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hltcoe

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megawika-citation-in-progress

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Koninklike Lyfwag van Bhoetan

https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C

| | Pentagon's South Asia Defence and Strategic Year Book 2008 Pentagon Press, Mar 30, 2008 - South Asia's complex geopolitical realities present a number of challenges to regional countries and dominate the discourse. Likewise, there are complex geostrategic issues which inhibit regional cooperation and add to trust-deficit. This 2008 volume captures the perspectives of experts and scholars on South Asia who offer insights of the region. Selected pages Contents |10| |16| |23| |29| Defence Economies of South Asia An Analysis |35| An Indian and Pakistani Perspective |41| Tibetan Paradox |48|Common terms and phrases [administration](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=administration&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [Afghanistan](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=Afghanistan&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [agricultural](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=agricultural&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [Al Qaeda](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=Al+Qaeda&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [areas](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=areas&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [armed forces](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=armed+forces&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [Army](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=Army&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [artillery](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=artillery&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [Asian](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=Asian&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [Balochistan](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=Balochistan&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [Bangladesh](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=Bangladesh&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [battalions](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=battalions&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [Bhutan](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=Bhutan&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [border](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=border&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [brigade](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=brigade&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [British](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=British&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [budget](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=budget&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [Central](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=Central&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [century](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=century&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [China](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=China&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [Chinese](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=Chinese&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [conflict](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=conflict&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [constitution](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=constitution&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [Dalai Lama](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=Dalai+Lama&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [DEFENCE AND STRATEGIC](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=DEFENCE+AND+STRATEGIC&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [Delhi](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=Delhi&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [domestic](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=domestic&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [East](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=East&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [economic](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=economic&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [elections](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=elections&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [energy](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=energy&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [estimated](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=estimated&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [ethnic](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=ethnic&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [exports](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=exports&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [foreign](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=foreign&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [global](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=global&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [groups](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=groups&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [growth](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=growth&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [Helicopters](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=Helicopters&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [important](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=important&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [increased](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=increased&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [independence](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=independence&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [India](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=India&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [Indonesia](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=Indonesia&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [industry](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=industry&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [infantry](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=infantry&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [infrastructure](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=infrastructure&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [insurgency](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=insurgency&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [Islamic](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=Islamic&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [island](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=island&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [issue](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=issue&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [Kashmir](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=Kashmir&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [land](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=land&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [launch](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=launch&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [leaders](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=leaders&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [LTTE](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=LTTE&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [major](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=major&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [Malay](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=Malay&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [Malaysia](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=Malaysia&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [Maldives](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=Maldives&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [militants](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=militants&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [military](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=military&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [million](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=million&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [Ministry](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=Ministry&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [Muslim](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=Muslim&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [Myanmar](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=Myanmar&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [natural gas](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=natural+gas&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [Nepal](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=Nepal&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [nuclear](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=nuclear&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [official](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=official&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [operations](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=operations&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [Pakistan](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=Pakistan&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [People's](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=People%27s&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [pipeline](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=pipeline&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [political parties](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=political+parties&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [population](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=population&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [president](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=president&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [prime minister](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=prime+minister&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [production](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=production&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [provinces](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=provinces&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [regiments](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=regiments&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [region](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=region&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [relations](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=relations&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [religious](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=religious&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [reserves](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=reserves&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [SAARC](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=SAARC&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [satellites](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=satellites&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [sector](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=sector&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [Singapore](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=Singapore&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [Sinhalese](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=Sinhalese&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [SOUTH ASIA DEFENCE](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=SOUTH+ASIA+DEFENCE&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [squadron](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=squadron&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [square kilometres](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=square+kilometres&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [Sri Lanka](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=Sri+Lanka&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [STRATEGIC YEAR BOOK](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=STRATEGIC+YEAR+BOOK&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [tactical SSM](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=tactical+SSM&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [Taliban](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=Taliban&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [Tamils](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=Tamils&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [territory](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=territory&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [terrorism](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=terrorism&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [terrorist](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=terrorist&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [Thailand](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=Thailand&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [threat](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=threat&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [Tibet](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=Tibet&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [Tibetan](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=Tibetan&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [tons](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=tons&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [trade](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=trade&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [transportation](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=transportation&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [tribal](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=tribal&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3) [United](https://books.google.com/books?id=_5gIrF4JlB8C&q=United&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=3)

Koninklike Lyfwag van Bhoetan

https://books.google.com/books?id=Zdyn9od15oQC

| | The World Factbook 2007 Government Printing Office, 2007 - NOTE: NO FURTHER DISCOUNT FOR THIS PRINT PRODUCT-OVERSTOCK SALE -- Significantly reduced list price while supplies last In general, information available as of January 1, 2007 was used in the preparation of this edition. Provides brief information on the geography, people, government, economy, communications, and defense of countries and regions around the world. Contains information on international organizations. Designed to meet the specific requirements of United States Government Officials in style, format, coverage, and content. Includes 3 unattached maps. Global studies, international relations, and military science students may be interested in this world reference book. Additionally, international relations scholars, political scientists, historians, international business executives and consultants, foreign policy advocates, and world travelers may be interested in this volume for their needs. Related products: Updated edition-- World Factbook 2016-17 can be found here: https://bookstore.gpo.gov/products/sku/041-015-00325-9?ctid=1393 Previous editions of the World Factbook to be used for statistical comparisons can be found here: https://bookstore.gpo.gov/catalog/international-foreign-affairs/world-factbook International & Foreign Affairs resources collection can be found here: https://bookstore.gpo.gov/catalog/international-foreign-affairs Selected pages Common terms and phrases [agriculture](https://books.google.com/books?id=Zdyn9od15oQC&q=agriculture&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=2) [Atlantic Ocean](https://books.google.com/books?id=Zdyn9od15oQC&q=Atlantic+Ocean&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=2) [billion f.o.b.](https://books.google.com/books?id=Zdyn9od15oQC&q=billion+f.o.b.&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=2) [billion kWh 2004](https://books.google.com/books?id=Zdyn9od15oQC&q=billion+kWh+2004&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=2) [births/1,000 population](https://books.google.com/books?id=Zdyn9od15oQC&q=births/1,000+population&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=2) [chief of mission](https://books.google.com/books?id=Zdyn9od15oQC&q=chief+of+mission&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=2) [composition by sector](https://books.google.com/books?id=Zdyn9od15oQC&q=composition+by+sector&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=2) [consumption by percentage](https://books.google.com/books?id=Zdyn9od15oQC&q=consumption+by+percentage&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=2) [conventional long form](https://books.google.com/books?id=Zdyn9od15oQC&q=conventional+long+form&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=2) [conventional short form](https://books.google.com/books?id=Zdyn9od15oQC&q=conventional+short+form&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=2) [country code](https://books.google.com/books?id=Zdyn9od15oQC&q=country+code&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=2) [Currency code](https://books.google.com/books?id=Zdyn9od15oQC&q=Currency+code&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=2) [DC during Standard](https://books.google.com/books?id=Zdyn9od15oQC&q=DC+during+Standard&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=2) [deaths/1,000 live births](https://books.google.com/books?id=Zdyn9od15oQC&q=deaths/1,000+live+births&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=2) [deaths/1,000 population](https://books.google.com/books?id=Zdyn9od15oQC&q=deaths/1,000+population&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=2) [Democratic](https://books.google.com/books?id=Zdyn9od15oQC&q=Democratic&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=2) [Desertification](https://books.google.com/books?id=Zdyn9od15oQC&q=Desertification&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=2) [Diplomatic representation](https://books.google.com/books?id=Zdyn9od15oQC&q=Diplomatic+representation&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=2) [election results](https://books.google.com/books?id=Zdyn9od15oQC&q=election+results&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=2) [Elevation extremes](https://books.google.com/books?id=Zdyn9od15oQC&q=Elevation+extremes&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=2) [Exports](https://books.google.com/books?id=Zdyn9od15oQC&q=Exports&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=2) [females age 18-49](https://books.google.com/books?id=Zdyn9od15oQC&q=females+age+18-49&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=2) [Flag description](https://books.google.com/books?id=Zdyn9od15oQC&q=Flag+description&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=2) [GDP official exchange](https://books.google.com/books?id=Zdyn9od15oQC&q=GDP+official+exchange&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=2) [GDP purchasing power](https://books.google.com/books?id=Zdyn9od15oQC&q=GDP+purchasing+power&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=2) [Geographic coordinates](https://books.google.com/books?id=Zdyn9od15oQC&q=Geographic+coordinates&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=2) [Geography Location](https://books.google.com/books?id=Zdyn9od15oQC&q=Geography+Location&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=2) [Government Country name](https://books.google.com/books?id=Zdyn9od15oQC&q=Government+Country+name&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=2) [ICRM](https://books.google.com/books?id=Zdyn9od15oQC&q=ICRM&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=2) [IFAD](https://books.google.com/books?id=Zdyn9od15oQC&q=IFAD&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=2) [IFRCS](https://books.google.com/books?id=Zdyn9od15oQC&q=IFRCS&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=2) [Imports](https://books.google.com/books?id=Zdyn9od15oQC&q=Imports&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=2) [Inflation rate consumer](https://books.google.com/books?id=Zdyn9od15oQC&q=Inflation+rate+consumer&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=2) [Intelsat](https://books.google.com/books?id=Zdyn9od15oQC&q=Intelsat&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=2) [Internet country code](https://books.google.com/books?id=Zdyn9od15oQC&q=Internet+country+code&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=2) [Islands](https://books.google.com/books?id=Zdyn9od15oQC&q=Islands&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=2) [ITUC](https://books.google.com/books?id=Zdyn9od15oQC&q=ITUC&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=2) [km Coastline](https://books.google.com/books?id=Zdyn9od15oQC&q=km+Coastline&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=2) [Labor force](https://books.google.com/books?id=Zdyn9od15oQC&q=Labor+force&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=2) [live births 2007](https://books.google.com/books?id=Zdyn9od15oQC&q=live+births+2007&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=2) [live births female](https://books.google.com/books?id=Zdyn9od15oQC&q=live+births+female&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=2) [live births male](https://books.google.com/books?id=Zdyn9od15oQC&q=live+births+male&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=2) [male(s)/female 65](https://books.google.com/books?id=Zdyn9od15oQC&q=male(s)/female+65&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=2) [male(s)/female total population](https://books.google.com/books?id=Zdyn9od15oQC&q=male(s)/female+total+population&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=2) [male(s)/female under 15](https://books.google.com/books?id=Zdyn9od15oQC&q=male(s)/female+under+15&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=2) [males 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Jigme Namgyel Wangchuck

