175,9\n202 , 1\n344,5\n\n-\n\n37,7\n19,2\n\n-\n\n0. 47\n0. 57\n0. 61. 00\n1\n\n(*) Estim\u00e2tes. Source : JNICT. 391\n\n\f5. International Coop\u00e9ration. 4\n\na\n\nsmall\n\nrapidly\n\ndeveloping\n\neconomy , the need for external\nability to provide\n\nIn\ntechnology far outweighs its current national\nit and far outweighs its export of technology. H&D is increasing rapidly since\nInternational\nits\nthan\nPortugal\nparticipation in Community programme from 1986 to 1987 as well as\nsecuring EUREKA participation ( 13\nof 01. 07. 1988 ). established with U. K. ,\nBilateral S&T\nSpain , Germany ,\nScientists and\ninterchange\ntechnologists with Brazil in the last 3 years. in\nPortugal\n\nagreements have\n\nparticipation\n\nprojects ,\n\nalso been\n\ndoubled\n\njoined\n\nFrance\n\nmore\n\nand\n\nEEC\n\nand\n\nas\n\nan\n\nof\n\n392\n\n\f1 , Objectives. 3 & T\n\nPOLICY\n\nIN\n\nSPAIN\n\nNov. 1988\n\nnational\n\nThe\n( 1988-1991 )\ntechnological development focuses\nobjectives of general interest :\nof\n- improvement\n\nknowledge\n\nplan\n\nand\n\ntechnological development ;\n\nfor\nessentially\n\nscientific\non\n\nresearch\nand\nthe following\n\nprogress\n\nin\n\ninnovation\n\nand\n\n- conservation , upgrading\n\nand\n\noptimal\n\nexploitation\n\nof natural\n\nresources ;\n\n- economic\n\ngrowth ,\n\npromotion\n\nof\n\nemployment and improvement of\n\nworking conditions ;\n\n- development and strengthening of\n\nthe\n\ncompetitive\n\ncapacity of\n\nindustry , trade , agriculture and fisheries ;\n\n- development\n\nof\n\npublic\n\nservices\n\nand\n\nmore particularly those\n\nconcerning housing , communications and transport ;\n\n- improvement of health , social security and the quality of life ;\n- strengthening of national defence ;\n- protection and conservation of\n\nand historic\n\nartistic\n\nSpain\u2019s\n\nheritage ;\n\n- encouragement of\n\ncreativity , the development and dissemination\n\nof culture in all forms ;\n\n- improvement in the quality of education ;\n- adaptation of Spanish society to the\n\nscientific development and the new technologies. changes brought\n\nabout by\n\nGERD as\n\nIn Spain\n1981 to\nR&D\nincrease\ncomparable with the other advanced European countries. of GDP has increased from 0. 4 in\nis determined to\nlevels\n\nSpanish Government\n\na percentage\n\nnational\n\n1985. The\n\nfurther ,\n\nefforts\n\n0. 53 in\n\neven\n\nthe\n\nto\n\n2. Priorities. The first national plan defined three main priority areas\n- information and production technologies ,\n- natural resources , agricultural and food technologies ,\n- quality of life. The importance that has been attached\ndemonstrated by the following table :\n\nto these\n\n:\n\nareas is clearly\n\nBreakdown of provisional R&D budgets bv objectives In 19B6 and 1 967_Lii\n\nObjectives\n\nProvisional budgets\n1 986\n\n1 987\n\nExploration and exploitation of the earth\nInfrastructures and general land-use planning\nControl of environmental pollution\nProtection and Improvement of human health\nProduction , distribution and rational\n\nutlll2atlon of energy\n\nAgricultural productivity and technology\nIndustrial productivity and technology\nSocial structures and relationships\nExploration and exploitation of space\nResearch financed from general university funds\nNon-orlented research\nOther research\n\nTotal financing of civil RtD\n\nDefence\n\nTotal financing\n\n5. 3\n3. A\n0. A\nA. 0\n\n12. 3\nA. 9\n17. 1\n0. 9\nA. 8\n\n18. 1\n20. 6\n2. A\n\n9 A. 2\n\n5. 8\n\n7\n7\n0. 2\n2 0\n8. 6\n\n3. 1\n6. 7\n21. 5\n0. 9\n8. 8\n19. 8\n8. 5\n3. 3\n\n91. 1\n\n8. 9\n\n100. 0\n\n100. 0\n\nSource : EUROSTAT : Government financing of R&D In Community countries. 70 -;\nO sJ\n\n\f3. Policies and Impl\u00e9mentation. 2\n\nof\n\non\n\nset\n\nthe\n\nhas\n\nlaw\n\nlaws\n\nfor R&D\n\n3 _Legal_framework and institutional mechanisms. been recently promulgated to modernize and\nA\nand technological innovation. unify the legal framework\nThe\ndevelopment and general coordination of\n13 / 86\nscientific and technical research , amongst other things , provides\nfor :\ni ) the establishment\nand\nharmonizing the\nmedium term ;\ni i ) harmonizat ion and redefinition\nvarious public research centres ( OPIS ). for scientific research\ninstrumental in\neffort in the\n\ndevelopment\ncountry 's science\n\nand technology\n\nnational plan\n\ntechnological\n\nof the\n\nstatus\n\nlegal\n\nwhich\n\nof a\n\nwill\n\nthe\n\nof\n\nbe\n\nThe Interministerial Science and Technology Commission CCICYT ) is\npolicy and\nresponsible for the whole of the government 's science\nministries\nis\nnine\nresponsible for R&D activities\nfor Science\nand Education ) ;\n\n( chairman : Minister\n\nrepresentatives\n\nmade\n\nfrom\n\nthe\n\nup\n\nof\n\ninvolved\n\ninstitutions\n\nOther\npermanente ), the general council\nco-ordination\ngovernment ,\nconsisting from\nthe\njoint\nmonitoring\ngeneral secretariat for the national plan. are a standing committee ( Comision\nand technology for\ncentral\nand Technology\npublic and private sector ,\nfor\nand the\n\nof\nimplementation\n\nrepresentatives from\n\nAutonomous\nCouncil\n\ncommittee\nthe\n\nAssembly\nnational\n\nNational\nthe\n\n( Cortes )\nplan\n\nfor science\n\nCommunities\n\nAdvisory\n\nScience\n\nbetween\n\nfor\n\nthe\n\nthe\n\nand\n\nof\n\nalso\n\nhave\n\ngeneral\n\nSpanish\n\ncentral\nand\n\ngives\npromotion\n\nconstitution\nfor\n\ngovernment\nco-ordination\n\nthe\nThe\nresponsibility\nof\nscientific and technological research. However , the 17 Autonomous\nresponsibilities for scientific research\nCommunities\nown bodies\nand technological development and\nfor\nR&D\nmanagement\nplanning ,\ninstitutes have\nactivities. The various ministries\nalready transferred\nto the Autonomous Communities management and\nimplementation responsibilities for several research units , while\nmaintaining\nHowever ,\naccording to existing\nrelations are\ninternational\nthe exclusive responsibility of central government. up their\nimplementation\n\nplanning\nlegislation ,\n\nhave set\nand\n\nco-ordination. centralized\n\nand research\n\nthe\n\nand\n\nof\n\n3. 2. Education and training. The recently\nflexible legal\nencouraging\nthe\ntemporary\nresearch scientists\nor private bodies to receive supplementary remuneration. adopted law on university reform has created a more\nin universities ,\ncontracts with private companies and\nIt allows\nof\nscientists. on contracts concluded with public\n\nparticular\nrecruitment\n\nactivities\n\nframework\n\nresearch\n\nwho work\n\nR&D\n\nfor\n\nin\n\nVarious programmes\nmanaged not\nCommunities ,\nAutonomous\nalso\ndepartments and by private foundations. the Ministry\n\ntraining\n\nonly by\n\nfor\n\nthe\n\nthe\n\nby\n\nof\n\nscientific\n\nof Education\nby\n\nvarious\n\nstaff are\nand Science but\nministerial\n\n394\n\n\f3. 3. R&D in undertakinqs. This sector\nslightly over half the R&D carried out in Spain. ( public and private undertakings ) is responsible for\n\ni ) Public undertakinqs\n\n3\n\nde\n\nIndustria\n\nIn public undertakings roost research is done in\nNacional\nholding company although\ndirectives laid down by the government. sectors with the greatest intensity in R&D are , first\nThe two\nthe defence and aeronautics industry with efforts often taking\nplace\ninternational co-operation framework and second\nthe motor industry. the Instituto\nwhich is an independent public\neconomic policy\n\n( INI )\nit\n\nsubject\n\nan\n\nto\n\nin\n\nis\n\nii ) Private undertakings\n\nby\n\n0,7\n\ntheir\n\nR&D\n%\n\nexpenditure\nof\n\ncompanies represented\nIn 1987 ,\nabout\nit was very unevenly\nturnover ,\ndistributed not only between different sectors but also within\neach sector. Tax\nincentives\ndeduction of 10% of\namount. companies consist of a\nthe taxable\n\nR&D\ntotal\n\ninvestment\n\nprivate\n\nprivate\n\nfrom\n\nbut\n\nfor\n\nR&D\n\nin\n\nThe technological\n\" concerted\ndevelopment projects\ndifferent forms\n\nplans \"\n\n:\n\ndevelopment programmes\nmainly\n\nfor companies known as\ntechnological\nat the pre-competitive stage. They take two\n\nintended\n\nfor\n\nare\n\n1. Research is carried\n\nout\n\nby\n\nthe\n\ncompany\n\nproject or\ncase the aid consists of an interest-free loan\n50% of the total cost of the research. in co-operation\n\nwith other\n\nthat\ncompanies\n\nproposed the\nin that\ncovering up to\n\n;\n\n2. Research is\n\ncarried out\n\nin co-operation with public research\ncentres , in which case funding may cover up to 50% of the part\nfor\nresponsible and 100% of the part\ncarried out by the public research body. The total funding may\nnot exceed 80% of the total cost. company\n\nwhich\n\nthe\n\nis\n\nhas joined\n\nSince Spain\nfor manufacturers to\ninnovation in\ncentres and with the\nmuch as 70% of the total. association with\n\nbenefit of\n\nthe Community ,\n\ninvest\n\njointly\n\nit is becoming less rare\nand technological\nuniversities and public research\nbe as\n\nstate funding\n\nwhich may\n\nR&D\n\nin\n\nnnovation. The Centre\nbody for the implementation\ninnovation\nagreements , has taken on\nthe Autonomous Communities. policy\n\nand ,\n\nfor Industrial Technological Development ( CDTI ),\n\nand\nthrough\n\ndevelopment\n\nof\n\na\n\nnumber\nof technological\n\nof\n\nthe role\n\nis a\nthe industrial\nco-operation\nadviser for\n\n395\n\n\fIn addition to several functions that it performs , it constitutes\nalso a sort of public\noperations on\nwishing to undertake\nfavorable\nextremely\ninnovation activities. specialized\nto\n\nin\ncompanies\n\nbank\nterms ,\n\nloan\n\n4\n\n3. 5. Technology transfer. The ratio of technology\nabout\n1986 ,\nrepresents 0. 34 of the GDP , almost half Spain 's\n\nimports to\n\ntechnology\n\n24. 4%\n\nand\n\nin\n\ntechnology exports\n\ntransfer\n\nwas only\nexpenditure\nR&D expenditure. enacted\n\ntechnology\n\nregulation\n\n1987 , has liberalized the purchase of\nA\ntechnical\nprovision\nforeign\nassistance for\nand abrogated earlier legislation. An administrative procedure of verification prior to transactions\nhas been set up for statistical purposes. the\nand\nSpanish firms\n\nforeign\n\nof\n\nin\n\n4. National Resources. 4. 1. Human Resources ( 1\n\n)\n\nIn 1983 , the number of researchers per 1000 labour force was 1. 0. In 1987 there were 19. 000 researchers ( full time equivalent ). 4. 2. Financial Resources ( 2 )\n\n:\n\n( at\n\n( GDP )\n\n0. 53 % ( 1985 )\n\nDomestic\nProduct\nGross\nrates )\n: 216. 2 Billions ECU ( 1985 )\nGross Doroestic Expenditure for R&D ( GERD )\nGERD / GDP\nR&D Budget\nR&D Budget / National Budget\nStrengthening of national defence is one\nset by\nappropriations\nappropriations in 1987. 801. 7 Mio ECU ( 1986 )\n\nrepresent\n\n5. 8\n\n( 3 )\n\nof\n\n%\n\n:\n\n:\n\n1. 46 % ( 1986 )\n\nmain objectives\nthe national plan and this is the reason that defence R&D\nGovernment\n\nof the\n\ntotal\n\nthe\n\ncurrent prices and exchange\n\n: 1,444. 4 ECU ( 1985 )\n\n5. _International coop\u00e9ration. has\n\nconcentrated\n\nSpain\nmainly on Europe ( both\ncountries ,\nEFTA\nwithin\ninstallations )\nLatin American countries. large\nand\n\nsome\n\nthe\n\non\n\nits\n\nbilaterally ,\nand\n\ninternational\nmainly\n\nco-operation effort\nthe Community\nwith\nCOMECON countries and mul t i 1 a t eral ly\nand\nthe developing countries , especially the\n\norganizations\n\nresearch\n\nEuropean\n\nEEC , in the\nSpain participates in all the R&D programmes of the\nAirbus programme , EUREKA programme\nEuropean Space\n( Spain participates in 55 EUREKA projects , as of 01. 07. 88 ), CERN ,\nEMBL , ESRF , ILL. Agency ( ESA ),\n\n( 1\n\n)\n\nSource : PLANI CYT\n\n( 2 )\n\nSource : OECD\n\n( 3 )\n\nSource : OSCE\n\n396\n\n\fS & T\n\nIN\n\nUNITED KINGDOM\n\nNov. 1988\n\n1 * General Policv Objectives. enhancing\n\nThe three main themes running through the UK Government 's support\nof civil science and technology are the importance of maintaining\ntechnology activities ;\nand\nscience\nincreasing the economic and social returns\n( including quality of\nlife ) from science and technology ; and better management , greater\ntechnology\nconcentration\nactivities. strengthened its\ncentral structure. science\nof\nconsiderably\n\nselectivity\n\nGovernment\n\nquality\n\nThe\n\nand\n\nand\n\nand\n\nhas\n\nin\n\nP riorities?,\n\nwill be\n\nUhilst there is an annual review of Government R&D Funding and in\na more centralised R&D focus in the public\nfuture there\nexpenditure survey ,\nGovernment R&D\noverall\nDepartment determines its individual R&D programmes\nbudget. Each\npolicy\nin the light of\nand priorities. The\nobjectives\nDepartment\nand Science has overall responsibility\nfor R&D in the higher education sector and Research Councils. own\nEducation\n\nthere\n\nU. K. its\n\nof\n\nno\n\nis\n\nIn addition , the Government has begun\npriorities across\nGovernment , defence\nview to increasing the contribution of\nthe\nUnited Kingdom. competitiveness\n\nefficiency ,\n\na searching\n\nreview of R&D\nas civil , with a\nR&D to\nand innovative capacity of the\n\nas well\nGovernment funded\n\nUhilst the \" searching review of R&D priorities \" is still underway\nit is possible to discern a number of broad policy assumptions as\nsuggested by the UK 's Chief Scientific Adviser. He drew attention\nto four broad assumptions :\n\n\"-\n\nsupport\n\nGovernment\n\nbetter industrial and commercial exploitation of science ;\nfocussing\ntechnology transfer ;\nadopting a more international approach to R&D ;\ncontracting out\nfor its\nintramural spending on\nrole. \"\n\nwhich Government requires\nown purposes and further concentrating Government 's\nintelligent customer\n\nfor industrial innovation on\n\nfulfilling\n\nmore of\n\nthe R&D\n\nan\n\nand placed\nof UK science. most importance on achieving much better exploitation\n\n397\n\n\fTable 1\n\nBJ\u00a3flkdown. Qf Provisional R&D budgets bv objectives in 1 986 and 1 987 ( 7. )\n\nObjectives\n\nProvisional budgets\n1 986\n\n1 987\n\n2\n\nExploration and exploitation of the earth\nInfrastructures and general land-use planning\nControl of environmental pollution\nProtection and improvement of human health\nProduction , distribution and rational\n\nutilization of energy\n\nAgricultural productivity and technology\nIndustrial productivity and technology\nSocial structures and relationships\nExploration and exploitation of space\nResearch financed from general university funds\nNon - oriented research\nOther research\n\nTotal financing of civil R4D\n\nDefence\n\nTotal financing. 7\n1\n1. 4\n0. 7\n3. 7\n\n4. 6\n4. 6\n6. 7\n1. 3. 8\n1\n14. 9\n6. 8\n0. 2\n\n48. 4\n\n51. 6. 7\n1. 6\n1. 5\n1\n3. 3\n\n3. 6\n4. 3\n9. 9\n1. 2\n2. 6\n15. 3\n3. 3\n0. 5\n\n48. 8\n\n51. 2\n\n100. 0\n\n100. 0\n\nSource,\n\n: EUROSTAT : Government financing of R&D in Community countries. The changes in\nmainly due to the increases allocated to industry and space. technological\n\nobjectives\n\ntaken\n\nas\n\na\n\nwhole is\n\nFor\ndevelopment of general research. industry ,\n\nincrease\n\nthe\n\nreflects\n\nalmost\n\nexclusively\n\nthe\n\ntend\n\nappropriations\n\nSpace\nmultinational coop\u00e9ration programmes. In contrast , funding for energy research shows a substantial fall\nwhich mainly\nin particular nuclear\nfission research. Finally , the reduction of more than 50 X in non-oriented research\nappropriations affects almost all disciplines. affect nuclear\n\nresearch and\n\ncommitments\n\nreflect\n\nunder\n\nto\n\n3. Impl\u00e9mentation. Government into central\nS & T structure has been strengthened by\nstructure within the Cabinet Office under the Prime Minister with\nACOST as expanded advisory\nScientific Advisor\n& T Assessment Office assists\nreports to\nPrime Minister. University Grants Committees\nDepartments , Research\n( UGC )\n\nin evaluating R&D expenditure proposals. Councils and\n\nThe S\n\nChief\n\nbody. The\n\nU. K. Government\nis determined to secure greater industry funding\nof R&D and also to ensure that industry takes more responsibility\nfor R&D. 46. 1 X of Gross Expenditure on R&D in 1985 was funded by\nindustry. Virtually all \" near-market \" research\ncommercial\nsubject\nresponsibility of industry. judgement\n\nof\n\ninitiatives , should\n\nand\n\ntherefore\n\nbe the\nshould be the\n\n398\n\n\fand\n\nmedium\n\nresearch\n\nthere is\n\nresearch. long-term\n\nGovernment\n\nla\nresponsibility ; however\nresearch as a long term investment option. Basic\nGovernment. Government\nstrategic research , often in collaboration with\nits\nThe\nArts Committee Report 1986-87 , committed itself\nenhance the strength and quality of the science base \". responsibility\nof\nmajor role in funding\ngroups of firms. response to the Education , Science and\n\" to maintain and\n\nmore\na tendancy even here to regard\n\nentirely\nalso\n\nGovernment ,\n\naccepts\n\nalmost\n\nthe\na\n\nhas\n\nThe\n\nin\n\nis\n\n3\n\nCriteria used\nin 1987\n\nare 1. Internal Factors\n\ndistribution of the science budget revised\nTimeliness &\n\nExcellence\n\nof\n\n-\n\non the\n\nPervasiveness. 2. External Factors\n\n- Exploitabil ity , applicability\n\nand significance for education and training. 3. Financial Factors - Benefits and Costs. Concentration\nequipment\nSERC 's research grants goes to 16 universities. to\nof modern research. Two-thirds of\n\noccurring\n\nlocation\n\nexpense\n\nsubject\n\nwidth\n\nand\n\ndue\n\nand\n\nof\n\nis\n\nEmphasis has shifted\ncollaborative research. non-project support such as technology transfer schemes. Greater attention\n\nsupport to\nis also being paid to\n\nindividual\n\nproject\n\naway\n\nfrom\n\n4. National Resources. 4 1 1 , Human Resources in 3&T ,\n\n( 2,090\n\nengineers engaged\n\nof scientists and\n\nmillion population\nU. The number\ndevelopment per\nfor the U. K. J apan ). the U. K. tend to be quite small. One\nUniversities in\n3. 000 students. Approximately\nthird of University have less than\n70 X\nstudents. Only 8 universities , which\nincludes the very large ( London , Oxford and Cambridge ), have more\nthan 7. 000 students. in research and\nin 1986 is given ( 1 ) as 1540\nand 4,440 -\nUSA ,\n\nthan 5. 000\n\ngeneral in\n\nhave less\n\nGermany ,\n\n3,110\n\n-\n\n-\n\nTotal members\nbut this declined has now been halted. employed in R&D declined by 10 X from 1981 to 1985\n\n4. 2. General funding of R&D \u25a0\n\nTotal Government expenditure on R&D\ntable 2\nand 3 X of total Government expenditure. out in\nwas 6,745 MECU which represents 1. 3 % of GDP in the U. K. 1985 / 86\n\nset\n\nas\n\nin\n\nFunding of R&D has provoked considerable\nuniversities\nterm\nsubstantial reservations about Government policy funding. the U. K. The\nresearch projects have expressed\n\ndebate in\n\nlonger\n\nand\n\n( 1 )\n\nUNESCO Statistical Yearbook. 399\n\n\f4\n\nsome\n\nWhile\nof\nposition taking in advance of\nbeen a\ngrowing undercurrent\n\" inadequate funding of S&T \". reservations\nthe\n\nthe\n\nand criticism must be seen as\nthere has\nreview\nGovernment\nis felt to be\n\nover what\n\nof unease\n\nTable 2\n\nGovernment Exoenditure on R&D. Outturn\n\nEstim\u00e2tes\n\n1 984 / 85\n\n1 985 / 86\n\n1 986 / 87\n\n1 987 / 88\n\nCouncils\n\nTotal Civil Departments\nTotal Research\nUniversity Grants\nCounci 1\nTotal Civil\nTotal Defence\nTotal all Government ( net )\n\n1,610\n860\n\n1 , 068. 2\n3,537\n3,688\n7,225\n\n1 , 466\n788\n\n998\n3,252\n3 , 494\n6 , 745\n\n1,381\n801\n\n999\n3,185\n3,331\n6,518\n\n1,369\n869\n\n1\n, 040\n3,279\n3,410\n6 , 689\n\nSource : U. K. Annual Review 1987. 5. International coop\u00e9ration. a\n\nis\n\nand\n\nlong\n\nclear\n\nrecognised\n\ninternationally\n\nThere\nfor the U. K. to\ncollaborate\nThe\nbenefits\nof\nbe\nrisks\nparticipant\nconsiderable ;\nassociated with advanced technologies are more widely spread ; new\nmarkets are\nEuropean R&D can\nmore easily\nscale needed to compete with the US and\nJapan. easier to\nachieve the\n\non\nreduced ;\n\ntechnological\n\nestablish ; or\n\ncollaboration\n\ninternational\n\nopen and\n\nmatters. costs\n\nneed\n\nper\n\nare\n\nthe\n\nR&D\n\ncan\n\non\n\nThe U. K. Government supports international collaboration\nHowever , since\nmust be certain that collaborative projects make the\nscarce and valuable resources. in R&D. costs the Government\nbest use of\n\ncollaboration can\n\nalso add\n\nnew\n\nThe\ninternational\nDepartments of resources. central\n\ncollaboration ,\n\nstructure\n\nwill\nincluding\n\naddress\n\nthe\n\npriorities\n\nfor\nallocation between\n\nof collaborating\n\nA growing number of U. K. firms see their future in Europe , partly\nstimulated by initiatives like\nEUREKA , and recognise\nwith other European partners if\nthe importance\nthey are to remain competitive , open up market\nopportunities and\nexample by continuing\nsurvive -\ncommitment\nGovernments\nshared\nelsewhere. In EUREKA , the U. K. are particularly keen to encourage\nU. K. led projects. As of July 1988 , of EUREKA list\nprojects , the\nU. K. participate in 73 projects. perceptions which ,\nare\nEUREKA ,\n\njudging for\n\nESPRIT and\n\nfirms\n\nand\n\nby\n\nto\n\n400\n\n\fREGIONAL_TRENDS_LN _ SCXENCJL _&_ TECHNOLOGY\n\nANNEX 13\n\n401\n\n\fCommission of the European Communities\n\nSTRXBE\n\nSCIENCE km TECHNOLOGY FOR REGIONAL\n\nINNOVATION AM6 DEVELOPMENT IN EUROPE\n\nReport to the Community Programmes Division , D6 XVI\nof the Commission of the European Communities\n\nby\n\nTHE NATIONAL BOARD FOR SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY\n\nDUBLIN\n\nFINAL REPORT\n\nNOVEMBER 1987\n\nDocument\n\n402\n\n\fL\n\nEXECUTIVE\n\nSUMMARY\n\nTHIS STUDY WAS UNDERTAKEN ON\n\nBEHALF OF THE COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN\n\nCOMMUNITIES. PREPARATORY\n\nTO\n\nTHE\n\nINTRODUCTION\n\nOF A\n\nNEW\n\nCOMMUNITY\n\nSCIENCE\n\nINITIATIVE OF\nDEVELOPMENT\n( LFR\u2019S ) OF THE COMMUNITY. IN\n\nAND\n\nTECHNOLOGY\nEUROPE ( STRIDE ). AIMED AT THE LESS\n\nFOR\n\nREGIONAL\n\nINNOVATION AND\nREGIONS\n\nFAVOURED\n\nTHE\n\nOBJECTIVES\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nSTUDY\n\nWERE\n\nTO\n\nDETERMINE\n\nTHE\n\nRELATIVE\n\nTECHNOLOGICAL CAPACITY\n\nOF\n\nTHE REGIONS OF THE\n\nCOMMUNITY -\n\nAND. IN\n\nPARTICULAR. THE TECHNOLOGICAL\n\nDEFICIT\n\nOF ITS LESS FAVOURED REGIONS ;\n\nAND. ALSO. TO EVALUATE INTERNATIONAL BEST PRACTICES\n\nFOR\n\nGENERATING\n\nEFFECTIVE REGIONAL TECHNOLOGICAL CAPACITIES. IN ADDITION. THE\n\nSTUDY\n\nANALYSED\n\nTHE\n\nIMPACTS\n\nOF EXISTING COMMUNITY\n\nSCIENCE\n\nAND\n\nTECHNOLOGY\n\nPROGRAMMES ON ITS LFR ' S , AND\n\nSPECIFIES\n\nTHE\n\nCOMPLEMENTARITY\n\nBETWEEN\n\nTHESE\n\nPROGRAMMES\n\nAND\n\nTHE\n\nPROPOSED STRIDE\n\nINITIATIVE. ROLE\n\nFUELLING\nTHE\nECONOMIC CROWTH AND MODERNISATION IS NOT DISPUTED. EVEN IF THE PROCESS\n\nOF RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT ( RTD )\n\nIN\n\nBY\n\nWHICH\n\nTHIS\n\nTAKES PLACE IS COMPLEX. AND\n\nPRECISE\n\nQUANTIFICATION\n\nREMAINS ELUSIVE. THE STUDIES OF BC. H SCIENTISTS AND\n\nECONOMISTS ALL POINT TO THE SIMPLE\n\nREALITY THAT STRONG ECONOMIES ARE BASED ON RESEARCH AND\n\nTECHNOLOGY. RTD\n\n-\n\nRESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT - DESCRIBES A\n\nCOMPLEX\n\nOF\n\nACTIVITIES R HEATED TO THE GENERATION. ACQUISITION. TRANSFER AND USE OF\n\nTECHNOLOGY. IT\n\nINCLUDES\n\nRESEARCH. DEVELOPMENT. DEMONSTRATION ,\n\nTECHNOLOGY TRANSFER AND TECHNICAL\n\nINNOVATION. IT COVERS THE SPECTR'JM\n\nOF KNOWLEDGE GENERATION. TRANSFER AND APPLICATION. RiJD\n\nINTENSIVE INDUSTRIES ARE INNOVATIVE. PRODUCE MORE\n\nNEW\n\nPRODUCTS. HAVE RICHER LEVE1S CT\n\nPRODUCTIVITY. EXPAND THEIR EMPLOYMENT BASE MORE\n\nRAPIDLY\n\nAND ULTIMATELY ARE MORE COMPETITIVE THAN TRADITIONAL AND\n\nLOW\n\nTECHNOLOGY BUSINESSES. 403\n\n\fii\n\nFOR THESE REASONS THE STRONG NATIONS IN EUROPE AND THE WORLD. CONTINUE\nTO INVEST HEAVILY IN RTD. BASED\n\nACCEPTED\nSTRONG LOCAL ECONOMIES. IN MORE GENERAL TERMS. IT IS\nARE\nREGIONAL ECONOMY. NO LESS THAN THE NATIONAL\nNEEDS A CONTINUOUS PROCESS OF TECHNICAL CHANGE AND INNOVATION. THAT STRONG NATIONAL ECONOMIES\nTHE\nOR INTERNATIONAL ECONOMY. IT IS ALSO\n\nAGREED\n\nTHAT\n\nON\n\nOF\n\nTHIS\n\nPROCESS\n\nDYNAMICS\n\nACQUISITION BEHAVIOUR OF LOCAL ENTERPRISES , THEIR\n\nTHE\nTHE\nSOURCES\nTECHNOLOGY\nTECHNOLOGY WILL REFLECT THE UNIQUE\nOF SUPPLY AND MODES OF ACCESS\nRTD\nOF\nBUT , IMPROVEMENTS IN THE QUALITY\nTHIS ENVIRONMENT FOR LOCAL ENTERPRISES. EITHER IN LOCAL RTD GENERATING\n\nOF* THE REGION. ENVIRONMENT\n\nWILL VARY\n\nREGIONS. BETWEEN\n\nTO\n\nCAPACITY. OR IN THE TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER AND ASSIMILATION\n\nCAPABILITIES\n\nOF THE REGION WILL. CETERIS\n\nPARIBUS , HELP THE ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE OF\n\nLOCAL\n\nENTERPRISE\n\nAND\n\nHENCE IMPROVE REGIONAL AND\n\nNATIONAL\n\nECONOMIC\n\nPERFORMANCE. THE ECONOMIC PERFORMANCE OF A REGION\n\nIS. THEREFORE. A REFLECTION OF\n\nWHETHER\n\nITS\n\nENTERPRISES\n\nARE\n\nTECHNOLOGICALLY\n\nINNOVATIVE\n\nAND\n\nDYNAMICALLY GROWING , OR TECHNOLOGICALLY BACKWARD AND DECLINING. HOWEVER. MEANS THAT A CONFLUENCE OF MANY RTD FACTORS IS REQUIRED. NATURE OF THE DEVELOPMENT PROCESS\n\nCOMPLEX\n\nTHE\n\nOF\nREGIONS\nISOLATED RTD\n\nELEMENTS. WILL ,\n\nIN\n\nGENERAL ,\n\nNOT\n\nBE\n\nSUFFICIENT. THIS\n\nIS\n\nTHE\n\nINTERNATIONAL EXPERIENCE. OF\n\nROLE\n\nTECHNOLOGY IN THE DEVELOPMENT\n\nTHE\nINCREASINGLY RECOGNISED IN RECENT\nCONSEQUENCE. RAISING THE RTD POTENTIAL OF\n\nBECOME\nTHIS REPORT SHOWS THAT AS A\nAT\nREGIONS IN COUNTRIES SUCH AS THE USA AND\n\nINITIATIVES\n\nTHERE _HAS __ BEEN AN EXPLOSION OF\n\nREGIONS\n\nAT_MED\n\nYEARS. HAS\n\nOF\n\nJAPAN. IN THE U. S. 128. THE RESEARCH TRIANGLE OF NORTH CAROLINA AND SILICON VALLEY. ^0 STATES NOW HAVE LOCALLY DRIVEN RTD PROGRAMMES. MANY STATES TRY TO REPLICATE LOCALLY THE RESULTS OF ROUTE\nOVER\n\nUNIQUELY\n\nJAPANESE\n\nA\nDECENTRALISE TECHNOLOGY AND TO\nBASED LOCAL ECONOMIES OUTSIDE THE MAIN CITIES OF TOKYO AND OSAKA. TO\nIS\nTECHNOPOLIS -\nSTRONG SELF-STANDING TECHNOLOGY\n\n-\nBUILD\n\nEXPERIMENT\n\nDESIGNED\n\n\fiii\n\nIT\n\nIS\n\nNOT\n\nAIMED\n\nSIMPLY AT ATTRACTING INDUSTRY TO\n\nREGIONS. IT\n\nIS\n\nDESIGNED TO ACHIEVE THE MAXIMUM DEVELOPMENT\n\nOF EACH REGION 'S EXISTING\n\nRESOURCES AND SPECIALISATIONS. THERE ARE NOW 18\n\nRECOGNISED\n\nTECHNOPOLIS\n\nREGIONS IN JAPAN. EACH WITH\n\nIT 'S OWN INTEGRATED TECHNOLOGY BASED DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMME. IN CONTRAST. EUROPE LAGS BEHIND. THERE\n\nARE SOME EXCEPTIONS. HOWEVER. FRANCE. FOR EXAMPLE. HAS\n\nA LONG\n\nESTABLISHED POLICY OF REGIONALISATION\n\nOF RTD. IN ADDITION. THERE IS A\n\nNOTICEABLE TREND TOWARDS SPECIFIC REGIONAL RTD INITIATIVES EMERGING OF\n\nLATE WITHIN CERTAIN MEMBER STATES\n\nNOTABLY\n\nITALY. AT BARI IN PUGLIA. GREECE. AT HERAKLION IN CRETE , DENMARK AT HIRTSHALS IN NORTH\n\nJYLLAND. SPAIN AT CADIZ IN ANDALUCIA AND IN\n\nTHE\n\nSOUTH EAST REGION OF IRELAND. OTHERS ARE DESCRIBED IN THE REPORT. BUT THESE EXCEPTIONS APART. THE NATIONAL\n\nGOVERNMENTS OF MEMBER STATES\n\nHAVE\n\nNOT TO ANY SIGNIFICANT EXTENT RECOGNISED THE NEED\n\nFOR A\n\nSTRONG\n\nREGIONAL DIMENSION IN NATIONAL\n\nSCIENCE\n\nAND TECHNOLOGY POLICIES. AND\n\nWHILE\n\nMUCH\n\nOF\n\nTHE NATIONAL RTD\n\nINFRASTRUCTURE\n\nMAY\n\nBE\n\nREGIONALLY\n\nLOCATED. IT 'S ORIENTATION IS BY AND LARGE NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL. THE\n\nREPORT. THEREFORE. MAKES THE CASE FOR A NEW APPROACH\n\nTO\n\nSCIENCE\n\nPOLICY - WHAT MIGHT BE TERMED\n\n'MICRO SCIENCE POLICY\u2019 - WHICH WOULD BE\n\nFIRMLY FOCUSSED ON THE REGION AS THE UNIT OF ACTION. SUCH MICRO SCIENCE POLICY WOULD BE\n\nDIRECTED\n\nTOWARDS THE MORE ORGANIC\n\nDETERMINANTS\n\nOF REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT , SUCH AS HUMAN AND\n\nINTELLECTUAL\n\nRESOURCES. SKILLS. RESEARCH. TECHNOLOGICAL\n\nCAPACITY AND INNOVATION. AND WOULD SEEK TO ESTABLISH A SELF-GENERATING DYNAMIC IN A REGION. THIS\n\nTYPE\n\nOF\n\nUPGRADING OF REGIONAL POLICY HAS BECOME\n\nAN\n\nIMPORTANT\n\nPOLICY DEBATE IN RECENT TIMES AND. IN\n\nPART. REFLECTS A CONCERN ABOUT\n\nTHE\n\nABILITY OF INDUSTRIAL POLICY TO ASSIST DEVELOPMENT OF\n\nPERIPHERAL\n\nAND DISADVANTAGED REGIONS\n\nIF\n\nIT\n\nCONTINUES\n\nTO\n\nFOCUS\n\nON INDUSTRIAL\n\nLOCATION STRATEGIES. 4\u201c COHESION\n\nWITHIN\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMUNITY. TECHNOLOGICAL\n\nADVANCE\n\nCAN\n\nMAKE\n\nA MAJOR\n\nCONTRIBUTION\n\nTO\n\nBRINGING\n\nABOUT\n\nGREATER\n\nECONOMIC\n\nCONVERGENCE\n\nAND\n\nCOHESION BETWEEN MEMBER STATES AND REGIONS. 405\n\n\fiv\n\n-\n\nBUT , THE BULK OF THE COMMUNITY 'S RTD RESOURCES ARE CONCENTRATED IN THE\nCENTRAL OR CORE REGIONS AND IN THE LARGER AND STRONGER MEMBER STATES. AND\n\nPERIPHERAL\n\nTHE\nINVESTMENT IN RTD. HAVE\nINSTITUTIONAL RESOURCES\nINNOVATE. THE\nWHILE\nTECHNOLOGY\nFUNDAMENTALLY THEY\nCULTURE. CORE\n\nLESS\n\nRTD\n\nLOWER\n\nLEVEL\n\nHAVE A\n\nFAVOURED REGIONS\n\nWEAKER\nAND ARE SLOW TO ADOPT NEW TECHNOLOGY AND\nTHE\n\nOF\nINFRASTRUCTURE AND OTHER RELATED\nTO\nINTRODUCTION\nOF NEW\nMORE\nADOPTERS. ENTREPRENEURIAL\n\nDOMINATE\nREGIONS ARE THE\n\nLATE\nAND\n\nTECHNICAL\n\nVIGOROUS\n\nIN\n\nA\n\nREGIONS\nPERIPHERAL\nLACK\n\nTHIS STUDY DEVELOPS A NUMBER OF NEW INDICES WHICH REVEAL THE EXTENT OF\nWITHIN THE COMMUNITY. AND\nTHE TECHNOLOGICAL DISPARITIES\nAND\nACHIEVING\nSERIOUS\nWHICH\n\nWHICH\nOBSTACLE\n\nEXIST\nTO\n\nCOHESION\n\nARE\n\nNOW\n\nA\n\nINTEGRATION. THESE DISPARITIES EXIST\n\nBOTH\n\nBETWEEN\n\nMEMBER STATES AND\n\nBETWEEN THE\n\nREGIONS OF MEMBER STATES. ALL THE FACTORS WHICH DRIVE TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT. ALMOST\nTHE CORE REGIONS\nAND MARKETS. INFORMATION AND SERVICES AND MANY OTHERS. FAVOUR\nINFRASTRUCTURE. ACCESS TO SKILLS\n\nCOMMUNICATIONS. -\n\nTHIS\n\nIS\n\nA CUMULATIVE PROCESS. AN AGCLOMERATIVE DYNAMIC TAKES\n\nOVER\n\nONCE A CRITICAL MASS IS REACHED. THE STRONG GET EVEN STRONGER. THIS NATURAL TENDENCY OF RTD TOWARDS AGGLOMERATION REINFORCES EXISTING\n\nDISPARITIES AND MAKES THE PERSISTENT LOW LEVEL EQUILIBRIUM OF THE LESS\nFAVOURED REGIONS ( LFR\u2019S ) MORE ENDEMIC AND DIFFICULT TO BREAK. DISTORTIONS AND DISPARITIES IN THE COMMUNITY 'S\n\nRTD CAPABILITIES\n\nARE\n\nTHUS BECOMING DEEPROOTED. THIS IS\n\nCREATING BARRIERS TO LESS FAVOURED\n\nREGIONS\n\nENTERING\n\nAND SHARING THE DOMAIN OF MODERN\n\nTECHNOLOGY\n\nBASED\n\nTRADE AND COMMERCE IN THE COMMUNITY. DISPARITIES WILL WIDEN AS TECHNOLOGY\n\nADVANCES. AND THESE COULD BECOME\n\nA PERSISTENT AND PERMANENT FEATURE OF FUTURE ECONOMIC PROGRESS IN\nCOMMUNITY , SLOWING DOWN THE OVERALL RATE OF ADVANCE. THE\n\nTHE DRIVE TOWARDS A TECHNOLOGICAL\nMAY THEREFORE LEAVE MANY\nSTANDING STILL. IN THE LONG TERM. THE PROGRESS OF ALL WILL BE RETARDED\nUNLESS POSITIVE ACTION IS TAKEN TO INFLUENCE THE NATURAL AGCLOMERATIVE\nAND CLUSTERING TENDENCIES OF TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT. COMMUNITY\n\n406\n\n\fV\n\n\u0415\u0415\u0418\u0417\u0418N0t0GV^6APS ^\n\nTHIS\n\nREPORT\n\nQUANTIFIES , FOR THE FIRST TIME AT REGIONAL\n\nLEVEL ,\n\nTHE\n\nSIZE AND EXTENT OF THE TECHNOLOGY\n\nGAPS WHICH HAVE EMERGED BETWEEN THE\n\nPERIPHERAL/ LESS\n\nFAVOURED RECIONS AND THE MORE DEVELOPED PARTS OF\n\nTHE\n\nCOMMUNITY. THE EVIDENCE WHICH HAS BEEN\n\nASSEMBLED POINTS INDISPUTABLY TO THE NEED\n\nFOR\n\nNEW\n\nCOMMUNITY POLICIES FOR THE TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT OF\n\nTHE\n\nPERIPHERAL AND LESS FAVOURED REGIONS. LESS FAVOURED MEMBER STATES REPRESENT\nTHE COMMUNITY. WHILE THEY REPRESENT 40% OF ITS POPULATION. ONLY 10* OF THE RJJD ACTIVITY IN\nTHEY TEND\n\nTOWARDS TECHNOLOGICAL\n\nDEPENDENCY ,\n\nHAVE\n\nWEAK RTD INFRASTRUCTURES AND\n\nHAVE A POOR RTD UTILISATION CAPACITY IN THEIR INDUSTRIES. THE\n\nDANGERS OF A 'TWO-SPEED' COMMUNITY ARE\n\nEVIDENT. DIFFERENTIATED\n\nINITIATIVES FOR THE\n\nLFR 'S\n\nARE\n\nJUSTIFIED. BUT. CAREFULLY BALANCED\n\nCOMMUNITY\n\nPROGRAMMES WILL BE REQUIRED IN ORDER TO AVOID A PERSISTENCE\n\nOF THE TECHNOLOGICAL\n\nGAP\n\nBETWEEN\n\nLESS\n\nFAVOURED\n\nAND\n\nMORE FAVOURED\n\nMEMBER STATES. THE\n\nAVAILABLE\n\nEVIDENCE\n\nSHOWS\n\nTHAT\n\nTHE\n\nMOST\n\nTECHNOLOGICALLY\n\nDISADVANTAGED REGIONS\n\nARE\n\nPORTUGAL. GREECE. SPAIN. IRELAND\n\nAND THE\n\nREGIONS OF SOUTHERN ITALY. MANY\n\nREGIONS HAVE ALMOST\n\nZERO RTD CAPACITY. THEIR TECHNOLOGY\n\nLEVEL\n\nCAN BE A FACTOR OF 100 TIMES\n\nLOWER\n\nTHAN\n\nTHAT OF MORE DEVELOPED CORE\n\nREGIONS\n\n( SEE\n\nMAPS\n\nSHOWING\n\nTHE\n\nREGIONAL\n\nDISTRIBUTION\n\nOF\n\nGROSS\n\nEXPENDITURE ON RID AS A PERCENTAGE OF GDP. AND BUSINESS EXPENDITURE ON\n\nRLD AS A PERCENTAGE OF GROSS VALUE ADDED ). THE\n\nSCALE OF THE TECHNOLOGICAL CAP IS ESTIMATED AT 7 BILLION ECU\n\nPER\n\nANNUM. THIS INDICATES THE LEVEL OF ADDITIONAL ANNUAL INVESTMENT WHICH\n\nLESS\n\nFAVOURED\n\nMEMBER STATES WOULD REQUIRE IN RID\n\nTO\n\nREACH\n\nAVERAGE\n\nCOMMUNITY LEVELS. A CAP OF THIS MAGNITUDE SUGGESTS THAT SOLUTIONS WILL BE LONG-TERM. FM\n\nREGIONAL DISTRIBUTION OF GERD / GDP\n\nEUK 12 \u00bb* 100\n235. 4\nMK\u00bb\n\n223 6\n\n161. 8\n\nIH 223. 6\n1161. 8100 0\n33J\n|||\n\n100 0\n\nTE\u00c0R , UOSTLY 1983\n\n&. \u2018\n\n'\n\n;\n\n'*V\n:\n\nflt\n\n^\n\n\\ _>\nlil\u00e0\n\ns\n\n\u00a9 1917\n\nO\n\n00\n\n\fREGIONAL DISTRIBUTION OF BERD / GVA\n\n\u0430\u00ae\n\n\u0442\u0448\u0442\n\nak\u00a3m&&m\nIgip9^^g\u00caS0l^m\n\n-\n\nEUR 12 -\nna 303. 3\n\n100\n\n233. 9\n\n100. 0\n\n167. 0\n\n1167. 0100. 0\nS 33 J0. 0\n\n66. 7\n\n\u0448\u0448^\u0442^\u043f\u0442\u0442-\u0442^\u0442\u0442. \u044f\u0430\u00bb\u00ab28\n\n\u0426\u0417^\u0433\u2018^\n\n\u2022. \u0447\u0433\u0417\u0414 -\n\n\u25a0:-?. \u0448\u0442\u0448\u044f\u044f\u2116\u042f\u044f\u2116*\u0432\u0428\nmsmmmmmawm\n\n\u041e\n\n\u0447\u043e\n\n\u2116\u0439!\u0420\n\nai-rfe'>|^k\n\n*\n\n\u00a9 1\u042f7\n\n\fIN ALL CASES\n\nTHE\n\nTECHNOLOGY\n\nGAP\n\nIS\n\nCONSIDERABLY\n\nWIDER\n\nTHAN\n\nTHE\n\nECONOMIC\n\nGAP. FOR GREECE. FOR EXAMPLE. THE TECHNOLOGY GAP IS\n\nALMOST\n\nTEN TIMES THE ECONOMIC\nFORMALLY RECOGNISED IN COMMUNITY POLICIES. BUT NOT THE CAUSE. CAP. YET. IT\n\nIS\n\nTHE ECONOMIC GAP WHICH IS\nTREATED. THE SYMPTOMS ARE\n\nTHIS REPORT\n\nPRESENTS\n\nTHE\n\nCASE\n\nFOR\n\nFORMAL\n\nACKNOWLEDGEMENT\n\nOF THE\n\nEXISTENCE\n\nOF TECHNOLOGICAL DISPARITIES AND FOR THE ESTABLISHMENT\n\nOF\n\nNEW COMMUNITY RTD POLICIES AND PROGRAMMES TO ADDRESS THEM. A CONTRAST OF THE ECONOMIC AND\nSPAIN. PORTUGAL AND GREECE. AS A GROUP. IS SHOWN OVERLEAF. TECHNOLOGICAL\n\nGAPS OF ITALY. IRELAND. |S\u00cbXiSl^NC^OMM\u00dcNH\u00a5<S^PROGIW\u00abmES^\n\nCURRENT COMMUNITY SCIENCE AND\n\nTECHNOLOGY\n\nPOLICIES AND PROGRAMMES ARE\n\nBASED\n\nON EXCELLENCE. AND ARE AIMED AT COMMUNITY-WIDE PROBLEMS. THEY\n\nARE NOT DIRECTED TOWARDS\n\nSTIMULATING REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT OR REDUCING\n\nREGIONAL DISPARITIES. MONIES ALLOCATED FOR COMMUNITY RTD ARE ONLY A SMALL PROPORTION OF\nTHE\nTOTAL RTD EFFORT IN MEMBER STATES. REPRESENTING LITTLE MORE THAN 1% OF\n\nI\n\nNATIONAL RLD SPENDING. THE\n\nPOTENTIAL\n\nBENEFITS\n\nFOR LFR 'S FROM COMMUNITY PROGRAMMES MUST\n\nBE\n\nCONSIDERED IN THIS CONTEXT. NONETHELESS\n\nCOMMUNITY\n\nRTD\n\nPROGRAMMES OFFER\n\nMANY\n\nOPPORTUNITIES\n\nTO\n\nLFR 'S. IN PARTICULAR THEY\n\nOFFER\n\nACCESS\n\nTO A CONSIDERABLE VOLUME OF\n\nRESEARCH\n\nAND\n\nARE\n\nA\n\nVALUABLE SOURCE OF CONTACTS WITH EXPERTISE\n\nAND\n\nINFORMATION IN OTHER REGIONS. ASSOCIATED\nBENEFITS\n\nWITH\n\nALSO. THE PSYCHOLOGICAL AND ATTITUDINAL\nAS\n\nPARTICIPATION IN COMMUNITY RTD MAY\n\nBE\n\nIMPORTANT TO LFR 'S AS THE MORE\n\nOBVIOUS\n\nAND DIRECT FINANCIAL CAIN AND\n\nPREFERENTIAL ACCESS TO RESULTS. IN THE\nPARTICIPATION IN LINKAGES\nSPRINT. FRAMEWORK\nFOR EXAMPLE. IS PARTICULARLY IMPORTANT FOR PERIPHERAL REGIONS ( SEE FIG\n\nPROGRAMME AND INDEED IN OTHER PROGRAMMES SUCH\n\nINVOLVEMENT\n\nNETWORKS\n\nTHROUGH\n\nAND\n\nAS\n\n2 FOLLOWING ). MAP 5 FOLLOWING ILLUSTRATES\nOVER 7. 000 COMMUNITY RTD CONTRACTS. THE\n\nREGIONAL\n\nDISTRIBUTION PER CAPITA OF\n\n\fTechnological and Economic Gaps of Italy ,\nTechnological and Economic Gaps of Italy ,\nIreland , Spain , Portugal and Greece - in\nIreland , Spain , Portugal and Greece - in\nAggregate. Aggregate. 100 r --\n\n50\n\n\u2022\n\nS\n\no. CDP /CAP. CDP /CAP. GERD/ CAP\nGERD/ CAP\n\n\fFIG 2. ~\n\n(^|\n\n/\n\njr\n\nSA\n\nBRITE\n\nBRITE\n\nMULTI\n\nWULTI\n\nPARTNER\n\nPARTNER\n\nCONTRACTS\n\nCONTRACTU\n\nANATOLI KI STEREA KAI NISI A\nANATOLI KI STEREA KAI NISI A\n\nLRE LAND\nLB\u00a3Lm\n\nXfSl*\nIA\n\nV- /\n\nfl '\n\n'\u2022*\n\n(\n\nC. Sv)\n\n412\n\n\f4\n\n9 \u0428\n\n5. NUMBER OF CONTRACTS. PER CAPITA (All Data Sources )\n\n^^ ^NUMBEROFCONTRACTS. pERCAPITA(AllDataSources)\n\n\u0448\u0442\u0417\u0448\u0448\n\n^\n\u0429\u0428\u042c\u043d~\u0428=\n\nw\u00abr\n\n\u0412\u0433\u0440^;\n\n\u0440\n\n1\u0428\n\nETLTR 1\u00b0 -\nI > 60\n\n> 30\n\n100\n\n- 150\n\n- 120\n\n- 90\n\n- 60\n\n-\n\n30\n\n\u0413\n\n-I :\n\n'~\u0442\u0433;\u0433\u0443\n\nftrtrft-K\n\n(c) 1*6 ?\n\n-P\u00bb\n\nOl\n\n21 - JUTIOKAI TOT 1L\n\n\fBY\n\nPARTICIPATION\nTO\nNATURAL RESOURCES AND ENERGY. BUT HAS BEEN WEAK IN THE CORE TECHNOLOGY\nPROGRAMMES AND HAS INVOLVED INDUSTRY ONLY TO A LIMITED EXTENT. LFR 'S HAS BEEN STRONGEST IN PROGRAMMES\n\nRELATED\n\nENHANCE THE\n\nSTRIDE COULD\nBENEFITS\nCAPACITY TO PARTICIPATE IN COMMUNITY PROGRAMMES AND BY DEVELOPING\nCAPABILITY\nRESEARCH. PARTICULARLY BY SMALL AND MEDIUM SIZED ENTERPRISE ( SME 'S ). STRENGTHENING THE\nTHE\nCOMMUNITY\n\nUTILISE THE\n\nRESULTS\n\nACCESS\n\nLFR\u2019S\n\nTHE\n\nAND\n\nOF\n\nBY\n\nTO\n\nTO\n\nSPECIFICALLY. PARTICIPATION COULD BE ENHANCED. FOR EXAMPLE , BY : -\n\n\u2022\n\n\u2022\n\n\u2022\n\nREGIONAL SOURCE OF INFORMATION ON FORTHCOMING\n\nA\nRTD\nPROGRAMMES AND ON POTENTIAL TRANSBORDER PARTNERS AND SOURCES OF\nEXPERTISE\n\nCOMMUNITY\n\nREGIONAL\n\nFOCUS\nA\nFORMULATION OF PROJECT PROPOSALS\n\nCENTRE\n\nOR\n\nCAPABLE\n\nOF\n\nASSISTING\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nDEVELOPMENT OF THE EXCELLENCE AND CRITICAL MASS NECESSARY TO BE\n\nREGARDED AS A POTENTIAL PARTNER IN COMMUNITY RTD PROGRAMMES\n\n\u00ab\n\nFOCAL\n\nPOINTS OR CENTRES CAPABLE OF ASSISTING THE MORE EFFECTIVE\n\nDISSEMINATION OF\n\nINFORMATION\n\nON\n\nTHE\n\nRESULTS OF COMMUNITY RTD\n\nPROGRAMMES\n\n\u2022\n\n\u2022\n\n\u2022\n\n\u2022\n\nCENTRES. INCLUDING\n\nWITHIN COMPANIES , CAPABLE OF\n\nDEMONSTRATING\n\nTECHNOLOGY DEVELOPED BY COMMUNITY RTD PROGRAMMES\n\nDEMONSTRATION PROGRAMMES ALONG THE\n\nLINES OF THE EXISTING ENERGY\n\nDEMONSTRATION PROGRAMMES BUT FOCUSSING ON NOVEL APPLICATIONS\nTECHNOLOGIES DEVELOPED BY OTHER\n\nOF\nCOMMUNITY RTD PROGRAMMES AND OF\n\nPARTICULAR RELEVANCE OF LFR 'S\n\nFACILITIES :\n\nIS\nTEST FACILITY\nOR\nCOMMUNITY\nTO THE POSSIBILITY OF\nENVISAGED. CONSIDERATION COULD\nSITING\nTHE\nCOMPATIBLE\nDEVELOPMENT STRATEGY OF THE LFR AND WITH THE REQUIREMENTS OF THE\n\nNEW RTD\nGIVEN\nIN AN LFR. ASSUMING THIS IS\n\nWHEN\n\nTHIS\n\nWITH\n\nBE\n\nA\n\nMORE ADVANCED REGIONS\n\nOF\n\nREGIONAL TECHNOLOGY CENTRES FACILITATING\n\nNETWORKS\nBETWEEN LFR 'S. ENCOURAGING\nACTIVITIES\nTRANSFER\nAND\nLINKS WITH EXISTING E. C. SPRINT. AND THE NEW SME ACTION PROGRAMME. LINKAGES\nOF EXPERIENCE , COOPERATIVE\nEXCHANGE\nOF COMMUNITY RTD. OF\nPROGRAMMES IN THIS AREA. PARTICULARLY\n\nESTABLISHMENT\n\n414\n\n\fSTRIDE\n\nSUPPORT\n\nFOR RTD INFRASTRUCTURE\n\nWOULD PROVIDE A\n\nPARTICULARLY\n\nEFFECTIVE COMPLEMENTARY ACTION. ENHANCED UTILISATION OF RESULTS COULD BE ASSISTED BY\n\na\n\n\u2022\n\n\u2022\n\nDEVELOPMENT OF DEMONSTRATION PROGRAMMES\n\nIMPROVED INTER AND INTRA REGIONAL LINKAGES AND\n\nNETWORKS\n\nSTRENGTHENING OF REGIONAL RTD CAPABILITY\n\nTHE\n\nPOSSIBILITY\n\nOF INFRASTRUCTURAL FACILITIES SERVING A\n\nNUMBER\n\nOF\n\nLFR\u2019S SHOULD BE CONSIDERED. FACILITIES WHICH\n\nENABLED RTD COOPEPJYTION\n\nON\n\nPROBLEMS OF PARTICULAR INTEREST TO A NUMBER OF LFR\u2019S WOULD ALSO BE\n\nOF VALUE. OVERALL. A\n\nSIGNIFICANT ADVANCE IN THE CLOSER LINKING\n\nOF\n\nSTRUCTURAL\n\nPOLICIES WITH SCIENCE AND\n\nTECHNOLOGY\n\nPOLICIES\n\nWITHIN THE COMMISSION\n\nCOULD\n\nBE\n\nMADE\n\nBY\n\nHELPING\n\nTO\n\nIMPROVE THE\n\nBASIC\n\nTECHNOLOGICAL\n\nINFRASTRUCTURE OF THESE REGIONS. THIS OUGHT TO BE A PRIMARY OBJECTIVE\n\nOF THE NEW REGULATION. \u2022-REGIONAL *? RTD TWECHANISMSW\n\nTHIS REPORT PROPOSES NEW STRUCTURAL MEASURES SPECIFICALLY TARGETTED AT\n\nIMPROVING\n\nTHE TECHNOLOGICAL\n\nINFRASTRUCTURES\n\nAND\n\nNETWORKS\n\nOF THE\n\nDISADVANTAGED AND LESS FAVOURED REGIONS. THESE\n\nCOMPRISE\n\nA RANGE OF RTD MEASURES IN 6\n\nBROAD\n\nCATEGORIES. AS\n\nFOLLOWS : -\n\n\u2022\n\nRESEARCH AND ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY DEVELOPMENT ;\n\na\n\n\u2022\n\nHIGHER EDUCATION INDUSTRY LINKAGES ;\n\nTECHNICAL EDUCATION AND SKILLS DEVELOPMENT ;\n\n\u2022\n\nAPPLIED RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER ;\n\n\u2022\n\n\u2022\n\nENTREPRENEURS !! IP ASS I STANCE ;\n\nRTD PROMOTION. AND TECHNICAL AWARENESS. SEE TABLE 7. 1 FOLLOWING. 41\n\n\fTABLE 7-1\n\nMAIN\n\nCATEGORIES\n\nOF\n\nRTD\n\nMECHANISMS\n\nA\n\nRESEARCH AND ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY\n\nedge'\nof\n\n'Leading\ngeneration\napplication ,\nclose proximity to a\nfor\nsupport\n\nschemes\n\nand\n\nfacilities\n\nprimarily\n\nconcerned\nfrom\n\nknowledge ,\n\ndistinct\nmostly , though not always , located on\n\nits\n\nas\n\nclass\nfirst\nbasic or fundamental\n\nUniversity. research\n\nwith\n\nthe\nimmediate\nor\nin\nNon-physical\nbe\nwould\n\nincluded. 3\n\nHIGHER EDUCATION - INDUSTRY LINKAGES\n\nMechanisms and programmes\nand\nlevel Colleges and industry. promoting\n\ncloser interaction and partnerships between\n\nprimary aim of encouraging\n3rd\n\nwith\n\nthe\n\nC\n\nTECHNICAL EDUCATION AND SKILLS DEVELOPMENT\n\nand training , provision\neducation\nFacilities for technological\nand\nupgrading of specialist skills for scientists and engineers\nand preferential encouragement for industry to employ scientists\nand engineers. 0\n\nAPPLIED RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER\n\nMechanisms and programmes to assist or promote the transfer\napplications\nand\napplied\napplications. of\ntechnology. developmental ,\n\norientation\nemphasis\nthe\n\nand\nis essentially\npractical\non\n\nThe\nwith\n\nE\n\nENTREPRENEURSHIP ASSISTANCE\n\nA wide range of\nbusiness\nsmall\nand\nbusiness\nentrepreneurs\norganising and paying for other services. mechanisms\nexist\nbring new ideas to the market. services\n\ncommercial\nwho\n\nhave the technology but have\n\nhelp the entrepreneur or\nprovide\nThese\nto start up\nin\n\ndifficulty\n\ntraining\n\nand\n\nto\n\nF\n\nRTD PROMOTION AND TECHNICAL AWARENESS\n\nProgrammes and mechanisms\nappreciation\nindustry\ntechnology. with\ngenerally\n\nthe\nto\n\nto\naim of\nmodernise\n\nimprove\n\ntechnical\n\nencouraging\nand\n\nupgrade\n\nmanufacturers\n\nawareness and\nand\ntheir level of\n\n416\n\n\fWITHIN THESE 6 CATEGORIES A TOTAL OF 56 INDIVIDUAL RTD MECHANISMS WERE\nCONSOLIDATING THESE MECHANISMS INTO A CORE CROUP PRODUCED\nIDENTIFIED. THE FOLLOWING 10 \u2019PHYSICAL * AND 10 'NON PHYSICAL\u2019 MECHANISMS. PHYSICAL RTD MECHANISMS\n\n\u2022\n\n\u2022\n\n\u2022\n\n\u2022\n\n\u2022\n\n\u2022\n\n\u2022\n\n\u2022\n\n\u2022\n\n\u2022\n\nCENTRES OF EXCELLENCE\n\nSCIENCE PARKS\n\nUNIVERSITY-INDUSTRY RESEARCH CENTRES\n\nCAMPUS COMF AN I ES\n\nINDUSTRIAL LIAISON OFFICES\n\nAPPLIED RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGY CENTRES\n\nBRANCH PLANT PROGRAMMES\n\nTECHNICAL INFORMATION CENTRES\n\nINNOVATION CENTRES\n\nRESEARCH EQUIPMENT SCHEMES\n\nNON PHYSICAL RTD MECHANISMS\n\n\u2022\n\n\u2022\n\n\u2022\n\n\u2022\n\n\u2022\n\n\u2022\n\n\u2022\n\n\u2022\n\n\u2022\n\n\u2022\n\nCOOPERATIVE RESEARCH SCHEMES\n\nSKILLS PLACEMENT\n\nCONTINUING TECHNICAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING\n\nMOBILITY AND EXCHANGE PROGRAMMES\n\nDEMONSTRATION\n\nRTD EXTENSION AND CONSULTANCY\n\nENTREPRENEURSHIP TRAINING\n\nTECHNICAL AWARENESS PROGRAMMES\n\nNETWORKS\n\nSUB-CONTRACTING AND SUB-SUPPLY\n\nSELECTING THE MOST\n\nAPPROPRIATE\n\nINSTRUMENTS\n\nOR\n\nMODALITIES - THE RTD\n\nMECHANISMS\nMATCH\nIMPORTANT. IF MONIES ARE TO BE WELL SPENT. DIFFERENT\n\nTO\n\n-\n\nREGIONAL\n\nCAPABILITIES\n\nIS\n\nVERY\n\nSELECTION\n\nTHIS\nCONDITIONS AND CIRCUMSTANCES. CONSIDERABLE AUTONOMY IS ALLOWED TO THE REGIONS THEMSELVES. ASSESSMENT\n\nPROCESS\n\nPRECISE\n\nLOCAL\nIT IS ESSENTIAL THAT\n\nBASED\n\nTHIS\n\nON A\n\nMUST\n\nOF\n\nBE\n\nIN\n\n417\n\n\fREPORT DEMONSTRATES A WIDE VARIATION IN REGIONS'\n\nTHIS\nTHE CAPABILITY TO ABSORB\nCAPABILITY CAN BE BUILT WILL VARY BETWEEN REGIONS. THEREFORE ,\n\nCAPACITY. RTD\nAND THE SPEED AT WHICH THIS\n\nRTD\n\nTO FIND THEIR OWN PATHS TO PROGRESS -\n\nREGIONS\nHAVE\nRTD\nREGIONALE' - BUILDING ON\nASSESSMENT OF WHAT IS POSSIBLE. RATHER THAN WHAT MIGHT BE DESIRABLE. 'VOCATION\nAND WITH A REALISTIC\n\nSTRENGTHS. THEIR\n\nTHEIR\n\nBUT THIS LOCAL AUTONOMY WILL BE BEST EXERCISED WITHIN THE FRAMEWORK OF\nGENERAL GUIDELINES WHICH CAN BE PROPOSED IN ORDER TO ASSIST REGIONS IN\nMATCHING MECHANISMS TO REGIONAL NEEDS AND TO REGIONAL TYPES. FOR\n\nEXAMPLE. THE KEY FACTORS OR CONSIDERATIONS WHICH SHOULD BE TAKEN\n\nINTO ACCOUNT IN SELECTING MECHANISMS ARE IDENTIFIED IN THE REPORT. BASICALLY. THESE FALL INTO TWO CROUPS : -\n\n\u00ab\n\nFACTORS KNOWN TO INFLUENCE THE PERFORMANCE AND EFFECTIVENESS\n\nOF\n\nTHE MECHANISM ITSELF. E. G. ITS\n\nSENSITIVITY\n\nTO DISTANCE FROM\n\nCLIENTS. AND\n\n\u2022\n\nFEATURES OF THE LOCAL\n\nRTD\n\nLANDSCAPE WHICH\n\nWILL INFLUENCE THE\n\nREGIONS\n\nABILITY TO INSTALL AND EFFECTIVELY OPERATE\n\nPARTICULAR\n\nMECHANISMS. E. G. SKILLS. THE\n\nSTRUCTURE\n\nTHE\n\nCOMPOSITION AND\nLOCAL\n\nOF\n\nINDUSTRY. AVAILABILITY OF LOCAL\nPARTICULARLY THE\n\nPRESENCE OF SME 'S. THE\n\nPROBLEMS\n\nFACING SME\u2019S IN THE TECHNOLOGY ARENA\n\nARE\n\nPARTICULARLY\n\nIN\n\nACUTE. AND VERY IMPORTANT IN\nCONTEXT\nROLE\nTHE ECONOMIES OF THE LFR\u2019S. HAVE LOW SKILLS. POOR APPRECIATION OF\nTO ACCESS EXTERNAL SOURCES OF TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE. RTD CAPACITY IN SME 'S\n\nOF THIS STUDY. BECAUSE OF THEIR\nINTERNALLY. THEY WILL\nTO\nTECHNOLOGY AND LIMITED CAPACITY\nBUILDING IN-HOUSE\nON A CAREFULLY\n\nCRUCIAL\n\nPROCEED\n\nMUST\n\nTEND\n\nBUT\n\nIS\n\nPLANNED AND STRUCTURED BASIS. ARE\n\nCOMMISSION\nPROGRAMMES\nSTRIDE. THE BIC PROGRAMME OF DGXVI ITSELF. PARTICULARLY THE SPRINT PROGRAMME ,\nLINKAGES\nESTABLISHING\nSME\nAND\nBETWEEN ALL THESE INITIATIVES WILL BE IMPORTANT. ACTION PLAN. APPROPRIATE\n\nCOMPLEMENT\n\nEMERGING\n\nWHICH\n\nTHE\n\nNEW\n\nCAN\n\nIN\nAPPROACH\n\nSELECTING RTD MECHANISMS REGIONS ARE ADVISED TO ADOPT A\n\nTHERE\n\nIS\n\nNO\n\nSINGLE\n\nRTD\n\nMECHANISM\n\nWHICH\n\nPORTFOLIO\nWILL MEET ALL\n\nREQUIREMENTS. ( 27 )\n\n418\n\n\fPORTFOLIOS OF\n\nRTD\n\nMECHANISMS\n\nAPPROPRIATE\n\nTO\n\nPARTICULAR\n\nREGIONAL\n\nSITUATIONS ARE SUGGESTED IN THE REPORT. FOR EXAMPLE. FOR REGIONS :\n\n\u2022\n\n\u2022\n\n\u2022\n\nWITH A CONCENTRATION OF SMALL CRAFT FIRMS. OR SME\u2019S :\n\nWITH A CONCENTRATION OF LOW TECHNOLOGY INDUSTRY ;\n\nWISHING TO STIMULATE A HIGH RATE OF NEW FIRM\n\nFORMATION. THE\n\nDATA\n\nPRODUCED IN THE REPORT SHOWS THAT NOT ALL REGIONS HAVE\n\nTHE\n\nCAPACITY TO MAKE\n\nFULL\n\nUSE\n\nOF\n\nTHE\n\nWHOLE\n\nRANGE\n\nOF\n\nAVAILABLE\n\nRTD\n\nMECHANISMS. SELECTIVITY WILL BE REQUIRED. FOR\n\nEXAMPLE ,\n\nREGIONS WITH A VERY LOW EXISTING RTD CAPACITY\n\nWILL\n\nBE\n\nLIKELY TO BENEFIT\n\nMORE\n\nFROM\n\nPROGRAMMES\n\nBASED\n\nLARGELY ON TECHNICAL\n\nEXTENSION AND ADVISORY SERVICES THAN FROM ADVANCED RTD CENTRES. BUT , APART FROM A FEW EXCEPTIONAL\n\nCASES. IN\n\nGENERAL TERMS. THE LESS\n\nFAVOURED\n\nREGIONS. WHICH\n\nARE\n\nTHE\n\nKEY\n\nTARGET\n\nCROUP\n\nFOR\n\nTHE\n\nNEW\n\nREGULATION. MUST HAVE ACCESS TO THE FULL RANGE OF RTD MECHANISMS. PARTICIPATION BY REGIONS\n\nAND\n\nMEMBER\n\nSTATES\n\nIN\n\nSTRIDE SHOULD BE IN\n\nACCORDANCE\n\nWITH A WELL PLANNED AND PROGRAMMED APPROACH. THIS\n\nSHOULD\n\nBEGIN WITH THE PREPARATION\n\nOF\n\nCOMPREHENSIVE\n\nREGIONAL\n\nPLANS FOR THE\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\nOF\n\nAPPROPRIATE REGIONAL RTD CAPACITY. IN THE REPORT. A\n\nPROCEDURE FOR THE INTEGRATED\n\nPROFILING OF REGIONS IS PRESENTED. THE\n\nPROFILES OF MIDI PYRENEES AND PUGLIA WHICH FOLLOW. ARE EXAMPLES. THIS QUANTITATIVE PROFILING\n\nPROCEDURE\n\nSHOULD BE COMPLEMENTED WITH AN\n\nINCISIVE QUALITATIVE\n\nACCOUNT OF THE MOST IMPORTANT RTD STRENGTHS\n\nAND\n\nWEAKNESSES OF THE REGION. IN\n\nTHIS. THERE IS NO SUBSTITUTE FOR LOCAL\n\nKNOWLEDGE. THE\n\nINVOLVEMENT AND COMMITMENT OF LOCAL ACTORS\n\nWILL\n\nBE\n\nCRUCIAL. THE IMPORTANCE\n\nOF\n\nTHIS\n\nLOCAL\n\nPLANNING\n\nLIES\n\nBOTH IN THE\n\nPRODUCT AND THE PROCESS. THE\n\nREPORT\n\nEMPHASISES\n\nHOWEVER\n\nTHAT\n\nTHE\n\nESTABLISHMENT\n\nOF\n\nSINGLE\n\nELEMENTS\n\nOF\n\nRTD\n\nINFRASTRUCTURE WILL NOT OF\n\nITSELF\n\nBE\n\nSUFFICIENT. INTERACTION\n\nAND\n\nCOMMUNICATION\n\nBETWEEN\n\nTHE\n\nVARIOUS ELEMENTS OF THE\n\nLOCAL RTD INFRASTRUCTURE MUST BE PROMOTED. 419\n\n\ff\n\nSTATISTICS\nSTATISTI CS\n\n) (\n\nPUGUAtl )\nPUGUA il\n\n-)\n\n| Pop. otnsity\n\nAcr Empi. Ind. Empi. S\u00abr. Empi. xii1\n\nr\n\nJ\nil\nI1HBL\nn i iiiiiiu'wiiiijiiiiiiiwir\n\u00e9j|| ||| Foggia |\nFoggia\nllISffilil\n!\nI||IP\u00abP1\n\niiv\n\nI\n\n_\nJ^mi\n/\nLI 1111111\u2122^\nBaril 'Jm\n\n/\u2013\n\n*1 |j IS\u00c9fffi\n\nBrindisi\n\n|g\u00a7|L^\n! SSL. on\nLecce\nLecce\njjl\nflji;\n| l'\nj|i\nII\n\n^\n\nN|\n\nTaranto\nTaranto\n243. 000\n243,000\n\nUntmpl. CDP /'ccp\n\nIne. CVA/ Empl. Tot. CVA / Empl. \u2013----- niWhiM'i. \u2019i. inT\u00ec\u00ecCTl\n\n-;-1 MIHI1\n=i Er!\nssa m'\nUcr. avA/Empi. J Miipi\nI\nline. CVA/Empl. ]\nL Zj B I\n; il j\nWmZD \u201cS !\n[7^-1\nliiiifeliH. _!- LL\nliilill\nInfros\nInda\u00bb\nraEHl !\nrr. \u2013 -1\nI WWW j\nInd \u00ab\nEduc. tduc. Index\nj\nIWWlM\nInd\u00ab\u00ab\nSynlh. |\n[Br. Gi-od ;_)\n!\nnr~T7l\nI\n|\nCrods. Quip -_J\nCrods. Oulp. I\nIB\nHl-Toch Empl. Kl-T\u00abch Empi. I\n- roi\nI\nl CERD/C-^- W\nCEFD / CDP\n!. S\nBERD/ CVA ,. _J\n|_II\nEEC AVERAGE\nEEC AVERAGE\n\nBERD /'CVA\n\nInfres Indtx\n\nB. \u00ca. Grods. -P*\nN3\nO\n\ny\n\n\u2022\n\n- y '---\n\nI\n\n________>\n\nPOPULATION :\nPOPULATION :\nAREA :\nAREA :\n\n3,9 U\n3,9 U\n19,000 KU~\n19,000 KU. <138 KM). ( 138 KM)-. N0N PMTSICAL RTD MECHAN1SUS\nNON PWTSICAL RTD MECHANISUS. NATIONAL\n\nIr. n. r. rTI\n\n\fI\n\nSTATISTICS\n\nMIDI PYR\u00c9N\u00c9ES [ F ]\n\n? '. ?\n: hcn\u00e7 \u00bb\nI pis. aer. z : Iv\n\nAcr\n\nt. -nsl. Ir. d. End. Sir. t. -npl. Ur. \u00abrr. si. I\n\nrsi GVA / E. -v. f. IACT. CV~ / L. -r. pi. \u2116\n\n;|1\n\n\u00a1r-. : G'/A / Emp. S *. r CVA / L. x. p ;. i :\u00ab;. Csas. [\u0422\u0433\u0413: :. 1 --,;\u043b J\n\nS>ntn. i. 'io\u00edi\n\nS. E. \u00cfraaJ. Crea. Out p\n\nGramat\n\nAuch\n\ntanet-Tolosan\n\nTarbes\n\nCastres\n\nMazamet\n\ni'; \u039b \u03b9;:;;'\u00b7'. \u0390\u03b9<:1 (J\n\nSt Girons\n\n/\u2122f|\n\nAT]\n\ni\n\n\u00ccA\u00abB,OD,E2\nT Ui P,\n\nPOPULATION ;\nPOPULATION ;\n\n4. 3 M\n4. 3 U\n\nAREA :\n\n45,300 KM *. NON PHYSICAL STD MECHANISMS\nNON PHYSICAL STD MECHANISMS\n\nREGIONAL\n\nC2D70E1\n\nhi \u2013 7<\u00bbcn L:r. ?l\u00b7\n\nMM\n\n\u0413\u0421\u0415\u042f\u041e /\u0421\u041e\u0420\n\n[ \u0417\u0415\u042f\u0421 /\u0421\u0423\u041b\n\n4^\nro\n\nEEC AVERAGE\n\ny\n\n\fMAY\n\nEVEN COMPENSATE FOR LACK OF PHYSICAL\nINTERACTION\n\nREGIONS\nINTENSIFICATION OF LOCAL\nWHY\nTHIS\nDEVELOPMENT OF LOCAL RTD\nLINKING LOCAL ELEMENTS CLOSELY TOGETHER. SYSTEMS PERSPECTIVE IS\n\nBY\nWITHIN THE EXISTING STRUCTURES. THE\nIN\nA NETWORK APPROACH IS CRUCIAL. INFRASTRUCTURE\n\nSTRUCTURES. ESSENTIAL\n\nPLANNING\n\nIS\n\nA\n\nA\n\nDECREE\n\nREGIONAL DYNAMIC IS NOT EASY TO ACHIEVE. SUCH\nEVIDENT\nTHAT IT IS NOT SIMPLY THE PRESENCE OF UNITS OF RTD INFRASTRUCTURE. BUT\nTHE\nDETERMINING\nOF\nA KEY FOCUS FOR STRIDE THEREFORE. MUST BE\nFACTOR IN LOCAL INNOVATION. TO STIMULATE LOCAL NETWORKS AND COMMUNICATIONS. AS WELL AS\nINSISTENCE\nLOCAL RTD PLANNING BY THE\nON THE ADOPTION OF A\nREGIONS. INTERACTION BETWEEN THEM. WHICH\n\nAPPROACH\n\nSYSTEMS\n\nBUT IT\n\nTHE\n\nIS\n\nTO\n\nIS\n\nGUIDELINES FOR THIS LOCAL PLANNING PROCESS CAN BE SUGGESTED : -\n\n\u2022\n\n\u2022\n\n\u2022\n\n\u2022\n\n\u2022\n\n\u2022\n\n\u2022\n\n\u2022\n\nASSESS\n\nTHE\n\nRTD\n\nRESOURCES\n\nAVAILABLE TO\n\nTHE\n\nREGION\n\nREALISTICALLY ;\n\nHAVE A VISION OF THE REGION\u2019S FUTURE\n\nAND\n\nIMPLEMENT\n\nIT WITH\n\nOPERATIONAL\n\nSTRATEGIES\n\nWHICH\n\nBUILD ON\n\nEXISTING\n\nSTRENGTHS\n\n-\n\nRATHER THAN ON ASPIRATIONS OF WHAT MIGHT BE ;\n\nORGANIC\n\nGROWTH\n\nAND\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\nFROM\n\nAN\n\nEXISTING\n\nBASE IS\n\nPREFERABLE TO STARTING FROM A \u2018GREEN FIELD\u2019 SITUATION ;\n\nFIND WAYS OF\n\nACCESSING\n\nEXCELLENCE. PARTICULARLY\n\nIF IT EXISTS\n\nOUTSIDE THE\n\nREGION. BUILD SYSTEMATICALLY AND DON\u2019T\n\nLEAPFROG. TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT IS INCREMENTAL AND COMPLEX :\n\nTHE\n\nKNOW\nUNDERSTAND THE LOCAL\n\nCONTOURS OF THE REGION 'S RTD LANDSCAPE -\nCOMMUNICATION\n\nNETWORKS\n\nAND\n\nIN\n\nDETAIL. MECHANISMS -\n\nBOTH FORMAL AND INFORMAL ;\n\nTHESE\n\nMATCH\nMECHANISMS - SELECTED AND DESIGNED LOCALLY ;\n\nPORTFOLIOS\n\nCONTOURS\n\nWITH\n\nOF\n\nAPPROPRIATE\n\nRTD\n\nAVOID A 'SINGLE SHOT\u2019 APPROACH -\n\nNO ONE RTD MECHANISM WILL SUIT\n\nALL SITUATIONS ;\n\nPARTICULAR\n\nPAY\nTHE\nPERFORMANCE OF THE MECHANISMS SELECTED : STUDY THE PERFORMANCE OF\nSIMILAR MECHANISMS IN OTHER REGIONS ;\n\nATTENTION TO KEY FACTORS\n\nINFLUENCE\n\nWHICH\n\n422\n\n\fDO N'T INSTALL ADVANCED TECHNOLOGY MECHANISMS IN A LOW TECHNOLOGY\n\nLOCATION. STRATEGIES\n\nWHICH\n\nDO\n\nTHIS\n\nCARRY\n\nA HIGH RISK OF\n\nFAILURE ;\n\nDEVELOP\n\nTHE REGIONAL RTD INFRASTRUCTURE AS AN\n\nINTERLOCKING AND\n\nINTERACTIVE SYSTEM ;\n\nEMPHASISE\n\nAND\n\nSTIMULATE\n\nFUNCTIONAL\n\nINTERACTION WITHIN\n\nTHE\n\nREGIONAL\n\nRTD\n\nSYSTEM\n\nTHROUGH\n\nLOCAL\n\nNETWORKS\n\nAND\n\nLINKAGES ;\n\nESTABLISH BRIDGES TO RTD INFRASTRUCTURES OUTSIDE THE REGION ;\n\nWORK\n\nTOWARDS ESTABLISHING A CRITICAL MASS - A 'SEUIL\n\nCRITIQUE\u2019\n\nIN SELECTED AREAS ; BE SELECTIVE. SO AS NOT TO SPREAD\n\nRESOURCES\n\nTOO THINLY ;\n\nESTABLISH FLEXIBLE\n\nNON-BUREAUCRATIC SYSTEMS ;\n\nLOOK FOR RESULTS. NOT FOR PROCEDURES ;\n\nSECURE\n\nINVOLVEMENT OF LOCAL BUSINESS AND COMMERCIAL\n\nINTERESTS. IF POSSIBLE , ENCOURAGE\n\nPRIVATE\n\nSECTOR\n\nINTERESTS\n\nTO DRIVE THE\n\nSTRATEGY ;\n\nENCOURAGE\n\nLOCAL INITIATIVE AND LEADERSHIP. IT IS THEIR\n\nREGION. THEIR JOBS ,\n\nTHEIR\n\nCHILDREN. THEIR\n\nRESPONSIBILITY\n\nAND\n\nTHEIR\n\nFUTURE - WHO ELSE WOULD BE MORE COMMITTED TO GETTING IT RIGHT ?\n\nSTIMULATE ALLIANCES OF KEY PLAYERS. IDENTIFY LOCAL CHAMPIONS ;\n\nENCOURAGE\n\nLOCAL COMPETITION FOR RESOURCES. FRIENDLY COMPETITION\n\nWILL IMPROVE THE QUALITY OF PROPOSALS ;\n\nPURSUE INDIVIDUALISTIC PATHS TO\n\nPROGRESS. KNOW YOUR 'VOCATION\n\nREGIONALE' ;\n\nEMPHASISE\n\nHOW THINGS ARE DONE - NOT WHAT IS DONE. ULTIMATELY ,\n\nTHE FORM IS MORE IMPORTANT THAN THE SUBSTANCE ;\n\nACT LOCALLY - BUT THINK GLOBALLY \". \u00ff?OBJECTIVES FOR STRIDE\n\n'A\nANY ATTEMPT AT AN\nPARTICULAR REGIONAL TYPES IS PROBLEMATIC. PRIORI'\n\nSPECIFICATION\n\nOF\n\nRTD\n\nMECHANISMS FOR\n\nCAN\n\nBE SAID THAT SOME\n\nIT\nNONETHELESS ,\nIDENTIFIED FOR STRIDE FOR ALL\nLOCAL SITUATION. THEIR\nTHE\nBASIC PURPOSE\nRESOURCES\nSTRIDE SHOULD PRIMARILY AIM TO :-\n\nBE\nPRINCIPLES\nCOMMON\nIRRESPECTIVE OF THE DETAIL OF\nTHE\nMOBILISE REGIONAL RTD\nIN ORDER TO STIMULATE SELF GENERATING REGIONAL DEVELOPMENT. THUS , IT IS POSSIBLE TO ARTICULATE\nIS\nNEW\n\nREGULATION\n\nREGIONS ,\n\nTHAT\n\nCAN\n\nTO\n\nOF\n\n\u2022\n\n\u2022\n\n\u2022\n\n\u2022\n\nRETAIN AND ATTRACT SKILLED MANPOWER ;\n\nPROVIDE A\n\nLOCAL\n\nCAPACITY\n\nFOR\n\nTECHNOLOGY\n\nTRANSFER\n\nAND\n\nAPPLICATION ;\n\nSTIMULATE\n\nAND ASSIST NEW TECHNOLOGY BASED\n\nSTART-UPS\n\nLOCALLY ;\n\nAND\n\nIMPROVE NATIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL RTD LINKAGES. THESE ARE THE ESSENTIAL PRINCIPLES OF A TECHNOLOGY STRATEGY FOR ALMOST\n\nANY LFR ; SKILLS RETENTION , TECHNOLOGY TRANSFER. LOCAL TECHNOLOGY BASED\n\nSTART-UPS. AND LINKAGES. BENEFITS OF STRIDE-\n\nTHE BENEFITS TO\n\nBE\n\nACHIEVED\n\nBY\n\nTHE\n\nNEW\n\nPROGRAMME WOULD\n\nINCLUDE\n\nPRINCIPALLY :-\n\n\u2022\n\n\u2022\n\n\u2022\n\nIMPROVED CAPACITY IN REGIONS TO EXPLOIT. AND TO SHARE IN THE\n\nAN\nBENEFITS OF TECHNICAL PROGRESS ;\n\nAN IMPROVEMENT IN COMMUNITY COHESION AND INTEGRATION ; AND\n\nA MEASUHEABLE REDUCTION. IN THE LONGER TERM. IN THE ECONOMIC AND\nSOCIAL DISPARITIES BETWEEN REGIONS. 424\n\n\fX IMPACT. OP STBIDB -\n\nLATER\n\nEVALUATION ,\n\nFOR\nAND\nQUANTIFIABLE OBJECTIVES AT THE OUTSET. THE IMPACT OF THE NEW PROGRAMME\nSHOULD BE ASSESSED ON THE BASIS OF :-\n\nARTICULATE\n\nIMPORTANT\n\nCLEAR\n\nTO\n\nIT\n\nIS. \u2022\n\n\u2022\n\nA MEASURABLE IMPROVEMENT\nOF BOTH INFRASTRUCTURE AND SKILLS ;\n\nIN THE STOCK OF REGIONAL RTD RESOURCES\n\nA MEASURABLE NARROWING OF THE TECHNOLOGY GAPS\n\nA MEASURABLE INCREASE IN\n\nTHE PARTICIPATION\n\nOF ASSISTED REGIONS\n\nIN COMMUNITY RTD PROGRAMMES. ELIGIBLE REGIONS '\n\nTHE\n\nEVIDENCE ASSEMBLED IN THIS REPORT PROVIDES\n\nCLEAR\n\nJUSTIFICATION\n\nFOR A DIFFERENTIATED\n\nCOMMUNITY\n\nRTD\n\nINITIATIVE FOR THE LESS FAVOURED\n\nREGIONS. BECAUSE\n\nOF\n\nTHE VARIATION IN TECHNOLOGICAL. ECONOMIC\n\nAND\n\nSOCIAL CONDITIONS IN\n\nTHESE\n\nREGIONS. THE\n\nSTRIDE\n\nINITIATIVE MUST BE\n\nFLEXIBLE TO ACCOMMODATE VARIOUS CATEGORIES OF LESS FAVOURED REGIONS. TO\n\nBE\n\nELIGIBLE\n\nFOR\n\nASSISTANCE IT\n\nIS\n\nPROPOSED\n\nTHAT A\n\nREGION\n\nBE\n\nSIGNIFICANTLY DISADVANTAGED BOTH ECONOMICALLY AND TECHNOLOGICALLY. THIS TWO-CRITERIA 'AND-GATEj) PROCEDURE IS ILLUSTRATED OVERLEAF. 'SIGNIFICANTLY DISADVANTAGED\u2019 IS\n\nDEFINED BY THE AUTHORS AS BEING MORE\n\nTHAN 25X BELOW THE RELEVANT COMMUNITY AVERAGE. IN ADDITION. ALTHOUGH CERTAIN REGIONS MAY NOT SATISFY THESE CONDITIONS\n\nPRECISELY. THEY ARE NONETHELESS\n\nDISADVANTAGED\n\nFOR A COMPLEX OF OTHER\n\nREASONS. TWO\n\nCROUPS\n\nIN PARTICULAR. ARE\n\nCONSIDERED -\n\nINDUSTRIALLY\n\nDECLINING REGIONS AND\n\nLAGGING\n\nREGIONS\n\nIN\n\nTHE\n\nMORE ADVANCED MEMBER\n\nSTATES. 425\n\n\fA\n\n150 -\n150 -\n\nA\n\nCriteria\n' B\u00eblow^75%' of Average\n; EEG\u00cen\u00e8ome'perCapIfa\n\nn ^\n\nC Cr\\\n\nBelow. ,75 , on ; the Synthetic\n\u2022V. v ^sM Index t\ni\n1\n^>\u0414\\1\u043f\u04411\u0435\u0425 ,\n\n4k r\\ CwntK\u00fbl. '\n'\n\n* Deslgn\u00e0t\u00e8d \"Industrlally\n* \u041e\u0435$1\u0434\u043f\u04301\u0435\u04411 \"1\u043f\u04411\u0438$1\u04331\u0430!1\u0443\n;; ?:;. ;|7\u0421>\u0435\u0441\u041f\u043f1\u043f\u0434\\^ -\n*Z ; &' \u00ef Dec|lnlng\\ > -\n'\n, ' ' -. X ^ ^\n7>/^ \u041e\u0413\n,, Designated \"Lagging\n:\u041b0\u0435$\u044e\u043f\u04301\u0435\u04411 '1\u0430\u0434\u04341\u043f\u0434\n\n^\n\n*\"\n\nj\n\n- Below 75% of Average\nBelow ; 75% of Average\nEEC RTD Index\nEEC RTD Index\n\n| GAP\n\n-\n\n**\n\n\u039b\n\n' / /\n\n'/// Regions //\\ GAP\n\nr- %: Eligible YA\nX\n2 //////////\u03bb\n\u00a7 \u0428\u0428\u042f\nY//\n\u00a3 Y////////A. -Ts\u00f4\n\n* / /|\n\n1\n\\ IlOO\n\n1\u00cf50\nRelaxable Threshold\nRelaxable Threshold\n\nIncome Index \u201cr\nIncome Index\n\n\u042e\nON\n\n\fIN SUMMARY THEREFORE IT IS PROPOSED TO DISTINGUISH THREE CATEGORIES OF\n\nREGIONS FOR ASSISTANCE : -. CATEGORY 1 - LOW INCOME. LOW RTD\n\nA CORE GROUP OF REGIONS WHICH\nCAPITA\nBELOW 75J OF AVERAGE EEC RTD LEVELS. INCOME\n\nARE\n\nLEVELS OR BELOW 75% ON THE SYNTHETIC\n\nBELOW 75X OF AVERAGE EEC PER\nAND\n\nINDEX\n\n\u2022\n\nCATEGORY 2 - INDUSTRIALLY DECLINING. LOW RTD\n\nREGIONS\n\nOF INDUSTRIAL DECLINE WHICH HAVE BELOW 75 * OF\n\nAVERAGE\n\nEEC RTD LEVELS. THESE ARE THE REGIONS OF MEMBER STATES BASED ON\n\nTHE\n\nCOAL. STEEL. SHIPBUILDING AND OTHER DECLINING\n\nINDUSTRIES. THEIR PRECISE DESIGNATION IS A MATTER FOR DGXVI. \u2022\n\nCATEGORY T\n\n-\n\nLAGGING. LOW RTD\n\nSELECTED REGIONS\n\nOF\n\nMORE\n\nDEVELOPED\n\nMEMBER\n\nSTATES\n\nWHICH ARE\n\nRELATIVELY\n\nDISADVANTAGED\n\n- SOMETIMES REFERRED TO\n\nAS\n\n'LAGGING\n\nREGIONS\u2019 , WHICH HAVE BELOW 75 * OF AVERAGE EEC RTD LEVELS. THEIR\n\nPRECISE\n\nDESIGNATION IS AGAIN A MATTER FOR DGXVI IN CONSULTATION\n\nWITH THE RELEVANT MEMBER STATES. THE\n\nPRIMARY GROUP OF REGIONS. THOSE OF CATEGORY 1. WHICH COMPRISE THE\n\nTARGET GROUP FOR THE NEW\n\nREGULATION\n\nWOULD , ON THE BASIS OF THE ABOVE\n\nCRITERIA. ENCOMPASS ALL REGIONS CURRENTLY THE SUBJECT OF THE COHESION\n\nDEBATE. THEIR\n\nPRECISE\n\nDESIGNATION\n\nIS\n\nHOWEVER\n\nA\n\nMATTER FOR THE\n\nCOMMISSION USING THE ABOVE-MENTIONED CRITERIA. APPROPRIATE\n\nWHILE THE\n\nPRECISE\n\nIDENTIFICATION\n\nOF\n\nAPPROPRIATE\n\nMECHANISMS\n\nFOR A\n\nREGION\n\nMUST BE BASED ON A DETAILED EXAMINATION OF EACH\n\nREGION 'S\n\nRTD\n\nSTRENGTHS AND WEAKNESSES. IT\n\nIS\n\nNONETHELESS\n\nPOSSIBLE TO IDENTIFT. A\n\nPRIORI ,\n\nBROAD\n\nGROUPS\n\nOF RTD MECHANISMS. APPROPRIATE\n\nTO\n\nTHE\n\nTHREE\n\nCATEGORIES OF REGIONS\n\nLISTED\n\nABOVE. THIS. THEREFORE. INTRODUCES\n\nA\n\nTHIRD FORM OF ELIGIBILITY CRITERION NAMELY. 'APPROPRIATENESS'. IT IS PROPOSED THAT CATEGORY\n\n1\n\nREGIONS\n\nSHOULD\n\nQUALIFY FOR THE FULL\n\nRANGE OF RTD MECHANISMS AS SHOWN IN TABLE 1. WITHIN\n\nTHE CATEGORY 1 CROUP. SOME REGIONS WHICH HAVE AN EXTREMELY LOW\n\nLEVEL OF RTD AND HAVE\n\nTHEREFORE\n\nNOT\n\nGOT\n\nA\n\nTHRESHOLD CAPACITY WILL\n\nREQUIRE\n\nA MORE\n\nSELECTIVE TREATMENT. THESE\n\nWILL\n\nREQUIRE\n\nSPECIAL\n\nEMPHASIS\n\nINITIALLY\n\nON\n\nCREATING\n\nTHE\n\nBASIC\n\nPRECONDITIONS FOR\n\nPARTICIPATION\n\nIN\n\nTHE FULL SPECTRUM OF STRIDE MECHANISMS. PRIORITY\n\nATTENTION MAY HAVE TO\nEXTENSION\n\nGIVEN\nAND ADVISORY SERIVCES , AND TECHNICAL\n\nHANDS-ON\n\nTO\n\nBE\n\nTECHNICAL\n\nAWARENESS\n\nASSISTANCE. PROGRAMMES\n\nFOR THESE REGIONS. THE MECHANISMS AVAILABLE TO\n\nCATEGORY\n\n2 TYPE REGIONS - THE REGIONS OF\n\nINDUSTRIAL\n\nDECLINE\n\n- ARE SHOWN IN TABLE 2. THE MAIN RTD PROBLEM\n\nIN\n\nSUCH REGIONS MIGHT BE EXPECTED TO BE\n\nTHE CONVERSION AND MODERNISATION\n\nOF AN OLD OR AGEING RTD INFRASTRUCTURE. STRONG TRADITIONS OF INDUSTRY\n\nAND SKILLS WILL EXIST BUT THESE\n\nWILL\n\nNEED\n\nTO BE UPDATED. A PRIMARY\n\nTARGET WOULD BE THE STIMULATION OF INDUSTRIAL AND PRIVATE SECTOR\n\nRLD\n\nAS WELL AS SUPPORTING NEW TECHNOLOGY BASED FIRM FORMATION. FINALLY. CATEGORY 3 REGIONS - THE LAGGING REGIONS OF THE MORE ADVANCED\nOR\nMEMBER STATES. MAY EITHER HAVE RTD CAPACITY WHICH IS UNDERUTILISED\nREGIONS OF THEIR OWN\nHAVE\n\nINFRASTRUCTURE\n\nACCESS\n\nOTHER\n\nRTD\n\nTO\n\nIN\n\nCOUNTRY. A REDUCED SET OF RTD MECHANISMS IS PROPOSED. CONCENTRATING\n\nMAINLY ON\nTYPE\nPARTNERSHIPS AND CONSULTANCY. STIMULATION\n\nMEASURES\nSUCH\nTABLE 3 PROVIDES DETAILS. AS\n\nNETWORKS , LINKAGES. GAPS WILL WIDEN IN THE COMMUNITY UNLESS ACTION\n\nTECHNOLOGY\nNOW. WHICH ARE AT A LOW LEVEL OF TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT WILL\n\nTAKEN\nMEMBER STATES AND REGIONS\nEXPERIENCE\n\nWHILE THE STRONG WILL GROW\n\nSTRONGER. IS\n\nGREAT DIFFICULTIES IN CATCHING UP. STRESSES BETWEEN THE CENTRE\n\nAND\n\nPERIPHERY\n\nWILL\n\nINCREASE IF THE TWO\n\nSPEED\n\nTECHNOLOGICAL EUROPE. WHICH IS NOW RAPIDLY\n\nEMERGING. BECOMES\n\nESTABLISHED. TECHNOLOGICAL STRENGTH\nAS TECHNOLOGY ADVANCES\nWILL CONTINUE IN THE CENTRES WHICH ARE ALREADY STRONG. THE TECHNOLOGY\nCLAPS COULD BECOME A PERMANENT AND PERSISTENT FEATURE. SLOWING DOWN THE\n\nAGGLOMERATION\n\nTHE\n\nOF\n\nOVERALL LEVEL OF ADVANCE. TABUS l\n\nAPPROPRIATE ROD mjumsie FCR CAraxrar l REGIcrta\n\nRESEARCH ABO ADVANCED THtHfOCOGT\nSpecialist fVffMn'tl Cetttrea\nAdvanced Technology Centre\u00ae\nCentre\u00ae of Excellence\nDent arch Equipment\n\nHIGHER ECUCAXICN - DCUSTHT UMCM33\nRreearch Paria\nScieooe and TVschnology Parks\nTterhlng Ctirpenles\nReoearch Equipment Schemes\nCooperative Research Centres\nCooperative Research Ventures and Consortia\nCanaaia Ccorxuiles\nIndustrial Liaison Oil ices\nTransfer Points\nSponsored Chairs\nCooperative Sorkshcps/Synposia\nindustrial Fellovehip\u00ae\n\nKID MANPOWER AMD SJOLL3 CEVELOmUfT\nSkills Placement Progr. mines *\nSp\u00e9cial Bip loymeot Incentives*\nTraining/ re t rain i ng for Scientists and Engineers\nContlnuing Education and Tralnlng\nRID Qirriculm Inproveneot\nDcrftanffe Pro\u00e7nrrnea\nHoblllty Prosa imeJ\n\nAPPLIED RESEARCH AfO TEEHKXDGT TRANSFER\nBranch Plant Prograrimes\nLinkage and Sub Supply\nDeuous ua tl on\nNet nui klng\nApplied Research and Technology Centres\nTechnology Applications and Design Centres\nExtension and Advisory Services *\nTechnical Information and Assistance Centres *\nTechnical Consultancy Services *\n\nEUrKEPUiNEURSHIP SUPPORT\nInnovation Centres\nIncubatloo Centres\nBusiness and Technology Centres\nInventions Services\nPatents and Licenslng Services\nProduct Searching\nTechnology Acquisition Ser-vtoes\nSrsll Business Courses\nBitrepreneurship Tralnlng\nProduct Development Courses\nEnterprise Fbnsrs /Rorkshops\n\nRTD PTtXjnCN AfO GENERAL AWARENESS\nRTD Dchibltlorva\nTechnology Extra\nReferrxl Centrea *\nOne Stop Shoprj *\nInformation latermedlarlea\nTechnical\nTXsk Fbrcea\nScaletter\u00e0 and Tech/ilcal 9ulletlna\nRTD Generxl Farcir\u00f2 t lon / A rargnc * \u00bb\nPesearch Associations\n\u2022ortcsrcm\nScientific and Technical Attaches\n\nInformation and Awxreoesa PrcgT'^rmes\n\nappropriate for the least\n\nfavoured subset of Category l Regions. TABLE 2 :\n\nAPPROPRIATE RTD MECHANISMS FOR CATEGORY 2 REGIONS\n\n\u2022\n\n\u2022\n\nFOR CONVERSION. ADAPTATION AND MODERNISATION OF THE\n\nASSISTANCE\nEXISTING RTD INFRASTRUCTURE\nASSISTANCE FOR STIMULATION OF BERD , PARTICULARLY\n\nRESEARCH EQUIPMENT FOR INDUSTRY\n\nCONTRACT RESEARCH\n\nTECHNICAL CONSULTANCY\n\nSKILLS PLACEMENT\n\nRESEARCH ASSOCIATIONS\n\nHIGHER EDUCATION-INDUSTRY PARTNERSHIPS\nTEACHING COMPANIES\n\nTRANSFER POINTS\n\n\u2022\n\nASSISTANCE FOR NEW TECHNOLOGY BASED STARTUPS. PARTICULARLY\n\nINCUBATO RS\n\nINNOVATION CENTRES\n\nCAMPUS COMPANIES\n\n\u2022\n\nASSISTANCE FOR UPDATING SKILLS. PARTICULARLY\n\nTRAINING AND RETRAINING FOR SCIENTISTS AND ENGINEERS\n\nCONTINUING TECHNICAL EDUCATION AND TRAINING\n\nMOBILITY AND EXCHANGE PROGRAMMES\n\nTABLE 3 :\n\nPRIORITY\n\nAPPROPRIATE RTD MECHANISMS FOR CATEGORY 3 REGIONS_\nNETWORKS AND\nTO\n\nESTABLISHMENT AND\n\nDEVELOPMENT\n\nOF\n\nCOMMUNICATIONS. IMPROVE LINKAGES TO NATIONAL AND\n\nINTERNATIONAL\n\nRTD ACTIVITY. EXCLUSIVELY\n\nSTIMULATION\n\nTYPE\n\nMEASURES. PARTICULARLY\n\nSUPPORT\n\nFCR : -\n\n\u2022\n\n\u2022\n\n\u2022\n\n\u2022\n\n\u00ab\n\n\u2022\n\n\u2022\n\n\u2022\n\n\u2022\n\nRESEARCH NETWORKS\n\nRESEARCHER MOBILITY SCHEMES\n\nTRANSFER POINTS\n\nINDUSTRIAL LIAISON OFFICES\n\nUNIVERSITY - INDUSTRY COOPERATIVE RESEARCH PROGRAMMES\n\nTECHNICAL CONSULTANCY SERVICE FOR SME 'S\n\nRESEARCH EQUIPMENT SUPPORT SCHEMES\n\nINDUSTRIAL FELLOWSHIPS\n\nTECHNICAL WORKSHOPS AND SYMPOSIA\n\n430\n\n\fPOLICIES WHICH ADDRESS THE BASIC FABRIC. FOUNDATION AND\n\nFRAMEWORK FOR\n\nTECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT IN THE LESS\n\nWELL OFF REGIONS NEED TO BE PUT\n\nA\n\nAS\n\nPLACE\n\nIN\n\u2022 QUALITATIVE LEAP' TOWARDS THE\nFORWARD FOR SOME BUT WILL LEAVE MANY STANDING STILL. THIS\nCOMMUNITY'\n\n\u2022 TECHNOLOGY\n\nURGENCY. MATTER\n\nUNLESS\n\nOF\n\nDONE. THE\nIS\nMAY BE A STEP\nIN THE LONG TERM\n\nTHE PROGRESS OF ALL WILL BE RETARDED. NBST / DUBLIN/ AUCUST 1987\n\n\fANNEX 14\n\nCOMPARATIVE\n\nTRENDS_IN_THE_ USA. JAPAN\n\nAND\n\nEUROPE\n\n432\n\n\fBrussels , 22 February 1988\n\nCOMPARISON OF COMMUNITY MEMBER STATES S / T POLICIES\n\nCOPOL 88\n\nTHE EUROPEAN S / T \" SPACE\" IN THE INTERNATIONAL CONTEXT\nRESOURCES AND CONDITIONS FOR COMMUNITY COMPETITIVENESS\n\nExtracts from the Working Paper prepared by P. BARTOLI\nContract n\u00b0 PSS*0008 / F\n\n\fS&T POTENTIAL OF E. E. C. COUNTRIES\n\nOVERALL STATISTICAL COMPARISONS AND CONSEQUENCES OF POLITICAL PARCELLING\n\npotentials\n\nS&T\nespecially\n\nmajor\nComparing\npartners ,\nto\nthe United States and Japan ,\nlook at general statistical agregates. The studies prepared for the former\nCOPOL meeting of CREST have extensively touched these aspects ,\nand so , in\nthe first section , we shall merely actualize the main results. Member States with those\n\nimplies primarily\n\ntheir\n\nof\n\nof\n\nsecond section ,\n\nThen , in order to make this first analysis more accurate , we shall try , in\nquantitative\nthe\ncomparison\npolitical\nparcelling on its S&T efficiency compared with those of the US and Japan. to improve the conclusions drawn\nby taking into account the consequences or European\n\nfrom\n\n434\n\n\fSECTION I\n\n:\n\nTHE R&D POTENTIAL OF THE ECONOMIC COMMUNITY MEMBERS COMPARED\nTO THAT OF ITS MAJOR PARTNERS , THE US AND JAPAN\n\ntheir\n\nexpenses ,\nand\n\nWe shall review ,\nof\nR&D\neighties\ndifferent countries. R&D\nin\neffectiveness of Lhese efforts ,\nreport. of\nthe priority given to R&D among economic activities in\n\nin this section , the main basic data concerning the bulk,\nthe\nthe\nFinally we shall examine the involvement of industry\nthe\nis\nas we shall see in the second part of the\n\nrate of growLh within the\n\ncondition\n\nnational\n\nefforts\n\npartly ,\n\nwhich ,\n\nfirst\n\nhalf\n\nfor\n\na\n\nI - VOLUME\n\n- In\n\n1986\n\nthe\n\ncumulative\n\ncountries\nand the\nof research workers rose from 350 000 to 500 000 ( EPT ) over this\n\nof\ntwice the amount recorded in 1979 ,\n\nexpenditures\n\nmember\n\nR&D\n\nthe\n\napproached 70 billion Ecus ,\nnumber\nperiod*. - With 120 billion dollars devoted to R&D** i. e. 119 billion Ecus (1 Ecu =\n1. 