http://www.royalark.net/Bhutan/bhutan4.htm

BHUTAN The Wangchuk Dynasty GENEALOGY continued from the previous page. Copyright© Christopher Buyers 1972 – 2006 H.M. Druk Gyalpo Jigme Singye Wangchuck [Jigs-med Seng-ge dBang-phyug], Mang-pos Bhur-ba'i rgyalpo, King of Bhutan. b. at the Dechenchholing Palace, Gonpa, 11th November 1955, only son of H.M. Druk Gyalpo Jigme Dorji Wangchuk, King of Bhutan, by his wife, H.M. Queen Kesang-la Choden Wangchuk, educ. St Joseph's Sch, North Point, Darjeeling, in England, and Wangchuk Acad, Paro. Chair National Planning Cmsn 1971-1991. Appointed as Heir Apparent and Crown Prince by his father, 5th May 1972. Installed as the 15th Trongsa Penlop at the Zimchung Nang of the Trongsa Choekor Rabtentse Dzong, 15th May 1972. Succeeded on the death of his father, 15th July 1972. Crowned by Je Ngawang Thinley Lhundub at the Tashiochu Dzong, Changlimithang, 2nd June 1974. Abdicated in favour of his eldest son and heir 9th December 2006 (with effect on 14th December 2006). Rcvd: Knt of the Order of the Seraphim of Sweden (1994), Collar of the Orders of the Chrysanthemum of Japan (16.3.1987), and Mubarak the Great of Kuwait (1990), the Orders of Ojaswi Rajanya of Nepal (5.10.1988), and Khalifa 1st class of Bahrain (1990), rcvd: King Jigme Khesar Namgyal Coron Medal 1st class (6.11.2008), etc. m. four sisters in 1979 (privately) and at Dechog Lhakhang, at the Pungtang Dechen Phodrang Dzong, Punakha, 31st October 1988 (in public ceremony), (first) H.M. Queen Ashi Dorji Wangmo Wangchuk (b. at Nobgang, Punakha, 29th December 1955), educ. St Joseph's Convent, Kalimpong, and St Helen's Sch, Kurseong, India, Chief Patron to Ministry of Agriculture since 1999, Hon Presdt Sherubtse Coll since 2000, Presdt Tarayana Fndn since 2003, Patron National Folk Heritage Museum (Phelchey Toenkhyim) since 2001, etc, author 'Of Rainbows and Clouds' (1998), rcvd: King Jigme Khesar Namgyal Coron Medal 1st class (6.11.2008), former wife of Kuenlay Wangdi, and second daughter of Yab Ugyen Dorji Shabdrung, by his wife, Yum Thuiji Zam, daughter of Lopen Duba. m. (second) H.M. Queen Ashi Tsering Pem Wangchuk (b. at Nobgang, Punakha, 29th December 1957), educ. St Joseph's Convent, Kalimpong, and St Helen's Sch, Kurseong, India, Co-Chair The Bhutan Fndn, and Presdt Bhutan Youth Development Fund (YDF), rcvd: King Jigme Khesar Namgyal Coron Medal 1st class (6.11.2008), third daughter of Yab Ugyen Dorji Shabdrung, by his wife, Yum Thuiji Zam, daughter of Lopen Duba. m. (third) H.M. Queen Ashi Tsering Yangdon Wangchuk (b. at Nobgang, Punakha, 21st June 1959), educ. St Joseph's Convent, Kalimpong, and St Helen's Sch, Kurseong, India, Royal Patron Royal Soc for theProtection and Care of Animals, etc, rcvd: King Jigme Khesar Namgyal Coron Medal 1st class (6.11.2008), fourth daughter of Yab Ugyen Dorji Shabdrung, by his wife, Yum Thuiji Zam, daughter of Lopen Duba. m. (fourth) H.M. Queen Ashi Sangay Choden Wangchuk (b. at Nobgang, Punakha, 11th May 1963), educ. St Joseph's Convent, Kalimpong, and St Helen's Sch, Kurseong, India, UN FPA Ambassador since 1999, Royal Patron Bhutan Textile Musuem, Chair Royal Textile Acad, etc, rcvd: King Jigme Khesar Namgyal Coron Medal 1st class (6.11.2008), fifth daughter of Yab Ugyen Dorji Shabdrung, by his wife, Yum Thuiji Zam, daughter of Lopen Duba. He had issue, five sons and five daughters: - 1) H.R.H. Prince (Gyalsay Dasho) Jigme Khesar Namgyal Wangchuck, who succeeded as H.M. Druk Gyalpo Jigme Khesar Namgyal Wangchuck, Mang-pos Bhur-ba'i rgyalpo, King of Bhutan(s/o Tsering Yangdon) - see below. - 2) H.R.H. Prince (Gyalsay Dasho) Jingyel Ugyen Wangchuk. b. 16th July 1984 (s/o Dorji Wangmo), educ. Lungtenzampa Middle Secondary Sch, Yangchenphug Higher Secondary Sch, Choate Rosemary Hall, Wallingford, Connecticut, USA, and St Peter's Coll, Oxford (BA 2007). Appointed as Heir Apparent to his elder brother, 14th December 2006. HM's Representative & Presdt Bhutan Olympic Cttee (BOC) since 2009. Mbr Olympic Council of Asia (OCA) Standing Cttee since 2011. Trustee Tarayana Fndn since 2003. Rcvd: the Royal Scarf (28.8.2007), King Jigme Khesar Namgyal Coron Medal 1st class (6.11.2008). - 3) H.R.H. Prince (Gyalsay Dasho) Kumsum Singye Wangchuk. b. 6th October 1985 (s/o Sangay Choden), educ. Lungtenzampa Middle Secondary Sch, Yangchenphug Higher Secondary Sch, and RMA Sandhurst, Camberley, Surrey. Cmsnd as 2nd-Lieut Royal Bhutan Army 16/12/2005. Rcvd: King Jigme Khesar Namgyal Coron Medal 1st class (6.11.2008). - 4) H.R.H. Prince (Gyalsay Dasho) Jigme Dorji Wangchuk. b. 14th April 1986 (s/o Tsering Yangdon), educ. Lungtenzampa Middle Secondary Sch, and Yangchenphug Higher Secondary Sch, and Menlo Coll, Atherton, California, USA. King's Representative (Gyaltshab) for the six eastern districts of Bhutan since 2014. Rcvd: King Jigme Khesar Namgyal Coron Medal 1st class (6.11.2008).m. at the Domkhar Dzong, Chumey, Bumthang, 17th October 2013, H.R.H. Princess (Ashi) Yeatso Lhamo (b. 1988), educ. UWC at Wellesley Coll, Wellesley, Massachusettes, USA, eldest sister of of H.M. Queen Jetsun Pema, and daughter of Captain Dhondup Gyaltsen, of Trashigang, a commercial airline pilot with Bahrain Airways, by his wife, Aum Sonam Choki, daughter of Dasho Thinley Namgyal, of Pangtoe Goemba, Bumthang. He has issue, a daughter: - a) Ashi Decho Pema Wangchuck. b. at Gyalposhing, Mongar, 2014. - 5) H.R.H. Prince (Gyalsay Dasho) Ugyen Jigme Wangchuk. b. 11th November 1994 (s/o Tsering Pem), educ. Early Learning Center in Thimphu, Institut Le Rosey, Rolle, Vaud, Switzerland, and at Central Saint Martinâs Coll of Art & Design, London (BA). Rcvd: King Jigme Khesar Namgyal Coron Medal 1st class (6.11.2008). - 1) H.R.H. Princess (Ashi) Chimi Yangzom Wangchuk. b. 10th January 1980 (d/o Queen Tsering Pem), educ. Luntenzampa Middle Secondary Sch and Yangchenphug Higher Secondary Sch, Dana Hall Sch, and Wellesley Coll (B. Econ.), Wellesley, Massachusetts, and Columbia Univ (MPA), New York, USA. Royal Patron Bhutan Ecological Soc since 2010. Vice-Presdt Bhutan Youth Development Fndn (YDF). Rcvd: King Jigme Khesar Namgyal Coron Medal 1st class (6.11.2008). m. at Dechenchholing Palace, Gonpa, 13th October 2005, Dasho Sangay Wangchuk (b. at Thimphu, 1978), educ. St Stephen's Coll, Delhi Univ (BA), and Columbia Univ, New York, USA, Sec Dzongkha Development Authority 2005, Dir of the Dratshang 2005-2006, Sec for Religious & Cultural Affairs at the Home Ministry 2006-2007, Adviser to Dept of Cultural Affairs since 2007, eldest son of Kinley Wangchuk, by his wife, Sangay Om. She has issue, two sons: - a) Dasho Jigme Ugyen Wangchuck. b. at Samitivej Sukhumvit Hospital, Bangkok, Thailand, two weeks before 15th September 2006. - b) Dasho Jamyang Singye Wangchuck. b. 2009. - 2) H.R.H. Princess (Ashi) Sonam Dechen Wangchuk. b. 5th August 1981 (d/o Queen Dorji Wangmo), educ. Yangchenphug Higher Secondary Sch, Choate Rosemary Hall, Wallingford, Connecticut, Stanford Univ (BA 1999), Palo Alto, California, and Harvard Univ (LLM 2007), Cambridge, Massachusetts, USA. Advocate in San Francisco and at the High Court of Bhutan. Trustee Tarayana Fndn since 2003. Rcvd: King Jigme Khesar Namgyal Coron Medal 1st class (6.11.2008), KGC of the Crown of Tonga (with collar) and King George Tupou VI Coron Medal (31.7.2008). m. at Mothithang Palace, 5th April 2009, Dasho Phub W. Dorji, educ. Yangchenphug Higher Secondary Sch, George Washington Univ (BA) and Georgetown Univ (MA), Washington DC, USA , joined Ministry of Finance 2004, Dir Bank of Bhutan Ltd, son of Dasho Wangchuk, from Takchu Gonpa, by his wife, Aum Ugyen Dolma, from Gaselo. She has issue, two sons: - a) Dasho Jigje Singye Wangchuck. - b) Dasho Jigme Jigten Wangchuck [Tulku Vairotsana]. b. 23rd June 2013. Recognized as the reincarnation of the Great Lotsawa Vairotsana. - 3) H.R.H. Princess (Ashi) Dechen Yangzom Wangchuk. b. 2nd December 1981 (d/o Queen Tsering Yangdon). HM's Representative for people's welfare in Mongar since 2006. Rcvd: King Jigme Khesar Namgyal Coron Medal 1st class (6.11.2008). m. at the Dechencholing Palace, Gonpa, 29th October 2009, Dasho Tandin Namgyel, son of Dasho Kipchu Dorji, sometime Auditor-Gen of the Kingdom, by his wife, Aum Chimi Wangmo.She has issue, two sons and one daughter: - a) Dasho Ugyen Dorji. - b) Dasho Jigme Singye. - a) Ashi Dechan Yuidem Yangzom. - 4) H.R.H. Princess (Ashi) Kesang Choden Wangchuk. b. 23rd January 1982 (d/o Queen Tsering Pem), educ. Yangchenphug Higher Secondary Sch, Choate Rosemary Hall, Wallingford, Connecticut, and Stanford Univ, Palo Alto, California, USA (BA). HM's Representative for people's welfare in Bumthang since 2006. Rcvd: King Jigme Khesar Namgyal Coron Medal 1st class (6.11.2008). m. at Dechenchholing Palace, Gonpa, 11th November 2008, Dasho Palden Yoeser Thinley, educ. Mahidol Univ, Thailand, son of Lyonchhoen Jigmi Y Thinley, by his wife, Aum Rinsy Dem. She has issue, two sons and one daughter: - a) Dasho Jamgyel Singye Thinley. - b) Dasho Ugyen Junay Thinley. - a) Ashi ... Thinley. b. before 23rd January 2019. - 5) H.R.H. Princess (Ashi) Euphelma Choden Wangchuk. b. 6th June 1993 (d/o Queen Sangay Choden), educ. Tencholing RBA, Wangduephodrang, and Georgetown Univ (B.Soc. 2016), Washington DC, USA. Presdt Bhutan Paralympic Cttee. Rcvd: King Jigme Khesar Namgyal Coron Medal 1st class (6.11.2008). m. at Dechencholing Palace, Thimphu, 29th October 2020, Dasho Thinlay Norbu (b. 1991), educ. St Joseph's Sch, North Point, Darjeeling, and St Stephen's Coll, Delhi Univ, Delhi, India, Trainee Pilot (Airbus) with Drukair Corp Ltd 2018-2019, First Officer since 2019, younger brother of H.M. Queen Jetsun Pema, and elder son of Captain Dhondup Gyaltsen, of Trashigang, a commercial airline pilot with Bahrain Airways, by his wife, Aum Sonam Choki, daughter of Dasho Thinley Namgyal, of Pangtoe Goemba, Bumthang.

Jigme Namgyel Wangchuck

http://www.bbc.co.uk/newsround/35821914?OCID=fbasia

108,000 trees planted in Bhutan Prince's honour - Published Imagine getting 108,000 trees for your birthday present! Well that's exactly what this new baby prince from Bhutan, a tiny mountain country in the Himalayas, received. Tens of thousands of people turned up to help celebrate Prince Jigme Namgyel Wangchuck's birth by planting 108,000 tree saplings. Bhutanese people take nature conservation very seriously and by law 60 percent of the country must always be under forest cover. Many of the people who live in the country are Buddhists, and in Buddhism trees are symbols of long life, health, beauty and compassion. Dasho Karma Raydi, who was among the volunteers taking care off the trees said: "We are now nurturing the plants as if we are nurturing the little prince''. This isn't the first epic tree-planting session that Bhutan has taken part in. In 2015 the country set a Guinness World Record by planting almost 50,000 trees in just one hour.

Jigme Singye Wangchuck

https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2011/04/2011420121856587955.html