010 dollar according to purchasing power parities : ppp ), the American\nexpenditure is approximately 3 /4 higher. Japan 's is in the neighbourhood\nof 9 200 billion yen ,\n41 billion ( ppp 1 Ecu = 223. 2 yen ) which is\n1 / 3 lower. i. e. repective growth rates of R&D activities in the different\n\ncountries ,\nThe\nanalysed along with monetary variations , leads us to believe that for 1987\nthe relative gap should remain with the US and decrease with Japan. the 1981-1986 period evolutions have been in favour of\n\nIn\nhet gap has widened noticeably with the US and has narrowed with Japan. our\n\npartners :\n\nnecessary\n\na first evaluation of the general effort of the Member States. This comparison of overall R&D expenses of the countries involved leads us\nis\nto\nto\noften\nfeatures\ncivilian\nIn\nof military R&D and tis varying importance in the different countries. this case the accuracy of statistical material is lower ,\nuse\nso we shall\nonly ratios and not absolute figures ( graph II ). R&D expenses in order to take into account the special\n\ncomplete this by a second comparison\n\nIt\nrestricted\n\nto\n\n1986 ,\n\nthe one of EUR 12 ,\n\nthe civilian R&D expenses in the US was no more than a\n\nIn\nabove\nthis\nbetween\ncomparison of overall R&D expenses ,\nSince 1981 the gap with the US remained unchanged ,\nnarrowed. quarter\nIn\npartners\nthe\nnarrower\nespecially between the US and EUR 12. and the gap with Japan\n\nand the Japanese expense was a third lower. in\nis\n\ncomparison\n\nthan\n\ngap\n\nthe\n\nwhose\n\nanalyses ,\n\nrealistic\nBoth\nevaluation of R&D potentials , show that R&D expense in EUR 12 is obviously\nBut\nbelow\nthe\nthe\ntendencies\nappears\nbeLter when considering growth rates. level of the US ,\npoints\n\nout a lower dynamism in the\n\nbut exceeds widely that of\n\nbe combined\n\nCommunity. results\n\nJapan. must\n\nThis\n\ngive\n\nto\n\na\n\n*\n**\n\nFigures estimated from data already available in certain countries. OECD figures. 435\n\n\fGERD for EUR- 12, U. S. A. ft JAPAN : 1901-86\n\n118. 81\n\nConvers i on of US $ ft V on h&s boon\n\ncarried otffc accord lng the P. P. P. \u25a0\nto avo Id the errat ic f luctua-\ntions of these currenclee\n\n5 cSJ?c>\n5co3SSg\u00a78^ ce\u00e7 cl5\n5 \u00eeo 2 co 2 &; 5 ex S oo 2 55 2 co \u00a3 00 ?\n< \u00c7oR<\u00bb2\u00e7\u00e75 7?;=:\u00c7\u00c7oS3 = ?2o52J\n\nSppppppp\n??|!!!ll|!|I|s|\n\n120. 00-r\n\n100. 00+\n\n00. 00+\n\nB ioECU\n\n00. 00 +\n\n67. 57\n\n^O\u00a7S\nO SJ\u00a7\nO ^ 3 ^3\u00ef\n\u00bb o \u00a3\u00a3 3g= O 3J O SJ \u00f4 8- 3 g--, O ^\n||^S\u00ffjgop^6J||^\n\n5c S \u00a95 2 co S oc 2 o? 9, ?5 S o\u00f4 2 36\n\nx255\u00a3l\u00a72cc2\u00a7c j852\u00a7S2\u00a7c\n^ 2CO2!K2CC2CO9CC2OO. \u00c7\u00a3\nx 2 00 s co 2 -oc s te ? ce 2 o: \u2022 4\n^ o^oiWoSSoSAO\u00ce^c\u00eeSSfe\n^ ogjosWoJgoSAogScgScS\ni\u00bbigi\u00a7\u00e6sg|i8gig\nIsSlSifgsgiis\u00e7\u00ffJ\ni\u00eflllsillllii?!\nigg!Sisp\u00e68p|ig\n\n78. 20\n\nlift 11\n\n\u25a0 JAPAN\n\nH EUR- 12\nEUR - 12\n\nIS U. S. A. U. S. A\n\n41. 28\n\nI\nI\n\n12\u044182\u043e\u043e\u042f\u0441\u0441\u0428\u0437\n\ni \u00ab 2: - s * -35 9:\n\nIffif\u00ee II l'iisiiimm\n11 \u25a0! -s 1 1 I|i llilisiiilil?\n| g. |- -| :f\u00a7 J. Jg p' $\nli \u00c9I. --I \u00ef - IffeiBII\u00c9IliiJl\n\n\"6 &,. 55\n\n\u00efA\u00c0b\u00e0fef\n\n88\n\n40. 00+\n\n\u25a0f\u00eff :\u00eftf i ipi 1 l?ill\nrss. \u00ab. S % s \u00a7iw?\u00e7il\u00ee?i8i9^i$2\u00a7ia\n\n20. 00\n\n0. 00-\n\n4^\n04\nCTN. z 21\ng ZX,\n\nimpfftfi#aiiiiiiiiB\n|\u00e7'S?l?I|SP?i\u00ee'i|ll||\n\" ^ =<j\n9o\n'\n\u00ff\u00ef%%P51 c i:?\u25a0 a gIios\nS. '\u00ff 1V S':1 1 i. , II?11illlljljI'SlllI\n*- \u00efS ' J\niiiiSiiiiiiiii\u00efiii\n\nS <51 \u25a0\u00a3\u00a3'\u25a0 \u2022$\u00a3'S;c^\u00bb. C/fe\u00a32R\u00ff>r,CL%\u00a3,~+:gA\u00d4gS\u00a3S\n\n^ \u00e2'f\n\n3>S,\u00a3K-rt32'\n\n-M\n\n81\n\nVoar\n\n\fOlv/ ll GERD for EUR-12 , U. S. A. 8. JAPAN :\n1981-1986\n\n140 -p\n\n12\u0398 4-\n\nIBB +\n\n8B +\n\n\u00c9>B\n\nEUR - 12 = 1 OO\n\nC IBB )\n\n( 56 )\n\n40\n\nL-\n\nj r. v. jj\n\n?:\u0434\u0430\u0413^5*-\u041b?\u0413,\u0414)\n\u2018. V , \u0427 , \u0427. '\u042a''\u00bb-' ^/. ' ^ \u0438-'\n\n2B +\n\nC 125 )\n\nC < 125 )\n\nJAPAN\n\nEUR - 12\n\nU. S. A. ( 66 )\n\nC IBB )\n\n;\u2022 ;\u2022;\u2022 ;\u2022;! >;\u2022 >;! ;\u00ee;i ;\u00ee?i >;l *\u2022*. >\u2666; >\u2022; >\n2; >\u00ee; JJJJ \u00ceJ\u00ce;2}\u00ce; !\u2022!; i;\u00ee* !;\u00ee; >\u00ee; !;2; >;\u2022 2\u00bb\n;5;j ;\u2022\n\u00cej5;2\u00ff*\u00ee;;*\u00ee;jj 2;\u00ef* Ij\u00ee;\n\u00ee; 2;\u00ee|\n\n\u0419-\u0419--\n\n\u0433;\u20ac'\u0428\n\n>;* >\n\n:<\u2022\n\n^\u00fc5?:\u00efsS:. ^\u00ee:5\n\nYear\n\n\fAVERAGE ANNUAL GROWTH OF GERD\n1981-1985 (fixed prices )\n\n0. 0\n\n0. a\n\n*\n\n\u2018 'f\n|'1;|\n\u00efI'IIMl'l\u00eal\nI\n\n|jj|||||||\n\nIffi itfni\n\n0. 6\n\n\u25a1 TOTAL\n\n1\n\nS Civil\nCivil\n\nj -\n\ni\n\n|\u042f1\u042a1!1!\n\nfi S-\u00c9S'S'gi. fe\u00ef\n| lilIi|:\u00dcl\n\njm 2pem*?\u00bbst\u00a3 \u00ab \u00abf\n\nO\n\nt. o J\n\nh O\n\n% per year\n\n!\n|\nli. |\n\n'\n\n9-r\n\na-h\n\n7 +\n\n6 +\n\ns +\n\n\u25a04 +\n\n3 +\n\n2 +\n\n1 +\n\n0\n\n04\nCD\n\nJapan\n\nUSA\n\nCountry\n\nEUH- 12\n\n\fII - GROWTH RATES\n\n1981\n\nand 1985 R&D expenditures increased by an average of 3. 6\n\nBeLween\n%\nper annum in volume within in EEC , at a rate which was substantially lower\nthan\nJapanese\nprogression : 8. 8 % , more than twice as fast as in the EEC. % which\n\niLself\n\nbelow\n\nwell\n\n6. 6\n\nthe\n\nthe\n\nof\n\nUS\n\nis\n\n:\n\nWhen applied to civil research ,\nthe comparison of progression rates gives\nresults which are considerably different , because the progression of civil\nappropriations was almost non-existent in the US. The result is that total\nexpenditures ( public and industrial ) for R&D increase approximately\ncivil\nat the same rate as in the US and in Europe , but Japanese growth is always\ntwice as strong :\n\nEEC\nUSA\nJapan\n\n4 Z\n4 Z\n8,8 %\n\nIII - INTENSITY OF THE R&D EFFORT\n\nAnother\nof\nratio\nGERD/ GDP ,\nthe\nthe\ntechnical development among all other economic activities. expenditure of R&D to the\ngiven\n\nof the research effort in a country is\n\nindicator\nthe\nwhich\n\ngross\nto\n\npriority\n\nevaluate\n\ngross\n\ngiven\ndomestic\n\nscientific\n\nby\nthe\nproduct\nand\n\nOf the European\nIn 1985 this ratio reached 208 Z in the US and in Japan*. neighbouring\ncountries ,\n2. 7\nin\nand\nZ\nFrance , at 2 Z in the Netherlands ( neighbouring the EEC average ) and 1. 3 %\nor less for the other member countries. while it was in the range of 2. 3 Z in the United\n\nthe FRG approached this level with a ratio\n\nKingdom\n\nonly\n\nonce\n\nIf\nclassification is considerably modified. again we restricL our analysis to civil\n\nresearch ,\n\nthe\n\ncountry\n\nJapanese effort in civil R&D with a ratio neighbouring 2. 7 %\nbe far superior to those of the US and the EEC member countries\nAnd again the FRG is the only\n\nin the range of 1. 8 % and 2 Z. whose\n\ncivil\n\neffort is equal to that of Japan\n\n( between\n\nappears\nwhich\nmember\nand\n\n1. 5\n\nThe\nto\nare\nnation\n2. 6% ). Japan : non-adjusted OECD figures. GERD performed by enterprises In % of total\n\n|\n\n\u00ef-\nh\n\n$M\ni\u2018Si\n\n|\n\n|\n\n\u00a3 g}\n\n_[_L. jjLyftl^-|-\n\n|\n\nj1^11\u00ab^. |-j|\u00bb\n\n-|-1-[\n\n!j\n\nHE\n\nP\n\nIRL\n\n\u00a3\n\nDK\n\nNL\n\nI\n\nF\n\nUK\n\nB\n\nD\n\nJFN\n\nuse\n\nCountry\n\n80 -r\n\n70 +\n\n80\n\n50 +\n\no 40 \u25a0+\u25a0\n\n0\n\nO\n\n\fIV - CONTRIBUTION OF INDUSTRY TO R & D POTENTIAL\n\nVI-l / Execution of R&D work\n\nthe\n\nUnited States ,\n\nin\nIn\nindustry , and this level was maintained throughout the 1980 's. This strong\nby\ncontribution\non the part of private enterprises is explained\nthe\nto\nthem. that a large portion of military research is\n\nmore than 70 Z of R&D exependitures are\n\nnotably\nsubcontracted\n\nmade\n\nfact\n\nof 68 Z in 1985. In Japan , the corresponding ratio ( DIRDE / DIRD ) is also high ;\nit was in the\nneigborhood\nBut unlike the United States ,\nare\nhere we\ndealing\nalmost exclusively with civil research and the industrial portion\nin\nhas registered a strong increase since the beginning of the 80 1 s\n1981 ) due to the dynamism of industrial financing and the weak progression\nof R&D appropriations. ( 61 Z\n\npresent\nAmong\ncharacteristics : Belgium ( 69 Z in 83 ) and the FRG ( 72 Z in 1985 ). countries\n\nnations ,\n\nmember\n\nalone\n\ntwo\n\nthe\n\nsimilar\n\nIV-2 / Financing of R&D work\n\nby\n\ngrowing rapidly since the beginning of the 80 1 s\n\nfar from the highest ( more than 70 Z in 1985 ) and moreover it\n1981 ). play a very minor role in businesses' financing\n\nIt is in Japan that the contribution by businesses to the financing of R&D\nhas\nis\nIn\nbeen\nfact ,\nof\nR&D work. They therefore enjoy total financial independence in the conduct\nof their R&D programmes , which is not the case in the United States and in\ncertain member countries. appropriations\n\n( 62 Z in\n\nthe\n\nEuropean\n\nAmong\nfinancial\nEEC\napproaches that of the United States which is 48 Z. contribution on the part of industry of 61 Z. rate which characterizes them\n\nonly the FRG\n\ncountries ,\n\nstates ,\n\nmember\n\napproaches\n\nthe\n\nwith\n\nJapan\n\na\nAs for the other\nor\nfalls\n\nbelow\n\n441\n\n\fCONCLUSIONS\n\nIn conclusion ,\nwell below those of the Unites States , while the Japan is catching up. the funds devoted to R&D activities for the EECc are still\n\nbetween 1981 and 1985 ,\n\nwhat is more serious is the fact that R&D investments show even\n\nAnd\ndynamism :\ngreat in Japan and one half higher in the United States. granted\nratio ,\nand 2. 8 % ) and the gap is on the increase. less\nthe growLh of expenditures was twice as\nAs for the place\nto R&D in the economic activity as a whole ,\nthe\nit is very much lower than that of our partners (2 % against 2. 7 %\n\nand measured by\n\nLastly , the distribution of Lhe R&D effort between industry and the public\ncountries ,\nsector shows that industry 's contribution is lower in European\nwhich puts them at a disadvantage in relation to the new conditions of S&T\ndevelopement\nof\nparticular the importance of\nin\nresearch and the spreading of technology. valorization\n\nand\n\nthe\n\ncomparisons ,\n\nquantitative\n\nrather\nThese\ndulling for the EEC , moreover neglect a serious handicap which affects Lhe\nR&D potential of the entire EEC : the EEC does not constitute a homogeneous\nare\nwhole. We shall\nextremely unlike one another and present insufficient synergies. look at the consequences of that situation in the next section. out into twelve components some\n\nwhich in the last analysis\n\nparcelled\n\nwhich\n\nare\n\nof\n\nIt\n\nis\n\n442\n\n\fSECTION II : CONSEQUENCES OF POLITICAL PARCELLING\n\nEuropean\n\npreceding section ,\n\nS&T space as a coherent whole. which dealt with the comparison of the\n\nby the Economic Community and their partners ,\n\nparcelling introduces partitions and often leads\n\nmeans\nIn\nthe\nconsidered\nimplemented\ncase :\nthe\nthe\ndiverging\npolitical\nit is presently an illusion to consider that\nchoices. And for this reason ,\nis\nEuropean\nits\nthe\nequal to the sum of\npotential\nS&T\nmembers. To be realistic ,\nit would be fitting to attribute to the latter a\ncoefficient representing the loss of effectiveness which affects\nreducing\nthe European mosaic compared to a homogeneous national space. we\nBut this is noL\n\npotential\n\nof\n\nto\n\nof all ,\n\nThis reference to the parcelling of the Economic Community is not new. But\nreasons. it has taken on particular acuteness in the realm of S&T for two\nthe differences between member nations are much more acute\nFirst\nin\nthe\nSecondly ,\nworld , recent developments in scientific policy have foscused on the means\nof\nvalorizing\nthe results of this work on the economic level. better organizing the synergy of S&T efforts and of better\n\nS&T matters than in other domains. because throughout\n\nThese\nfluidity\nto\npoorly\nparcelling ,\nlimitations\nactions. different\nthe\nin\n\nactions\nS&T system on which they are operating and\n\nnecessarily imply\n\ncohesion\n\nand\n\na\n\nlack of fluidity in exchanges among men\n\ndue\n\nwhich they interpret as obstacles to the circulating of\nto\n\nand the absence of\n\ncompany\n\nsynergy\n\naction ,\n\nin\n\nan\n\nto\n\nadapt\n\nincreased\nvery\npolitical\nmen ,\npublic\n\nObstacles to the circulating of men\n\nThis is a major handicap ,\nof the circulating of knowledge ,\nsense ,\na\nexchanges\nwithin\npolitical parcelling. broader\n\nof\nthe\n\nbecause S&T progress is first of all the result\nthe confrontation of experiences and , in\nspeaking ,\nby\n\nmen. scientific\n\nMore\nfabric\n\nundermined\n\ngenerally\n\ncontacts between\n\nEuropean\n\nare\n\nare\n\ndifferences of language ,\n\nobstacles ,\nwhich concern lengthy travel on the part\nbeen mentioned on many occasions and are well known. culture ,\n\nscientists ,\nThe\nall ,\nhave\na\nthere\npsychological effort to adapt which is sometimes difficult for some. Then\nthere are differences between the administrative and social systems of the\nmember nations , which are behind numerous material problems encountered by\nresearch\nin\nseeing to it that the equipment necessary for carrying out experiments can\ncirculate from one country to another. of\nFirst of\nwhich imply\n\nworkers and their families. there are difficulties\n\nmentality ,\n\nLastly ,\n\nLimits on action by companies\n\nAlthough\npolitical\nthrough\nunique\n\nthe\nparcelling\n\nfree circulation of goods is ensured by\nanother\n\ncreates\n\ncompartmentalization\n\nthe\n\nthe\n\nplay of the standards of taxation and\n\npublic\nEuropean market of 1992 should remove this obsLacle ,\n\nRome\nof\nmarkets. but for\n\nTreaty ,\nmarkets\nThe\nthe\n\n\fthis\n\nsituation\n\nmoment\ntheir\nrestricts\nthem ,\nexcludes\nbecoming\nhigher\nsemiconductors for example. action\ncapacity\nto invesL in S&T. development ,\nbecause the minimum effective investment\nand\n\nhigher in certain realms\n\nthe freedom\n\nreduces\n\nof\n\nof\n\nadvanced\n\nof\nand\nthresholds\n\nbusinesses ,\nsometimes\nare\ntechnology :\n\nhabit of a certain protection against foreign\ncreated introverted behavior\nthe\n\ncompetition\nthe\nMoreover ,\nlarge\nin\na\nnational\nwithin\nto\ntendency\nportion\nthe\nof\ncooperate ,\nnotably in S & T matters , as testified by the weak development\nof technological joint ventures , compared to what we observe in the United\nStates or in Japan. borders\nindustrial fabric ,\n\nreducing\n\nthereby\n\nhas\n\nthe\n\nfirms\n\nget\nOnly\ntechnologies\nbypassing\nthese obstacles. But they then are sometimes more tempted by direct access\nto the world market than by a limited action within the European space. which have learned to act beyond borders and to\n\nthey are in the world ,\n\nare capable\n\nwherever\n\ngo\n\nof\n\nThe absence of synergy in public action\n\nimplementation\n\ndo the structures of research systems. is true that recently we have witnessed a certain harmonizing\n\nIt\npolicies. as\nthe\ndifferent. support\nnational perimeter and do not have the repercussions of measures taken\nthe American Administration or the Japanese Government. S&T\nNonetheless , the traditions of gdvernmental action differ , just\nin\noffen\nand\nthe\nby\n\nof incentives and the instruments utilized are\n\norientations are\npublic authorities are\n\nThe result is a staggering\n\nIncentives\nto\nlimited\n\ndivergent. thus\n\nSometimes\nby\n\neven\nthe\n\nprovided\n\nof\n\nvery\n\noften\n\npolitical\n\nparcelling\n\nimplies the\n\noften the case with respecL to military equipment ,\n\nin realms where the public powers are the main customer. Moreover ,\nS&T\nactivities\nThis\nin\nis\nwhich cooperation is still an exception. But the absence of cooperation is\nalso\na\nfield in which up until recently , competition between nations , tempered by\nThe amounts at stake in\nserveral only too rare exceptions ,\nthis respect are huge , and the duplication of activities appears as a real\nproblem. noted in certain civil domains ,\n\nwas the rule. duplication\n\nfor example\n\ntransport ,\n\nrailway\n\nfield\n\nof\n\na\n\nThus political parcelling reduces the effectiveness of S&T activity in the\nspace and lead to a shadowing of the quantitative comparisons of\nEuropean\nthe\na\npreceding\nWe shall see in the second portion that another factor\nhomegeneous whole. is\n:\nto be taken into consideration in comparisons with the US and Japan\nwe are speaking of the very rapid progress achieved by these two countries\ntoward greater effectiveness of their S&T apparatus. looks upon Europe\n\nsection\n\nthough\n\nwhich\n\nwere\n\nas\n\nit\n\n444"}
+{"cellarURIs": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/5037e6bc-a7a7-4286-817a-9abd2f566068", "title": "Commission Regulation (EEC) No 3711/88 of 28 November 1988 fixing the target ceiling for imports of olive oil into Portugal in the 1988/89 marketing year", "langIdentifier": "ENG", "mtypes": "html,pdfa1b,print", "workTypes": "http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#legislation_secondary,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#regulation,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#resource_legal,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#work", "authors": "European Commission", "date": "1988-11-28", "subjects": "Portugal,olive oil,supplementary trade mechanism", "workIds": "celex:31988R3711,oj:JOL_1988_325_R_0040_040", "eurovoc_concepts": ["Portugal", "olive oil", "supplementary trade mechanism"], "url": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/5037e6bc-a7a7-4286-817a-9abd2f566068", "lang": "eng", "formats": ["html", "pdfa1b", "print"]}
+{"cellarURIs": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/62b6bf24-bc02-4d5e-87ac-d88e2b708501", "title": "PROPOSAL FOR A COUNCIL REGULATION ( EEC ) AMENDING REGULATION ( EEC ) NO 486/85 ON THE ARRANGEMENTS APPLICABLE TO AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS AND CERTAIN GOODS RESULTING FROM THE PROCESSING OF AGRICULTURAL PRODUCTS ORIGINATING IN THE AFRICAN, CARIBBEAN AND PACIFIC STATES OR IN THE OVERSEAS COUNTRIES AND TERRITORIES", "langIdentifier": "ENG", "mtypes": "pdfa1b,print", "workTypes": "http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#act_preparatory,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#proposal_act,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#proposal_regulation_ec,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#resource_legal,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#work", "authors": "European Commission", "date": "1988-11-28", "subjects": "agricultural product,import,overseas countries and territories,processed foodstuff", "workIds": "celex:51988PC0679,comnat:COM_1988_0679_FIN,oj:JOC_1989_004_R_0007_01", "eurovoc_concepts": ["agricultural product", "import", "overseas countries and territories", "processed foodstuff"], "url": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/62b6bf24-bc02-4d5e-87ac-d88e2b708501", "lang": "eng", "formats": ["pdfa1b", "print"]}
+{"cellarURIs": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/e4619261-2b81-4ed5-a994-1780b0cc38f2", "title": "Council Regulation (EEC) No 3771/88 of 28 November 1988 laying down, in respect of hops, the amount of aid to producers for the 1987 harvest", "langIdentifier": "ENG", "mtypes": "html,pdfa1b,print", "workTypes": "http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#legislation_secondary,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#regulation,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#resource_legal,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#work", "authors": "Council of the European Union", "date": "1988-11-28", "subjects": "production aid", "workIds": "celex:31988R3771,oj:JOL_1988_332_R_0001_020", "eurovoc_concepts": ["production aid"], "url": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/e4619261-2b81-4ed5-a994-1780b0cc38f2", "lang": "eng", "formats": ["html", "pdfa1b", "print"]}
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+{"cellarURIs": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/bd568ce1-e04e-4a0f-a837-b01d74c0f06e", "title": "Commission Regulation (EEC) No 3629/88 of 22 November 1988 amending the Italian version of Regulation (EEC) No 2677/85 laying down implementing rules in respect of the system of consumption aid for olive oil", "langIdentifier": "ENG", "mtypes": "html,pdfa1b,print", "workTypes": "http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#legislation_secondary,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#regulation,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#resource_legal,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#work", "authors": "European Commission", "date": "1988-11-22", "subjects": "consumption,economic support,olive oil", "workIds": "celex:31988R3629,oj:JOL_1988_316_R_0042_022", "eurovoc_concepts": ["consumption", "economic support", "olive oil"], "url": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/bd568ce1-e04e-4a0f-a837-b01d74c0f06e", "lang": "eng", "formats": ["html", "pdfa1b", "print"]}
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+{"cellarURIs": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/80b88f42-9d1f-408d-b31a-0aa3582d522a", "title": "89/64/EEC, Euratom, ECSC: COMMISSION Decision of 22 November 1988 adjusting the weightings applicable from 1 May 1988 to the remuneration of officials of the European Communities serving in non-member countries", "langIdentifier": "ENG", "mtypes": "html,pdfa1b,print", "workTypes": "http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#decision,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#legislation_secondary,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#resource_legal,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#work", "authors": "European Commission", "date": "1988-11-22", "subjects": "European official,labour mobility,ratio,remuneration of work,servant (EU),third country", "workIds": "celex:31989D0064,oj:JOL_1989_029_R_0055_045", "eurovoc_concepts": ["European official", "labour mobility", "ratio", "remuneration of work", "servant (EU)", "third country"], "url": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/80b88f42-9d1f-408d-b31a-0aa3582d522a", "lang": "eng", "formats": ["html", "pdfa1b", "print"]}
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+{"cellarURIs": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/15cb20b3-2259-4937-b068-8a5a660b429f", "title": "Agreement between the European Economic Community and the Hungarian People' s Republic on trade and commercial and economic cooperation", "langIdentifier": "ENG", "mtypes": "html,pdfa1b,print", "workTypes": "http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#agreement_international,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#agreement_non-member-states,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#resource_legal,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#work", "authors": "European Economic Community,Hungary", "date": "1988-11-21", "subjects": "Hungary,economic cooperation,trade agreement,trade cooperation", "workIds": "celex:21988A1130(01)", "eurovoc_concepts": ["Hungary", "economic cooperation", "trade agreement", "trade cooperation"], "url": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/15cb20b3-2259-4937-b068-8a5a660b429f", "lang": "eng", "formats": ["html", "pdfa1b", "print"]}
+{"cellarURIs": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/087349cd-369b-46b6-9108-b60e236c62cf", "title": "88/595/EEC: Council Decision of 21 November 1988 concerning the conclusion of an Agreement between the European Economic Community and the Hungarian People' s Republic on trade and commercial and economic cooperation", "langIdentifier": "ENG", "mtypes": "html,pdfa1b,print", "workTypes": "http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#decision,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#legislation_secondary,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#resource_legal,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#work", "authors": "Council of the European Union", "date": "1988-11-21", "subjects": "Hungary,agreement (EU),economic cooperation,protocol to an agreement,ratification of an agreement,trade cooperation", "workIds": "celex:31988D0595,oj:JOL_1988_327_R_0001_006", "eurovoc_concepts": ["Hungary", "agreement (EU)", "economic cooperation", "protocol to an agreement", "ratification of an agreement", "trade cooperation"], "url": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/087349cd-369b-46b6-9108-b60e236c62cf", "lang": "eng", "formats": ["html", "pdfa1b", "print"]}
+{"cellarURIs": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/ba0ee7f1-fe3c-41a9-97e1-8838fd248f6f", "title": "PROPOSAL FOR A COUNCIL DECISION ADOPTING TWO SPECIFIC RESEARCH AND TECHNOLOGICAL DEVELOPMENT PROGRAMMES IN THE FIELD OF THE ENVIRONMENT: STEP: SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY FOR ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION; EOPCH: EUROPEAN PROGRAMME ON CLIMATOLOGY AND NATURAL HAZARDS 1989-1992", "langIdentifier": "ENG", "mtypes": "pdfa1b,print", "workTypes": "http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#act_preparatory,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#proposal_act,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#proposal_decision_ec,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#resource_legal,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#work", "authors": "European Commission", "date": "1988-11-21", "subjects": "environmental protection,pollution control measures,research and development,research programme,scientific research", "workIds": "celex:51988PC0632,comnat:COM_1988_0632_FIN,oj:JOC_1988_327_R_0010_01", "eurovoc_concepts": ["environmental protection", "pollution control measures", "research and development", "research programme", "scientific research"], "url": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/ba0ee7f1-fe3c-41a9-97e1-8838fd248f6f", "lang": "eng", "formats": ["pdfa1b", "print"]}
+{"cellarURIs": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/1bdbcda9-1bc9-43c5-a97b-2d67284520fb", "title": "88/598/EEC: Council Decision of 21 November 1988 concerning the conclusion of an Additional Protocol to the Cooperation Agreement between the European Economic Community and the Syrian Arab Republic", "langIdentifier": "ENG", "mtypes": "fmx4,html,pdfa1b,print,xhtml", "workTypes": "http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#decision,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#legislation_secondary,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#resource_legal,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#work", "authors": "Council of the European Union", "date": "1988-11-21", "subjects": "Syria,agreement (EU),originating product,protocol to an agreement,ratification of an agreement,trade cooperation", "workIds": "celex:31988D0598,oj:JOL_1988_327_R_0057_009", "eurovoc_concepts": ["Syria", "agreement (EU)", "originating product", "protocol to an agreement", "ratification of an agreement", "trade cooperation"], "url": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/1bdbcda9-1bc9-43c5-a97b-2d67284520fb", "lang": "eng", "formats": ["fmx4", "html", "pdfa1b", "print", "xhtml"], "text": "L_1988327EN. 01005701. xml\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n30. 11. 1988\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\n\n\nEN\n\n\nOfficial Journal of the European Communities\n\n\nL 327/57\n\n\n\n\n\nCOUNCIL DECISION\nof 21 November 1988\nconcerning the conclusion of an Additional Protocol to the Cooperation Agreement between the European Economic Community and the Syrian Arab Republic\n(88/598/EEC)\nTHE COUNCIL OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES\nHaving regard to the Treaty establishing the European Economic Community, and in particular Article 238 thereof,\nHaving regard to the recommendation from the Commission,\nHaving regard to the assent of the European Parliament\u00a0(1),\nWhereas the Additional Protocol to the Cooperation Agreement between the European Economic Community and the Syrian Arab Republic\u00a0(2), signed at Brussels on 18 January 1977, should be approved. HAS DECIDED AS FOLLOWS:\nArticle 1\nThe Additional Protocol to the Cooperation Agreement between the European Economic Community and the Syrian Arab Republic is hereby approved on behalf of the Community. The text of the Protocol is attached to this Decision. Article 2\nThe President of the Council shall give the notification provided for in Article 5 of the Protocol\u00a0(3). Article 3\nThis Decision shall take effect on the day following its publication in the Official Journal of the European Communities. Done at Brussels, 21 November 1988. For the Council\n\n\nThe President\n\nTh. PANGALOS\n\n\n\n\n(1)\u00a0\u00a0OJ No C 290, 14. 11. 1988. (2)\u00a0\u00a0OJ No L 269, 27. 9. 1978, p. 2. (3)\u00a0\u00a0See p. 64 of this Official Journal"}
+{"cellarURIs": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/d678ad67-dfb1-4e81-9b60-9f9bdd78a358", "title": "88/597/EEC: Council Decision of 21 November 1988 on the conclusion of a Protocol on financial cooperation between the European Economic Community and the State of Israel", "langIdentifier": "ENG", "mtypes": "fmx4,html,pdfa1b,print,xhtml", "workTypes": "http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#decision,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#legislation_secondary,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#resource_legal,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#work", "authors": "Council of the European Union", "date": "1988-11-21", "subjects": "Israel,agreement (EU),economic cooperation,protocol to an agreement,ratification of an agreement,trade cooperation", "workIds": "celex:31988D0597,oj:JOL_1988_327_R_0051_008", "eurovoc_concepts": ["Israel", "agreement (EU)", "economic cooperation", "protocol to an agreement", "ratification of an agreement", "trade cooperation"], "url": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/d678ad67-dfb1-4e81-9b60-9f9bdd78a358", "lang": "eng", "formats": ["fmx4", "html", "pdfa1b", "print", "xhtml"], "text": "L_1988327EN. 01005101. xml\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n30. 11. 1988\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\n\n\nEN\n\n\nOfficial Journal of the European Communities\n\n\nL 327/51\n\n\n\n\n\nCOUNCIL DECISION\nof 21 November 1988\non the conclusion of a Protocol on financial cooperation between the European Economic Community and the State of Israel\n(88/597/EEC)\nTHE COUNCIL OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES,\nHaving regard to the Treaty establishing the European Economic Community, and in particular Article 238 thereof,\nHaving regard to the recommendation from the Commission,\nHaving regard to the assent of the European Parliament\u00a0(1),\nWhereas the Protocol on financial cooperation between the European Economic Community and the State of Israel should be approved,\nHAS DECIDED AS FOLLOWS:\nArticle 1\nThe Protocol on financial cooperation between the European Economic Community and the State of Israel is hereby approved on behalf of the Community. The text of the Protocol is attached to this Decision. Article 2\nThe President of the Council shall give the notification provided for in Article 13 (1) of the Protocol\u00a0(2). Article 3\nThis Decision shall enter into force on the day following its publication in the Official Journal of the European Communities. Done at Brussels, 21 November 1988. For the Council\n\n\nThe President\n\nTh. PANGALOS\n\n\n\n\n(1)\u00a0\u00a0OJ No C 290, 14. 11. 1988. (2)\u00a0\u00a0See p. 56 of this Official Journal"}
+{"cellarURIs": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/f2e3b462-5f2e-4151-b159-2daff04d5827", "title": "88/596/EEC: Council Decision of 21 November 1988 concerning the conclusion of the Fourth Additional Protocol to the Agreement between the European Economic Community and the State of Israel", "langIdentifier": "ENG", "mtypes": "fmx4,html,pdfa1b,print,xhtml", "workTypes": "http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#decision,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#legislation_secondary,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#resource_legal,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#work", "authors": "Council of the European Union", "date": "1988-11-21", "subjects": "Israel,agreement (EU),economic cooperation,protocol to an agreement,ratification of an agreement,trade cooperation", "workIds": "celex:31988D0596,oj:JOL_1988_327_R_0035_007", "eurovoc_concepts": ["Israel", "agreement (EU)", "economic cooperation", "protocol to an agreement", "ratification of an agreement", "trade cooperation"], "url": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/f2e3b462-5f2e-4151-b159-2daff04d5827", "lang": "eng", "formats": ["fmx4", "html", "pdfa1b", "print", "xhtml"], "text": "L_1988327EN. 01003501. xml\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n30. 11. 1988\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\n\n\nEN\n\n\nOfficial Journal of the European Communities\n\n\nL 327/35\n\n\n\n\n\nCOUNCIL DECISION\nof 21 November 1988\nconcerning the conclusion of the Fourth Additional Protocol to the Agreement between the European Economic Community and the State of Israel\n(88/596/EEC)\nTHE COUNCIL OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES,\nHaving regard to the Treaty establishing the European Economic Community, and in particular Article 238 thereof,\nHaving regard to the recommendation from the Commission\u00a0(1),\nHaving regard to the opinion of the European Parliament\u00a0(2),\nWhereas the Fourth Additional Protocol to the Agreement between the European Economic Community and the State of Israel\u00a0(3), signed in Brussels on 11 May 1975, should be approved,\nHAS DECIDED AS FOLLOWS:\nArticle 1\nThe Fourth Additional Protocol to the Agreement between the European Economic Community and the State of Israel is hereby approved on behalf of the Community. The text of the Protocol is attached to this Decision. Article 2\nThe President of the Council shall give the notification provided for in Article 8 of the Protocol\u00a0(4). Article 3\nThis Decision shall take effect on the day following its publication in the Official Journal of the European Communities. Done at Brussels, 21 November 1988. For the Council\n\n\nThe President\n\nTh. PANGALOS\n\n\n\n\n(1)\u00a0\u00a0OJ No C 104, 21. 4. 1987, p. 8. (2)\u00a0\u00a0OJ No C 290, 14. 11. 1988. (3)\u00a0\u00a0OJ No L 136, 28. 5. 1975, p. 3. (4)\u00a0\u00a0See p. 56 of this Official Journal"}
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+{"cellarURIs": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/5caf4ca3-25a9-4069-9ed3-e229bad110b4", "title": "LEGISLATIVE RESOLUTION (Cooperation procedure: first reading) embodying the opinion of the European Parliament on the proposal from the Commission to the Council for a directive on the approximation of the laws of the Member States relating to machinery", "langIdentifier": "ENG", "mtypes": "print", "workTypes": "http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#act_preparatory,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#resolution_legislative_ep,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#resource_legal,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#work", "authors": "Committee on Economic and Monetary Affairs,European Parliament", "date": "1988-11-16", "subjects": "approximation of laws,consumer protection,domestic market,machine tool,public safety,roadworthiness tests,standard,standardisation", "workIds": "celex:51988AP0239", "eurovoc_concepts": ["approximation of laws", "consumer protection", "domestic market", "machine tool", "public safety", "roadworthiness tests", "standard", "standardisation"], "url": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/5caf4ca3-25a9-4069-9ed3-e229bad110b4", "lang": "eng", "formats": ["print"]}
+{"cellarURIs": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/785cf8f8-84f3-44c3-b407-c98141d4c8cd", "title": "DRAFT COUNCIL RESOLUTION ON THE GREENHOUSE EFFECT AND THE COMMUNITY", "langIdentifier": "ENG", "mtypes": "pdf", "workTypes": "http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#act_preparatory,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#proposal_act,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#proposal_other,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#resource_legal,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#work", "authors": "European Commission", "date": "1988-11-16", "subjects": "climate change,energy policy,environmental cooperation,greenhouse effect,greenhouse gas,pollution control measures", "workIds": "celex:51988PC0656", "eurovoc_concepts": ["climate change", "energy policy", "environmental cooperation", "greenhouse effect", "greenhouse gas", "pollution control measures"], "url": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/785cf8f8-84f3-44c3-b407-c98141d4c8cd", "lang": "eng", "formats": ["pdf"], "text": "ARCHIVES HISTORIQUES\nDE LA COMMISSION\n\nCOLLECTION RELIEE DES\nDOCUMENTS \"COM\"\n\nCOM (88) 656\n\nVol. 1988/0219\n\n\fDisclaimer\n\nConform\u00e9ment au r\u00e8glement (CEE, Euratom) n\u00b0 354/83 du Conseil du 1er f\u00e9vrier 1983 concernant\nl'ouverture au public des archives historiques de la Communaut\u00e9 \u00e9conomique europ\u00e9enne et de\nla Communaut\u00e9 europ\u00e9enne de l'\u00e9nergie atomique (JO L 43 du 15. 2. 1983, p. 1) modifi\u00e9 en dernier\nlieu par le r\u00e8glement (UE) 2015/496 du Conseil du 17 mars 2015 (JO L79 du 25. 3. 2015, p. 1), ce\ndossier est ouvert au public. Le cas \u00e9ch\u00e9ant, les documents classifi\u00e9s pr\u00e9sents dans ce dossier\nont \u00e9t\u00e9 d\u00e9classifi\u00e9s conform\u00e9ment \u00e0 l'article 5 dudit r\u00e8glement ou sont consid\u00e9r\u00e9s d\u00e9classifi\u00e9s\nconform\u00e9ment aux articles 26(3) et 59(2) de la d\u00e9cision (UE, Euratom) 2015/444 de la\nCommission du 13 mars 2015 concernant les r\u00e8gles de s\u00e9curit\u00e9 aux fins de la protection des\ninformations classifi\u00e9es de l'Union europ\u00e9enne. In accordance with Council Regulation (EEC, Euratom) No 354/83 of 1 February 1983 concerning\nthe opening to the public of the historical archives of the European Economic Community and the\nEuropean Atomic Energy Community (OJ L 43, 15. 2. 1983, p. 1), as last amended by Council\nRegulation (EU) 2015/496 of 17 March 2015 (OJ L 79, 27. 3. 2015, p. 1), this file is open to the\npublic. Where necessary, classified documents in this file have been declassified in conformity\nwith Article 5 of the aforementioned regulation or are considered declassified in conformity with\nArticles (26. 3) and 59(2) of the Commission Decision (EU, Euratom) 2015/444 of 13 March 2015\non the security rules for protecting EU classified information. In \u00dcbereinstimmung mit der Verordnung (EWG, Euratom) Nr. 354/83 des Rates vom 1. Februar\n1983 \u00fcber die Freigabe der historischen Archive der Europ\u00e4ischen Wirtschaftsgemeinschaft und\nder Europ\u00e4ischen Atomgemeinschaft (ABI. L 43 vom 15. 2. 1983, S. 1), zuletzt ge\u00e4ndert durch die\nVerordnung (EU) Nr. 2015/496 vom 17. M\u00e4rz 2015 (ABI. L 79 vom 25. 3. 2015, S. 1), ist dieser Akt\nder \u00d6ffentlichkeit zug\u00e4nglich. Soweit erforderlich, wurden die Verschlusssachen in diesem Akt in\n\u00dcbereinstimmung mit Artikel 5 der genannten Verordnung freigegeben; beziehungsweise werden\nsie auf Grundlage von Artikel 26(3) und 59(2) der Entscheidung der Kommission (EU, Euratom)\n2015/444 vom 13. M\u00e4rz 2015 \u00fcber die Sicherheitsvorschriften f\u00fcr den Schutz von EU-\nVerschlusssachen als herabgestuft angesehen. COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES\n\nCOM(88 ) 656 final\n\nBrussels , 16 November 1988\n\nCOMMUNICATION TO THE COUNCIL\n\n\" The Greenhouse Effect and the\n\nCommunity \"\n\nCommission work programme concerning the evaluation of\npolicy options to deal with the \"greenhouse effect \"\n\nand\n\ndraft\n\nCOUNCIL RESOLUTION\n\non the greenhouse effect and the Community\n\n( presented by the Commission )\n\nf f\u2013^7\n1 pi\ni IS3\n\n? rs\n\n4 3\n\n\u00a79\n\n\fDraft Communication from the Commission to the Council\n\n\"THE GREENHOUSE ISSUE\n\nAND THE COHNUNITY\"\n\n\f- 2 -\n\nCONTENTS\n\nParagraph\n\nPage\n\nEXECUTIVE SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS\n\nA~C\n\n4-11\n\nI. AN INTRODUCTION TO THE GREENHOUSE ISSUE\n\nWhat the greenhouse effect is in short\n\n1-2\n\n12 - 13\n\nGreenhouse gases : emission sources and atmospheric\n\n3-10\n\n13- 20\n\nconcentration trends\n\nPotential climate consequences of increasing greenhouse 11-13\n\n20-27\n\ngases concentrations\n\nPotential impacts of climate changes\n\n14-21\n\n27-32\n\nII. THE INTERNATIONAL FRAMEWORK AND PERSPECTIVES\n\nIntroduction\n\nThe world conference on \" The Changing Atmosphere \"\n( Toronto , 27-30 June 1988 )\n\n22\n\n23\n\n32- 33\n\n33- 38\n\nFuture possible developments\n\n24-28\n\n38-40\n\nIII. REVIEW OF POSSIBLE ACTION\n\nIntroduction\n\nResearch\n\nactivities\n\nPr\u00e9ventive action\n\n29-31\n\n40-41\n\n32-36\n\n42-44\n\n37-42\n\n44-48\n\n\f- 3 -\n\nParagraph Page\n\nPlanned adaptation\n\n43-45\n\n48- 49\n\nCooperation with developing countries\n\n46\n\n49- 50\n\nIV. CONCLUSIONS OF THE COMMISSION\n\n47-58\n\n51-54\n\nANNEX\n\nThe \" Villach \" Conf\u00e9rence\n\n( Vi llach-Austria , 9-15 October 1985 )\n\nThe EEC Symposium on \" CC^ and other greenhouse gases\"\n( Brussels , 3-5 November 1986 )\n\nThe workshops on \" Developing policies for responding\nto climatic change \" ( Villach - Austria , 28 September-\n2 October 1987 and Bellagio - Italy ,\n\n<\n\n9-13 November 1987 )\n\nThe Brundtland Commission's report\n\nThe European Parliament resolution\n\nA\n\nB\n\nC\n\nD\n\nE\n\n56\n\n57\n\n58-60 \u2022\n\n61\n\n61\n\n\f- 4 -\n\nEXECUTIVE SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS\n\nA. SUMMARY\n\nA. 1. Introduction\n\nOn 19 July 1988 the Commission has decided to create an interservice\ngroup to elaborate by mid-November 1988 preliminary ideas on\npossible Community action in respect of the \" Greenhouse issue \". The aim of this document , based on the work of the above mentioned\n\ngroup , is to give an overview of such issue and to present\nconclusions and recommendations about further work to be immediately\nstarted , action to be urgently undertaken and on the possible role\nof the European Community in the international debate on this\n\ncomplex subject. A. 2. The greenhouse issue\n\nA. 2. 1. The present climatic conditions on the earth are governed to a large\nextent by the composition of the atmosphere. Water vapour , carbon dioxide ( CC^), methane ( CH^), nitrous oxide\n(N^O ) , ozone ( O^) and, since recently, CFC 's , by absorbing part of\nthe infrared radiation which is emitted by the earth to balance the\nincoming solar radiation , store part of the latter in the\n\natmosphere. A. 2. 2. Concentrations of all the so called \"greenhouse gases \"\n\nMan is modifying at an unprecedented rate the composition of the\natmosphere. are increasing due to interference of human activities with the\nbiogeochemical cycles of such substances. modifications is significant in terms of potential climatic changes. The size of these\n\nWe know today that the thermal balance of the earth is being\nmodified and that some warming and possible associated climate\nchanges wilt follow depending on the size of such modification. - 5 -\n\nA. 2. 3. The most relevant greenhouse gas is COg whose emissions are mostly\ndue to fossil fuels burning (5 Gtons of carbon/year *),wood burning\nand decomposition of forest biomass linked to deforestation\n( 0,5-2 Gtons of carbon /year ). Another 25% of this effect is due to CFCs used\n\nC02 is presently responsible for slightly more than 50% of the\ngreenhouse effect. in a variety of applications such as aerosols , spray cans , air\nconditioning , refrigerators , solvents , packaging , etc. attribuable to methane ( CH^) from livestock, rice paddy fields,\nnatural gas exploitation , inefficient burning of biomass and coal ,\nto nitrous oxide ( NgO) coming from fossil fuels combustion and from\nnitrogen fertilizers use and to tropospheric ozone due to\nphotochemical processes in the polluted atmosphere. greenhouse gases have been significantly increasing in the last\ndecades. Emissions of\n\nThe rest is\n\nA. 2. 4. A. 2. 5. Based on the results of global climate models it may be concluded\nthat the earth will be committed to an increase of the average\nsurface temperature in the range of 1,5-4,5\u00b0C by a doubling of the\nAt the\npre-industrial equivalent greenhouse gases concentration. present trends , this is expected to happen before the year 2050. Present climatic models are not capable to offer reliable regional\nassessment of potential climatic modifications corresponding to the\nabove mentioned average increase of surface temperature. Rough evaluations show that over Europe temperature increase could\nbe larger than the world average. A. 2. 6. The indirect impacts of such climatic modifications might be\nsummarized as follows :\n- a sea level rise ( from 30 cm to 1,5 m for a warming in the range\n\n1,5-4,5\u00b0C );\n\n- a r\u00e9duction of sea ice ;\n- a r\u00e9duction of water resources in some r\u00e9gions ;\n- modifications in agricultural productivity;\n- human health and ecology impacts. *\n\n1 Gton = 10\n\nO\n\ntons = 1. 000 million tons\n\n\f- 6 -\n\nA. 3. The international framework and perspectives\n\nA. 3. 1. A. 3. 2. A scientific consensus on the basic facts of the greenhouse issue\nreferred to in previous paragraphs was reached at the \" International\nConference on the assessment and the role of CO^ and of other\ngreenhouse gases in climate variations and associated impacts\n( Villach , 9-15 October 1985 ). Conclusions of the Villach Conference were further developed at an\nEEC symposium in Brussels ( 3-5 November 1986) on \" CO2 and other\ngreenhouse gases : climate and associated impacts \" and at workshops\nin Villach ( 28 September-2 October 1987) and in Bellagio ( 9-13\nNovember 1987 ) on \" Developing policies for responding to climatic\n\nchange \". (\n\nA. 3. 3. The greenhouse issue was also considered in the frame of work by the\nFollowing recommendations of that Commission\nBrundtland Commission. a World Conference on \"the changing atmosphere , implications for\nglobal security\" has been held in Toronto ( 27-30 June 1988 ). The\nfollowing actions i. a. were recommended by that conference :\n\n- Ratify the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone\n\nThe Protocol should be revised in 1990 to ensure nearly\n\nLayer. complete elimination of the emissions of fully halogenated CFCs by\nthe year 2000. - Set energy policies to reduce the emissions of CO2 and other trace\n\ngases in order to reduce the risks of future global warming. - Reduce CO2 emissions by approximately 20 percent of 1988 levels by\nthe year 2005 as an initial global goal in the industrialized\nnations. - Set targets for energy efficiency improvements that are directly\n\nrelated to reductions in CO2 and other greenhouse gases. - Initiate the development of a comprehensive global convention. - Establish a World Atmosph\u00e8re Fund. A. 3. 4. A possible short-term outcome of the above mentioned international\nactivities is initiation , already in 1989, of the process for\npreparing an agreement on the greenhouse issue, including eventually\nprotocols on limitations of greenhouse gases emissions. - 7 -\n\nA. 3. 5. Next essential events on the way to that agreement will probably\nbe :\n\n- the international workshop on law and policy to be held in Ottawa\n\nearly in 1989;\n\n- a high level political conference to be convened in the autumn 1990\n\nby the Netherlands Ministry of the Environment ;\n\n- the Second World Climate Conference , Geneva, June 1990;\n- the Intergovernmental Conference on sustainable Development in 1992\n\nwhich could be the culminating event. A. 4. Possible actions\n\nA. 4. 1. Policies to deal with the greenhouse issue might include preventive\nand / or adaptive actions. A. 4. 2. Preventive action is that aiming at curbing greenhouse gases\nemissions in order to reduce expected effects. In case of C0\u00a3, the energy sector in general and forestry in the\ntropical regions are the most relevant areas for intervention. Examples of energy measures which could contribute to curb CC^\nemissions are :\n\n- increase energy efficiency (both on the supply and on the demand\n\nside );\n\n- switch to less carbon intensive fuels ;\n- promote renewable energy sources and sustainable use of biomass ;\n- promote safe nuclear energy. The promotion of innovative energy technologies to support such\nmeasures seems to be of particular importance. In the long term new non-carbon based energy systems could give a\nsignificant contribution to curbing CO^ emissions. - 8 -\n\nOf course not all the above mentioned measures are equally\neffective. viability is required. Moreover , a careful assessment of their economic\n\nForestry policies should tend to reverse present deforestation\ntrends especially in the equatorial regions. particular require promoting substitutes for wood used massively as\nfuel in those regions and promoting sustainable agricultural\npractices so that agricultural expansion did not involve large scale\nforest burning to clear land. This would in\n\nA. 4. 3. Possible action to decrease emissions of greenhouse gases such as\nCH^ and ^0 is less easy to identify given the uncertainties\nsurrounding emissions of these substances. The following subjects could be explored :\n\n- Minimize CH^ losses in extraction, transport and use of natural\n\n#\n\ngas. - Minimize CH^ losses from landfills. - Minimize ^0 emission from fossil\n- Study possible improvements in livestocks management , rice\ncultivation and lagoons management, aiming at reducing CH^\nrelease. fuels burning. - Study possible improved fertilizing management practices to reduce\n\n^0 release from nitrogen fertilizers use. A. 4. 4. In case of CFC 's, the nearly total elimination of CFC 's emissions\nshould be feasible by the year 2000 by constraining production and\nrecapturing, recycling or destroying CFC 's in existing products. A. 4. 5. Adaptation measures ( i. e. thoses required in order to prevent or\ndecrease damages due to climatic changes and associated impacts )\nmight be required to deal with effects which , despite preventive\nactions, come out to be unavoidable. At this stage it is not possible to detail adaptation measures which\ncould be required in the Community because of the lack of a reliable\nregional assessment of potential impacts. - 9 -\n\nIn general , adaptation to deal with the sea level rise could include\nsea wall / flood barriers , national flood insurance programmes ,\nconstruction of reservoirs ( to combat increased salinity),\nabandonment of developed regions in low lying areas, other\nrelocation of populations away from vulnerable sites , protection of\ncoastal ecosystems. More study is needed to identify possible adaptation measures in\nother sectors such as agriculture and forestry. B. CONCLUSIONS ON THE STATE OF KNOWLEDGE ON THE GREENHOUSE ISSUE\n\n8. 1. The composition of the earth 's atmosphere is being significantly\nmodified by human activit\u00e9s. Based on results of global climatic models , scientists agree that a\ndoubling of the equivalent COg atmospheric concentration will bring\nan increase of the average surface temperature in the range\n1,5-4,5\u00b0C. of next century. Such doubling is likely to happen within the first half\n\nAccording to climatic data the resulting change in average global\nclimatic conditions will be beyond the range of climates that have\nexisted during the historical past and during recent geological\ntimes. B. 2. The various impacts of such climatic change and their socio-economic\nconsequences cannot be reliably assessed in detail at present. However the preliminary works made on this subject show that the\nrisks are alarmingly high and the likely direct and indirect\nconsequences potentially disruptive. B. 3. Recent international events have introduced a sense of urgency in\nthe world-wide debate on the issue. It has come out clearly that\nthis is the time to work out viable strategies while accelerating\n\nresearch efforts. C. CONCLUSIONS OF THE COMMISSION\n\n10 -\n\nC. O. C. 1. C. 2. The main conclusions of this report are summarized here. presentation is given in Chapter IV of this document. A complete\n\nThe Community should implement fully the Vienna Convention for the\nprotection of the ozone layer and the Montreal Protocol on\nsubstances that deplete the ozone layer and it should participate\nactively in the renegotiation of such Protocol. The Community should welcome initiation of discussions on the\npossibilities of an international agreement for the future\nprotection of the atmosphere. important contribution to the preparation and negotiation of such an\nagreement which might include the establishment of specific targets\nfor limiting emissions of greenhose gases as well as definition of\nemission reduction measures and programmes. It should be prepared to give an\n\nC. 3. Therefore , the Commission will take the initiative to launch a\nsubstantial policy-options study programme to evaluate the\nfeasibility , costs and likely results of possible measures to limit\ngreenhouse gases emissions. The main areas of such programme should be :\n\n- identification and technical assessment of measures and technologies\n\ncapable to reduce greenhouse gases emissions ;\n\n- analysis of economic , industrial , energy, social and institutional\nimplications and impacts of the above mentioned possible measures\nand technologies ;\n\n- structuring and evaluating policy scenarios referred irv particular\n\nto possible strategic targets for CO^ emission ceilings. 11\n\nestablishing a decision analysis framework ,\n\nidentifying and evaluating adaptive policies. The Community and its Member States should by now take into account\nin their policy decisions ( related to energy or other sectors\nrelevant to the issue ) the problem of potential climate changes\nlinked to the greenhouse effect. could avoid higher costs in future. Early consideration of such issue\n\nMoreover , the Commission will take action to reinforce and expand\nefforts in the field of energy savings , energy efficiency\nimprovement , development of new energy sources , use of safe nuclear\ntechnology. The accelerated development and promotion of innovative\ncommercial-scale technologies in these fields should be given high\npriority. There is no doubt that such action is justified because of both\nenergy and environmental requirements , independent of uncertainties\non some scientific aspects of the greenhouse issue. Of special importance would be the possibility to quantify energy\nefficiency improvements in terms of CO. , reductions. The Community should sustain vigorous research programmes on all the\nrelevent aspects of the greenhouse issue and should provide new\nenergy technologies having the potential to limit CO^ emissions. - 12 -\n\nI. AN INTRODUCTION TO THE GREENHOUSE ISSUE\n\nUhat the \"greenhouse effect \" is in short\n\n1. The climate conditions we experience on earth are due , among other\nthings , to the presence of the atmosphere around it and to its present\ncomposition. Without the atmosphere, the average surface temperature of\nthe earth , which is presently of around 15\u00b0C , would be as low as -18\u00b0C. In fact , the heat balance of the earth , which receives radiation from\nthe sun and reflects or re-emits it into the space , is largely governed\nby the composition of the atmosphere. Firstly water vapour, mostly concentrated in the lower atmosphere, is an\neffective absorber of both incoming solar and outgoing infrared earth 's\nradiation and contributes very significantly to determine the average\nsurface temperature of the earth. Moreover, other substances such as carbon dioxide (COg), methane (CH^),\nnitrous oxide (N2O) and chlorof luorocarbons (CFCs) have the property of\nbeing nearly transparent to incoming radiation from the sun but to\nretain some of the energy re-emitted by the earth as long wavelenght\ninfra-red radiation. Ozone also contributes to the absorption of infra-red radiation emitted\nby the earth. ^\nThe overall outcome of this mechanism is that part of the radiant energy\ncoming from the sun is trapped in the lower atmosphere. 2. The present scientific knowledge allows us to conclude that any\nsignificant change in the atmospheric concentrations of the above\nmentioned substances would result in a change of the global thermal\nbalance of the earth. Stratospheric ozone (the \"ozone layer\") is a strong absorber of\nultraviolet radiation from the sun. absorption of infrared radiation from the earth. contributes therefore to trap heat in the lower atmosphere. in the vertical distribution of ozone would contribute to affect the\n\nTropospheric ozone\n\nMoreover ozone contributes to the\n\nAny change\n\nthermal balance of the earth. - 13 -\n\nIn particular an increase in the atmospheric concentrations of C02,\nCFCs, CH^, N20, tropospheric ozone, which are often called \"greenhouse\ngases \", would result in more heat to be trapped in the lower troposphere\nand then in some warming and possible associated climate changes\ndepending on the size of such greenhouse gases concentration increase. This phenomenon is usually referred to as the \" greenhouse effect \"\nbecause its basic mechanism is similar to that in a greenhouse where\nincoming radiation energy from the sun is partly transformed to infrared\nradiation by the ground , warms the air and is then retained by the glass\nfrom escaping again. Greenhouse gases ; emission sources and atmospheric concentration trends\n\n3. The atmospheric concentrations of all most important greenhouse gases\nhave increased over recent times and are still increasing. 4. In case of carbon dioxide ( CO^)\n\n:\n\na. Emission sources :\n\nof carbon per year ). Most of anthropogenic C0_ emissions are due to fossil fuels burning \u25a0\n( around 5 Gtons\ncontribution comes from\nbiomass related to deforestation ( uncertain quantity, most likely in\nthe range 0,5 - 2 Gtons of carbon per year corresponding to a rate\nof deforestation in the tropical regions of 10 to 20 millions ha /y ). Moreover a significant\nburning of wood and decomposition of\n\nC02 world yearly emissions from burning of fossil fuels have\nincreased in 25 years, since 1960, from around 2,5 Gt of carbon to\nmore than 5 Gt of carbon in 1985. Coal and oil give by now an almost equal contribution to- emission\nwith slightly more than 2 Gt of carbon each , followed by gas with\nless than 1 Gt of carbon per year. It is estimated that since one century, around 170 Gt of carbon have\nbeen emitted, of which around 100 Gt in the last 25 years. *\n\n1 Gton = 10\n\nO\n\ntons = 1000 million tons\n\n\f- 14 -\n\nThe share of CC^ emissions per year from fossil fuels for different\nparts of the world and its recent evolution is showed in the\nfollowing table :\n\nCOj emissions in million tons of carbon/y\nand as % of world total\n\n1950 I\n\n1965\n\nI\n\n1980\n\n| Mt / y* I\nI\nRegion\nI\nI 723\nI North America\nI\n| URSS and Eastern Europe I 291\nI\nI\n23\nI China\nI\nI 379\nI Western Europe\nI\n45\nI\n| Japan , Australia\nI\n92\nI\n( Developing Countries\nI\nI\n63\nI Others ( worldwide gas\n!\n!\nIflaring, bunkers )\nI\nI\nI\nI 1618 I\n| World total\nI\nI\nI\n\nX\n\nI Mt /y*\n44,7 I 1003\n750\n18,0 I\n178\n1 / 4 I\n643\n23,4 I\n137\n2,8 I\n250\n5 / 7 I\n163\n3 / 9 I\n\n100\n\nI 3126\n\nX\n\nX I Mt /y* I\n\nI\n32,1 1 1380 1 26,7 I\n24,0 1 1251 1 24,2 I\n5/ 7 |\n439 1 8,5 I\n853 1 16,5 I\n20/ 6 1\n300 1 5,8 I\n4/ 4 1\n631 1 12,2 I\n8/ 0 |\n31 0 1 6,0 I\n5 / 2 |\nI\nI\nI\nI\nI\nI\n!\nI\n\nI\nI\n5 1 70 1 100\nI\n\n100\n\nSource : \" Atmosphere carbon dioxide and the global carbon cycle\"\n\nUS D0E / ER-0239, edited by J. R. Trabalka , Dec. 1985\n\n* absolute figures are rounded to next million ton. The figures above show the dramatic increase of\nregions of the world from 1950 to 1980. The share of the total world emissions of China and developing\ncountries has significantly increased in the same period due i. a. to\nthe demographic trends in these regions. emissions in all\n\n\f- 15 -\n\nThe trends of CO^ world emission from different fossil fuels for the\nperiod 1950-1982 are shown in next figure ,\n( source : US OOE / ER-0239\nreport referred to above )\n\n:\n\n5000 \u0393\n4000 _\n\n3000 _\n\n1\n\nf\u00bb\n\n1. 1. I\n\n| 2000 _\n>\nvr'-\n^\nO\n\u03c3\u00bb\no 1000 _ \u2018\n\n\u2018\n\nM\n\n800 : J?\n600 - /\n^\n\ns\n\u20222\nU\n* 400 f-\nO\n-\nO\n\ny<\n\nCoi\u00bb\n1. 72%' v*,r. X. A. \u2013. \u00bb * \u25a0 \u2013\n\nv^-~r'r*'~\n\n\u2022jr. X\n\n*<\u2022 \u2022/\n\n-\n\n:\n\n200 I-\n\nX\n\n100 i___I_I_I_I\n\n1950\n\n1960\n\n1970\n\n1980\n\nYear\n\nThe steep increase of yearly CO2 emissions from oil and natural gas\nhas been slowed down or even reversed after the first oil crisis ,\nthus reflecting the worldwide energy policy efforts to restrict the\nuse of oil ,, by improvements in energy efficiency and an increased\nuse of nuclear energy and /or solid fuels. emissions from coal have increased after the first oil shock , from a\nyearly rate of 1,72% to 2,59% up to 1982. Consequently ZO^\n\nEmission data for 1985 show the following contribution from various\n\nfossil fuels :\n\n1 1 985 CO2 emissions in |\nI Fuel\nImillion tons carbon /yl\nI\n1\n807\n!