No homecoming for Bhutan's refugees Resettled refugees warn Bhutan's government to be wary of democratic transformations if repatriation is not considered. |Despite promises from the Bhutanese government to repatriate refugees after a 'verification' process, none were allowed to return, leading to Western programmes of resettlement [| A knock on the door of his home in Bhutan one midnight turned middle-level government official Balaram Paudyal into a fugitive overnight, after he managed to elude policemen arresting him for "anti-government activities", and then fled the country. Twenty-two years later, Paudyal is living in a refugee camp in Nepal, along with thousands of fellow Bhutanese driven away in the 1980s. Last week, Bhutan agreed to resume talks to have them repatriated, raising hopes of a possible homecoming. But those hopes were dashed the next day, when the government insisted on screening the refugees, and verifying their identities. The refugees have reacted with anger, saying Bhutan is simply stalling. "Nepal and Bhutan jointly verified refugees of Khudunabari, one of seven camps, some years back," says T. P. Mishra, the 28 year-old editor of the Bhutan News Service (BNS) that operates from exile. "Though most of them were categorised as genuine Bhutanese, not a single refugee has been repatriated." The exodus started in the late 1980s. "Tens of thousands of ethnic Nepalese were arbitrarily deprived of their Bhutanese citizenship," says Human Rights Watch (HRW) in its report Last Hope. "Some were then expelled from Bhutan, while others fled the country to escape from a campaign of arbitrary arrest and detention directed against the ethnic Nepalese." Some one-fifth of the population were driven out, most of whom reached Nepal in the 1990s after wandering through India, which stands between the two tiny Himalayan nations. As the trickle of refugees became a flood, an alarmed Nepal asked the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) for help and in 1992, UNHCR launched a major emergency assistance programme with the World Food Programme and other non-governmental partners. In 2006 to 2007, the number of registered refugees living in seven camps run by the UNHCR in eastern Nepal's Jhapa and Morang districts had surpassed 108,000. Some 20,000 more live outside the camps in Nepal and another estimated 25,000 in India. Life in the camps has been one long tale of hardship and deprivations. Several families are crammed into one-room shacks, sharing the same toilet. When the sun sets, darkness engulfs the camps, which are without electricity. In summer, fires devastate the camps; during the monsoon, downpours drench the rooms. Domestic violence, alcoholism and prostitution have grown, as have cases of HIV/AIDS. Though Nepal allowed the refugees asylum, it does not allow them to work or run businesses, fearing increased competition for locals. "Refugees have the right under international law to their own country," says HRW. "However, in a flawed process that was widely discredited by international observers and refugee experts, Bhutan and Nepal instituted a joint verification process to determine which refugees would be able to return." The camp residents were to have been classified into four groups: bona fide citizens; those who had surrendered their citizenship and would have to apply again; non-Bhutanese, who would not be allowed to go back; and criminals, who would face trial once they went back. Despite the verification process, no one was allowed home. In 2006 to 2007, Western countries, led by the US, persuaded Nepal to allow the refugees to be resettled in third countries. Today, the relocation of Bhutanese refugees has become the UNHCR's largest and most successful resettlement programme. Assisted by the International Organisation for Migration, 40,000 refugees had left the camps by 2010. Of the 72,733 refugees left, the UNHCR says approximately 55,000 have shown interest in resettlement and could leave by 2014. Last week, Bhutan's prime minister Jigmi Thinley arrived in Nepal on a three-day state visit, and said his government was ready to resume the repatriation talks halted eight years ago. However, he added that there should be a fresh "study" or "investigation" of the "people living in the camps". "They are economic refugees, they are environmental refugees, they are refugees of political instability," Thinley said at a press conference in Kathmandu Saturday before his departure. "And they are victims of circumstances beyond their control. But I maintain that the question of whether they are refugees from Bhutan is a subject of discussion." "Each time the Bhutanese PM visits Kathmandu, he continues to say that Bhutan is serious about the repatriation of Bhutanese refugees," said Mishra, who last year accepted resettlement in North Carolina and now works for a resettlement agency assisting Bhutanese refugees to assimilate locally. He also continues running BNS, which is a matter of pride for the refugees. "It is nothing but a tactfully played game to hoodwink the international community," he added. Mishra said he would like to return to Bhutan but his wife Renuka feels their lives would be in danger if they do. He also points out that some of the inmates in the Khudunabari camp, who were not accepted as Bhutanese citizens by the verification team, have been resettled in various western countries. "So Bhutan's claim that not all camp residents are Bhutanese is baseless," he says. Bhutan People's Party (BPP), the party founded by the refugees, has delivered an ultimatum. "We are asking Bhutan's new king, Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck, to learn from the democratic transformations around the world and resume repatriation talks by 2011," said Paudyal, BPP chairman. "Otherwise, we will plan tougher measures." Mishra said an underground Maoist party wants to overthrow the monarchy in Bhutan through an insurrection, and has been gaining support in the camps as well. The refugees draw parallels between Bhutan and Nepal. Till 2008, Nepal too had been a monarchy. However, its Maoist party waged a ten-year war against King Gyanendra Bir Bikram Shah and in 2008, managed to abolish monarchy through an election. "History shows that you can't defeat the people," Paudyal cautions. "If the king of Bhutan doesn't heed the warning, he would end up losing one day. The people will prevail ultimately." This article first appeared on the Inter Press Service news agency.

Jigme Singye Wangchuck

http://www.asianews.it/news-en/Nepal,-Bhutanese-refugees-ask-new-king-for-end-of-exile-13693.html

Nepal, Bhutanese refugees ask new king for end of exile Kathmandu (AsiaNews) - Bhutanese refugees in Nepal are looking with hope, but also with some fear, to the coronation of the new monarch of the tiny kingdom of Bhutan. More than 120,000 people - driven out by the previous monarchy - are living in exile in refugee camps in Nepal. The king had expelled them because he considered them irregular immigrants, since they were of Nepalese ethnicity. The rise to the throne of 28-year-old Jigme Khesar Namgyel, the son of Jigme Singye Wangchuk, is seen as a sign of hope for a possible return home. S. B. Subba, president of the organization for human rights in Bhutan, says that the election of the new monarch is a source of "happiness" in the refugee camps, which are seeing a "rebirth of hope," but that it is necessary to "wait and see" what decisions the new king will make, because "the monarchy is the sole cause of our suffering." He also reiterated that the king "can make inroads into the minds and hearts of the people only if he permits citizens in exile to return home." But doubts are being expressed by Teknath Rijal, one of the leaders of the struggle on behalf of refugees: "I will follow attentively the decisions of the new king," the activist says, "in order to understand if he will revise the policy of his father. The time has come to face all unresolved questions." The coronation of the young king has been followed with great interest by television stations and internet sites all over the world, because of the sumptuous costumes and the magnificence of the ceremony, while the country welcomes the new sovereign with celebration. The Bhutanese refugees have been excluded from the event, having spent the last 17 years confined to the refugee camps set up by the United Nations in eastern Nepal. Most of them belong to the ethnic group of the Lhotshampas, of Nepalese origin, who from 1977-1985 suffered the discriminatory policies of the monarchy, which never granted them Bhutanese citizenship and forced them into exile. "If he does not take the question into hand," warns Teknath Rijal, " the monarchy will be at risk. The king of Bhutan could suffer the same fate as the king of Nepal," deposed by Maoist guerrillas, while the country has been turned into a democratic federal republic. The view of Vampa Rai, coordinator of the committee for the repatriation of refugees, is more cautious. Rai expresses the hope that "the new, young, and modern king, educated at Oxford, may ease their return and promote the values of democracy." The new course in Bhutan was promoted by King Jigme Singye Wangchuk in 2006, when he decided to abdicate; he remains the architect of the new democratic process, in which openness toward the outside is carefully calibrated to avoid losing the country's identity and spiritual values. The country is marked by various problems, including the situation of the young population, among whom crime, unemployment and drug use are widespread. At the time of leaving the throne to his son, King Wangchuk promised, beginning in 2008, to begin changes toward a constitutional monarchy, and create a parliament. Bhutan, nestled between India and China, has a population of 2.3 million. Buddhism is the state religion, and public expression of any other religion is prohibited. Christians are about 0.5% of the population. [Bhutan prepares to crown a new king](https://www.asianews.it/news-en/Bhutan-prepares-to-crown-a-new-king-13670.html) 05/11/2008

Jigme Singye Wangchuck

https://thediplomat.com/2016/09/bhutans-dark-secret-the-lhotshampa-expulsion/

Bhutan is often characterized as a land of perpetual happiness, a country where traffic lights are seen as too impersonal and where they measure their country's output by the famous Gross National Happiness index. Remaining unspoiled by mass tourism and ruled by a popular young monarch, Bhutan is often portrayed as a mythical place, and references to Shangri-La are so overused they have grown repetitive. Bhutan often tops the list of happiest places to live, and is a model of harmony in a hyper-capitalized world. However in the face of all this supposed harmony, Bhutan hides a very dark history. Bhutan is the world's biggest creator of refugees by per capita. In one fell swoop in the 1990s, the country expelled the Lhotshampa, an ethnic group with its origins in Nepal which made up one-sixth of Bhutan's population, to preserve its unique national identity. More than 20 years on, thousands still remain in camps in Nepal, lost in their own country. This is at stark contrast with the idyllic and homely image Bhutan has carefully curated for itself. As the world looks on at Syria and the deepening migrant crisis in the Mediterranean and concern grows, Bhutan attracts little attention. But as the world finally wakes up to the plight of refugees, it is important that one of the largest refugee populations in South Asia is not forgotten. While Bhutan expelled "migrant laborers" in the 1990s, to understand the complete picture we have to turn back to the 1600s. Bhutan may claim that the Lhotshampa are newcomers to Bhutan; however, people of Nepalese origin have been in Bhutan since 1620, when Newar craftsmen were commissioned to come to and build a stupa in Bhutan. They have been there ever since. Settling in southern Bhutan, the country's major food producing region, their numbers flourished and continued to do so for a long period. They gained the name Lhotshampa, which means people from the south. What is more, these were not uninvited or unwelcome intruders. There was a need for foreign labor during this period. Bhutan actively brought this "crisis" on themselves — lacking the manpower for infrastructure projects like the Thimphu-Phuntsholing highway meant importing manpower from India was inevitable. The migration into Bhutan continued, relatively unregulated and without government supervision. It was only in 1990 that border checkpoints and controls were introduced. The expulsion of the Lhotshampas did not happen overnight. Bhutan's Citizenship Acts of 1958 and 1985 combined to make matters worse for the group. As many Lhotshampa were given citizenship in 1958, that year was the year later given as a "cut off" point. If residents could not supply proof that they were Bhutanese residents before 1958, they were deemed to be illegal immigrants. According to human rights groups, even those who could supply the required proof were often evicted. In 1988 a census was conducted; however, poorly trained census officials made numerous mistakes in administrating the census, as well as stoking up ethnic tensions. Following the census, the Bhutanese government realized the extent of the Bhutanese-Nepali population residing in Bhutan, most notably the Nepali speaking Lhotshampa ethnic group. Ethnic tensions rose and since 1988 over 100,000 Lhotshampa have left Nepal, with many claiming to have been forced out by the Bhutanese government. Many were accused of being illegal aliens and claim they have faced violence and ethnic discrimination. Clashes, sometimes violent, between the Bhutan People's Party, dominated by the Lhotshampa, and the government are also common. Following the census, the Bhutanese government estimated that 28 percent of the population were of Nepalese origin. However, unofficial claims circled that up to 40 percent of the population was Nepali; this would be considered a majority in the south. This figure soon gained traction in the public imagination. With the events leading up to Sikkim's joining of India in 1975 still fresh in the minds of Bhutanese leaders, action had to be taken. However with an open border, migrant labor, and the geographical challenges of conducting a census in remote areas, the population numbers quoted may have been way off. Some estimates put the numbers of Nepalese population as little as 15 percent. Before the expulsion, the Bhutanese government did not help to create a positive political atmosphere. Under the "One Nation, One People" policy, the government placed cultural and linguistic restrictions upon the Lhotshampa, from replacing Nepali as a classroom language with Dzongkha to forcing all citizens to follow the national dress code of the [Driglam Namzha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Driglam_namzha). Nepalis naturally resented having to be forced to wear the dress of the Ngalop majority, instead of their own traditional dress. According to one human rights report, in the 1990s the Bhutanese clamped down hard on political activities or efforts for reform. "The call for democracy and respect for human rights were termed as 'acts of treason', and an anti-national movement," a [Shadow Report on the First Universal Periodic Review of Bhutan ](http://www.apfanews.com/media/upload/final_report.pdf)found. "[An] exclusive census was carried out in the southern districts with the intention to flush out Nepali speaking population. Thousands of Nepali-Bhutanese were arrested, killed, tortured and given life sentences." Further disingenuous tactics were used by the government in attempts to manipulate or distort population levels. According to the report, "The government forced many evicted people, almost all, to sign the voluntary migration form before leaving the country. The local authorities also seized the documents that people have which can prove their Bhutanese nationality, to ensure they cannot produce them again in the future." These actions have made it incredibly hard for people to return to Bhutan. Discrimination and frankly Kafkaesque rules have been deployed making life considerably more difficult for the Lhotshampa. What is more, the report notes that only it is only "Nepali-speaking people in southern districts who have to produce their documents to prove they were in Bhutan before 1958… Bhutanese from other places are regarded as Bhutan[ese] by [virtue of] their race." This is a blatantly discriminatory government policy. What relevance do events that took place 20 years ago still have, particularly in the face of a widely heralded and mostly successfully repatriation scheme to the United States and other neutral countries? Even 20 years later, this is not a solved issue. There have been over 100,000 refugees successfully resettled abroad; however thousands remain and there is seemingly little impetus or concern for those left behind. Nepal cracked down and implemented a strict policy regarding Tibetan refugees, in response to Chinese pressure and Beijing's not unsubstantial monetary contributions. With Bhutan not able or willing to do the same, this issue has dragged on. The lack of a sense of urgency has led refugees to simply languish in camps for 20 years. Currently there are two operational Bhutanese refugee camps in Nepal, down from the original seven. The remaining camps have an estimated population of 18,000. Conditions inside the camps are hard, as they were never meant to be a permanent solution. As this is not a pressing issue for either Nepal and Bhutan, with both sides preferring rehabilitation in neutral third countries, they have been happy to sit back and wait. Bhutan is currently opening up and extending itself onto the world stage, as shown by the visit of the British Prince William in early 2016. With Bhutan starting to take active steps on the world stage, King Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck should be forced to acknowledge the discrimination and eventual expulsion of thousands of Lhotshampas. The year 2016 is a long way from 1975, and fears of a repeat of the Sikkimese secession to India should no longer be held as a viable threat in Bhutan. As a result, the geopolitical situations that created the paranoia behind the decisions in the 1990s are no longer there; therefore the Lhotshampas should once again be able to live in Bhutan. Finally and most importantly, this is a matter of mutual benefit for both Thimphu and Kathmandu. With Nepal and Bhutan being the two remaining sovereign Himalayan states, they could have a very mutually beneficial partnership in the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation. They are both nations affected by political, industrial, and social developments in India, and are both at the mercy of Indo-Sino relations. Yet Bhutan-Nepal relations have been a standstill for years. The refugee crisis has effectively put a halt on relations and until this issue is resolved it doesn't seem likely they will improve anytime soon. Once this issue is dealt with there is no reason that they should not be strong, committed allies. Maximillian Mørch is a post-graduate student living in Kathmandu writing about disaster management, politics, and current affairs.

Jigme Singye Wangchuck

http://www.bbc.com/travel/story/20120416-kingdom-in-the-clouds-of-bhutan

Bhutan, the kingdom of the clouds The Himalayan Kingdom of Bhutan is a place where Buddhist traditions mix with modernity, and reverence is shown to tigers and the flaming thunderbolt of wisdom. The edge of a forest cloaked in clouds, thick with the scent of pine and garlanded with peach blossoms, a sign reads 'Please do not tease the animals'. Here live the takins of Thimpu. A local legend tells how the Bhutanese national animal was created from the remains of a lunch eaten by Lama Drukpa Kunley, a 15th-century Buddhist saint also known as 'the Divine Madman'. He demonstrated the outlandish power of his magic by taking the skeleton of a cow and the skull of a goat, theatrically combining the two before bringing them back to life with a loud belch. And so one of nature's more awkward creatures was born. Today, a herd of takins lives within a refuge at the edge of Thimpu, the sleepy capital of a country the size of Switzerland with a total population of just 700,000. In the 1990s, Jigme Singye Wangchuck, then king of Bhutan, granted the takins freedom from the captivity of a zoo. This gesture represented an early ripple before a wave of modernity was allowed to sweep through his secretive mountain kingdom, a world all of its own between China and the northeastern tip of India. The first tourists were only permitted to come here in 1974, democracy wasn't introduced until 2008, and there is now a TV channel (just the one), showing a mixture of Hollywood, Bollywood and spectacularly melodramatic local movies. The takins were poorly equipped to make the most of their release, swaggering through town, lazily searching for food and generally troubling the populace. There seemed little choice but to corral them into Thimpu's Motithang Takin Preserve, which offered a little more of the space that their wild relatives enjoy at the opposite end of the country, in the remote east. The job of guarding these hapless beasts now falls to Kuenzang Gyeltshen, who lives with his young family in a hut inside the boundaries of the preserve, weaving shawls and tending his garden of herbs, garlic and chilli peppers. 'I rise early to feed the takins, around 6am', he says. Kuenzang does all he can to prevent visitors from offering the national animal a taste of the national dish, ema datshi – a heart-quaking mix of potent chillies and melted cheese that can wreak equal havoc on the digestive systems of takins as those of unacclimatised foreigners. 'People would be best to stick to giving them the occasional apple,' he suggests. A menagerie of even more peculiar animals is to be found in Thimpu's National Institute for Zorig Chusum, also known as The Painting School. Here the traditional crafts of Bhutan are taught to a fresh generation. In the wood-carving classroom, the heads of a tiger, leopard, boar, owl, snake, deer, dog, ox, rabbit, dragon and a mythical bird called a garuda all snarl down at onlookers. Each has a fearsome set of fangs exposed – even the owl and rabbit. The students are creating masks that will be gaudily painted in the style of those worn by performers at the tsechus – religious festivals – held across the country as the grip of the long Himalayan winter releases each spring. In the classroom next door, 21-year-old Dechen Dema gulps hard as her tutor, Dawa Tshering, presents the artwork she must attempt to replicate. This is a fiendishly complex sculpture of Avalokites´vara, a Buddhist god of compassion with multiple heads and spindly limbs that today need to be worked from soft clay. Dechen's shyness belies her great dexterity as she sets about her task. 'My family are very proud of my progress,' she says. 'None of them would know how to make something like this.' Dechen considers herself fortunate to be a pupil; prior to 1998, tradition prevented girls from being admitted to the school. The end of the day's studies are signalled by the echoing clang of a brass bell being struck outside. A portrait of Bhutan's youthful current king, Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck, looks down handsomely and sternly as pupils file past a locker with 'I feel better when I'm drunk' scratched in graffiti on its door. Glorious frescoes adorn most homes and religious buildings throughout Bhutan, with creatures, flowers and intricate, abstract patterns sprawling over broad wooden beams and mud walls. One symbol that frequently looms up on the walls of houses here, with an alarming level of anatomical accuracy, is the 'flaming thunderbolt of wisdom' – a sturdy male member believed to protect the occupants of a building from harm. The owner of the original flaming thunderbolt of wisdom was the Divine Madman himself, Lama Drukpa Kunley. The saint still holds much influence over fast-evolving Bhutan. He is said to have shot an arrow from his homeland of Tibet, determined to deliver his unusual form of wisdom to the lucky girl closest to where it landed. He claimed he would break down all social conventions in order to encourage worshippers to consider the teachings of Buddha with an open mind. Bawdy language, reeling drunkenness and outrageous sexual exploits were among his techniques, inspiring certain traditions that continue right to this day. In the east of Bhutan, a practice known as 'night hunting' is only now being widely called into question. Young men will make a girl's acquaintance during the day to seek her consent for a one-night stand, then break into her parents' house to fulfil that promise as night closes in. If they leave soon afterwards then often nothing more will be said, but if they doze off and are caught by the girl's parents after daybreak, they will be duty-held to marry her. Tales abound of queues of impatient suitors forming outside the houses of popular girls, of overweight boys becoming stuck in window frames, and of mothers being accidently approached in the confusion of darkness. If machismo, a love of Buddhism and a certain urge to handle a weapon are long-respected traits in Bhutan, it may not seem so bizarre to learn that leathery Hollywood action hero Steven Seagal – star of Under Seige and countless similar movies – is one of the country's favourite celebrities. In recent years, he made a widely publicised visit to Bhutan and has been proclaimed the reincarnation of a holy 13th-century Buddhist treasure hunter. Inspired by the example of the Divine Madman, Bhutanese men still enjoy firing arrows over great distances. Just as the takin is the national animal and ema datshi the national foodstuff, so archery is the national sport. At one end of a field in the mist-shrouded countryside near Thimpu, Karma Dhendup is lining up a distant target, 140 metres away. He is a teacher turned tour guide for guests of the capital's plush Taj Tashi hotel, and like many upwardly mobile Bhutanese men, he has foregone a traditional bamboo bow for the status symbol of a high-tech carbon-fibre compound bow. 'Some invest half a year's salary in one of these,' he says. Bhutanese archery is a highly sociable, often alcohol-fuelled affair with a hint of amiable danger thrown in. Women assume the dual roles of cheerleaders and hecklers, noisily calling into question any inaccurate archer's prowess. Today there's no pause in the shooting as a cow and a couple of farmhands casually amble across the middle of the field. Karma's work involves offering visitors cultural insights and guiding them around a baffling assortment of dzongs, the monumental fortified monasteries to be discovered at every turn in Bhutan. Close to Thimpu and accessed by a steep climb on foot – equally breathtaking for its panoramic views over valleys dense with the blooms of rhododendrons and the fight for oxygen in the thin mountain air – is the Tango Goemba. Here, a privileged glimpse can be had of the gilded statues of Buddha within its inner sanctum, and boy monks learn English grammar, Buddhist philosophy and soccer skills. Also near the capital is the Pangri Zampa, a monastic temple used as a school of astrology, where a ceremony is under way to bless the country for the year ahead. Pungent clouds of incense fill the air as groups of monks chant, blow slender trumpets and perform whirling acrobatic dances while dressed as mythical heroes. Local people spin prayer wheels and present offerings of imported snacks to the monks, building a vast mound of crisps, biscuits and popcorn. The tour hurtles on over sinuous mountain roads to the imposing Paro Dzong, a combined magistrate's court and place of worship, then to the ruined Drukgyel Dzong, where defensive passageways burrow off into the hillsides, and onwards to Kyichu Lhakhang, one of the oldest structures in Bhutan, claimed to have been built in 659 AD to pin down the left foot of an ogress who had inflicted chaos across the region. Eastwards over the high Dochu La pass, sitting at the convergence of two rivers fed by meltwater from glaciers, is the beautiful Punakha Dzong, 'the palace of great happiness' where wild bees make their nests in the rafters and kings have their coronations. A short way further on is the Chimi Lhakhang, the temple of the Divine Madman and a focal point for his most ardent followers. Women who've been struggling to conceive often spend the night here, having heard of the miraculous results the saint can deliver through a blessing known as a 'wang'. Visitors are greeted by a boy monk offering cups of holy water, accompanied by a ceremonial tap on the head with a bow and arrow and a 12-inch mahogany phallus. Photography, though tempting, is discouraged. The magic thunderbolt of wisdom is much in evidence on the thick-set walls of farmhouses in the surrounding rice fields. Karma says: 'We have a saying, "Protect your house with a phallus, protect your phallus with a condom!". This is modern Bhutan.' For him, contemporary life means wearing the national costume of a gho – a cloak worn over knee-length socks – during the day and a tracksuit in the evening. It means a life shared on Facebook, choosing Bob Marley & The Wailers' Three Little Birds as the hold music on his smartphone, and recalling Stephen Hawking's teachings about space and time with the same reverence as the Buddhist philosophy his country has so long been enveloped in. Most of Karma's clients are eager to visit the Taktshang Goemba, or Tiger's Nest. This monastery was built at the place where Guru Rinpoche – another of the country's favourite religious figures – is said to have arrived on the back of a consort he'd transformed into a flying tigress. Legend tells that he went on to subdue a local demon before spending three months here meditating in a cave. We plan to approach the Tiger's Nest the long way round, across the craggy spines of the surrounding mountains rather than up the well-made path from the car park a couple of hours below. The two-day route follows part of a smuggler's trail that continues to Tibet, where Bhutanese men in bleached jeans and knock-off Nike trainers guide pony trains laden with Chinese medicines, radios and DVD players. The trail passes through cloud forests draped with tendrils of moss, over ridges where trees have been contorted sideways by the prevailing winds and eagles drift far above. Beyond lie the sacred, unclimbed peaks of Bhutan's tallest mountains, rising more than 7,000 metres and capped with snow throughout the year. The trail opens onto a high plateau where yak herders seek shelter in winter and the Uma Paro hotel establishes a tented camp in the spring and summer. Guests spend the night in these gale-shaken tents before heading to the Tiger's Nest at first light. As dusk settles, the smoke of a warming bonfire mingles with flakes of snow dropping all around, our lungs aching from the altitude. Whispers turn to the mythical yetis that have been given their own national park in the east, and of a population of tigers recently tracked by government rangers within sight of this camp. For generations, monks living at the peak's summit have told of watching a ghostly tigress stalk the surrounding plateau under the light of a full moon, wondering if they were witnessing the reappearance of the flying tigress once ridden by the founder of the Tiger's Nest monastery. A black billy goat with horns painted bright yellow has been dragged up here by two men seeking the karmic benefits of saving him from being slaughtered for a feast. They deliver the goat into the freedom of one of Bhutan's most sacred high places, abandoning him to the wilderness in the process. He bleats pitifully all night, fearing unseen predators, desperately latching on to our party as we descend towards the Tiger's Nest at dawn. A few hours later, the goat appears to express joy and relief at being handed over to some monks who tend a collection of similarly abandoned creatures in their idyllic mountainside farm. He will spend the rest of his days here, safely cloaked by the comfort of tradition, looking out over a country where the wild is always close at hand. Ahead is the Tiger's Nest, a shimmering monument with golden pinnacles to its rooftops set over stark, whitewashed walls that somehow cling to the cliff face. From the path where pilgrims gather to look on in awe, ropes bearing prayer flags in a rainbow of colours are strung over a deep gorge towards the monastery. These carry the wishes of believers off on the breeze, spiralling them across the valley beyond – full of hope for the present and wonder at a future once unimagined in this kingdom of the clouds.