\nI gas\nI\n2189\n1\nI oi l\nI\n2181\nI\n1 coal\nI\n52\n1 gas flaring I\nI\n5229\nI\n1 Total\nSource : I. Mintzer , WRI , 1988\n\n\f16 -\n\nPer capita C0\u00a3 emissions from fossil fuels for different countries\nare shown in the following table , referred to 1982 :\n\nI\nI\nI\nI\nI\nI\nI\nI\nI\nI\nI\nI\nI\nI\nI\nI\nI\nI\nI\nI\nI\n\nCountry\n\nUnited States\nGerman Dem. Rep. Canada\nCzechoslovakia\nAustralia\nSoviet Union\nPoland\nBelgium\nGermany , Fed. Rep. United Kingdom\nNetherlands\nFrance\nJapan\nItaly\nSpain\nChina\nBrazil\nIndia\nWorld average\n\n| Per\n| of\n|\n|\n|\n|\n|\n|\n|\n|\n|\n|\n|\n|\n|\nI\nI\n|\n|\n|\n|\n\ncapita CO^ emissions (tons\ncarbon per inhabitant )\n\n4,9\n4,9\n4,4\n4,1\n3,9\n3,3\n3,0\n3,0\n2,9\n2,5\n2,5\n2,0\n1,9\n1,5\n1,4\n0,5\n0,3\n0,1\n\n1,0\n\nI\nI\nI\nI\nI\nI\nI\nI\nI\nI\nI\nI\nI\nI\nI\nI\nI\nI\nI\nI\nI\n\nCalculated from : Smith, I. M. ( 1988 )\nDraft technical review , EIA Coal Research , London, and UN\n\nCC^ and climate change;\n\n:\n\nstatistical data\n\n\u042c. Atmospheric concentrations trends :\n\nSince 1960 to 1985 the average yearly atmospheric concentration of\nCO^ has increased from 315 to 345 ppm. *\nThere is evidence that the pre-industrial concentration of this gas\nThe rate of concentration increase for CO^\nwas around 275-285 ppm. has accelerated in recent years : it was an average of 1 ppm per\nyear in the 70ties and is by now about 1,5 ppm per year. 1 ppm\n\n= part per million = 0,0001%\n\n\f- 17 -\n\nC(>2 concentration increase is determined by the effect of manmade\nemissions, mostly due to fossil fuel burning and deforestation, on\nthe global carbon cycle : natural carbon sinks (mainly the oceans. and vegetation ) are no longer sufficient to balance such increasing\nemissions and this leads to more C02 stored in the atmosphere. 5. In case of chlorof luorocarbons ( CFC 's )\n\n:\n\na. Emissions sources :\n\nCFC 's are man-made chemicals used in a variety of applications such\nas aerosol spray cans, air conditioning, refrigerators, solvents,\npackaging , etc. b. Atmospheric concentration trends\n\nThe atmospheric concentration of CFC-11 and CFC-12 at four sites\nwidely dispersed in the world ranged from 0,21 to 0,23 ppb* and 0,37\nto 0,39 ppb respectively in 1985. Even if the present atmospheric concentration of these substances is. by several orders of magnitude lower than that of C02, one has to\nnote that the rate of growth of such concentration has been much\nhigher than that of C02, around 5-7% per year, the efficiency in\ntrapping heat of some of them is 10,000 higher than C02 ' on a\nmolecule by molecule basis and the residence time in the atmosphere\nof some of these substances is extremely long (up to more than 100\n\nyears ). *\n\n1 ppb = part per billion = 0,0000001%\n\n\f- 18 -\n\nIn case of methane ( CH ,) :\n\na. Emission sources :\n\n\u25a0 \u2013\u25a0 Present man-made emissions of CH^- come mainly from livestock, rice\n\npaddy fields , natural gas exploitation , burning of biomass and coal. Natural emissions from biota are also relevant and the overall CH. 4\n\ncycle is not well known. Rough estimates give the following emission levels for the various\nsources ( expressed in million tons ; the range indicated in brackets\nshows the dispersion of estimates made by various authors )\n\n:\n\nNatural Sources ( million tons per year )\n\n:\n\nEnteric fermentation ( wild animals ) 5 (+/- 3 )\n\nWetlands ( swamps , etc. )\n\nLakes\n\nTundra\n\nOceans\n\nTermites and other insects\n\nOther\n\n110 (+/- 50 )\n\n4 (+/- 2 )\n\n3 (+/- 2 )\n\n10 (+/- 3 )\n\n25 (+/- 20 )\n\n40 (+/- 40 )\n\nMan-Made Sources ( million tons per year )\n\n:\n\nEnteric fermentation ( cattle , etc. ) 75 (+/- 35 )\nRice paddies\nBiomass burning\nNatural gas and mining losses\n\n70 (+/- 30 )\n\n70 (+/- 40 )\n\n50 (+/- 25 )\n\nSolid Waste\n\n30 (+/- 30 )\n\n( Source : US Dept , of Energy - \"A Primer on Greenhouse Gases \" -\n\nD0E / NBB0083 - March 88. )\n\n\f- 19 -\n\nb. Atmospheric concentration trends :\n\nAtmospheric concentration of CH^ has increased since old times (from\n0,7 ppm before 1700 A. D. to 1,54 and 1,68 ppm in the southern and\nnorthern hemisphere respectively, in 1983). over 30 years from 1951 to 1981 has been of 1,1%. Average yearly increase\n\n7. In case of nitrous oxide ( N. ,0 )\n\n:\n\na. Emission sources :\n\nMan-made emissions of ^0 are mainly due to combustion of fossil\nfuels and biomass. seem also to give a significant contribution. Natural emissions are due to terrestrial and ocean biota. Agricultural soils ( both natural and fertilized )\n\nAgain the quantitative evaluation of emissions from various sources\nIt is estimated that the overall emissions are\nis most difficult. as follows ( expressed in million tons ; the range indicated in\nbrackets shows the dispersion of estimates made by various\n\nauthors )\n\n:\n\nNatural Sources ( million tons of N per year )\n\n:\n\nOceans and estuaries\n\nNatural soils\n\n2. 0 (+/- 1. 0)\n\n6. 5 (+/- 3. 5 )\n\nMan-Made Sources ( million tons of N per year )\n\n:\n\nFossil\n\nfuel combustion\n\nBiomass burning\n\nFertilized soils\n\nCultivated natural soils\n\n4. 0 (+/- 1. 0 )\n\n0. 7 (+/- 0. 2 )\n\n0. 8 (+/- 0. 2 )\n\n1. 5 (+/- 0. 5 )\n\n( Source : US Dept , of Energy - \"A Primer on Greenhouse Gases\" -\n\nD0E / NBB0083 - March 88. )\n\n\f- 20 -\n\nb. Atmospheric concentration trends :\n\n^0 atmospheric concentration has increased from a pre-industrial\nThe present rate of increase is\n290 ppb to about 300 ppb in 1985. around 0,25% per year. 8. 9. It is to be underlined that the present increase in concentration of\ngreenhouse gases is due to the interference of human activities with the\nYet there are significant uncertainties concerning the\nnatural cycles. quantitative relationships between emissions of greenhouse gases and the\nobserved increase of their atmospheric concentrations. Moreover it is not possible at this stage to give reliable forecasts of\nfuture emission trends because of the wide range of factors influencing\nthose trends. assumptions. However scenarios may be developed using different\n\n10. It is reasonable to expect further and accelerating increase in the\natmospheric concentrations of some greenhouse gases over the next 50\n\nyears. Potential climate consequences of increasing greenhouse gases concentrations\n\n11. The observed and the expected increases in atmospheric concentrations of\ngreenhouse gases ( and then the increase in the heat quantity which is\ntrapped in the lower atmosphere ) undoubtedly will result in some warming\nand possible associated climate changes. However, very significant uncertainties subsist about the shape and the\nrate of such climate changes and in particular about the degree of the\nwarming and its timing. From this point of view , uncertainties about the potential role of\nclimatic feedbacks due to clouds , vegetation etc. are particularly\nrelevant. It is estimated that the different greenhouse gases contribute at\npresent to the overall greenhouse forcing roughly in the following\nproportion : 55% for CC^, 25% for CFC 's, 20% for CH^, ^0 and 0^\ntogether. - 21\n\nThe possible development of the overall greenhouse effect of the above\nmentioned gases until the year 2075 has been tentatively evaluated by\nthe World Resources Institute in terms of forecasts for the average\nwarming commitment with reference to 4 scenarios encompassing hypotheses\nabout future developments from \"do nothing\" and high growth to. voluntaristic emission reduction policies. The hypotheses on which this exercise has been based are presented at\npage 23. It should be underlined that it has not been taken account here of the\n\nIn none of the scenarios mentioned , the share of nuclear in\nIn other studies this\n\nlikely positive consequences of the recent Montreal protocol on CFC 's. The WRI study gives only a very limited role to nuclear energy in all\nscenarios. total primary energy supply exceeds 4. 5% by 2025. share is much higher , for example , IIASA = 23% , WEC ( 83) = 13%,\nGoldenberg = 7% , Edmons = 19%. The Commission 's own energy 2000 study\nsees the share of nuclear in world energy supplies as follows : 1983 =\nEnvironmental costs for nuclear range\n3. 3%, 1990 = 5. 4%, 2000 = 7. 1%. from $7. 5 to $10 / GJ whereas those for coal are between $0. 15 and\n$1. 20/ GJ. is assigned to renewable energies. In the case of oil $0. 00 to $0. 75 / GJ. No environmental cost\n\nThis model as any other one suffers from both structural and input data\nlimitations. structuring the policy debate on such a complex issue and to identify\ncritical areas for further research and study. However the usefulness of such models is to help\n\n\f22\n\nThe results are summarized in next\n\nfigure. Commitment to Future Warming in the WRI Scenario*\n\n) High Emissions\n\nWRi Sc\u00e9nario\u00bb\nWRi Sc\u00e9nario\u00bb\n[*\nH Base Case\n|^| Modest Policies\n\nSlow Build-Up\n\nilii\n\n\u201e ,!!. ilSSlSllIllillfi:\nliiiSiBliiiliil. 2073\n\n'\n2073\n\n1\n\nA Stow Bu\u00dcd-Up doc* not resch\nSlow Build-Up docs not reach double\nCO, within the forvcatf period\nCO| within iht forvcut period\n\n^ !1\u2018\u041f-)\n\n\u201d\u25a0<5*^^\nI \u043f \u0420 I\n1\n|\n2030\nI\n2023\n~|\nr\nrr ^\nI\n\u00c02030\nI\nI\n3025\n3025\nI\n\u0410\n\u25a1 \u0410\u043c \u0410\n\u00c0\n\u25a1 \u00c0\u00c9\u00ceIU] \u00c0\n1\n\u00c0\ni \u00c0 il R] \u00c0\n\n2030\n2030\n\nI\nI\n\nI\nI\n\nApproximate year of commitment to wanning\nequal to 1. 5 to 4. 5 degrees centigrade above pre\u00ac\nindustrial temperature. Approximate year of commitment to wanning\nequal to 1. 5 to 4. 5 degrees centigrade above 1960\ntemperatures. Source : Mintzer I. M. ( 1987 ); \"A Matter of Degrees ,\n\nWRI , Washington DC , USA\n\n\f2 3-\n\nEnergy Policies in the WRl Scenarios\n\nBue Case Scenario\n\u2022 \"Business-As-Usual,\" the inertial model of growth and\n\nchange in the world energy industry\n\n\u2022 No policies to slow carbon dioxide omissions\n\u2022 Minima! stimulus lo improve end-use efficicncy\n\u2022 Modcjt stimulus forsynfuels devciopment\n\u2022 Minimal stimulus /or development of solar energy\n\nRelated Energy Model Parameter Value\n\n(Rate of change - 0. 8% per year)\n(Final Price - S3. 15-S4. 25 per CJ in 2005)\n(Final Price \u2022 $16. 50 per CJ in 2025)\n\nsystems\n\n\u2022 No policy to limit tropical deforestation or to encourage\n\nreforestation\n\n* Minimal environmenta! costs includcd in pri\u00e9e of energy\n\n($0. 30 per Cj for coal; $1. 00 per CJ for synfuels)\n\nHigh Emissions Sc\u00e9nario\n* Accelerated growth in energy use is encouraged\n\u2022 No policies to slow carb\u00f3n dioxide emissions\n\u2022 No stimulus to improvc end-use efficicncy\n\u2022 Modest stimulus for increased use of coat\n\u2022 Strong stimulus for syn/ucls development\n\u2022 No stimulus for deveiopment of solar energy systems\n\u2022 Rapid deforestation and conversion of marginal lands to\n\nagriculture\n\n\u2022 Token environmental costs included in price of energy\n\nModest Policies Scenario\n\u2022 Strong stimulus for improved end-use efficiency\n\u2022 Modest stimulus for solar energy\n\u2022 Substantial efforts at tropical reforestation and ecosystem\n\nprotection; more intensive rather than extensive\nagriculture encouraged\n\n\u2022 Substantial environmental costs imposed on energy\nprices to discourage solid fuel use and encourage\nfuel-switching\n\n(Rate of change - 0. 2% per year)\n(Rale of improvement - 0. 75% per year)\n(Final Price - S2. 75-S3. 50 per CJ in 1995)\n(Final Price - $20 per CJ in 2040)\n\n($0. 15 per CJ for coal; $0. 50 per CJ for synfuels)\n\n(Rate of change - 1. 0% per year)\n(Final price - $15. 00 per CJ in 2025 )\n\n(S0. 60 per GJ for coal; $1. 50 per CJ for synfuels)\n\nSlow Build-up Scenario\n\u2022 Strong emphasis placed on improving energy efficiency\n\u2022 Rapid introduction of solar energy encouraged\n\u2022 Major global commitment to reforestation and ecosystem\n\nprotection\n\n\u2022 High environmental costs imposed on energy prices to\ndiscourage solid fuel use and encourage fuel-switching\n\n(Rate of improvement - 1. 5% per year)\n(Final Price - $12. 00 per CJ in 2000)\n\n($1. 20 per CJ for coal; $3. 00 per CJ for synfuels)\n\nTotal Emissions of C02 in tht WRI Scenarios (Gigatons of Carbon per Year)\n\nWRI ScuuHot\nWRl SeuuHot\n\u25a0 High Emissions\n\u25a0 High Emissions\nABMCJK\n\u25b2 Base Case\nif Modest Policies\nif Modest Policies\n\u2022 Slow Build-up\n\u2022 Slow Build-up\n\n/\n/\n\n/\n\n/\n\nS'\n\n/\ny*\n\nX\n\n/\n\n\u201d1. |\n\na -^\n2$ J\n\n\u201c\u25a0\n\ns\ni\nI\n\n<3\n\n2\n0\n1 \u00bb. 12 -\n\n0 \u041d-1-1-1-1-1\n\n1*73\n\n2000\n\n2023\n\n2030\n\n2073\n\n\f24 -\n\nBy a different approach. Or. R. A. Warrich of the Climatic Resarch Unit\nof the University of East Anglia in Norwich - UK , has recently tried to\nlink emission forecasts and likely climatic changes and to assign\nprobabilities to the possible outcome. The results of this exercise are summarized in the following graph :\n\n(B) CLIMATE SENSITIVITY\n(B ) CLIMATE SENSITIVITY\n\nRESIDUAL TEMPERATURE CHANGE [FROM 1985 IN\u00b0C)\nRESIDUAL TEMPERATUHE CHANGE [FROM 1985 IN\u00b0C)\nEQU,UBRXIM <\u2122ANS. ENT)\n\n(C) CL1MAT|C CHANGE\n\n(C ) CLIMATIC CHANGE\n\n- - - d - -3->_\n\n-\n\nI\nI\n\n8. 0 - \u2022\n\n\u041f\n\n6. 0 + \u2018\n4. 0T\nn le\n30 T. _(2. 5jj. _1 )_ _ \u25a0_\n\u0413\" ?\nS. 00 a\n<\ni\n,\n\n_ U_r\nr\n\n_ r _-\n\nBEST GUESS. 45\n\n:\n\nsT* <1 -0 - 1. 1 )\n\n1\u00b0\n\nITT RT - -\n\nt_\n\nv \u25a0. 1 : J. : \u2022\"~l~ \u00bb J >. J \u2013\n\u03c7/ \\1\u03b8\u03b85 2005 2015 2025 2035 2045\n1095 2005 2015 2025 2035 2045\nYEAR\nYEAR\n\\\n\u25a0\u2018l99' N. 2006\n\n1\n1\ni\n\n+ 2015\n\n2026\n\n2035\n\nYEAR\n\nYEAR\n\n>. i\nIII\nr+z-rh-rrtn-\n800\n800\n! EQUIVALENT COJCONC (ppmv)\nI EQUIVALENT CO. CONC (ppmv)\nI\n\nC\u00d4O |\n800 !\n+\n\n700\n700\n\n11\n\n*\n\nI\n\nI\n\nI\n\n500\n500\n\u25a0\nJ\nj\n//fl\n\n1\n\n\u0410 \u0410\nA\n\n(A) GREENHOUSE FORCING\n(A) GREENHOUSE FORCING\n\nLegend :\n\n- WIGLEY , SCOPE , BASE CASE indicate projections of greenhouse gases\n\nemissions\n\nT2X is the climate sensitivity expressed as equilibrium temperature\nincrease due to a doubling of the equivalent CC^ concentration\n- \" transient temperature \" is the temperature increase at a given date\n\ndue to the greenhouse forcing\n\n- \" equilibrium temperature \" is the warming to which earth would have\n\nbeen committed at a given date due to the greenhouse effect. - 25 -\n\nThe following conclusions i. a. have been drown by the author of the\nabove mentioned evaluation :\n\nGiven the range of scientific uncertainties , the warming to which\n\nwe will be committed in 2030 is 0. 8-6. 4\u00b0C. outside this range is less than 1%. The chance of falling\n\n- The \"best-guess \" range is 1. 5-3. 1\u00b0C warmer than today. The\n\nprobability of warming within this range is 45%. - The 90% confidence interval is 1. 1-5. 1\u00b0C. This median value - the\n\nbest guess - is 2. 8\u00b0C. \"\n\n12. The presently available climate models predict ( with various degrees of\nuncertainties ) the following climate and associated impacts ^* :\n\n- Global-Mean Surface Warming ( very probable ). For a doubling of\n\natmospheric carbon dioxide (or its radiative equivalent from all of\nthe greenhouse gases ), the long-term global-mean surface warming is\nexpected to be in the range of 1. 5 to 4. 5\u00b0C. The most significant\nOf course, the actual\nuncertainty arises from the effects of clouds. rate of warming over the next century will be governed by the growth\nrate of greenhouse gases, natural fluctuations in the climate system,\nand the detailed response of the slowly responding parts of the\nclimate system, i. e. , oceans and glacial ice. - Global-Mean Precipitation Increase (very probable ). Increased heating\n\nof the surface will lead to increased evaporation and, therefore , to\ngreater global mean precipitation. Despite this increase in global\naverage precipitation, some individual regions might well experience\ndecreases in rainfall. - Polar Winter Surface Warming (very probable ). As the sea ice boundary\n\nis shifted poleward, the models predict a dramatically enhanced\nsurface warming in winter polar regions. water and thinner sea ice will probably lead to warming of the polar\nsurface air by as much as 3 times the global mean warming. The greater fraction of open\n\n( 1 ) Source : NRC ( 1987); Current Issues in Climate Change, National Research\n\nCouncil , Washington DC, USA. - 26 -\n\n- Summer Continental Dryness /Warming ( likely in the long term ). Several\nstudies have predicted a marked long-term drying of the soil moisture\nover some mid-latitude interior continental regions during summer. This dryness is mainly caused by an earlier termination of snowmelt\nand rainy periods , and an earlier onset of the spring-tp-summer\nreduction of soil wetness. Of course , these simulations of long-term\nequilibrium conditions may not offer a reliable guide to trends over\nthe next few decades of changing atmospheric composition and changing\nclimate. - High-Latitude Precipitation Increase ( probable ). As the climate\n\nwarms , the increased poleward penetration of warm, moist air should\nincrease the average annual precipitation in high latitudes. To complete the picture of expected direct effects , it is worth\nmentioning also a :\n\n- Large Stratospheric Cooling ( virtually certain ). Reduced ozone\n\nconcentrations in the upper stratosphere will lead to reduced\nabsorption of solar ultraviolet radiation and therefore less heating. Increases in the stratospheric concentration of carbon dioxide and\nother radiatively active trace gases will increase the radiation of\nheat from the stratosphere. The combination of decreased heating and\nincreased cooling will lead to a major lowering of temperatures in the\nupper stratosphere. This last effect seems quite important as a possible efficient and rapid\n\" finger-print \" of the greenhouse effect given that \" the expected changes\nin the upper stratosphere are nearly of an order of magnitude greater\nthan the expected surface changes and that they are not affected by the\nocean thermal inertia and by cloud feedback effects ( processes which are\na source of considerable uncertainty in assessing tropospheric climate\nchange )\" ( WMO, 1985 ). 13. It is worth stressing again that uncertainties on the shape , on the\nregional distribution and on the rate of such changes should not hide\nthe fact that observed and expected increase in greenhouse gases\natmospheric concentrations will modify the thermal balance of the earth\nand therefore will bring some warming and possible associated climate\nmodification. - 27 -\n\nAs it was put as a conclusion at a symposium on \"Ct^ and other\ngreenhouse gases : climatic and associated impact \" organized by the\nCommission on 3 to 5 November 1986 :\n\n- Although quantitative uncertainties in models remain , it is now\nbelieved that increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases will\nproduce a significant change during the 21st century. -. This warming of 1. 5 to 4. 5\u00b0 is expected ot occur over the next\n\nI\n\n50 years. - Over Europe the range of model results shows that average summer\n\ntemperatures could increase by 2 - 6\u00b0C , winter average temperatures\nby 4 - 10\u00b0C. In winter precipitation would increase. \"\n\nPotential impacts of climate changes\n\n14. Potential impacts of the above mentioned climate changes will of course\nAt the symposium on \" C0\u00a3 and\ndepend on the size and rate of the latter. other greenhouse gases \" mentioned in paragraph 13, it was concluded\n\nthat :\n\n\"The expected climatic change will have profound effects on sea-level ,,\nglobal ecosystems , agriculture , water resources and sea-ice. \"\n\nIn particular such impacts could involve :\n\n15. Sea level rise\n\nOver the past 100 years , while global mean temperature has increased by\n( Source : US-EPA\napproximately 0. 5\u00b0C , sea level has risen by 10-15 cm. ( 1986); \" Effects of Changes in Stratosphere Ozone and Global Climate\",\nVolume 1 ). The projected global warming could have the following results :. heating and therefore expanding the ocean water;. melting of mountain glaciers ;. melting of the large ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica;. a possible (but unlikely) surge of a major portion of the Antarctic\n\nice sheet into the ocean. - 28 -\n\nA wide range of different estim\u00e2tes for future sea level rise are\navai labi\u00e9. The most likely range for such increase by the middle of next century\nseems to be in the order of 30 cm to 1,5 meter ( Toronto Conference , June\n1988 ). A significant rise in sea level would :. permanently inundate many coastal wetlands and lowlands ;. accelerate coastal erosion ;. exacerbate coastal flooding and storm damage ;. increase the salinity of estuaries and coastal aquifers. 16. R\u00e9duction of Sea Ice\n\nAs the climate warms , total sea ice is expected to be reduced. a very probable effect. This is\n\n17. Water Resources Impacts\n\nWhile it is likely that global mean precipitation will\n\nGreenhouse warming may result in significant changes in precipitation\npatterns. increase, some regions may experience decreases in rainfall. studies predict substantial increases in summer dryness at\nmid-latitudes. agriculture , water resource reduction may affect the following :\n\nAs well as the impacts that this will have on\n\nSeveral. availability of water for human consumption;. power g\u00e9n\u00e9ration;. effluent dilution ;. navigation. 18. Agriculture\n\nIt should be mentioned that an increase in the COg atmospheric\nconcentration would stimulate vegetable growth by increasing\nphotosynthesis rate and therefore could have per se a beneficial direct\nThis direct effect is difficult to\neffect on crops and vegetation. quantify especially since the concomitant temperature increase would\nreduce the rate of net photosynthesis. Moreover any attempt to take it\n\n\f- 29 -\n\ninto account should try to strike a balance between such direct effect\nand indirect impacts of increasing C02 concentration through climatic\nmodifications. The greenhouse warming could affect agriculture and forestry mostly by\naltering :. total water availability and seasonal distribution of rainfall at\n\nregional level ;. length of growing season;. number of extreme temperature events. There are two perspectives on the agricultural impacts of climate\nchange. - The \" Slow change \" view : emphasises the significance of gradual\n\nincreases in mean surface temperatures expected to lead to gradual,\nlong-term and cumulative changes in average regional climates and\nagricultural patterns. - The \" Extreme events \" view : emphasises changes in the frequencies of\nunusually disruptive events ; impact of climate change comes not only\nfrom the average but mainly from the extreme event , e. g. droughts ,\nflooding. There is already concern among some experts that recent regional extreme\nevents could be more than just climate fluctuations. The main possible effects of climate variations on agriculture are\nsummarised below\n\n( 2 )\n\n:\n\n\"- changes in length of the potential growing season and changes in\n\nplant growth rates ;\n\nSource : Parry M. L. et al ( Eds )\nVariations on Agriculture , Volume 1 , Assessments in Cool , Temperate\nand Cold Regions , Reidel , Dordrecht , The Netherlands. ; The Impact of Climate\n\n( 1987)\n\n\f30 -\n\n- changes in mean yield and in the variability of yields ;\n\n- changes in the level of crop certainty and in the crop quality;\n\n- changes in the sensitivity of plants to application of fertilisers,\n\npesticides and herbicides. \"\n\nMoreover climate changes could indirectly significantly affect\nagriculture in certain regions of the world through possible effects on\nsoil characteristics , water resources , hydrology, pests and diseases\n\netc. At present , there is uncertainty about the nature , the magnitude and\nlocation of impacts. Studies so far conclude the following :\n\n- Areas particularly sensitive to shifts in temperature and rainfall\nlevels are high latitude, semi-arid and high-altitude regions. - Warming appears to be detrimental to cereals in the core wheat-growing\n\nareas of Europe and North-America. - Investigations of possible impacts in Canada , Finland and Northern\nUSSR using climate data from the model by Hansen ^ et al, show\nreduced yields of spring-sown crops such as wheat , barley and oats,\ndue to the increased moisture stress early in the growing period. Impacts on agriculture would result in impacts on the local community,\nregional and national economies , in particular through changes in farm\nincome and profitability, changes in regional production costs , changes\nin regional and national food production , changes in regional farm\nincome disparities , changes in regional economic activity and\nemployment. Hansen J. et al ( 1983 )\n\n:\n\n\" Efficient Three-Dimensional Global Models for\n\nClimate Studies : Models I and II \", Monthly Weather Review III , pp. 609-662. - 31\n\nIn conclusion it is not possible under the present state of knowledge to\ngive more than a tentative and qualitative description of possible\neffects of climate changes on agriculture given the large uncertainties\nabout the regional shape and size of such changes and the lack of\ndetailed research and studies on the likely response of agricultural\nsystems in various regions of the world. Urgent efforts are required to improve understanding of these aspects\nboth at global level because of the potentially disruptive food security\neffects and at Community level because of the direct potential\nsocio-economic impacts. 19. Forest Ecosystems and Timber Production\n\nIt is worth noticing that the same general comment on the direct\npotential effect of CO^ on vegetation made at the beginning of\nparagraph 18 applies here too. Predicted impacts include the following :. modification of botanical and zoological composition of natural\n\nforest ecosystems ;. increase of forest decline in natural and manmade forest stands ;. modifications in forest productivity and forest management ;. disturbance of timber - and woodproducts markets and trade ;. danger of extinction of certain forest tree species and local\n\necotypes with a limited geographical distribution and by this a\nreduction of global genetic variability of forests. 20. Human Health Impacts\n\nIt should also be mentioned that a global warming could also have\nimpacts for human health. It could in particular :. possibly enable some diseases which require warm year-round\n\ntemperatures to survive at higher latitudes ;. cause more frequent famines and shortages of food supplies (extreme\n\nevents );\n\n\f- 32 -\n\nExpansion of tropical climates and concurrent expansion of the range of\ntropical diseases would mostly affect developing countries that already\nface health problems. 21. Ecology and Fisheries Impacts\n\nThe following potential ecological impacts are worth mentioning\n\n:. impacts on less managed ecosystems ;. impacts on marine ecosystems ;. multiple stresses on some species which could become extinct ,\n\nresulting in a significant decline in biodiversity ;. impact on wildlife reserves ( the impact would depend on whether the\nreserve 's boundaries encompass areas to which plants and animals\n\ncould migrate ). The level of impact would depend on the rate of change in climate and\nthus the time allowed for acclimatisation and ecological species shifts. Finally it is worth mentioning that since the ocean and atmosphere are\ncoupled, both the distribution and abundance of fishery resources are\ncapable of being modified by climate. However, it is controversial how much observed changes in particular\nfishery stocks are due to climate and other natural causes or to\noverf i shing. II. THE INTERNATIONAL FRAMEWORK AND PERSPECTIVES\n\nIntroduction\n\n22. Le r\u00f4le jou\u00e9 par certains gaz pr\u00e9sents dans l' atmosph\u00e8re dans les\n\u00e9quilibres thermiques de la terre \u00e9tait connu dans ses grandes lignes\nd\u00e9j\u00e0 vers la moiti\u00e9 du si\u00e8cle dernier ( Tyndall , 1863; Arrhenius , 1896;\nChamberlin , 1899 ). Les premi\u00e8res mesures syst\u00e9matiques de la concentration du CO^ par un\nr\u00e9seau mondial ont toutefois d\u00e9marr\u00e9 seulement en 1958. - 33 -\n\nDepuis lors l' augmentation observ\u00e9e de cette concentration a pouss\u00e9 les\nmilieux scientifiques \u00e0 entreprendre et \u00e0 intensifier la recherche sur\ntous les aspects de l' effet serre. Ce n' est toutefois que tr\u00e8s r\u00e9cemment que ce sujet a commenc\u00e9 \u00e0 faire\nl' objet de l' attention des responsables_politiques. ____\nLes probl\u00e8mes bien connus concernant la couche d' ozone qui ont entra\u00een\u00e9\ndes n\u00e9gociations internationales et des d\u00e9cisions politiques ont en\neffet port\u00e9 l' attention de ces responsables politiques sur les risques\nglobaux li\u00e9s aux modifications de notre atmosph\u00e8re caus\u00e9es par l' action\nde l' homme et sur la n\u00e9cessit\u00e9 de pr\u00e9parer les r\u00e9ponses concr\u00e8tes \u00e0\ndonner aux indications scientifiques de plus en plus inqui\u00e9tantes\nconcernant l' \u00e9ventualit\u00e9 de modifications du climat. As a consequence , the following recent events have marked an important\nevolution in attitudes towards the greenhouse issue :. the \"Villach\" conference (Vi llach-Austria , 9-15 October 1985);. the European Parliament resolution on measures to counteract CO^\n\nrising concentrations ( September 1985 ). The EEC Symposium on \"COg and other greenhouse gases\" (Brussels,\n\n3-5 November 1986 );. The Workshops on \" Developing policies for responding' to climatic\n\nchange \" (Vi llach-Austria , 28 September-2 October 1987 and\nBellagio-Italy, 9-13 November 1987);. The Brundtland Commission 's report. The World Conference on \" The changing atmosphere\" ( Toronto, 27-30 June\n\n1988 ). The last event is of particular importance for future development and\nits outcome is presented in the next paragraph. Details about the other events mentioned above are given in the Annex to\n\nthis document. The world conference on \"The changing atmosphere , implications for global\nsecurity\" - Toronto, 27-30 june 1988\n\n)\n\n\f- 34 -\n\n23. This high level conference has been organized at the initiative of the\nCanadian government to follow-up some of the conclusions and\nrecommendations of the Brundtland commission report. More than 300 scientists and policy makers from 48 countries , United\nNations organizations , other international bodies and non-governmental\norganizations participated in the sessions. Of the conference conclusions and recommendations , the following seem\nmost important and are therefore reproduced in full :\n\nThe Earth 's atmosphere is being changed at an\n\n\"- Humanity is conducting an enormous , unintended, globally pervasive\nexperiment whose ultimate consequences could be second only to a\nglobal nuclear war. unprecedented rate by pollutants resulting from human activities ,\ninefficient and wasteful fossil fuel use and the effects of rapid\npopulation growth in many regions. threat to international security and are already having harmful\nconsequences over many parts of the globe. These changes represent a major\n\n- Far-reaching impacts will be caused by global warming and sea level\n\nrise, which are becoming increasingly evident as a result of\ncontinued growth in atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide and\nother greenhouse gases. potentially severe economic and social dislocation for present and\nfuture generations , which will worsen international tensions and\nincrease the risk of conflicts among and within nations. It is\nimperative to act now. \"\n\nThe best predictions available indicate\n\nThe following immediate actions are recommended :\n\n\"A. Actions by Governments and Industry\n\n- Ratify the Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone\n\nThe Protocol should be revised in 1990 to ensure nearly\n\nLayer. complete elimination of the emissions of fully halogenated CFCs by\nAdditional measures to limit other ozone-destroying\nthe year 2000. halocarbons should be considered. - 35 -\n\nSet energy policies to reduce the emissions of C02 and other trace\ngases in order to reduce the risks of future global warming. Stabilizing the atmospheric concentrations of C02 is an imperative\ngoal. It is currently estimated to require reductions of more than\n50 percent from present emissions levels. developmental budgets must be massively directed to energy options\nwhich would eliminate or greatly reduce C02 emissions and to studies\nundertaken to further refine the target reductions. Energy research and\n\nClearly, the\n\nReduce C02 emissions by approximately 20 percent of 1988 levels by\nthe year 2005 as an initial global goal. industrialized nations have a responsibility to lead the way, both\nthrough their national energy policies and their bilateral and\nmultilateral assistance arrangements. About one-half of this\nreduction would be sought from energy efficiency and other\nconservation measures. modifications in supplies. The other half should be effected by\n\nImproving energy efficiency is not\n\nSet