Jigme Singye Wangchuck

https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2011/04/2011420121856587955.html

No homecoming for Bhutan's refugees Resettled refugees warn Bhutan's government to be wary of democratic transformations if repatriation is not considered. |Despite promises from the Bhutanese government to repatriate refugees after a 'verification' process, none were allowed to return, leading to Western programmes of resettlement [| A knock on the door of his home in Bhutan one midnight turned middle-level government official Balaram Paudyal into a fugitive overnight, after he managed to elude policemen arresting him for "anti-government activities", and then fled the country. Twenty-two years later, Paudyal is living in a refugee camp in Nepal, along with thousands of fellow Bhutanese driven away in the 1980s. Last week, Bhutan agreed to resume talks to have them repatriated, raising hopes of a possible homecoming. But those hopes were dashed the next day, when the government insisted on screening the refugees, and verifying their identities. The refugees have reacted with anger, saying Bhutan is simply stalling. "Nepal and Bhutan jointly verified refugees of Khudunabari, one of seven camps, some years back," says T. P. Mishra, the 28 year-old editor of the Bhutan News Service (BNS) that operates from exile. "Though most of them were categorised as genuine Bhutanese, not a single refugee has been repatriated." The exodus started in the late 1980s. "Tens of thousands of ethnic Nepalese were arbitrarily deprived of their Bhutanese citizenship," says Human Rights Watch (HRW) in its report Last Hope. "Some were then expelled from Bhutan, while others fled the country to escape from a campaign of arbitrary arrest and detention directed against the ethnic Nepalese." Some one-fifth of the population were driven out, most of whom reached Nepal in the 1990s after wandering through India, which stands between the two tiny Himalayan nations. As the trickle of refugees became a flood, an alarmed Nepal asked the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) for help and in 1992, UNHCR launched a major emergency assistance programme with the World Food Programme and other non-governmental partners. In 2006 to 2007, the number of registered refugees living in seven camps run by the UNHCR in eastern Nepal's Jhapa and Morang districts had surpassed 108,000. Some 20,000 more live outside the camps in Nepal and another estimated 25,000 in India. Life in the camps has been one long tale of hardship and deprivations. Several families are crammed into one-room shacks, sharing the same toilet. When the sun sets, darkness engulfs the camps, which are without electricity. In summer, fires devastate the camps; during the monsoon, downpours drench the rooms. Domestic violence, alcoholism and prostitution have grown, as have cases of HIV/AIDS. Though Nepal allowed the refugees asylum, it does not allow them to work or run businesses, fearing increased competition for locals. "Refugees have the right under international law to their own country," says HRW. "However, in a flawed process that was widely discredited by international observers and refugee experts, Bhutan and Nepal instituted a joint verification process to determine which refugees would be able to return." The camp residents were to have been classified into four groups: bona fide citizens; those who had surrendered their citizenship and would have to apply again; non-Bhutanese, who would not be allowed to go back; and criminals, who would face trial once they went back. Despite the verification process, no one was allowed home. In 2006 to 2007, Western countries, led by the US, persuaded Nepal to allow the refugees to be resettled in third countries. Today, the relocation of Bhutanese refugees has become the UNHCR's largest and most successful resettlement programme. Assisted by the International Organisation for Migration, 40,000 refugees had left the camps by 2010. Of the 72,733 refugees left, the UNHCR says approximately 55,000 have shown interest in resettlement and could leave by 2014. Last week, Bhutan's prime minister Jigmi Thinley arrived in Nepal on a three-day state visit, and said his government was ready to resume the repatriation talks halted eight years ago. However, he added that there should be a fresh "study" or "investigation" of the "people living in the camps". "They are economic refugees, they are environmental refugees, they are refugees of political instability," Thinley said at a press conference in Kathmandu Saturday before his departure. "And they are victims of circumstances beyond their control. But I maintain that the question of whether they are refugees from Bhutan is a subject of discussion." "Each time the Bhutanese PM visits Kathmandu, he continues to say that Bhutan is serious about the repatriation of Bhutanese refugees," said Mishra, who last year accepted resettlement in North Carolina and now works for a resettlement agency assisting Bhutanese refugees to assimilate locally. He also continues running BNS, which is a matter of pride for the refugees. "It is nothing but a tactfully played game to hoodwink the international community," he added. Mishra said he would like to return to Bhutan but his wife Renuka feels their lives would be in danger if they do. He also points out that some of the inmates in the Khudunabari camp, who were not accepted as Bhutanese citizens by the verification team, have been resettled in various western countries. "So Bhutan's claim that not all camp residents are Bhutanese is baseless," he says. Bhutan People's Party (BPP), the party founded by the refugees, has delivered an ultimatum. "We are asking Bhutan's new king, Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck, to learn from the democratic transformations around the world and resume repatriation talks by 2011," said Paudyal, BPP chairman. "Otherwise, we will plan tougher measures." Mishra said an underground Maoist party wants to overthrow the monarchy in Bhutan through an insurrection, and has been gaining support in the camps as well. The refugees draw parallels between Bhutan and Nepal. Till 2008, Nepal too had been a monarchy. However, its Maoist party waged a ten-year war against King Gyanendra Bir Bikram Shah and in 2008, managed to abolish monarchy through an election. "History shows that you can't defeat the people," Paudyal cautions. "If the king of Bhutan doesn't heed the warning, he would end up losing one day. The people will prevail ultimately." This article first appeared on the Inter Press Service news agency.

Jigme Singye Wangchuck

https://www.aljazeera.com/indepth/features/2011/04/2011420121856587955.html

No homecoming for Bhutan's refugees Resettled refugees warn Bhutan's government to be wary of democratic transformations if repatriation is not considered. |Despite promises from the Bhutanese government to repatriate refugees after a 'verification' process, none were allowed to return, leading to Western programmes of resettlement [| A knock on the door of his home in Bhutan one midnight turned middle-level government official Balaram Paudyal into a fugitive overnight, after he managed to elude policemen arresting him for "anti-government activities", and then fled the country. Twenty-two years later, Paudyal is living in a refugee camp in Nepal, along with thousands of fellow Bhutanese driven away in the 1980s. Last week, Bhutan agreed to resume talks to have them repatriated, raising hopes of a possible homecoming. But those hopes were dashed the next day, when the government insisted on screening the refugees, and verifying their identities. The refugees have reacted with anger, saying Bhutan is simply stalling. "Nepal and Bhutan jointly verified refugees of Khudunabari, one of seven camps, some years back," says T. P. Mishra, the 28 year-old editor of the Bhutan News Service (BNS) that operates from exile. "Though most of them were categorised as genuine Bhutanese, not a single refugee has been repatriated." The exodus started in the late 1980s. "Tens of thousands of ethnic Nepalese were arbitrarily deprived of their Bhutanese citizenship," says Human Rights Watch (HRW) in its report Last Hope. "Some were then expelled from Bhutan, while others fled the country to escape from a campaign of arbitrary arrest and detention directed against the ethnic Nepalese." Some one-fifth of the population were driven out, most of whom reached Nepal in the 1990s after wandering through India, which stands between the two tiny Himalayan nations. As the trickle of refugees became a flood, an alarmed Nepal asked the United Nations High Commissioner for Refugees (UNHCR) for help and in 1992, UNHCR launched a major emergency assistance programme with the World Food Programme and other non-governmental partners. In 2006 to 2007, the number of registered refugees living in seven camps run by the UNHCR in eastern Nepal's Jhapa and Morang districts had surpassed 108,000. Some 20,000 more live outside the camps in Nepal and another estimated 25,000 in India. Life in the camps has been one long tale of hardship and deprivations. Several families are crammed into one-room shacks, sharing the same toilet. When the sun sets, darkness engulfs the camps, which are without electricity. In summer, fires devastate the camps; during the monsoon, downpours drench the rooms. Domestic violence, alcoholism and prostitution have grown, as have cases of HIV/AIDS. Though Nepal allowed the refugees asylum, it does not allow them to work or run businesses, fearing increased competition for locals. "Refugees have the right under international law to their own country," says HRW. "However, in a flawed process that was widely discredited by international observers and refugee experts, Bhutan and Nepal instituted a joint verification process to determine which refugees would be able to return." The camp residents were to have been classified into four groups: bona fide citizens; those who had surrendered their citizenship and would have to apply again; non-Bhutanese, who would not be allowed to go back; and criminals, who would face trial once they went back. Despite the verification process, no one was allowed home. In 2006 to 2007, Western countries, led by the US, persuaded Nepal to allow the refugees to be resettled in third countries. Today, the relocation of Bhutanese refugees has become the UNHCR's largest and most successful resettlement programme. Assisted by the International Organisation for Migration, 40,000 refugees had left the camps by 2010. Of the 72,733 refugees left, the UNHCR says approximately 55,000 have shown interest in resettlement and could leave by 2014. Last week, Bhutan's prime minister Jigmi Thinley arrived in Nepal on a three-day state visit, and said his government was ready to resume the repatriation talks halted eight years ago. However, he added that there should be a fresh "study" or "investigation" of the "people living in the camps". "They are economic refugees, they are environmental refugees, they are refugees of political instability," Thinley said at a press conference in Kathmandu Saturday before his departure. "And they are victims of circumstances beyond their control. But I maintain that the question of whether they are refugees from Bhutan is a subject of discussion." "Each time the Bhutanese PM visits Kathmandu, he continues to say that Bhutan is serious about the repatriation of Bhutanese refugees," said Mishra, who last year accepted resettlement in North Carolina and now works for a resettlement agency assisting Bhutanese refugees to assimilate locally. He also continues running BNS, which is a matter of pride for the refugees. "It is nothing but a tactfully played game to hoodwink the international community," he added. Mishra said he would like to return to Bhutan but his wife Renuka feels their lives would be in danger if they do. He also points out that some of the inmates in the Khudunabari camp, who were not accepted as Bhutanese citizens by the verification team, have been resettled in various western countries. "So Bhutan's claim that not all camp residents are Bhutanese is baseless," he says. Bhutan People's Party (BPP), the party founded by the refugees, has delivered an ultimatum. "We are asking Bhutan's new king, Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck, to learn from the democratic transformations around the world and resume repatriation talks by 2011," said Paudyal, BPP chairman. "Otherwise, we will plan tougher measures." Mishra said an underground Maoist party wants to overthrow the monarchy in Bhutan through an insurrection, and has been gaining support in the camps as well. The refugees draw parallels between Bhutan and Nepal. Till 2008, Nepal too had been a monarchy. However, its Maoist party waged a ten-year war against King Gyanendra Bir Bikram Shah and in 2008, managed to abolish monarchy through an election. "History shows that you can't defeat the people," Paudyal cautions. "If the king of Bhutan doesn't heed the warning, he would end up losing one day. The people will prevail ultimately." This article first appeared on the Inter Press Service news agency.

Jigme Singye Wangchuck

http://www.asianews.it/news-en/Nepal,-Bhutanese-refugees-ask-new-king-for-end-of-exile-13693.html

Nepal, Bhutanese refugees ask new king for end of exile Kathmandu (AsiaNews) - Bhutanese refugees in Nepal are looking with hope, but also with some fear, to the coronation of the new monarch of the tiny kingdom of Bhutan. More than 120,000 people - driven out by the previous monarchy - are living in exile in refugee camps in Nepal. The king had expelled them because he considered them irregular immigrants, since they were of Nepalese ethnicity. The rise to the throne of 28-year-old Jigme Khesar Namgyel, the son of Jigme Singye Wangchuk, is seen as a sign of hope for a possible return home. S. B. Subba, president of the organization for human rights in Bhutan, says that the election of the new monarch is a source of "happiness" in the refugee camps, which are seeing a "rebirth of hope," but that it is necessary to "wait and see" what decisions the new king will make, because "the monarchy is the sole cause of our suffering." He also reiterated that the king "can make inroads into the minds and hearts of the people only if he permits citizens in exile to return home." But doubts are being expressed by Teknath Rijal, one of the leaders of the struggle on behalf of refugees: "I will follow attentively the decisions of the new king," the activist says, "in order to understand if he will revise the policy of his father. The time has come to face all unresolved questions." The coronation of the young king has been followed with great interest by television stations and internet sites all over the world, because of the sumptuous costumes and the magnificence of the ceremony, while the country welcomes the new sovereign with celebration. The Bhutanese refugees have been excluded from the event, having spent the last 17 years confined to the refugee camps set up by the United Nations in eastern Nepal. Most of them belong to the ethnic group of the Lhotshampas, of Nepalese origin, who from 1977-1985 suffered the discriminatory policies of the monarchy, which never granted them Bhutanese citizenship and forced them into exile. "If he does not take the question into hand," warns Teknath Rijal, " the monarchy will be at risk. The king of Bhutan could suffer the same fate as the king of Nepal," deposed by Maoist guerrillas, while the country has been turned into a democratic federal republic. The view of Vampa Rai, coordinator of the committee for the repatriation of refugees, is more cautious. Rai expresses the hope that "the new, young, and modern king, educated at Oxford, may ease their return and promote the values of democracy." The new course in Bhutan was promoted by King Jigme Singye Wangchuk in 2006, when he decided to abdicate; he remains the architect of the new democratic process, in which openness toward the outside is carefully calibrated to avoid losing the country's identity and spiritual values. The country is marked by various problems, including the situation of the young population, among whom crime, unemployment and drug use are widespread. At the time of leaving the throne to his son, King Wangchuk promised, beginning in 2008, to begin changes toward a constitutional monarchy, and create a parliament. Bhutan, nestled between India and China, has a population of 2.3 million. Buddhism is the state religion, and public expression of any other religion is prohibited. Christians are about 0.5% of the population. [Bhutan prepares to crown a new king](https://www.asianews.it/news-en/Bhutan-prepares-to-crown-a-new-king-13670.html) 05/11/2008

Jigme Singye Wangchuck

http://www.asianews.it/news-en/Nepal,-Bhutanese-refugees-ask-new-king-for-end-of-exile-13693.html