targets for energy efficiency improvements that are directly\nrelated to reductions in C02 and other greenhouse gases. A\nchallenging target would be to achieve the 10 percent energy\nefficiency improvements by 2005. precisely the same as reducing total carbon emissions and the\ndetailed policies will not all be familiar ones. of the systems implications of this target should be made. targets for energy supply should also be directly related to\nreductions in C02 and other greenhouse gases. challenging target would again be to achieve the 10 percent energy\nsupply improvements by 2005. implications of this target should also be made. to achieving this goal will vary from region to region; some\ncountries have already demonstrated a capability for increasing\nefficiency by more than 2 percent a year for over a decade. A detailed study of the systems\n\nA detailed study\n\nThe contributions\n\nAs with efficiency, a\n\nEqually,\n\nApart from efficiency measures, the desired reduction will require\n(i ) switching to lower C02 emittaing fuels,\nstrategies for the implementation of renewable energy especially\nadvanced biomass conversion technologies ;\nnuclear power option, which lost credibility because of problems\nrelated to nuclear safety, radioactive wastes , and nuclear weapons\n\n( iii ) revisiting the\n\n(ii ) reviewing\n\n\f- 36 -\n\nproliferation. If these problems can be solved , through improved\nengineering designs and institutional arrangements , nuclear power\ncould have a role to play in lowering COg emissions. - Negotiate now on ways to achieve the above-mentioned reductions. - Initiate management systems in order to encourage , review and\n\napprove major new projects for energy efficiency. - Vigorously apply existing technologies , in addition to gains made\n\nthrough reduction of fossil fuel combustion , to reduce ( i ) emissions\nof acidifying substances to reach the critical load that the\nenvironment can bear ;\n( ii ) substances which are precursors of\ntropospheric ozone;\n\n( iii ) other non-Ct^ greenhouse gases. - Label products to allow consumers to judge the extent and nature of\nthe atmospheric contamination that arises from the manufacture and\nuse of the product. B. Action by Member Governments\n\nof the United Nations ,\n\nNon-Governmental Organizations and Relevant International Bodies. - Initiate the development of a comprehensive global convention as a\nThe\n\nThis should be vigorously pursued at the\n\nframework for protocols on the protection of the atmosphere. convention should emphasize such key elements as the free\ninternational exchange of information and support of research and\nmonitoring, and should provide a framework for specific protocols\nfor addressing particular issues , taking into account existing\ninternational law. International Workshop on Law and Policy to be held in Ottawa early\nin 1989, the high-level political conference on Climate Change in\nthe Netherlands in the Fall , 1989, the World Energy Conference in\nCanada in 1989 and the Second World Climate Conference , Geneva , June\n1990, with a view to having the principles and components of such a\nconvention ready for consideration at the inter-governmental\nConference on Sustainable Development in 1992. should in no way impede simultaneous national , bilateral and\nregional actions and agreements to deal with specific problems such\nas acidification and greenhouse gas emissions. These activities\n\n\f- 37 -\n\n- Establish a World Atmosphere Fund, financed in part by a levy on\n\nfossil fuel consumption of industrialized countries , to mobilize a\nsubstantial part of the resources needed for implementation of the\nAction Plan for the Protection of the Atmosphere. - Support the work of the Inter-governmental Panel on Climate Change\n\nto conduct continuing assessments of scientific results and initiate\ngovernment -to -government discussion of responses and strategies. - Devote increasing resources to research and monitoring efforts\nwithin the World Climate Programme , the International Geosphere\nBiosphere Programme and Human Response to Global Change Programme. It is particularly important to understand how climate changes on a\nregional scale are related to an overall global change of climate. Emphasis shouls also be placed on better determining the role of\noceans and global heat transport and the flux of greenhouse gases. - Increase significantly the funding for research, development and\ntransfer of information on renewable energy, if necessary by the\nestablishment of additional and bridging programmes ; extend\ntechnology transfer with particular emphasis on the needs of the\ndeveloping countries ; and upgrade efforts to meet obligations for\nthe development and transfer of technology embodied in existing\n\nagreements. - Expand funding for more extensive technology transfer and technical\ncooperation projects in coastal zone protection and management. - Reduce deforestation and increase afforestation making use of\n\nproposals such as that in the World Commission on Environment and\nDevelopment\"s ( WCED ) report , \"Our Common Future\", including the\nestablishment of a trust fund to provide adequate incentives to\nenable developing nations to manage their tropical forest resources\nsustainably. - Develop and support technical cooperation projects to allow\n\ndeveloping nations to participate in international mitigation\nefforts , monitoring, research and analysis related to the changing\natmosphere. - 38 -\n\n- Ensure that this Conference Statement , the Working Groupe reports\nand the full Proceedings of the World Conference , \" The Changing\nAtmosphere : Implications for Global Security\" ( to be published in\nthe Fall , 1988 ) are made available to all nations , to the\nconferences mentioned under paragraph 26 , and other future meetings\ndealing with related issues. - Increase funding to non-governmental organizations to allow the\nestablishment of environmental education programmes and public\nSuch\nawareness campaigns related to the changing atmosphere. programmes would aim at sharpening perception of the issues , and\nchanging public values and behaviour with respect to the\n\nenvironment. - Allocate financial support for environmental education in primary\n\nand secondary schools and universities. given to establishing special groups in university departments for\naddressing the crucial issues of global climate change. Consideration should be\n\nFuture possible developaents\n\n24. A possible short-term outcome of the above mentioned international\nactivites is initiation, already in 1989, of the process for preparing a\ncomprehensive global convention on the protection of the atmosphere. Limitations to the emissions of greenhouse gases would then be agreed by\nspecific protocols in the frame of such convention. 25. Next essential events on the way to that convention might probably be :\n\n- the international workshop on law and policy to be held in Ottawa\n\nearly in 1989;\n\n- a high level political conference to be convened in the autumn 1989 by\n\nthe Netherlands Ministry of the Environment ;\n\n\f- 39 -\n\n\u201c the Second World Climate Conference , Geneva , June 1990;\n\n\u201c the Intergovernmental Conference on sustainable Development in 1992\n\nwhich could be the culminating event. 26. The substance of the convention mentioned under 24 above ( and of\nassociated protocols ) as far as the greenhouse issue is concerned could\nprobably consist in :\n\na ) greenhouse gases emission reduction targets for developed countries ;\n\nb ) new development aid schemes to help developing countries to limit the\nincrease of their greenhouse gases emissions by use of appropriate\ntechnologies and to reverse deforestation trends ;\n\nc ) a new impetus to scientific and technical international cooperation\n\non all the aspects relevant for the greenhouse issue. Renegotiation of the Montreal Protocol on CFC 's is a very likely short\nterm development. Policy discussions on the way how to deal with the greenhouse effect\nmight be very complex because of the many far reaching and interrelated\naspects of the issue. 27. 28. In this respect , it is worth stressing the global , complex and\ndifferentiated nature of the challenge put by the greenhouse issue. This was well presented in the following statement at the Bellagio\n( 1987) workshop ( see Annex )\n\n:\n\n\". the participants emphasized the relationship between the issue of\nclimatic change, including policy responses to it , and a number of\nother issues , above all in the field of environment and development. This relationship underlines the importance of the differences in\nimpact by region, and hence by country, of climatic change and the\nextent to which these differences affect the effort of the\ninternational community in promoting sustainable development. - 40 -\n\nThe report of the Brundtland Commission has explained the\nThe significance\nramifications of these numerous interconnections. of the difference in regional impact should not , however, be allowed\nto detract from the emphasis on the comunity as a whole in facing it. Still less should it encourage any attempts to divide countries or\nThis is not a \"zero-sum\" game. regions into \"winners \" or \" losers \". Unless action is taken, it could be a negative sum game of highly\nuncertain proportions. \"\n\nIII. REVIEW OF POSSIBLE ACTIONS\n\nIntroduction\n\n29. Preliminary indications from research results and the state of the\ninternational debate call for urgent consideration of further action on\nthe greenhouse issue. Such action , of which the following paragraphs give an overview , could\ninclude :\n\n- research ;\n- preventive measures ( i. e. measures to curb greenhouse gases\n\nemissions );\n\n- adaptive measures ( i. e. measures to adapt to climatic changes and\nto their impacts if those seem likely to be unavoidable despite\npreventive measures ). 30. Policy measures may be classed into three groups :\n\n( a ) those which have to be taken at an international level and require\n\ninternational agreement (e. g. reduction of CO^ emissions);\n(b ) those which may be taken at a European level (e. g. planning for\n\nwater resources , agricultural and forest planning ) or in specific\ncountries e. g. through development aid programmes ( conservation of\ntropical forests , wetlands , coastal ecosystems , appropriate energy\npolicies , etc. );\n\n\f- 41\n\n( c ) those of an intermediate character (e. g. decisions on the energy mix\nto be adopted , taking account of ( a ) and of particular European\nconditions ). The group to which any particular measure belongs may determine the time\nnecessary to its adoption and require a proper approach. Measures of an international character may ignore specific local\nconditions ; local measures cannot do so. 31. The above mentioned factors have to be taken into account in order to\n\ncorrectly coordinate the policy decision timing and the research timing. In fact this coordination is essential for two reasons :\n\n( a ) the uncertainties as regards the climate change and its impacts\nincrease with increasing spatial and temporal definition : the\nultimate answer one is expecting from scientific research is what\nwill happen , when, where. Now the \"what \" becomes increasingly\nuncertain as the range of the \"when\" and \"where\" becomes smaller. Yet such knowledge is vital for any planning which decision makers\ncould consider. ( b ) in order to take policy decisions it is crucial to' know\n\n- which danger, when and where, one has to face and what\n\nconsequences upon the environment , the economy, the society at\nlarge are to be expected;\n\n- how to implement at best the measures decided;\n\nTherefore, the study of policy options and scientific research have to\ngo in parallel , and there must be a continuous feedback between the two. Only in this way can one avoid that decisions are unduly delayed or that\nthey are taken without taking fully into account research results. Research itself should benefit from that interaction process, by being\ncontinuously reoriented towards specific objectives and actual problems\nand needs. - 42 -\n\nResearch activities\n\n32. Already since 1980 , the Commission of the European Communities is\ncarrying out a research programme in Climatology, whose main research\nareas are concerned with the study of the evolution of climate in the\npast , with climate modelling , with the man-induced climate change and\nwith the impacts that such change could have on European land and water\nresources. The symposium held in Brussels in November 1986 ( Annex B )\nwas organised in the frame of this programme and was meant to provide\nthe scientific consensus available at that date. Research is being focussed especially on the climatic effects of\ngreenhouse gases , and climatologically significant processes imperfectly\nunderstood as yet , such as atmosphere-ocean interactions , the water\nvapour-greenhouse feedback , the cloud feedback , aerosol and cloud\nclimatology , biospheric sources and sinks of trace gases , climatic\naspects of ozone changes and troposphere-stratosphere interactions , the\neffects of glabal warming on the melting rate of ice shelves. 33. In the near future the Climatology research programme of the Commission\nwill put a greater stress on the impacts which climate change could have\non important sectors of the European environment. Such intensified research should concern in particular :\n\n( 1 ) The rise in sea level and its impacts on the European coasts\n\n( prediction of future sea-level changes , the change in storm surge\nrisks for European coastal installations, the impacts on coastal\necosystems and coastal land use ). ( 2 ) The impacts of a changing climate on European crops , forests , water\nresources (bioclimatic shifts of crops and forests , changes in\nproductivity, the sensitivity of European crops to increased CO^ and\nclimate change, the impacts on surface and ground water supplies ). ( 3 ) The effects of the climate change as regards the progressive\n\naridif ication of the Mediterranean Europe ( effects of climatic and\nmeteorological factors on soil degradation , the impact of\nprogressive drought on vegetation ). - 43 -\n\n( 4 ) The occurrence and frequency of extreme events and their impacts\nupon agriculture and industry ( the impacts of the alternance of\ndroughts and heavy rainfall on European land resources / the impacts\nof meteorological extremes such as hail and frost on European\nagriculture and industry ). ( 5 ) The melting of Alpine glaciers. ( 6) The study of the social , economic and political factors conditioning\nprobable future emission rates of greenhouse gases , and likely to be\naffected by any policy option that could be adopted. ( 7) The study of socio-economic impacts , in particular in the Community,\ndue to climatic changes , for the various relevant aspects , such as\nconsequences for agriculture , consequences for cost line regions of\nthe sea level rise , etc. Such research should be supplemented by a sound monitoring of\natmospheric and oceanic conditions. allow to place instrumentation where it is needed and to have access to\n\nInternational agreements should\n\nA vital component of a monitoring\nspace based monitoring systems. programme is the utilisation of space technology to understand the\nprocesses which control the earth 's climate system and its sensitivity\nto natural and man-induced changes. 34. Environmental constraints , especially the reduction of air pollution,\ncall for a balanced pursuit of environmental and energy objectives. As far as CO^ is concerned, the objective can also be achieved through\nprogress in the development and availability of techniques , processes\nand products allowing rational use of energy and the efficient and\neconomic use of renewable energy sources and by safe nuclear energy. These considerations provide ample justification for a specific energy\nR&D programme in the fields of renewable energies , rational use of\nenergy and safe nuclear technology which will ensure continuity of the\nprogress made since 1975 and guarantee that optimum benefits be gained\nfrom the new energy technologies developed so far. 35. Elimination of CC^ at the source could eventually become a new domain of\nresarch. avai lable. No economically or technically feasible technologies are yet\n\nNew directions for research in this field should be explored. 36. The first aspect of the problem requires to determine by\n\nMoreover, the management of the CO^ problem implies both the definition\nof global reduction objectives and the implementation of these\nobjectives. how much the emissions will need to be reduced and the pace of that\nreduction. economic activities that will bear the major part of this reduction , the\nallocation of this reduction among the different actors and the\ninstitutional approaches to arrive at these objectives. The implementation action will have to determine the\n\nEnergy-Environment models give the\n\nSystem Analysis can, in principle , provide the adequate basis for\nlooking at these questions. possibility of finding efficient ways of achieving emission goals;\nClimate models are there to assess the impact of emissions on the\nenvironment and to help construct scenarios of adaptive measures ;\nEnergy-economy models allow to compute the impact on the economic\nsystems of the costs incurred by the reduction of emissions. The models developed in the System Analysis Community research programme\nshould be adapted and used in the direction defined above for analysing\nenergy related CC^ emissions reduction measures and programmes. The aim of such research would be to evaluate the feasibility and the\ncosts of various reduction objectives as well as to assess their impact\non the energy and economy sectors. Pr\u00e9ventive action (greenhouse gases \u00e9mission r\u00e9duction )\n\n37. Preventive action is any action aiming at curbing the expected increase\nin greenhouse gases atmospheric concentrations. This could mean aiming first at reducing the rate of increase of those\nconcentrations and in the longer term at stabilizing them. Reduction of\ngreenhouse gases concentrations does not seem at this stage a realistic\nobjective but could be a very long term goal. - 45 -\n\n38. The only way at hand to control future trends of greenhouse gases\nconcentrations is limiting man-made emissions including, in case of CO^\nreversing the present trend of deforestation in tropical regions. Preventative action is further discussed with reference to the most\n\nrelevant greenhouse gases here below. 39. Carbon dioxide ( Ct^) emissions\n\nAs shown in paragraph 4 of chapter I , CO^\nfossil fuels burning and forest wood burning or forest biomass\ndecomposition. emissions are mostly due to\n\nPreventive action could therefore include measures to be taken in the\n\nenergy sector ( including energy for industry and transportation ) and in\nthe forestry and agricultural sectors as far as action in these sectors\ncould help to preserve forests. A tentative list of actions aiming at COg emissions reduction which\ncould be studied might include :\n\nA. Energy related measures for CO^\n\ni\n\nThere are several types of technical energy related measures that\ncould curb CC^ emissions , as listed below. Of course not all those measures are equally efficient or\ncost-effective and one should make a clear distinction between the\nphysical potential of COg emission reduction of a given measure and\nits economic viability. The following technical measures , which are listed without any\nranking or priority, may provide ways to reduce CO^ emissions from\ncarbon-based fuels :\n\na. Energy Efficiency\n\n- improving the efficiency of energy demand (e. g. more efficient\nlight bulbs, better insulation, more efficient cars , electronic\nregulations , etc. );\n\n\f- 46 -\n\n- improving the efficiency of energy supply ( e. g. cogeneration ,\n\nintroduction of combined cycle possibly integrated with\nhigh-temperature nuclear reactors , develoment of MHD , etc. );\n\nb. Energy Supply\n\n- fuel switching to less CO^ emitting fuels ( the relation of CC^\nemitted quantities with regard to a unit of energy produce for\nthe combustion of lignite , hard coal , oil and natural gas is as\nfollows : 121 , 100 , 88 , 58 );\n\n- increased use of non carbon based renewable energies ( pe. solar ,\n\nwindpower , hydro , geothermal , photovoltaics );\n\n- increased use of nuclear power. c. Biotic sources\n\n- Use biomass for energy purposes ( such as wood for heating or\ncooking in developing countries ) in a sustainable way so that\nthe CC^ atmospheric balance is not affected significantly;\n\nd. CO^ technology abatement\n\n- Although at present no economically or technically feasible\n\ntechnologies seem to be available , this possibility should not\n\nbe excluded for the future. e. Long-term development\n\n- Introduction of non-carbon based energy systems in their various\nforms combined with electricity and hydrogen as secondary energy\n\ncarriers. Any policy decision aiming at reducing CO^ emissions in the energy\nsector should be carefully examined taking fully into account the\nspecific objectives and constraints existing at international ,\ncommunity and national level in this sector. future decision in the field of energy policy should take into\naccount the problem of potential climate changes linked to the\ngreenhouse effect. On the other hand , any\n\n\f- 47 -\n\nSystem analysis models have been extensively used in the past for\nexploring consequences of economic -energy-environmental related\nmeasures and the use of such analytical models may provide\ninformation on the feasibility of measures to achieve CC^ reduction\ngoals. technologies which have a good chance of contributing to that\nobjective and hence should deserve more attention. Scenarios analysis can complete such information and identify\n\nB. Measures related to forestry and natural ecosystems\n\na. Conserve forest resources\n\n- promote appropriate agricultural practices and organization in\ndeveloping countries to avoid that agricultural land demand\ncause further deforestation ;\n\n- assist developing countries to improve their ability to manage\nforests in a manner that ensures that they are exploited on a\n\nsustainable basis ;\n\n- reinforce prevention and fighting of forest ^ires;\n\n- promote actions to monitor and restore declining forests ;\n\n- provide alternatives to and improve the efficiency of the\n\nutilisation of fuel-wood for cooking in developing countries. b. Promote afforestation. - increase reafforestation efforts notably in subtropical and\n\ntropical regions ;\n\n- promote agroforestry, especially in developing countries ,\n\nc. Natural ecosystem protection\n\n- promote the conservation of ecosystems directly or indirectly\n\nrelevant for the global carbon cycle. - 48 -\n\n40. CFCs emissions\n\nPossible preventative actions are :\n\na. Constrain use\n\nb. Constrain production\nc. Recapture and recycle or destroy\n\n*\n\n41. CH^, N^O emissions\n\nActions which could be considered are :\n\na. Minimize CH^ losses in extraction, transport and use of natural gas. b. Minimize CH^ losses from landfills. c. Minimize ^0 emission from fossil fuels burning. d. Study possible improvements in livestocks management , rice\n\ncultivation and lagoons management, aiming at reducing CH^ release. e. Study possible improved fertilizing management practices to reduce\n\n^0 release from nitrogen fertilizers use. 42. The possible use of mechanisms such as taxation of products that cause\ngreenhouse gas emissions or of emissions themselves where this is\nfeasible, could be considered to stimulate or complement technology\n\nmeasures. Planned adaptation\n\n43. Planned adaptation involves taking account of potential greenhouse\nimpacts in long-term planning, most likely at the regional and national\nlevels. Consideration of such measures in long term planning becomes necessary\n\nif it is believed that :\n\n- impacts are likely to occur which society will not be able to adjust\n\nto in the short term ;\n\n- implementation of preventative measures is unlikely to be sufficiently\neffective in time ( e. g. even if emission controls were implemented\nnow , it is possible that significant impacts will occur due to the\natmospheric warming to which we are already committed ). - 49 -\n\nAt this stage it is not possible to cover, even in qualitative and\nsimple way, all the adaptive measures which could be worth considering\nin relation to the various potential impacts of the greenhouse effect. However , it is worth giving some indications concerning potential\nmeasures for possible sea-level rise and for impacts on agriculture. 44. Possible adaptation measures concerning sea level rise could include :\n\n- Sea walls / flood barriers. - National flood insurance programmes. - Construction of reservoirs ( to combat increased salinity ). - Abandonment of developed regions in low lying areas. ~ Other relocation of populations away from vulnerable sites. - Protection of coastal ecosystems. 45. Examples of measures which could be considered in order to adapt to\nimpacts on agriculture are :\n\n- More efficient use of fertilisers. - Changes of land use to optimise and to stabilize production;\n- Changes of policy to maintain national food security;\n- Changes to policies supporting land management , such as soil erosion\n\ncontrol , water management , etc. Cooperation with developing countries\n\n46. All the above measures , both as regards preventive action and as regards\nplanned adaptation , should also be developed to take into account the\nneeds of the developing countries , and how the Community 's development\naid policy can contribute towards the prevention and the adaptation of\nthe greenhouse effect. In particular :\n\na ) by enhancing the type of projects that can actively contribute to\n\nprevention such as those which are directed at reducing\ndeforestation , conserving wetlands , coastal ecosystems and the\ngenetic diversity or arid ecosystems ;\n\n\f50 -\n\nb) by taking into account the consequences of the greenhouse effect in\n\nmedium-term project planning ( e. g. agricultural programmes , livestock\nprogrammes , fisheries and any projects related to long-term\ninvestments on lowlands which may be affected by the forecasted\nincrease of ocean level );\n\nc ) by ensuring that base line data being gathered for the purpose of\n\nimplementing development projects be made accessible to the Community\nresearch programme on the greenhouse effect. IV. CONCLUSIONS OF THE COMMISSION\n\n51\n\n47. The Community should implement fully the Vienna Convention for the\nprotection of the ozone layer and the Montreal Protocol on substances\nthat deplete the ozone layer. This will involve the adoption and\napplication by all Member states of the proposed Council Decision ,\nRegulation and Resolution agreed to by the Council on 16 June 1988. 48. The Community should participate actively in the efforts toward\nrenegotiation by 1990 of the Montreal Protocol on substances that\n\ndeplete the ozone layer. CFC 's emissions could be almost totally eliminated by the year 2000 as\nrecommended by the Toronto conference. The Protocol should be revised so that the\n\n49. 50. The Commmunity should welcome initiation of discussions on the\npossibilities of an international agreement for the future protection of\nthe atmosphere. It should be prepared to give an important contribution\nto the preparation and negotiation of such an agreement which might\ninclude the establishment of specific targets for limiting emissions of\ngreenhose gases as well as definition of emission reduction measures and\n\nprogrammes. Therefore , the Commission will take the initiative to launch a\nsubstantial policy~options study programme to evaluate the feasibility,\ncosts and likely results of possible measures to limit greenhouse gases\nemissions. international debate on the issue. Results of such programme would give useful inputs to the\n\nThe main areas of such programme should be :\n\n- identification and technical assessment of measures and technologies\n\nin various relevant fields capable to reduce greenhouse gases\n\nemissions ;\n\n- analysis of economic , industrial , energy, social and institutional\nimplications and impacts of the above mentioned possible measures\nand technologies ;\n\n- structuring and evaluating policy scenarios referred in particular\n\nto possible strategic targets for CO^ emission ceilings. - 52 -\n\nA reliable greenhouse gases emission inventory would be needed in\nthis frame. The focus of the exercise should be on Europe in a first instance. - establishing a decision analysis framework in order to link\nprobabi listical ly policy options and their likely results an\nbenefits. - identifying and evaluating adaptive policies to cope with\n\nunavoidable effects under the different scenarios resulting from the\ndecision analysis exercise. The Commission has developed several energy-economy and\nenergy-environment models and those models and the experience gained in\npolicy analyses of energy-environment interactions should be fully\nexploited when starting new work on the greenhouse issue. The above mentioned work programme should be closely linked to the\nresearch and development activities on relevant subjects such as\nclimatology and energy. Moreover a framework should be created to allow systematic exchange of\nviews and rapid feedbacks among scientists and policy makers. 51. The greenhouse effect is a global problem, the Community should\ntherefore play an important part in the definition of a global policy ,\ninvolving in particular developing countries , towards a sustainable\ndevelopment. Community work on the greenhouse issue should be structured and\nscheduled so to allow synergism and collaboration with international\norganizations and third countries. In particular the Commission work\nprogramme should fully take account of parallel activities in the frame\nof the panel on climate change of WMO / UNEP and of OECD and IEA. 52. The Community and its Member States should by now take into account in\ntheir policy decisions ( related to energy or other sectors relevant to\nthe issue ) the problem of potential climate changes linked to the\n\ngreenhouse effect. Early consideration of such issue could avoid higher costs in future. - 53 -\n\nk\n\n53. 54. 55. Moreover the Commission will take urgent action to reinforce and expand\nefforts in the field of energy savings , energy efficiency improvement ,\nThe\ndevelopment of new energy sources , use of safe nuclear technology. accelerated development and promotion of innovative commercial-scale\ntechnologies in these fields should be given high priority. There is no doubt that such action is justified because of both energy\nand environmental requirements , independent of uncertainties on some\nscientific aspects of the greenhouse issue. Of special importance would be the possibility to quantify energy\nefficiency improvements in terms of CO^ reductions. The Community should sustain vigorous research programmes on all the\nrelevant aspects of the greenhouse issue and should promote new energy\ntechnologies having the potential to limit COg emissions. Activities should be reinforced and expanded in the frame of existing\ncooperation agreements of the EC with mediterranean countries with the\naim both of promoting sustainable development in those countries and of\nhelping them to prevent likely impacts of the greenhouse issue on their\nenvironment. 56. The Commission will also prepare urgent action in the field of aid to\ndeveloping countries both as regards preventive and as regards\nadaptation measures. In particular :\n\n- An attempt should be made to classify and map geographical areas\n\nwhich are particularly vulnerable to the greenhouse effect ( such as,\nfor instance, islands whose mean altitude above sea level is\nprecariously low, coastal states, etc. reference basis against which policies could be evaluated. It would\ncertainly be a first step towards adapting policy as regards aid to\ndeveloping countries. Such maping would form a\n\n\u2013 The greenhouse effect should as much as possible be taken into\n\naccount in considering the feasibility of major projects such as ,\nfor instance, dams , agricultural projects which involve major\nmodifications to the environment and in being particularly cautious\nin evaluating any project which may have a negative input on\n\n\f54 -\n\nInstruments should be developed to assess the long-term\n\ntropical forests , wetlands , coastal ecosystems or mountain\necosystems. sensitivity of development projects to the greenhouse effect. Preparedness against natural disaster also at some stage have to be\nincreased , in respect of the type of calamities which the greenhouse\neffect may make more likely. storms which is expected to increase. )\nregional conservation strategies one should ensure that adequate\n\n( For example the strength of tropical\n\nIn preparing national\n\naccount is taken of the greenhouse effect. 