Nepal, Bhutanese refugees ask new king for end of exile Kathmandu (AsiaNews) - Bhutanese refugees in Nepal are looking with hope, but also with some fear, to the coronation of the new monarch of the tiny kingdom of Bhutan. More than 120,000 people - driven out by the previous monarchy - are living in exile in refugee camps in Nepal. The king had expelled them because he considered them irregular immigrants, since they were of Nepalese ethnicity. The rise to the throne of 28-year-old Jigme Khesar Namgyel, the son of Jigme Singye Wangchuk, is seen as a sign of hope for a possible return home. S. B. Subba, president of the organization for human rights in Bhutan, says that the election of the new monarch is a source of "happiness" in the refugee camps, which are seeing a "rebirth of hope," but that it is necessary to "wait and see" what decisions the new king will make, because "the monarchy is the sole cause of our suffering." He also reiterated that the king "can make inroads into the minds and hearts of the people only if he permits citizens in exile to return home." But doubts are being expressed by Teknath Rijal, one of the leaders of the struggle on behalf of refugees: "I will follow attentively the decisions of the new king," the activist says, "in order to understand if he will revise the policy of his father. The time has come to face all unresolved questions." The coronation of the young king has been followed with great interest by television stations and internet sites all over the world, because of the sumptuous costumes and the magnificence of the ceremony, while the country welcomes the new sovereign with celebration. The Bhutanese refugees have been excluded from the event, having spent the last 17 years confined to the refugee camps set up by the United Nations in eastern Nepal. Most of them belong to the ethnic group of the Lhotshampas, of Nepalese origin, who from 1977-1985 suffered the discriminatory policies of the monarchy, which never granted them Bhutanese citizenship and forced them into exile. "If he does not take the question into hand," warns Teknath Rijal, " the monarchy will be at risk. The king of Bhutan could suffer the same fate as the king of Nepal," deposed by Maoist guerrillas, while the country has been turned into a democratic federal republic. The view of Vampa Rai, coordinator of the committee for the repatriation of refugees, is more cautious. Rai expresses the hope that "the new, young, and modern king, educated at Oxford, may ease their return and promote the values of democracy." The new course in Bhutan was promoted by King Jigme Singye Wangchuk in 2006, when he decided to abdicate; he remains the architect of the new democratic process, in which openness toward the outside is carefully calibrated to avoid losing the country's identity and spiritual values. The country is marked by various problems, including the situation of the young population, among whom crime, unemployment and drug use are widespread. At the time of leaving the throne to his son, King Wangchuk promised, beginning in 2008, to begin changes toward a constitutional monarchy, and create a parliament. Bhutan, nestled between India and China, has a population of 2.3 million. Buddhism is the state religion, and public expression of any other religion is prohibited. Christians are about 0.5% of the population. [Bhutan prepares to crown a new king](https://www.asianews.it/news-en/Bhutan-prepares-to-crown-a-new-king-13670.html) 05/11/2008

Jigme Singye Wangchuck

https://thediplomat.com/2016/09/bhutans-dark-secret-the-lhotshampa-expulsion/

Bhutan is often characterized as a land of perpetual happiness, a country where traffic lights are seen as too impersonal and where they measure their country's output by the famous Gross National Happiness index. Remaining unspoiled by mass tourism and ruled by a popular young monarch, Bhutan is often portrayed as a mythical place, and references to Shangri-La are so overused they have grown repetitive. Bhutan often tops the list of happiest places to live, and is a model of harmony in a hyper-capitalized world. However in the face of all this supposed harmony, Bhutan hides a very dark history. Bhutan is the world's biggest creator of refugees by per capita. In one fell swoop in the 1990s, the country expelled the Lhotshampa, an ethnic group with its origins in Nepal which made up one-sixth of Bhutan's population, to preserve its unique national identity. More than 20 years on, thousands still remain in camps in Nepal, lost in their own country. This is at stark contrast with the idyllic and homely image Bhutan has carefully curated for itself. As the world looks on at Syria and the deepening migrant crisis in the Mediterranean and concern grows, Bhutan attracts little attention. But as the world finally wakes up to the plight of refugees, it is important that one of the largest refugee populations in South Asia is not forgotten. While Bhutan expelled "migrant laborers" in the 1990s, to understand the complete picture we have to turn back to the 1600s. Bhutan may claim that the Lhotshampa are newcomers to Bhutan; however, people of Nepalese origin have been in Bhutan since 1620, when Newar craftsmen were commissioned to come to and build a stupa in Bhutan. They have been there ever since. Settling in southern Bhutan, the country's major food producing region, their numbers flourished and continued to do so for a long period. They gained the name Lhotshampa, which means people from the south. What is more, these were not uninvited or unwelcome intruders. There was a need for foreign labor during this period. Bhutan actively brought this "crisis" on themselves — lacking the manpower for infrastructure projects like the Thimphu-Phuntsholing highway meant importing manpower from India was inevitable. The migration into Bhutan continued, relatively unregulated and without government supervision. It was only in 1990 that border checkpoints and controls were introduced. The expulsion of the Lhotshampas did not happen overnight. Bhutan's Citizenship Acts of 1958 and 1985 combined to make matters worse for the group. As many Lhotshampa were given citizenship in 1958, that year was the year later given as a "cut off" point. If residents could not supply proof that they were Bhutanese residents before 1958, they were deemed to be illegal immigrants. According to human rights groups, even those who could supply the required proof were often evicted. In 1988 a census was conducted; however, poorly trained census officials made numerous mistakes in administrating the census, as well as stoking up ethnic tensions. Following the census, the Bhutanese government realized the extent of the Bhutanese-Nepali population residing in Bhutan, most notably the Nepali speaking Lhotshampa ethnic group. Ethnic tensions rose and since 1988 over 100,000 Lhotshampa have left Nepal, with many claiming to have been forced out by the Bhutanese government. Many were accused of being illegal aliens and claim they have faced violence and ethnic discrimination. Clashes, sometimes violent, between the Bhutan People's Party, dominated by the Lhotshampa, and the government are also common. Following the census, the Bhutanese government estimated that 28 percent of the population were of Nepalese origin. However, unofficial claims circled that up to 40 percent of the population was Nepali; this would be considered a majority in the south. This figure soon gained traction in the public imagination. With the events leading up to Sikkim's joining of India in 1975 still fresh in the minds of Bhutanese leaders, action had to be taken. However with an open border, migrant labor, and the geographical challenges of conducting a census in remote areas, the population numbers quoted may have been way off. Some estimates put the numbers of Nepalese population as little as 15 percent. Before the expulsion, the Bhutanese government did not help to create a positive political atmosphere. Under the "One Nation, One People" policy, the government placed cultural and linguistic restrictions upon the Lhotshampa, from replacing Nepali as a classroom language with Dzongkha to forcing all citizens to follow the national dress code of the [Driglam Namzha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Driglam_namzha). Nepalis naturally resented having to be forced to wear the dress of the Ngalop majority, instead of their own traditional dress. According to one human rights report, in the 1990s the Bhutanese clamped down hard on political activities or efforts for reform. "The call for democracy and respect for human rights were termed as 'acts of treason', and an anti-national movement," a [Shadow Report on the First Universal Periodic Review of Bhutan ](http://www.apfanews.com/media/upload/final_report.pdf)found. "[An] exclusive census was carried out in the southern districts with the intention to flush out Nepali speaking population. Thousands of Nepali-Bhutanese were arrested, killed, tortured and given life sentences." Further disingenuous tactics were used by the government in attempts to manipulate or distort population levels. According to the report, "The government forced many evicted people, almost all, to sign the voluntary migration form before leaving the country. The local authorities also seized the documents that people have which can prove their Bhutanese nationality, to ensure they cannot produce them again in the future." These actions have made it incredibly hard for people to return to Bhutan. Discrimination and frankly Kafkaesque rules have been deployed making life considerably more difficult for the Lhotshampa. What is more, the report notes that only it is only "Nepali-speaking people in southern districts who have to produce their documents to prove they were in Bhutan before 1958… Bhutanese from other places are regarded as Bhutan[ese] by [virtue of] their race." This is a blatantly discriminatory government policy. What relevance do events that took place 20 years ago still have, particularly in the face of a widely heralded and mostly successfully repatriation scheme to the United States and other neutral countries? Even 20 years later, this is not a solved issue. There have been over 100,000 refugees successfully resettled abroad; however thousands remain and there is seemingly little impetus or concern for those left behind. Nepal cracked down and implemented a strict policy regarding Tibetan refugees, in response to Chinese pressure and Beijing's not unsubstantial monetary contributions. With Bhutan not able or willing to do the same, this issue has dragged on. The lack of a sense of urgency has led refugees to simply languish in camps for 20 years. Currently there are two operational Bhutanese refugee camps in Nepal, down from the original seven. The remaining camps have an estimated population of 18,000. Conditions inside the camps are hard, as they were never meant to be a permanent solution. As this is not a pressing issue for either Nepal and Bhutan, with both sides preferring rehabilitation in neutral third countries, they have been happy to sit back and wait. Bhutan is currently opening up and extending itself onto the world stage, as shown by the visit of the British Prince William in early 2016. With Bhutan starting to take active steps on the world stage, King Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck should be forced to acknowledge the discrimination and eventual expulsion of thousands of Lhotshampas. The year 2016 is a long way from 1975, and fears of a repeat of the Sikkimese secession to India should no longer be held as a viable threat in Bhutan. As a result, the geopolitical situations that created the paranoia behind the decisions in the 1990s are no longer there; therefore the Lhotshampas should once again be able to live in Bhutan. Finally and most importantly, this is a matter of mutual benefit for both Thimphu and Kathmandu. With Nepal and Bhutan being the two remaining sovereign Himalayan states, they could have a very mutually beneficial partnership in the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation. They are both nations affected by political, industrial, and social developments in India, and are both at the mercy of Indo-Sino relations. Yet Bhutan-Nepal relations have been a standstill for years. The refugee crisis has effectively put a halt on relations and until this issue is resolved it doesn't seem likely they will improve anytime soon. Once this issue is dealt with there is no reason that they should not be strong, committed allies. Maximillian Mørch is a post-graduate student living in Kathmandu writing about disaster management, politics, and current affairs.