57. In parallel to the work needed to evaluate possible policy options ,\nexisting research programmes should be strenghten to better understand\nthe potential impacts of the greenhouse effect on European regions. These programmes should consider both the physical and the\nsocio-economic direct and indirect impacts. In this frame the risks for the coastline regions of the Community\nrelated to possible sea level rise should be assessed so that\ninformation useful for land use planning is available to developers and\ncompetent authorities. 58. Finally, the Commission will set up a Committee to exchange information\non all the aspects of the greenhouse issue. Commission should be represented in this Committee. Member States and the\n\n\fRecent aajor events on the greenhouse issue\n\n\f- 56 -\n\nA. The \"VILLACH\" Conference ( International conference on the assessment and\n\nthe rate of C0-, and of other greenhouse gases in climate variations and\nassociated impacts (Villach - Austria , 9-15 October 1985 ))\n\nThis conference was jointly convened by UNEP , WMO and ICSU with\nparticipation of scientists from twenty nine developed and developing\ncountries. The following sentences appear in the statement adopted by this\n\nconference :\n\n\" Many important economic and social decisions are being made today on\nlong-term projects - major water resource management activities such\nas irrigation and hydro-power ; drought relief ; agricultural land use ;\nstructural designs and coastal engineering projects ; and energy\nplanning - all based on the assumption that past climatic data ,\nwithout modification , are a reliable guide to the future. longer a good assumption since the increasing concentrations of\ngreenhouse gases are expected to cause a significant warming of the\nglobal climate in the next century. \"\n\nThis is no\n\n\"While some warming of climate now appears inevitable due to past\nactions , the rate and degree of future warming could be profoundly\naffected by governmental policies on energy conservation, use of\nfossil fuels, and the emission of some greenhouse gases. \"\n\n\"Based on evidence of effects of past climatic changes , there is\nlittle doubt that a future change in climate of the order of\nmagnitude obtained from climate models for a doubling of the\natmospheric CO^ concentration could have profound effects on global\necosystems , agriculture, water resources and sea ice. \"\n\n\f- 57 -\n\n\"Governments and regional inter-governmental organizations should take\ninto account the results of this assessment (Villach 1985 ) in their\npolicies on social and economic development , environmental\nprogrammes , and control of emissions of radiatively active gases. \"\n\n\" Public information efforts should be increased by international\nagencies and governments on the issues of greenhouse gases , climate\nchange and sea level , including wide distribution of the documents of\nthis Conference ( Villach 1985 ). \"\n\n\"Major uncertainties remain in predictions of changes in global and\nregional precipitation and temperature patterns. are also imperfectly known. greenhouse question is sufficiently developed that scientists and\npolicy-makers should begin an active collaboration to explore the\neffectiveness of alternative policies and adjustments. should be made to design methods necessary for such collaboration. \"\n\nNevertheless , the understanding of the\n\nEfforts\n\nEcosystem responses\n\nB. The EEC Symposium on \"C02 and other greenhouse gases : climatic and\n\nassociated impacts (Brussels, 3-5 November 1986)\n\nUpon the initiative of Dr. K. H. Narjes , Vice-President of the Commission\nof European Communities , a Symposium organised by the CEC, DG XII , was\nheld in Brussels from 3-5 November 1986. It was attended by about 60\nleading European and US scientists , who reviewed the whole issue of the\nclimate change that will take place as a consequence of the accummulation\nof the atmospheric COg and other greenhouse gases. Further to the conclusions on the scientific aspects of the greenhouse\nissue, mentioned in the relevant sections of this document , the following\nrecommendations were presented as a conclusion of this Symposium :\n\n\"- The time has come for taking a decisive step toward converting the\ndialogue between scientists and decision makers from a remote,\nintermittent and casual reading of reports of the other party to a\ncloser and more interactive exchange of views. 58 -\n\n- It is recommended that a means be established for obtaining the\n\nnecessary exchange of information between policy analysts , decision\nmakers and the scientific community involved in the issue. \"\n\nC. The workshops on \" Developing policies for responding to climatic change\"\n(Villach - Austria , 28 September-2 October 1987 and Bellagio - Italy,\n\n9-13 November 1987)\n\nThese meetings were called following the scientific consensus reached at\nthe Villach conference in order to \" start policy analysis to identify the\nwidest possible range of social responses for limiting or adapting to\nclimatic changes \". Apart from the statement mentioned in paragraph 28 of this document , the\nfollowing conclusions / recommendations were presented :\n\n\" Immediate steps to limit greenhouse gas emissions\n\nImmediate approval and implementation of the\n\n( 1 ) Ozone Protocol\nProtocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer ( thereby reducing\nCFC emissions ). after expedited scientific review the parties consider acceleration\nof the schedule for reductions in CFCs and eventual elimination of\n\nRecommend that it be ratified urgently and that\n\nemissions not only for ozone layer protection but particularly for\ngreenhouse gas limitation. ( 2 ) Energy Policies\nGovernments should immediately begin to reexamine their long-term\nenergy strategies with the goals of achieving high end-use\nefficiency, reducing multiple forms of air pollution and reducing CO^\nemissions. energy systems must be greatly intensified. Research and development on alternative ( non-fossil )\n\n( 3 ) D\u00e9forestation Policies\nRecommend support for increased measures to reduce deforestation ,\ne. g. locally appropriate actions along the lines of the Tropical\nForest Action Plan , 1987. Such measures are currently necessary\nbecause of the effects of tropical deforestation on agriculture ,\n\n\f- 59 -\n\nenergy, soil erosion , flooding and drought , etc. The contribution of\ndeforestation to greenhouse gas induced climatic change is a powerful\nadditional reason for measures to reduce deforestation. ( 4 ) Other Trace Gases\n\nMeasures should be taken to avoid industrial and societal actions in\nthe future which unduly contribute to emissions of greenhouse gases\nto the atmosphere. reduction strategies ; agricultural practices , etc. Examples include landfills that emit methane; NgO\n\nImmediate steps to limit the impact of sea-level rise\n\n( 5 ) River and Coastal Zone Policies\n\nInternational unions of geographic , coastal and geodetic and soil\nsciences and /or government agencies should develop maps to identify\ncoastal areas vulnerable to sea-level rise , river regulation and\nPlanning for large new industrial , tourist\nintensifying land-use. and urban installations near the sea should allow for the risks of\n\npossible sea-level rise. Immediate steps to improve understanding of the greenhouse effect and\noptions for dealing with it\n\n( 6 ) Management tools\nPolicy and scientific research should investigate further the utility\nof particular goals as management tools. expressed in terms of a rate of change of temperature or sea-level is\nSuch an\neasy to relate to observed historic rates of change. environmental goal is related to the ambient concentration of\ngreenhouse gases ( expressed in terms of C02\nequivalence ) and thus to\nthe emissions and for each of these, regulatory targets can be set in\nline with the long-term environmental goal. An environmental goal\n\n\f- 60 -\n\n( 7 ) Monitoring\nThe problem of significant climate warming may call for a\nconsiderable increase in existing available monitoring activities,\nboth with regard to global climate and its variability and sea-level\nchanges, atmospheric chemistry and rainfall chemistry, as well as the\nconsequences for the environment of any significant warming. It is therefore recommended that WMO / WCP ( World Meteorological\nOrganization / World Climate Programme ) and UNEP / GEMS ( Unite Nations\nEnvironment Programme / Global Environmental Monitoring System ) carry\nout a joint study of :\n- what new climate observing system activites are required for\n\nmonitoring the changing climate ;\n\n- what activities are required for monitoring the consequences of the\n\nchanging climate. The IOC through the Global Sea Level Observing System should give\nurgent attention to strengthening the monitoring of sea-level changes\nworldwide. ( 8 ) Research\n\nICSU, UNEP and WMO jointly support the World Climate Programme ( WCP ),\nwhich is the focus for the further study of both basic research\nissues concerning global climatic change and questions about climatic\nimpact. The World Climate Research Programme ( WCRP) is an important\ncomponent of the WCP, as the assessment of possible or likely future\nclimatic changes rests on a comprehensive understanding of the global\nclimate system. Similarly, the new research programme IGBP ( International Geosphere\nBiosphere Programme ), initiated by ICSU, addresses the scientific\nproblems that we are now confronting when trying to understand the\nbiological and geochemical interactions that contribute to future\nclimatic change and are of importance for understanding climatic\nimpacts. Increased support for scientific research for both the WCRP and IGBP\nshould be given high priority. \"\n\n\f- 61 -\n\nD. The Brundtland Commission's report\n\nThe World Commission on environment and Development has been created on\nthe basis of an UN General Assembly resolution in 1983 as an independent\nbody to formulate and present proposals and recommandations concerning\nthe critical environment and development problems with the aim of\npromoting a sustainable development. Its report was presented to the General Assembly of UN during its 42nd\nSession in the fall of 1987. This report asks for a urgent start of negotiating procedures to develop\ninternational agreement on strategies to cope with the greenhouse issue. It is suggested to consider :\n\nimproved monitoring and assessment of the evolving phenomena ;\n\n- increased research to improve knowledge about the origins ,\n\nmechanisms , and effects of the phenomena ;\n\n- the development of internationally agreed policies for the reduction\n\nof the causative gases ; and\n\n- adoption of strategies needed to minimize damage and cope with the\n\nclimate changes and rising sea level. \"\n\nThe report also suggests that such negotiations should aim at an\ninternational convention on \"management policies for all\nenvironmentally reactive chemicals released into the atmosphere\". E. The European Parliament resolution\n\nThe European Parliament has adopted on 12th September 1986 the following\nresolution on measures to counteract the rising concentration of C02 in\nthe atmosphere :\n\n\" The European Parliament\n\n- having regard to the motion for a resolution tabled by Mr. Linkohr on\nresearch and policy measures to counteract the rising concentration\nof carbon dioxide in the atmosphere ( 'greenhouse effect' )\n\n( Doc. B2-1430 / 84 ). - 62 -\n\n- having regard to the report of the Committee on Energy, Research and\nTechnology and to the opinion of the Committee on the Environment ,\nPublic Health and Consumer Protection ( Doc. A2-68 / 86 ). A. noting the growing scientific certainty that the earth 's average\ntemperature s rising as a result of non-natural releases into the\natmosphere of carbon-dioxide and propellants from fossil-fuel\nburning, intensive farming and industrial activities and\ndeforestation respectively. B. noting that an increasing temperature build-up , which is greater at\nthe poles than at the equator , will bring about a shift in the\nearth 's climatic zones , resulting in radical and , in some cases ,\ndisastrous changes in economic-activity patterns. C. pointing out that the only scientifically established facts about\nglobal temperature build-up are the scale thereof and thus the\nnumber of years remaining until its effects become apparent ,\nassuming no change in human-activity patterns. D. pointing out the need to obtain essential scientific data on the\nslow but perceptible changes in the environment of ' the world in\norder to establish the extent of the changes taking place , and the\nmeasures to be taken to avoid or reduce their unfavourable effects\n\nand to exploit beneficial consequences. 1. Stresses that it is imperative to make more-reaching countermeasures\nthan those currently implemented to combat pollution, provided such\nmeasures are directed at releases of both carbon dioxide and\n\npropellants , since, contrary to earlier assumption, the latter are\njust as significant a cause of temperature build-up as the former;\n\n2. Calls upon the Commission, in future activities in the field of\nagricultural , industrial and energy policy and in negotiations with\nboth national and international authorities , to put forward measures\nwith a view to a substantial reduction of harmful discharges , thus\nbenefiting the environment too;\n\n\f- 63 -\n\n3. 4. 5. 6. 7. 8. 9. Emphasizes in this connection the automatic benefit to be gained\nfrom large-scale energy-saving and rational use of energy, possibly\nin tandem with exploitation of cleaner energy sources and flue-gas\npurification respectively;\n\nCalls for a worldwide policy of reafforestation , for which the\nCommunity should provide an example with its own forestry policy;\n\nCalls for financial Community development policy measures to help\nput an end to the deforestation of rain forests in Third World\ncountries ;\n\nCalls on the Council when drawing up the new framework programme for\nresearch to allocate more resources to the area of climatology,\nespecially relating to changing temperature gradients including\nocean-atmosphere interaction ;\n\nStresses that preventing pollution of the world 's seas is an\nessential requirement for climatic stability;\n\nRecalls that it is incumbent upon the industrialized countries of\nthe Northern hemisphere , which are largely responsible for\njeopardizing climate, to ensure that the developing nations are\ngiven access to the latest technological know-how ;\n\nInstructs its Members , in collaboration with the relevant scientific\nquarters , to inform the public - and particularly the operators\ndirectly responsible - about the implications of the human\nactivities in question , while explaining the need for effective\n\nmeasures ;\n\n10. Instructs its committee responsible to include in their opinions a\nclimatic-impact assessment of future Community-level activities with\na view to reducing the current temperature build-up;\n\n11. Instructs its President to forward this resolution and the report of\nits committee to the Council and the Commission. \"\n\n\fCommission 's work programme on\nthe analysis of policy options to deal with\nrisks associated with the \"greenhouse: issue \"\n\nI. CONTENT OF THE PROGRAMME\n\nThis programme should provide the elements useful to establish the\npossible role of the Community and of its Member States in defining and\npromoting within the appropriate international fora the measures needed\nto deal with risks associated with the greenhouse effect. To this end this work programme will deal with the following subjects :\n\nA. Identification of Policy options to prevent / reduce Emissions of\n\nGreenhouse Gases. The measures needed to achieve strategic target 'reductions in\nemissions of different greenhouse gases will be identified. For each greenhouse gas , this will involve a detailed assessment of\nthe options available for emissions reductions, the level of\nemission reduction associated with each option , and the package of\nmeasures needed to achieve strategic target reductions. potential for emissions prevention / reduction will be considered for\nthe following sectors :\n\nThe\n\n- energy production ;\n- energy consumption ( including transportation );\n- industrial productions ;\n\n- use of products ;\n- agricultural activities. An appropriate approach will be needed to take into account the\ndifferent specific situation of countries or groups of countries. In particular it will need to consider the following :\n\n\f- 2 -\n\n- State of \u00e9conomie development ;\n- current energy policies ;\n\n- geography. G. Implications of Options for Emission Reductions. The emission reduction options will be examined to assess the\n\nfollowing :\n\n- technical and industrial implications ;\n- financial and \u00e9conomie implications ;\n- political , institutional and social implications. C. Development of a Decision Analysis Framework. A framework will be developed in order to structure the available\ninformation on all aspects of the greenhouse issue , in such a way\nas to allow identification of likely benefits ( in terms of\nreduction of risks of climate modifications , etc. ) corresponding to\ndifferent policy options. The framework will take account of ;\n\n- emissions and emission reductions ;\n- the implications of these r\u00e9ductions ;\n- available scientific data on the potential benefits of\n\nalternative emission controls. The framework will be designed to take account of uncertainty about\nemissions , effectiveness of controls , climate change and effects\nand will allow for the identification of the most likely outcomes\nresulting from different actions. By structuring the problem and identifying key\n\nThe framework will also allow the implications of delaying action\nto be examined. areas of uncertainty to which outcomes are most sensitive , the\nframework will provide an important tool for evaluating actions and\nfor focussing future research on key decision questions. - 3 -\n\n0. Evaluation of likely benefits of different policy options by use of\na decision analysis framework and establishment of the climatic and\nimpact scenarios resulting from implementation of emission control\noptions. The framework will be used to determine the possible outcomes of\nthe alternative emission reduction options and their timing\n( scenarios ). It will also indicate the relative likelihood of the\n\nbenefits that would be achieved. E. Identification and evaluation of adaptive measures needed under the\n\ndifferent scenarios worked out under D. above\n\nEven with the implementation of emission control policies there\nwill still be residual risks associated with past emissions and the\nremaining future emissions to the atmosphere. ( i. e. actions to protect people , property, agriculture and economic\nand natural resources ) will therefore need to be identified to cope\nwith these risks. The magnitude and location of key residual risks\nwilt be identified and the cost and time implications of taking\ndifferent adaptive measures will be evaluated. will need to be prioritised to insure maximum residual risk\nreduction with resources available , and that focus is placed on key\n\nAdaptive measures. Adaptive measures\n\nareas of concern. II. DETAILED LIST OF ACTIVITIES\n\nThe execution of this programme will require i. a. the following\n\nactivities :\n\nA. Emissions analysis and \u00e9mission r\u00e9duction options. i\n\nPrepare emission trend analysis for each Greenhouse gas. These emissions should be analysed by ( a ) region ( b ) by\npolitical , strategic and economic groupings. - 4 -\n\nii\n\niii\n\nDetermine factors ( other than implementation of control )\nlikely to influence future emissions. and develop alternative emissions scenarios. Assess their likelihood\n\nIdentify the available emission control options for each\nGreenhouse gas. the extent of the potential reductions. Assess under the different emission scenarios\n\nB. Assessment of Emission Control Options Implications\n\ni\n\nDetermine the practicality , cost and implementation timing of\n\neach of the emission reduction measures. ii\n\nAssess the social and economic effects. iii\n\nAssess the distributional effects ( a ) within individual\n\ncountries ,\nstrategic groupings. ( b) between countries ,\n\n( c ) between political and\n\nC. Establish a framework to integrate information developed during the\n\nwork programme\n\nThe framework should be designed to :\n\n- show the implications of alternative actions , including the costs\n\nand potential benefits ;\n\n- indicate the implications of taking action at different times ;\n\n- indicate the robustness of possible decisions ( on control\nstrategies or adaptive strategies ) taking account of the\nuncertainties in the predictions and in the available scientific\n\ndata );\n\n- provide a focus on the further research required to support the\n\ndecisions that need to be taken. An Assessment of Emission Control Strategies\n\ni\n\nii\n\nDetermine the likely benefits that would be achieved through\nthe Emission Control Strategies. critical review of mechanisms linking Greenhouse gas\nconcentrations to global warming with particular reference to\nfeed back systems , timing and implications for regional\nclimates. This work will require a\n\nBased on the critical review , prepare an assessment of the\nlikelihood of the alternative predictions and their\nimplications. principal experts and if practical probabilities will be\nassigned to reflect the uncertainty of different outcomes. This work should integrate the views of the\n\niii\n\nDrawing on this information , and on information developed on\nemission reductions ( A ) and their implications ( B ), the\ndecision framework developed under C will be used to assess\n\nthe costs , benefits and other implications of alternative\nemission control options. Assessment of Adaptive Measures\n\ni\n\nii\n\niii\n\nReview the implications of different levels of warming\nparticularly on European infrastructure and food supply;\nidentify other key implications. political and economic groupings of countries. Assess the effects on other\n\nUndertake a review of options that might be implemented to\nrespond to the potential changes Ci )\nchanging planning practices , etc. ). (eg new crop varieties ,\n\nBased on the assessment undertaken in ( D ) and using the\nframework developed in ( C ), assess the costs and benefits of\nalternative adaptive measures ; assess the likelihood that such\nadaptive measures would prove effective taking account of the\npredicted effects. III. GUIDELINES FOR IMPLEMENTING THE PROGRAMME\n\n- 6 -\n\nA. In executing this programme the Commission will take full account\nof the other relevant activities both inside the Community and\nworldwide , such as :\n\n- the EC research programme on climatology and natural hazards ;\n\n- the EC joint research center programmes on energy conservation ,\n\nsolar energy and thermal conversion , nuclear safety , etc. ;\n\n- the outcome of recent international conferences ( such as the\n\nconference on the Changing Atmosphere , Toronto , June 88 );\n\n- The UNEP / WMO working party on climatic change ;\n\netc. To this end the Commission will establish appropriate cooperation\nwith the relevant organizations involved in such activities. 8. Assisted by the Committee referred to in Article 1 of the Decision ,\nthe Commission will define the procedures and the concrete steps\nfor this working programme , as well as the information to be\nprovided by Member States. Competent organizations and government departments in Member States\nwill be associated with the work through the above mentioned\n\nCommittee. IV. FINANCING OF THE PROGRAMME\n\nThe funds estimated as necessary for the implementation of the\nprogramme amount to 6 million ECU. Draft\n\nCouncil resolution on the greenhouse issue and the Community\n\nThe Council of the European Communities ,\n\nHaving regard to the Treaty establishing the European Economic Community,\nHaving regard to the draft resolution from the Commission ,\n\nwhereas the Treaty establishing the European Economic Community , as amended\nby the Single European Act provides for the development and implementation\nof a Community policy on the environment and the same Treaty also provides\nthat in preparing its action in this field, the Community will take account\nof the available scientific and technical data and of the potential\nbenefits and costs of action or of lack of action ;\n\nwhereas this resolution is guided by the considerations set out in the\nresolution of 19 October 1987 concerning an action programme of the\nEuropean Communities on the environment\nat the appropriate level and the need to coordinate work at international\nlevel , to assess the benefits and costs of the actions envisaged and to\nmake adequate technical and political preparation for such action;\n\ni. e. the desirability of action\n\n( 1 )\n\nwhereas the available scientific data , in particular results from Community\nEnvironmental Research Programmes , show that the composition of the\natmosphere is being significantly modified by human activities and\naccording to the available climatic models this could finally bring, by a\nso called \" greenhouse effect \", climatic modifications involving important\nimpacts on the environment , on human beings and their activities ;\n\nwhereas , given the nature and the size of risks involved in the greenhouse\nissue , it is urgent to examine possibilities for action aiming at\npreventing or reducing those risks ;\n\n( 1 ) OJ n\u00b0 C 328 of 7. 12. 1987, p. 1. - 2 -\n\nwhereas in the frame of recent international conferences , a very broad\nconsensus has been reached on the need of urgently considering measures to\nreduce greenhouse gases emissions :\n\nwhereas , given the complexity of the greenhouse effect issue and the many\nand far reaching implications both of this effect and of measures which\ncould be considered to prevent or to mitigate its consequences , a careful\nprior examination of possible policy options is required which should be\nmade by appropriate methodologies taking in particular into account\nadequately the uncertainties still outstanding on several aspects of the\nissue ;\n\nwhereas it is of the utmost importance that the Community and its Member\nStates are in a position to give a fundamental contribution to the\nreflexion on and elaboration of policy decisions to be eventually taken\nwithin the appropriate international fora in order to act in the most\neffective manner against the risks of climatic modifications. Welcomes the communication from the Commission on \" the greenhouse issue and\nthe Community\" and approves its main conclusions and recommendations ;\n\nDeclares that the Community should devote increasing attention to the risks\nof potential climatic changes involved in the greenhouse issue and should\ncontribute substantially to promote reflexion and discussion on possible\nmeasures to counter those risks ;\n\nWelcomes the initiative of the Commission to launch a work programme\nconcerning the evaluation of policy options to deal with risks associated\nwith the greenhouse issue and approves the objectives of such programme ;\n\nInvites Member States to cooperate actively with the Commission in the\nexecution of the above mentioned work programme and to coordinate their\nrelevant activities on the greenhouse issue within that framework ;\n\nInvites the Commission to present to the Council and to the European\nParliament a progress report by mid of 1990 and a final report on the\nresults obtained by that work programme and on the conclusions drawn by\nend 1991"}
+{"cellarURIs": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/ac7a0ced-b485-4d71-a160-a1c3e7af6364", "title": "Commission Regulation (EEC) No 3565/88 of 16 November 1988 concerning the classification of certain goods in the combined nomenclature", "langIdentifier": "ENG", "mtypes": "fmx4,html,pdfa1b,print,xhtml", "workTypes": "http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#legislation_secondary,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#regulation,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#resource_legal,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#work", "authors": "European Commission", "date": "1988-11-16", "subjects": "Combined Nomenclature,adhesive,common customs tariff,hormone,pharmaceutical product,smoking", "workIds": "celex:31988R3565,oj:JOL_1988_311_R_0025_042", "eurovoc_concepts": ["Combined Nomenclature", "adhesive", "common customs tariff", "hormone", "pharmaceutical product", "smoking"], "url": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/ac7a0ced-b485-4d71-a160-a1c3e7af6364", "lang": "eng", "formats": ["fmx4", "html", "pdfa1b", "print", "xhtml"], "text": "L_1988311EN. 01002501. xml\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n17. 11. 1988\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\n\n\nEN\n\n\nOfficial Journal of the European Communities\n\n\nL 311/25\n\n\n\n\n\nCOMMISSION REGULATION (EEC) No 3565/88\nof 16 November 1988\nconcerning the classification of certain goods in the combined nomenclature\nTHE COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES,\nHaving regard to the Treaty establishing the European Economic Community,\nHaving regard to Council Regulation (EEC) No 2658/87\u00a0(1) on the tariff and statistical nomenclature and on the Common Customs Tariff, as last amended by Regulation (EEC) No 1315/88\u00a0(2), and in particular Article 9,\nWhereas in order to ensure uniform application of the combined nomenclature annexed to the said Regulation, it is necessary to adopt measures concerning the classification of the goods referred to in the Annex to this Regulation;\nWhereas Regulation (EEC) No 2658/87 has set down the general rules for the interpretation of the combined nomenclature and these rules also apply to any other nomenclature which is wholly or partly based on it or which adds any additional subdivisions to it and which is established by specific Community provisions, with a view to the application of tariff or other measures relating to trade in goods;\nWhereas, pursuant to the said general rules, the goods described in column 1 of the table annexed to the present Regulation must be classified under the appropriate CN codes indicated in column 2, by virtue of the reasons set out in column 3;\nWhereas the nomenclature committee has not delivered an opinion within the time limit set by its chairman,\nHAS ADOPTED THIS REGULATION:\nArticle 1\nThe goods described in column 1 of the annexed table are now classified within the combined nomenclature under the appropriate CN codes indicated in column 2 of the said table. Article 2\nThis Regulation shall enter into force on the 21st day after its publication in the Official Journal of the European Communities. This Regulation shall be binding in its entirety and directly applicable in all Member States. Done at Brussels, 16 November 1988. For the Commission\n\nCOCKFIELD\n\nVice-President\n\n\n\n\n\n(1)\u00a0\u00a0OJ No L 256, 7. 9. 1987, p. 1. (2)\u00a0\u00a0OJ No L 123, 17. 5. 1988, p. 2. ANNEX\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nDescription of the goods\n\n\nClassification CN code\n\n\nReasons\n\n\n\n\n(1)\n\n\n(2)\n\n\n(3)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1. Chewing gum consisting of nicotine bound to an ion-exchange resin (2mg og nicotine per tablet), of glycerine, of a synthetic polymer, of sodium carbonate, sodium hydrogencarbonate, D-glucitol (sorbitol) and flavourings to simulate, in particular, the taste of tobacco smoke whose use is suggested to persons wishing to give up smoking\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2106\u00a090\u00a091\n\n\nClassification is determined by the provisions of general rules 1 and 6 for the interpretation of the Combined Nomenclature and the wording of CN codes 2106, 2106\u00a090 and 2106\u00a090\u00a091. This product contains no sugar is not covered by CN code 1704\u00a010 (see also HS Explanatory Note to heading 2106 item B (9)). 2. Mometazone furoate (DCIM)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2937\u00a029\u00a090\n\n\nClassification is determined by the provisions of general rules 1 and 6 for the interpretation of the Combined Nomenclature and the wording of CN codes 2937, 2937\u00a029 and 3737\u00a029\u00a090. It is not a halogenated derivative of an adrenal cortical hormone of code 2937\u00a022\u00a000 but a derivative of such a product. 3. Self-adhesive plastic film, on one side coated with glycerol trinitrate mixed with an acrylic adhesive, containing 4mg/cm2 or more glycerol trinitrate, protected by a release sheet\n\n\n\n\n\n\n3005\u00a010\u00a000\n\n\nClassification is determined by the provisions of general rules 1 and 6 for the interpretation of te Combined Nomenclature and the wording of CN codes 3005 asnd 3005\u00a010\u00a000"}