Jigme Singye Wangchuck

https://thediplomat.com/2016/09/bhutans-dark-secret-the-lhotshampa-expulsion/

Bhutan is often characterized as a land of perpetual happiness, a country where traffic lights are seen as too impersonal and where they measure their country's output by the famous Gross National Happiness index. Remaining unspoiled by mass tourism and ruled by a popular young monarch, Bhutan is often portrayed as a mythical place, and references to Shangri-La are so overused they have grown repetitive. Bhutan often tops the list of happiest places to live, and is a model of harmony in a hyper-capitalized world. However in the face of all this supposed harmony, Bhutan hides a very dark history. Bhutan is the world's biggest creator of refugees by per capita. In one fell swoop in the 1990s, the country expelled the Lhotshampa, an ethnic group with its origins in Nepal which made up one-sixth of Bhutan's population, to preserve its unique national identity. More than 20 years on, thousands still remain in camps in Nepal, lost in their own country. This is at stark contrast with the idyllic and homely image Bhutan has carefully curated for itself. As the world looks on at Syria and the deepening migrant crisis in the Mediterranean and concern grows, Bhutan attracts little attention. But as the world finally wakes up to the plight of refugees, it is important that one of the largest refugee populations in South Asia is not forgotten. While Bhutan expelled "migrant laborers" in the 1990s, to understand the complete picture we have to turn back to the 1600s. Bhutan may claim that the Lhotshampa are newcomers to Bhutan; however, people of Nepalese origin have been in Bhutan since 1620, when Newar craftsmen were commissioned to come to and build a stupa in Bhutan. They have been there ever since. Settling in southern Bhutan, the country's major food producing region, their numbers flourished and continued to do so for a long period. They gained the name Lhotshampa, which means people from the south. What is more, these were not uninvited or unwelcome intruders. There was a need for foreign labor during this period. Bhutan actively brought this "crisis" on themselves — lacking the manpower for infrastructure projects like the Thimphu-Phuntsholing highway meant importing manpower from India was inevitable. The migration into Bhutan continued, relatively unregulated and without government supervision. It was only in 1990 that border checkpoints and controls were introduced. The expulsion of the Lhotshampas did not happen overnight. Bhutan's Citizenship Acts of 1958 and 1985 combined to make matters worse for the group. As many Lhotshampa were given citizenship in 1958, that year was the year later given as a "cut off" point. If residents could not supply proof that they were Bhutanese residents before 1958, they were deemed to be illegal immigrants. According to human rights groups, even those who could supply the required proof were often evicted. In 1988 a census was conducted; however, poorly trained census officials made numerous mistakes in administrating the census, as well as stoking up ethnic tensions. Following the census, the Bhutanese government realized the extent of the Bhutanese-Nepali population residing in Bhutan, most notably the Nepali speaking Lhotshampa ethnic group. Ethnic tensions rose and since 1988 over 100,000 Lhotshampa have left Nepal, with many claiming to have been forced out by the Bhutanese government. Many were accused of being illegal aliens and claim they have faced violence and ethnic discrimination. Clashes, sometimes violent, between the Bhutan People's Party, dominated by the Lhotshampa, and the government are also common. Following the census, the Bhutanese government estimated that 28 percent of the population were of Nepalese origin. However, unofficial claims circled that up to 40 percent of the population was Nepali; this would be considered a majority in the south. This figure soon gained traction in the public imagination. With the events leading up to Sikkim's joining of India in 1975 still fresh in the minds of Bhutanese leaders, action had to be taken. However with an open border, migrant labor, and the geographical challenges of conducting a census in remote areas, the population numbers quoted may have been way off. Some estimates put the numbers of Nepalese population as little as 15 percent. Before the expulsion, the Bhutanese government did not help to create a positive political atmosphere. Under the "One Nation, One People" policy, the government placed cultural and linguistic restrictions upon the Lhotshampa, from replacing Nepali as a classroom language with Dzongkha to forcing all citizens to follow the national dress code of the [Driglam Namzha](https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Driglam_namzha). Nepalis naturally resented having to be forced to wear the dress of the Ngalop majority, instead of their own traditional dress. According to one human rights report, in the 1990s the Bhutanese clamped down hard on political activities or efforts for reform. "The call for democracy and respect for human rights were termed as 'acts of treason', and an anti-national movement," a [Shadow Report on the First Universal Periodic Review of Bhutan ](http://www.apfanews.com/media/upload/final_report.pdf)found. "[An] exclusive census was carried out in the southern districts with the intention to flush out Nepali speaking population. Thousands of Nepali-Bhutanese were arrested, killed, tortured and given life sentences." Further disingenuous tactics were used by the government in attempts to manipulate or distort population levels. According to the report, "The government forced many evicted people, almost all, to sign the voluntary migration form before leaving the country. The local authorities also seized the documents that people have which can prove their Bhutanese nationality, to ensure they cannot produce them again in the future." These actions have made it incredibly hard for people to return to Bhutan. Discrimination and frankly Kafkaesque rules have been deployed making life considerably more difficult for the Lhotshampa. What is more, the report notes that only it is only "Nepali-speaking people in southern districts who have to produce their documents to prove they were in Bhutan before 1958… Bhutanese from other places are regarded as Bhutan[ese] by [virtue of] their race." This is a blatantly discriminatory government policy. What relevance do events that took place 20 years ago still have, particularly in the face of a widely heralded and mostly successfully repatriation scheme to the United States and other neutral countries? Even 20 years later, this is not a solved issue. There have been over 100,000 refugees successfully resettled abroad; however thousands remain and there is seemingly little impetus or concern for those left behind. Nepal cracked down and implemented a strict policy regarding Tibetan refugees, in response to Chinese pressure and Beijing's not unsubstantial monetary contributions. With Bhutan not able or willing to do the same, this issue has dragged on. The lack of a sense of urgency has led refugees to simply languish in camps for 20 years. Currently there are two operational Bhutanese refugee camps in Nepal, down from the original seven. The remaining camps have an estimated population of 18,000. Conditions inside the camps are hard, as they were never meant to be a permanent solution. As this is not a pressing issue for either Nepal and Bhutan, with both sides preferring rehabilitation in neutral third countries, they have been happy to sit back and wait. Bhutan is currently opening up and extending itself onto the world stage, as shown by the visit of the British Prince William in early 2016. With Bhutan starting to take active steps on the world stage, King Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck should be forced to acknowledge the discrimination and eventual expulsion of thousands of Lhotshampas. The year 2016 is a long way from 1975, and fears of a repeat of the Sikkimese secession to India should no longer be held as a viable threat in Bhutan. As a result, the geopolitical situations that created the paranoia behind the decisions in the 1990s are no longer there; therefore the Lhotshampas should once again be able to live in Bhutan. Finally and most importantly, this is a matter of mutual benefit for both Thimphu and Kathmandu. With Nepal and Bhutan being the two remaining sovereign Himalayan states, they could have a very mutually beneficial partnership in the South Asian Association for Regional Cooperation. They are both nations affected by political, industrial, and social developments in India, and are both at the mercy of Indo-Sino relations. Yet Bhutan-Nepal relations have been a standstill for years. The refugee crisis has effectively put a halt on relations and until this issue is resolved it doesn't seem likely they will improve anytime soon. Once this issue is dealt with there is no reason that they should not be strong, committed allies. Maximillian Mørch is a post-graduate student living in Kathmandu writing about disaster management, politics, and current affairs.

Jigme Singye Wangchuck

https://reliefweb.int/report/nepal/nepal-unsettling-resettlement-bhutans-refugees

Bhutanese refugees protesting before the UN office in Kathmandu, Nepal, seeking repatriation. As resettlement of refugees from Bhutan gains momentum and the UK becomes the eighth country to take them in, leaders in exile wonder if repatriation is now a lost cause, Deepak Adhikari writes for ISN Security Watch. By Deepak Adhikari for ISN Security Watch Swanky and snow-white buses emblazoned with blue IOM (International Organization for Migration) ferry a group of people who seem out of place in Kathmandu's crowd. Led by an IOM escort, the passengers - men, women children and the elderly - queue up in single file at Kathmandu's only international airport. They are Bhutanese refugees, who after languishing in the sprawling refugee camps in southeastern Nepal, are now heading to western countries, thanks to a 2006 offer floated by the US. In early October that year, Ellen Saurbrey, US Assistant Secretary of State for Population, Refugees and Migration, told the UNHCR's executive meeting in Geneva that the US would absorb up to 60,000 refugees over three or four years. The relocation of Bhutanese refugees (third country resettlement), which began in earnest in November 2007, is largest such project in the world. So far 34,500 Bhutanese refugees have been relocated to western countries under the resettlement program. Among them, 29,496 have been relocated in the US; 1,877 in Canada; 1,787 in Australia; 461 in New Zealand; 335 in Norway; 236 in Denmark; and 224 in The Netherlands. This year, the UK became the eighth country to resettle the Bhutanese. In early August, a group of 37 Bhutanese refugees left for Bolton in Greater Manchester under the UK's Gateway Resettlement program. A total of 100 Bhutanese refugees will be relocated to the UK this year as part of the country's annual quota of 500 refugees from all over the world. Thirty two-year-old Kashinath Pokharel spent 16 years in the Kudunabari refugee camp in southeastern Nepal until he, his wife and their 16-month-old son were flown to the UK in early August. Pokharel, who spoke to ISN Security Watch said that in 1994, he and his extended family were forced to flee their village in Bhutan, heading to India and then further on to Nepal, after India refused to recognize them as refugees. In Nepal, they were corralled in the Khudunabari camp, one of 17 such settlements run by the UNHCR. The eviction Bhutanese refugees are victims of what they claim to be ethnic cleansing, a state-orchestrated campaign aimed at the depopulation of the country's south, dominated by Nepali-speaking Hindus. In the late 1980s and early 1990s, Bhutan evicted 120,000 people on the grounds that they posed political and cultural threats to the Buddhist kingdom. According to Balaram Paudel, president of Bhutan People's Party, the state conducted an impromptu census only in the south. Conducted on the basis of Citizenship Act 1985, it was made mandatory for the Nepali-speaking Bhutanese to produce documentary evidence of legal residence in the country before 1958. Those who failed to produce the evidence were declared non-citizens. The state also required them to obtain a 'No Objection Certificate' in order to work, to get a license or to attend a school. The southerners were divided into seven categories and many who were married to foreigners were declared stateless, said Paudel. On November 9, 1989, Paudel - who was a village head man (mandal) of Bada block in the southern village of Sibsu village - fled to India, where he and other leaders-in-exile formed the Bhutan People's Party. Now even his party's central committee members have opted for resettlement. Gopal Gurung, the party's central committee member, recently left for The Netherlands. The official version of events does not even recognize those who fled as refugees, referring to them instead as 'illegal immigrants,' with the government denying any claims of 'ethnic cleansing' or moves aimed at getting rid of the Nepali-speaking Hindus. In an interview with Al Jazeera in mid-July this year, Bhutanese Prime Minister Jigme Y Thinley said that "the vast majority of people in camps are not Bhutanese. ... [The] People in the camps in Nepal are the victims of humanitarian situations caused by demographic explosion, ecological disaster and economic depreciation." [He also suggests](http://www.bhutannica.org/index.php?title=Bhutan:_A_Kingdom_Besieged) that the Nepalese are inherently migratory and have little regard for international boundaries, while in Bhutan, and should be considered "economic/migrant" refugees. He writes: "The first sightings of Nepalese in the southern foothills are reported by Charles Bell in 1904 followed closely by John Claude White in 1905. All Bhutanese records confirm that no Nepalese settled in any part of Bhutan until then." Paudel, and many others, disagree. "Historical records show that the ethnic Nepalese started to settle in the south from 17th century," says Paudel. In his book "Bhutan: Hijo Ra Aja (Bhutan: Yesterday and Today), he has traced the migration of Nepalese architects and artists from Kathmandu Valley to Thimphu 400 years back. A wave of laborers entered Bhutan in the 19th century, when the country needed them to help clear its malaria-infested jungles in the south. The new inhabitants were the migrant workers from eastern hills of Nepal as well as Nepalese living in Northeast and West Bengal in India. They were granted Bhutanese citizenship in 1958. Repatriation versus resettlement The movement for repatriation started as soon as they were settled in the camps. There have been several failed attempts at returning home. In 1996, exile-based political parties formed the Bhutanese Coalition for Democratic Movement and organized a mass rally in Kakarbhitta, a border town in southeastern Nepal. According to Paudel, one of the leaders of the movement and several demonstrators were arrested by Indian security forces, and the rally was called off. In 1997, the Association of Human Rights Activists led an 'appeal movement,' which also ended in failure and with the arrest of hundreds of protesters. The same year, the United Front for Democracy was formed to start a concerted movement for repatriation. But with t [he arrest of its leader](http://www.ahrchk.net/ua/mainfile.php/1997/2), Rongthong Kuenley Dorji, on 18 April 1997 in New Delhi, the program was cancelled. On 28 May 2007, as Bhutan was gearing up for the elections, the refugees staged a peace rally. Again, they were stopped by the Indian security forces on the Nepal-India border. Indian security forces opened fire on the demonstrators, killing one and injuring others. The leaders were forced to call off the demonstrations. This effectively marked the end of such protests, with most of the refugees turning their attention to resettlement. In 2008, Bhutan became the world's newest democracy, two years after King Jigme Singye Wangchuck abdicated his throne in favor of his son, Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck. The Oxford-educated, 30-year-old Wangchuck became Bhutan's fifth king. With the prime minister's Bhutan Peace and Prosperity Party winning an overwhelming majority in the first-ever parliamentary elections two years ago, the country [now boasts](http://www.ndtv.com/convergence/ndtv/story.aspx?id=NEWEN20080044949&ch=3/25/2008%2012:28:00%20AM) a democratically elected government. According to the first constitution promulgated in 2008, Bhutan is a constitutional monarchy and the king is the head of state. But leaders-in-exile say the new democracy is a farce. Tek Nath Rizal, a former Royal Advisory Councilor who spent 10 years inside Bhutanese jails, told ISN Security Watch that "the two political parties are puppets of the king because both are controlled by royal family." And after the 15 rounds of talks between Bhutan and Nepal failed to yield any tangible results, prospects for returning home have indeed waned. Opinions are divided on the issue of resettlement. Leaders like Paudel are more optimistic about repatriation, and hold out hope that those being resettled to western countries "can be more organized and vocal in their country of resettlement," and "will be empowered and will be able to exert pressure on Bhutan." Rizal disagrees, with refugees now scattered across a dozen countries, he thinks organizing any formidable challenge to Bhutan for repatriation will be very difficult. "The US should have raised the issue of repatriation with Bhutan before it proceeded to take the refugees," he says, "The resettlement and repatriation should have gone hand-in-hand." So far, 56,444 refugees out of remaining 77,616 have declared their interest in third-country resettlement. The fate of about 20,000 others is still being decided. Deepak Adhikari is a freelance journalist.

Jigme Singye Wangchuck

https://www.hrw.org/news/2008/02/01/bhutans-ethnic-cleansing

Bhutan's image as an otherworldly and harmonious kingdom was rocked on 20 January by coordinated bomb blasts in the capital, Thimpu, and three other locations. The bombs caused minimal damage but generated political shockwaves at a time when the Himalayan state is struggling to transform itself from an autocratic monarchy into a democracy. The second-round of Bhutan's first-ever elections, scheduled for 24 March, will test whether its embrace of democracy will include its entire people. The answer may determine whether change ultimately will be ushered into Bhutan by the ballot or the bomb. Although Bhutanese police initially listed Nepal-based exile groups as their top bombing suspects, their suspicions were based more on their knowledge of historical grievances than forensic evidence. A hitherto unknown group, the United Revolutionary Front of Bhutan, claimed responsibility, saying that Thimpu's changes were cosmetic and would not benefit all Bhutanese. Though such bombings are never justified, the alarms they sound should not be ignored. This salvo should warn the government to be inclusive in its experiment with democratization. To start, it needs to address a blot on Bhutanese history that remains unresolved. In the late 1980s Bhutanese elites regarded a growing ethnic Nepali population as a demographic and cultural threat. The government enacted discriminatory citizenship laws directed against ethnic Nepalis, that stripped about one-sixth of the population of their citizenship and paved the way for their expulsion. After a campaign of harassment that escalated in the early 1990s, Bhutanese security forces began expelling people, first making them sign forms renouncing claims to their homes and homeland. "The army took all the people from their houses," a young refugee told me. "As we left Bhutan, we were forced to sign the document. They snapped our photos. The man told me to smile, to show my teeth. He wanted to show that I was leaving my country willingly, happily, that I was not forced to leave." Today, about 108,000 of these stateless Bhutanese are living in seven refugee camps in Nepal. The Bhutanese authorities have not allowed a single refugee to return. In 2006, the US government, seeing an impasse, offered to resettle 60,000 of the Bhutanese refugees. Processing has been slow to start, and the first refugees are not likely to depart until March. After 17 years of deadlock, the coincidental synchronization of elections in Bhutan and resettlement of Bhutanese refugees to the United States plays into the fears of some refugees, who believe the US is conspiring with Bhutan to keep ethnic Nepalis from repatriating and asserting their rights. These refugees insist that return to Bhutan is the only acceptable solution and they are increasingly intimidating refugees who want to accept the US offer - through beatings, burning huts, and death threats. Even if the Bhutanese government were to respect their right to repatriate under international law, its treatment of the ethnic Nepalis who still live in Bhutan suggests that the basic rights of returnees cannot be guaranteed. A Bhutanese government census in 2005 classified 13 percent of Bhutan's current population as 'non-nationals', meaning that they are not only ineligible to vote, but are denied a wide range of other rights. An ethnic Nepali non-national living in Bhutan told Human Rights Watch, "they don't ask me to leave, but they make me so miserable, I will be forced to leave. I have no identification, so I cannot do anything, go anywhere, get a job." The militants should not deny their fellow refugees the choice of going to the United States or remaining in Nepal. But a genuine choice between resettlement, integration in Nepal, or return to Bhutan can only happen if Bhutan allows refugees to return and restores their rights. Bhutan should make citizenship available to all people with legitimate claims, including the refugees who can trace their statelessness to the events of the early 1990s. If Bhutan aspires to be truly democratic, it should choose a path of reconciliation with the disenfranchised ethnic Nepalese inside and outside its borders. If instead it deliberately excludes many of its people, it may strengthen the hand of the militants and discover that simply holding elections will bring neither real democracy nor peace. Bill Frelick is Refugee Program Director at Human Rights Watch.