+{"cellarURIs": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/85e681e2-b59a-4f3e-b7dd-6fa7624bda95", "title": "Commission Regulation (EEC) No 3564/88 of 16 November 1988 concerning the classification of certain goods in the combined nomenclature", "langIdentifier": "ENG", "mtypes": "fmx4,html,pdfa1b,print,xhtml", "workTypes": "http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#legislation_secondary,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#regulation,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#resource_legal,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#work", "authors": "European Commission", "date": "1988-11-16", "subjects": "Combined Nomenclature,classification,common customs tariff,exchange transaction,form,polymer,pulp and paper industry", "workIds": "celex:31988R3564,oj:JOL_1988_311_R_0023_041", "eurovoc_concepts": ["Combined Nomenclature", "classification", "common customs tariff", "exchange transaction", "form", "polymer", "pulp and paper industry"], "url": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/85e681e2-b59a-4f3e-b7dd-6fa7624bda95", "lang": "eng", "formats": ["fmx4", "html", "pdfa1b", "print", "xhtml"], "text": "L_1988311EN. 01002301. xml\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n17. 11. 1988\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\n\n\nEN\n\n\nOfficial Journal of the European Communities\n\n\nL 311/23\n\n\n\n\n\nCOMMISSION REGULATION (EEC) No 3564/88\nof 16 November 1988\nconcerning the classification of certain goods in the combined nomenclature\nTHE COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES,\nHaving regard to the Treaty establishing the European Economic Community,\nHaving regard to Council Regulation (EEC) No 2658/87\u00a0(1) on the tariff and statistical nomenclature and on the Common Customs Tariff, as last amended by Regulation (EEC) No 1315/88\u00a0(2), and in particular Article 9,\nWhereas in order to ensure uniform application of the combined nomenclature annexed to the said Regulation, it is necessary to adopt measures concerning the classification of the goods referred to in the Annex to this Regulation;\nWhereas Regulation (EEC) No 2658/87 has set down the general rules for the interpretation of the combined nomenclature and these rules also apply to any other nomenclature which is wholly or partly based on it or which adds any additional subdivisions to it and which is established by specific Community provisions, with a view to the application of tariff or other measures relating to trade in goods;\nWhereas, pursuant to the said general rules, the goods described in column 1 of the table annexed to the present Regulation must be classified under the appropriate CN codes indicated in column 2, by virtue of the reasons set out in column 3;\nWhereas the nomenclature committee has not delivered an opinion within the time limit set by its chairman,\nHAS ADOPTED THIS REGULATION:\nArticle 1\nThe goods described in column 1 of the annexed table are now classified within the combined nomenclature under the appropriate CN codes indicated in column 2 of the said table. Article 2\nThis Regulation shall enter into force on the 21st day after its publication in the Official Journal of the European Communities. This Regulation shall be binding in its entirety and directly applicable in all Member States. Done at Brussels, 16 November 1988. For the Commission\n\nCOCKFIELD\n\nVice-President\n\n\n\n\n\n(1)\u00a0\u00a0OJ No L 256, 7. 9. 1987, p. 1. (2)\u00a0\u00a0OJ No L 123, 17. 5. 1988, p. 2. ANNEX\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nDescription of the goods\n\n\nClassification CN code\n\n\nReasons\n\n\n\n\n(1)\n\n\n(2)\n\n\n(3)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1. Lightweight panels of a minimum size of 75 cm x 100 cm (30 inches x 40 inches) and a total thickness of 9,6 mm (3,8 inch) made up of a plate or expanded polystyrene of a thickness of approximately 9,5 mm covered on both sides by a sheet of paper or paperboard. 3921\u00a011\u00a000\n\n\nClassification is determined by the provisions of General Rules 1, 3 b) and 6 and the texts fo CN codes 3921 and 3921\u00a011\u00a000. The products cannot be classified in Chapter 48; its essential character is determined by the plastic which gives the article its physical qualities, in particular its strength, the paper merely playing a secondary role. 2. Lightweight panels of a minimum size of 80 cm x 100 cm (32 inches x 40 inches) and a total thickness of 3,2 mm (l/8th inch), made up of a layer of expanded polystyrene of a thickness of approximately 3,1 mm covered on both sides by a sheet of white kaolin-coated paper or paper-board not conatining fibres obtained by a mechanical process and of a weight of more than 150 g/m2. 4810\u00a012\u00a000\n\n\nClassification is determined by the provisions of General Rules 1,3 b) and 6 and of Legal Note 7 to Chapter 48 and by the texts of CN-codes 4810 and 4810\u00a012\u00a000. The product cannot be classified in Chapter 39; its essential character is given by the paper or paperboard component, the layer of plastic merely serving as reinforcement. 3. Bill of exchange forms measuring 29 x 10 cm, collected together in blocks of 100 units. The forms, which have spaces for headings and bear a printed text, are intended to be filled in either manually or by typewriter. 4907\u00a000\u00a099\n\n\nClassification is determined by the provisions of General Rules 1 and 6 and the texts of the CN codes 4907 and 1907\u00a000\u00a099. Thes articles are referred to in the \u2018Explanatory Notes to the Harmonized System\u2019, heading 4907, letter E"}
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+{"cellarURIs": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/a619643c-1927-48ac-b784-bfea9a30d7ad", "title": "QUESTION NO 79 BY MR HUTTON (H-674/88) TO THE COMMISSION: RELIGIOUS PERSECUTIONS IN ROMANIA", "langIdentifier": "ENG", "mtypes": "print", "workTypes": "http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#question_parliamentary,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#question_parliamentary_question_time,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#resource_legal,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#work", "authors": "European Parliament,HUTTON", "date": "1988-11-16", "subjects": "OSCE,Romania,cultural heritage,economic relations,freedom of opinion,human rights,religion,town and country planning", "workIds": "celex:91988H000674", "eurovoc_concepts": ["OSCE", "Romania", "cultural heritage", "economic relations", "freedom of opinion", "human rights", "religion", "town and country planning"], "url": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/a619643c-1927-48ac-b784-bfea9a30d7ad", "lang": "eng", "formats": ["print"]}
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+{"cellarURIs": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/5e0cffb3-1fac-417b-a3a5-3c22aab0b1db", "title": "QUESTION NO 43 BY MR NEWMAN (H-598/88) TO THE COMMISSION: DESTRUCTION OF FOOD", "langIdentifier": "ENG", "mtypes": "print", "workTypes": "http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#question_parliamentary,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#question_parliamentary_question_time,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#resource_legal,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#work", "authors": "European Parliament,NEWMAN", "date": "1988-11-16", "subjects": "administrative formalities,agricultural surplus,beef,butter,common agricultural policy,distributive trades,foodstuff,fruit,social policy,socially disadvantaged class,stock,sugar,vegetable", "workIds": "celex:91988H000598", "eurovoc_concepts": ["administrative formalities", "agricultural surplus", "beef", "butter", "common agricultural policy", "distributive trades", "foodstuff", "fruit", "social policy", "socially disadvantaged class", "stock", "sugar", "vegetable"], "url": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/5e0cffb3-1fac-417b-a3a5-3c22aab0b1db", "lang": "eng", "formats": ["print"]}
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+{"cellarURIs": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/2c803009-4a8d-4edf-a719-112aaf17c84a", "title": "Commission Regulation (EEC) No 3493/88 of 9 November 1988 amending Regulations (EEC) No 1107/68, (EEC) No 685/69, (EEC) No 625/78 and (EEC) No 1362/87 as regards conditions that must be met for intervention buying in and the grant of aid for private storage in the milk and milk products sector", "langIdentifier": "ENG", "mtypes": "fmx4,html,pdfa1b,print,xhtml", "workTypes": "http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#legislation_secondary,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#regulation,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#resource_legal,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#work", "authors": "European Commission", "date": "1988-11-09", "subjects": "food inspection,intervention buying,milk,milk product,radioactive pollution,storage premium", "workIds": "celex:31988R3493,oj:JOL_1988_306_R_0022_043", "eurovoc_concepts": ["food inspection", "intervention buying", "milk", "milk product", "radioactive pollution", "storage premium"], "url": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/2c803009-4a8d-4edf-a719-112aaf17c84a", "lang": "eng", "formats": ["fmx4", "html", "pdfa1b", "print", "xhtml"], "text": "L_1988306EN. 01002201. xml\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n11. 11. 1988\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\n\n\nEN\n\n\nOfficial Journal of the European Union\n\n\nL 306/22\n\n\n\n\n\nCOMMISSION REGULATION (EEC) No\u00a03493/88\nof 9\u00a0November 1988\namending Regulations (EEC) No\u00a01107/68, (EEC) No\u00a0685/69, (EEC) No\u00a0625/78 and (EEC) No\u00a01362/87 as regards conditions that must be met for intervention buying in and the grant of aid for private storage in the milk and milk products sector\nTHE COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES,\nHaving regard to the Treaty establishing the European Economic Community,\nHaving regard to Council Regulation (EEC) No\u00a0804/68 of 27\u00a0June 1968 on the common organization of the market in milk and milk products\u00a0(1), as last amended by Regulation (EEC) No\u00a01109/88\u00a0(2), and in particular Articles\u00a06 (7), 7 (5) and 17 (4) thereof,\nWhereas intervention and private storage are designed to enable products to be withdrawn temporarily from a market suffering disequilibrium with a view to their resale as soon as the market situation has improved; whereas, accordingly, products offered for intervention or stored must be suitable, according to case, for human or animal consumption;\nWhereas Council Regulation (Euratom) No\u00a03954/87 of 22\u00a0December 1987 laying down the maximum permitted levels of radioactive contamination of foodstuffs and of feedingstuffs following a nuclear accident or any other case of radiological emergency\u00a0(3) specifies the procedure to be followed in cases of radiological emergency for the determination of levels of radioactive contamination which foodstuffs and feedingstuffs must comply with if they are to be offered for sale; whereas, consequently, agricultural products in which such radioactive contamination levels are exceeded may be neither bought in nor placed under a storage contract;\nWhereas Article\u00a03 of Council Regulation (EEC) No\u00a01707/86 of 30\u00a0May 1986 on the conditions governing imports of agricultural products originating in third countries following the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power-station\u00a0(4), as last amended by Regulation (EEC) No\u00a0624/87\u00a0(5), sets maximum permitted levels of radioactivity; whereas, following the expiry of Regulation (EEC) No\u00a01707/86, the same maximum permitted levels were included in Article\u00a03 of Council Regulation (EEC) No\u00a03955/87\u00a0(6) superseding it; whereas agricultural products exceeding the maximum permitted levels cannot be regarded as of sound and fair merchantable quality;\nWhereas it has been ascertained that as a result of the accident mentioned above, some Community agricultural production has undergone, to varying degrees, radioactive contamination; whereas it should be made clear that agricultural products of Community origin exceeding the values fixed in Article\u00a03 of Regulation (EEC) No\u00a03955/87 may be neither bought in nor placed under a storage contract; whereas Commission Regulations (EEC) No\u00a01107/68 of 27\u00a0July 1968 on detailed rules of application for intervention on the market in Grana Padano and Parmigiano-Reggiano cheese\u00a0(7), as last amended by Regulation (EEC) No\u00a014/84\u00a0(8), (EEC) No 685/69 of 14\u00a0April 1969 on detailed rules of application for intervention on the market in butter and cream\u00a0(9), as last amended by Regulation (EEC) No\u00a02791/88\u00a0(10) 0, (EEC) No\u00a0625/78 of 30\u00a0March 1978 on detailed rules of application for public storage of skimmed-milk powder\u00a0(11) 1, as last amended by Regulation (EEC) No\u00a03711/86\u00a0(12) 2, and (EEC) No\u00a01362/87 of 18\u00a0May 1987 laying down detailed rules for the application of Regulation (EEC) No\u00a0777/87 with respect to the buying-in and the granting of aid for the private storage of skimmed-milk powder\u00a0(13) 3 should therefore be amended accordingly;\nWhereas the degree of radioactive contamination of foodstuffs following a radiological emergency situation varies with the characteristics of the accident and the type of products; whereas the decision as to the need to carry out monitoring and on the controls themselves must accordingly be adapted to each situation and must take account, for example, of the characteristics of the regions, the products and the radionuclides concerned;\nWhereas the Management Committee for Milk and Milk Products has not delivered an opinion within the time limit set by its chairman,\nHAS ADOPTED THIS REGULATION:\nArticle\u00a01\n1. The following point (c) is hereby added to Article\u00a02 (1) of Regulation (EEC) No\u00a01107/68:\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\u2018(c)\n\n\nthe radioactivity levels in the cheeses do not exceed the maximum levels permitted under Community regulations. The levels applicable to products of Community origin contaminated as a result of the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power-station shall be those fixed in Article\u00a03 of Council Regulation (EEC) No\u00a03955/87\u00a0(14). The level of radioactive contamination of the product shall be monitored if the situation so requires and during the period necessary only. Where necessary, the duration and scope of the controls shall be determined in accordance with the procedure laid down in Article\u00a030 of Regulation (EEC) No\u00a0804/68. 2. The following point 3 is hereby added to Article\u00a02 of Regulation (EEC) No\u00a0685/69:\n\n\u20183. the radioactivity levels in the butter do not exceed the maximum levels permitted under Community regulations. The levels applicable to products of Community origin contaminated as a result of the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power-station shall be those fixed in Article\u00a03 of Council Regulation (EEC) No\u00a03955/87\u00a0(15). The level of radioactive contamination of the product shall be monitored if the situation so requires and during the period necessary only. Where necessary, the duration and scope of the controls shall be determined in accordance with the procedure laid down in Article\u00a030 of Regulation (EEC) No\u00a0804/68. 3. The following phrase is hereby added to the first subparagraph of Article\u00a023 (1) of Regulation (EEC) No\u00a0685/69:\n\n\u2018the radioactivity levels which may not exceed the maximum levels permitted under Community regulations. The levels applicable to products of Community origin contamined as a result of the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power-station shall be those fixed in Article\u00a03 of Council Regulation (EEC) No\u00a03955/87\u00a0(16). The level of radioactive contamination of the product shall be monitored if the situation so requires and during the period necessary only. Where necessary, the duration and scope of the controls shall be determined in accordance with the procedure laid down in Article\u00a030 of Regulation (EEC) No\u00a0804/68. 4. The following point (e) is hereby added to Article\u00a01 (1) of Regulation (EEC) No\u00a0625/78:\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\u2018(e)\n\n\nnot exceeding the maximum permitted levels of radioactivity applicable under Community regulations. The levels applicable to products of Community origin contaminated as a result of the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power-station shall be those fixed in Article\u00a03 of Council Regulation (EEC) No\u00a03955/87\u00a0(17). The level of radioactive contamination of the product shall be monitored if the situation so requires and during the period necessary only. Where necessary, the duration and scope of the controls shall be determined in accordance with the procedure laid down in Article\u00a030 of Regulation (EEC) No\u00a0804/68. 5. The following point (e) is hereby added to the first subparagraph orf Article\u00a02 (2) of Regulation (EEC) No\u00a01362/87:\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\u2018(e)\n\n\ncomply with the maximum permitted levels of radioactivity applicable under Community regulations. The levels applicable to products of Community origin contaminated as a result of the accident at the Chernobyl nuclear power-station shall be those fixed in Article\u00a03 of Council Regulation (EEC) No\u00a03955/87\u00a0(18). The level of radioactive contamination of the product shall be monitored if the situation so requires and during the period necessary only. Where necessary, the duration and scope of the controls shall be determined in accordance with the procedure laid down in Article\u00a030 of Regulation (EEC) no 804/68. Article\u00a02\nThis Regulation shall enter into force on the day of its publication in the Official Journal of the European Communities. This Regulation shall be binding in its entirety and directly applicable in all Member States. Done at Brussels, 9\u00a0November 1988. For the Commission\n\nFrans ANDRIESSEN\n\nVice-President\n\n\n\n\n\n(1)\u00a0\u00a0OJ No L 148, 28. 6. 1968, p. 13. (2)\u00a0\u00a0OJ No L 110, 29. 4. 1988, p. 27. (3)\u00a0\u00a0OJ No L 371, 30. 12. 1987, p. 11. (4)\u00a0\u00a0OJ No L 146, 31. 5. 1986, p. 88. (5)\u00a0\u00a0OJ No L 58, 28. 2. 1987, p. 101. (6)\u00a0\u00a0OJ No L 371, 30. 12. 1987, p. 14. (7)\u00a0\u00a0OJ No L 184, 29. 7. 1968, p. 29. (8)\u00a0\u00a0OJ No L 3, 5. 1. 1984, p. 13. (9)\u00a0\u00a0OJ No L 90, 15. 4. 1969, p. 12. (10)\u00a0\u00a0OJ No L 250, 9. 9. 1988, p. 11. (11)\u00a0\u00a0OJ No L 84, 31. 3. 1978, p. 19. (12)\u00a0\u00a0OJ No L 342, 5. 12. 1986, p. 8. (13)\u00a0\u00a0OJ No L 129, 19. 5. 1987, p. 9"}
+{"cellarURIs": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/29932b3f-3cbd-4ab5-a3f6-84140e4fa789", "title": "Commission Regulation (EEC) No 3491/88 of 9 November 1988 concerning the classification of certain goods in the combined nomenclature", "langIdentifier": "ENG", "mtypes": "fmx4,html,pdfa1b,print,xhtml", "workTypes": "http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#legislation_secondary,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#regulation,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#resource_legal,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#work", "authors": "European Commission", "date": "1988-11-09", "subjects": "common customs tariff,fish product,plastics,tariff nomenclature", "workIds": "celex:31988R3491,oj:JOL_1988_306_R_0018_041", "eurovoc_concepts": ["common customs tariff", "fish product", "plastics", "tariff nomenclature"], "url": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/29932b3f-3cbd-4ab5-a3f6-84140e4fa789", "lang": "eng", "formats": ["fmx4", "html", "pdfa1b", "print", "xhtml"], "text": "L_1988306EN. 01001801. xml\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n11. 11. 1988\u00a0\u00a0\u00a0\n\n\nEN\n\n\nOfficial Journal of the European Communities\n\n\nL 306/18\n\n\n\n\n\nCOMMISSION REGULATION (EEC) No 3491/88\nof 9 November 1988\nconcerning the classification of certain goods in the combined nomenclature\nTHE COMMISSION OF THE EUROPEAN COMMUNITIES,\nHaving regard to the Treaty establishing the European Economic Community,\nHaving regard to Council Regulation (EEC) No 2658/87 of 23 July 1987 on the tariff and statistical nomenclature and on the Common Customs Tariff\u00a0(1), as last amended by Regulation (EEC) No 3174/88\u00a0(2), and in particular Article 9 thereof,\nWhereas in order to ensure uniform application of the combined nomenclature annexed to the said Regulation, it is necessary to adopt measures concerning the classification of the goods referred to in the Annex to this Regulation;\nWhereas Regulation (EEC) No 2658/87 has set down the general rules for the interpretation of the combined nomenclature and these rules also apply to any other nomenclature which is wholly or partly based on it or which adds any additional subdivisions to it and which is established by specific Community provisions, with a view to the application of tariff or other measures relating to trade in goods;\nWhereas, pursuant to the said general rules, the goods described in column 1 of the table annexed to the present Regulation must be classified under the appropriate CN codes indicated in column 2, by virtue of the reasons set out in column 3;\nWhereas the measures provided for in this Regulation are in accordance with the opinion of the Nomenclature Committee,\nHAS ADOPTED THIS REGULATION:\nArticle 1\nThe goods described in column 1 of the annexed table are now classified within the combined nomenclature under the appropriate CN codes indicated in column 2 of the said table. Article 2\nThis Regulation shall enter into force on the 21st day following its publication in the Official Journal of the European Communities. This Regulation shall be binding in its entirety and directly applicable in all Member States. Done at Brussels, 9 November 1988. For the Commission\n\nCOCKFIELD\n\nVice-President\n\n\n\n\n\n(1)\u00a0\u00a0OJ No L 256, 7. 9. 1987, p. 1. (2)\u00a0\u00a0OJ No L 298, 31. 10. 1988, p. 1. ANNEX\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\nDescription of the goods\n\n\nClassification CN code\n\n\nReasons\n\n\n\n\n(1)\n\n\n(2)\n\n\n(3)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n1. \u2018Flaps of herring\u2019, comprising the right and left side of a herring (from which the head, guts, fins (other than the back fin) and bones have been removed), the two sides being held together by the skin of the back\n\n\n\n\n\n\n0304\u00a090\u00a021 or 0304\u00a090\u00a025\n\n\nClassification is determined by the provisions of general rules 1 and 6 for the interpretation of the combined nomenclature and the texts of CN codes 0304, 0304\u00a090\u00a021 and 0304\u00a090\u00a025. The product is not considered to be a fillet falling within CN code 0304\u00a010 or 0304\u00a020 (see HS explanatory notes to code 0304)\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n2. Films of polyether sulphone covered by cathodic deposition process with a layer of metal, a metallic nitride, metallic oxide or metallic carbide\n\n\n\n\n\n\n3921\u00a090\u00a050\n\n\nClassification is determined by the provisions of general rules 1 and 6 for the interpretation of the combined nomenclature and the texts of CN codes 3921, 3921\u00a090 and 3921\u00a090\u00a050. The product is not covered by the wording of code 3920 due to the fact that it is coated with metal, metal oxide, metal nitride or metal carbide\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n\n3. Sodium dihydridobis(2-methoxyethanolato) aluminate in solution (70 %) in toluene\n\n\n\n\n\n\n3823\u00a090\u00a099\n\n\nClassification is determined by the provisions of general rules 1 and 6 for the interpretation of the combined nomenclature and the texts of CN codes 3823, 3823\u00a090 and 3823\u00a090\u00a099. The product cannot be classified in Chapter 29 because it does not comply with the provisions of Note 1 (E) of Chapter 29. It is a preparation of the chemical industry not elsewhere specified or included"}
+{"cellarURIs": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/db56bc74-5cd4-41d7-b0ed-698f91f942ad", "title": "Commission Regulation (EEC) No 3501/88 of 9 November 1988 amending Regulation No 282/67/EEC on detailed rules for intervention for oil seeds", "langIdentifier": "ENG", "mtypes": "html,pdfa1b,print", "workTypes": "http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#legislation_secondary,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#regulation,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#resource_legal,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#work", "authors": "European Commission", "date": "1988-11-09", "subjects": "oleaginous plant,radioactive pollution", "workIds": "celex:31988R3501,oj:JOL_1988_306_R_0038_051", "eurovoc_concepts": ["oleaginous plant", "radioactive pollution"], "url": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/db56bc74-5cd4-41d7-b0ed-698f91f942ad", "lang": "eng", "formats": ["html", "pdfa1b", "print"]}
+{"cellarURIs": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/c1321f3f-ec73-411e-b206-831b433e7f43", "title": "Commission Regulation (EEC) No 3495/88 of 9 November 1988 amending Regulation (EEC) No 1569/77 fixing the procedure and conditions for the talking-over of cereals by intervention agencies", "langIdentifier": "ENG", "mtypes": "html,pdfa1b,print", "workTypes": "http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#legislation_secondary,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#regulation,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#resource_legal,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#work", "authors": "European Commission", "date": "1988-11-09", "subjects": "food contamination,market support,product quality,radioactive pollution", "workIds": "celex:31988R3495,oj:JOL_1988_306_R_0026_045", "eurovoc_concepts": ["food contamination", "market support", "product quality", "radioactive pollution"], "url": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/c1321f3f-ec73-411e-b206-831b433e7f43", "lang": "eng", "formats": ["html", "pdfa1b", "print"]}
+{"cellarURIs": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/081753e9-a052-404b-b27c-25c69885ebdc", "title": "Commission Regulation (EEC) No 3498/88 of 9 November 1988 amending Regulations (EEC) No 391/68 and (EEC) No 1092/80 in respect of conditions that must be met in the pigmeat sector for intervention buying in and the grant of aid to private storage", "langIdentifier": "ENG", "mtypes": "html,pdfa1b,print", "workTypes": "http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#legislation_secondary,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#regulation,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#resource_legal,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#work", "authors": "European Commission", "date": "1988-11-09", "subjects": "intervention buying,pigmeat,private stock,storage premium", "workIds": "celex:31988R3498,oj:JOL_1988_306_R_0032_048", "eurovoc_concepts": ["intervention buying", "pigmeat", "private stock", "storage premium"], "url": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/081753e9-a052-404b-b27c-25c69885ebdc", "lang": "eng", "formats": ["html", "pdfa1b", "print"]}
+{"cellarURIs": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/8b88e219-4e24-4ad0-a366-6bedf83fa053", "title": "Commission Regulation (EEC) No 3496/88 of 9 November 1988 amending Regulations (EEC) No 2658/80 and (EEC) No 2659/80 in respect of conditions that must be met for granting private storage aid for sheepmeat and goatmeat products and for intervention buying in the sheepmeat sector", "langIdentifier": "ENG", "mtypes": "html,pdfa1b,print", "workTypes": "http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#legislation_secondary,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#regulation,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#resource_legal,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#work", "authors": "European Commission", "date": "1988-11-09", "subjects": "goatmeat,intervention buying,private stock,sheepmeat,storage premium", "workIds": "celex:31988R3496,oj:JOL_1988_306_R_0028_046", "eurovoc_concepts": ["goatmeat", "intervention buying", "private stock", "sheepmeat", "storage premium"], "url": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/8b88e219-4e24-4ad0-a366-6bedf83fa053", "lang": "eng", "formats": ["html", "pdfa1b", "print"]}
+{"cellarURIs": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/0540443b-14b1-4e7f-ae06-097d5fac83e6", "title": "88/588/EEC: Commission Decision of 9 November 1988 concerning the areas referred to in Article 3 (2) of Council Regulation (EEC) No 328/88 instituting a Community programme to assist the conversion of steel areas (Resider programme) (Only the French text is authentic)", "langIdentifier": "ENG", "mtypes": "html,pdfa1b,print", "workTypes": "http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#decision,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#legislation_secondary,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#resource_legal,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#work", "authors": "European Commission", "date": "1988-11-09", "subjects": "France,industrial conversion,iron and steel industry,redevelopment aid", "workIds": "celex:31988D0588,oj:JOL_1988_316_R_0050_024", "eurovoc_concepts": ["France", "industrial conversion", "iron and steel industry", "redevelopment aid"], "url": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/0540443b-14b1-4e7f-ae06-097d5fac83e6", "lang": "eng", "formats": ["html", "pdfa1b", "print"]}
+{"cellarURIs": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/4ae8726c-c83c-483e-8e23-816ec1cb4237", "title": "Written Question No 1587/88 by Mr Luc Beyer de Ryke to the Council: Situation in Burundi", "langIdentifier": "ENG", "mtypes": "print", "workTypes": "http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#question_parliamentary,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#question_written,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#resource_legal,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#work", "authors": "BEYER DE RYKE,European Parliament", "date": "1988-11-08", "subjects": "Burundi,Lom\u00e9 Convention,armed forces,food aid,human rights,political violence", "workIds": "celex:91988E001587", "eurovoc_concepts": ["Burundi", "Lom\u00e9 Convention", "armed forces", "food aid", "human rights", "political violence"], "url": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/4ae8726c-c83c-483e-8e23-816ec1cb4237", "lang": "eng", "formats": ["print"]}
+{"cellarURIs": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/8dc3c540-39e5-4b1d-9043-d46c13055dbc", "title": "Written Question No 1541/88 by Mr Kenneth Collins to the Commission: Infringements of environmental legislation", "langIdentifier": "ENG", "mtypes": "print", "workTypes": "http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#question_parliamentary,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#question_written,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#resource_legal,http://publications.europa.eu/ontology/cdm#work", "authors": "COLLINS,European Parliament", "date": "1988-11-08", "subjects": "action for failure to fulfil an obligation,environmental protection,member country,opinion of the Court of Justice (EU)", "workIds": "celex:91988E001541", "eurovoc_concepts": ["action for failure to fulfil an obligation", "environmental protection", "member country", "opinion of the Court of Justice (EU)"], "url": "http://publications.europa.eu/resource/cellar/8dc3c540-39e5-4b1d-9043-d46c13055dbc", "lang": "eng", "formats": ["print"]}
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