Jigme Singye Wangchuck

https://www.firstpost.com/world/the-ethnic-cleansing-hidden-behind-bhutans-happy-face-918473.html

After it was named the happiest country in Asia, and the sixth happiest in the world in a survey based on the Gross National Happiness index in 2006, Bhutan has seen its brand surge from an unknown dot between China and India to a tourist destination that promises peace, love and happiness â the same ideals India did in the seventies to dazed hippies. From 300 visitors in 1974, tourism [has surged](http://www.reuters.com/article/2012/05/28/us-bhutan-tourism-idUSBRE84R07N20120528) and in 2011, 64,000 people visited Bhutan. âHere on the Indian subcontinent, awash in corruption, ethnic struggle, illiteracy, pollution, poverty, and the clash of civilÂizÂaÂtions, Bhutanâs paciÂfism, paterÂnalÂism, and egalÂitÂariÂanÂism stand apart,â raves Orville Schell in [his article](http://www.pbs.org/frontlineworld/stories/bhutan/gnh.html) titled âGross National Happinessâ. Bhutan is most often compared to the entirely fictional Shangri La, to the extent that the country's official tourism website is called "Welcome to Shangri La Bhutan". (Shangri La was described in a 1933 British novel as a mysterious valley in China which quickly settled in popular imagination as a heaven on earth.) The glowing tourist reports have ignored the issues of national identity that have fractured human rights in the country over the past 20 years. Bhutanâs transition from being an absolute monarchy to a constitutional monarchy with its first elections in 2007 is questionable. The government authorised the establishment of only two political parties, both of whom were closely allied with the king. Even more problematically, many of the ethnic Nepalis remaining in the country, who constitute 40% of the population, are not granted the status of citizens and therefore cannot vote. For the Nepali population of Bhutan, the kingdom is nowhere close to heaven on earth. Since the 1990s, they've been terribly persecuted and their plight is barely known. In 1991 and 1992, over 80,000 Nepalis â part of the Lhotshampa ethnic group that has lived in Bhutan since the 1800s â were dispossessed and moved into refugee camps in Nepal. They have not been allowed entry into Bhutan ever since. Bhutan refuses any responsibility, instead choosing to focus on promoting the country on its Gross National Happiness index. Over the last 15 years, the [refugee population has increased to 1,00,000,](http://criticallegalthinking.com/2013/03/25/happiness-and-human-rights-in-shangri-la/) and the UNHCR (the refugee agency of the United Nations) shifted its focus from repatriation to relocation of the refugees to third countries such as the US. USA alone has accepted 60,000 refugees and in 2007, the US embassy in Bhutan voiced its conÂcern that Maoists could organÂize disÂilÂluÂsioned ethÂnic Nepalis, parÂticÂuÂlarly in the refugee camps in neighÂborÂing Nepal. These events were a culmination of decades of insecurity over what was seen as a demographic invasion by the Lhotshampa on the Drukpa, the northern Bhutanese people. âBhutan saw its very existence as a nation threatened,â [wrote Kinley Dorji](http://www.rsc.ox.ac.uk/pdfs/workshop-conference-research-reports/CAAC%20Bhutan%20final%20report.pdf) , the editor of Kuensel, Bhutanâs English language newspaper. The Bhutanese authorities removed assurances of citizenship, forced Buddhism cultural and religious codes on the Hindu and Christian minorities and used both physical violence and intimidation to evict people belonging to Nepali ethnic groups. Vidhyapati Mishra is the managing editor of the Bhutan News Service. Mishra is a Bhutanese journalist who lives in Nepal, awaiting resettlement. In the latest account of the atrocities against the Lhotshampa in the early nineties, Mishra has written about his and his familyâs expulsion from Bhutan [in the New York Times](http://www.nytimes.com/2013/06/29/opinion/bhutan-is-no-shangri-la.html?smid=tw-share&_r=1&) . âMy father was held for 91 days in a small, dank cell,â remembers Mishra. âThey pressed him down with heavy logs, pierced his fingers with needles, served him urine instead of waterâ¦they burned dried chilies in his cell to make breathing unbearable. He agreed eventually to sign what were called voluntary migration forms and was given a week to leave the country our family had inhabited for four generations.â Reports similar to Mishra, of violence, abuse and forceful migration can be found [here](http://criticallegalthinking.com/2013/03/25/happiness-and-human-rights-in-shangri-la/) , [here](http://www.hrw.org/asia/bhutan) and [here](http://www.state.gov/j/drl/rls/hrrpt/2010/sca/154479.htm) . They have been recorded both by Lhotshampa refugees as well as Amnesty International. The Bhutanese government today doesnât deny the exodus, but insists it was âvoluntaryâ, completely denying the multiple accounts of human rights abuse which have been placed on record. Bhutan has a lot going for it as a largely peaceful and clean country, but elevating the country to a mythological level is clearly having harmful effects now because it erases the need for accountability. âThe enormity of this exodus, one of the worldâs largest by proportion, given the countryâs small population, has been overlooked by an international community that is either indifferent or beguiled by the government-sponsored images of Bhutan as a serene Buddhist Shangri-La,â points out Mishra in his editorial. If we were to think more deeply about equality and human rights in Bhutan, Shangri La would do what it was always meant to â reveal itself as myth.

Jigme Singye Wangchuck

https://www.aljazeera.com/programmes/101east/2014/05/bhutan-forgotten-people-201452081049514496.html

[101 East](/program/101-east/) Bhutan's forgotten people A two-part series follows ethnic Nepalese after they were expelled by Bhutan and found themselves stateless. |Part one| In the early 1990s, Bhutanese of Nepali origin suddenly found themselves stripped of their citizenship. Bhutan enacted a royal decree of single national identity, forcing more than 100,000 ethnic Nepalese to leave. For the next two decades, they lived in refugee camps in eastern Nepal. Almost two decades later, Bhutan remains silent on their repatriation. [Filmmaker Subina Shrestha gives her view](http://www.aljazeera.com/programmes/101east/2014/05/Filmmaker-view-Bhutan-forgotten-people-201452281741150260.html) [](http://www.aljazeera.com/programmes/101east/2014/05/Filmmaker-view-Bhutan-forgotten-people-201452281741150260.html) [](http://www.aljazeera.com/programmes/101east/2014/05/Filmmaker-view-Bhutan-forgotten-people-201452281741150260.html) [](http://www.aljazeera.com/programmes/101east/2014/05/Filmmaker-view-Bhutan-forgotten-people-201452281741150260.html) Now the refugee camps are emptying with the majority of people resettled in the west. But some want to stay — clinging on to the hope of returning home, despite reports that Bhutan's discriminatory policies have left a percentage of its population grossly unhappy. Bhutan is known to many as the Last Shangri-la; the country of "Gross National Happiness". But behind the façade of a peaceful nation is a state that forcefully drove out a sixth of its population — an act which has been described as a systematic "ethnic cleansing". Sabitra Bishwa is one of more than 100,000 Lhotsampas or Bhutanese of Nepalese origin, who found themselves stateless. In the 1980s, Bhutan introduced the policy of "one nation, one people" and alienated the Lhotsampa culture. This was followed by a revision of citizenship laws. Many Lhotsampas found they did not qualify and in the early 1990s, many were forced to leave, reaching the border with India. But India's government also rejected them, taking them to the border with Nepal. In the 22 years since, the refugees have been unable to return to Bhutan. Without India's support, the Nepalese government has been unable to influence Bhutan. In the first of two special programmes, "Bhutan's forgotten people" follows Sabitra Bishwa and her family from a refugee camp in eastern Nepal to their departure for a new life in the US. Around them, the camp is emptying fast. Ninety thousand people have already left, leaving behind empty shacks and their abandoned dreams of returning home. It's a difficult choice to make, and many are heartbroken. In the camp is Sancho Hang Subba, who still dreams of returning to Bhutan. He is willing to wait in the hope that the country will open its doors for repatriation. Subba left when he was just a child and has no memory of Bhutan, but he is attached to his identity as a Bhutanese and does not want to exchange it for anything else. Subba is supported by people like Dr. Bhampa Rai, another Bhutanese exile and a former royal surgeon. Dr. Rai says that Bhutan is a country of migrants and that the Lhotsampas or the Nepalese Bhutanese had started living in Bhutan long before the current royal dynasty started. At the Bhutan-India border, a Lhotsampa still living in Bhutan is depressed about the state of the country and takes the risk to talk to us. He says the country still discriminates against his community — far from the eyes of foreign observers. Large tracks of Southern Bhutan is off limits to foreigners. He says that land belonging to those who were chased away have been distributed to the majority Drukpas. For refugees like Sabitra, relocating to the US is a relief. Her sister moved there one year ago and is keen to see her again and give a better future to her family. From the camp, we follow Sabitra to Kathmandu where the refugees are given an orientation on air travel — from how to go through security to how to find your seat. The films ends with Sabitra and her family boarding the plane, ready to start a new chapter in their lives in a new country, one that is completely foreign to them, and which we will explore in the show's part two, beginning on May 29th, at 2230 GMT. Is third country resettlement the best option for Bhutan's refugees? Share your views @AJ101East #Bhutan'sRefugees |Part two| In the second of a two-part special on 'Bhutan's Forgotten People', 101 East follows Sabitra Biswa as she leaves a refugee camp in Nepal for a new life in the United States. Sabitra was one of 100,000 ethnic Nepalese forced out of Bhutan in the early 1990s in what many describe as systematic ethnic cleansing. After 23 years as a refugee in Jhapa, Nepal, Sabitra and her family are being resettled in the city of Rochester, New York. There, they will reunite with Sabitra's sister Pabitra. For the family, the move brings dramatic lifestyle changes – from running water to kitchen stoves, shopping in US dollars and attending church gatherings. But they are not alone. Some 75,000 Bhutanese refugees have already resettled in the US. Chet Nath Timisina arrived in the US five years ago. After living in limbo for two decades in Nepal, Chet Nath now has a new house and a new identity. He is an American citizen. But he hasn't forgotten his home country. While no longer stateless, many Bhutanese are struggling to adjust to their new lives abroad. About 20 per cent of Bhutanese refugees in the US are battling depression, with some even taking their own lives. Madan Kadel was just 24 years old when he committed suicide, leaving his wife and young child with a raft of unanswered questions. But reporter Subina Shrestha finds that despite the melancholy of the past and anxiety clouding the future, refugees like Sabitra remain hopeful about this new beginning. What does the future hold for Bhutanese refugees? Share your thoughts @AJ101East #Bhutan'sRefugees | || 101 East airs each week at the following times GMT: Thursday: 2230; Friday: 0930; Saturday: 0330; Sunday: 1630. |

Anthony Burgess

http://www.anthonyburgess.org/about-anthony-burgess/burgess-the-composer

Anthony Burgess These articles focus on particular aspects of Anthony Burgess's life and work, including his biography, novels, music, films, and religious beliefs. [Anthony Burgess](https://www.anthonyburgess.org/about-anthony-burgess/) [Novelist](https://www.anthonyburgess.org/about-anthony-burgess/burgess-the-novelist/) [Composer](https://www.anthonyburgess.org/about-anthony-burgess/burgess-the-composer/) [Playwright](https://www.anthonyburgess.org/about-anthony-burgess/burgess-the-playwright/) [Journalist](https://www.anthonyburgess.org/about-anthony-burgess/burgess-the-journalist/) [Poet](https://www.anthonyburgess.org/about-anthony-burgess/burgess-the-poet/) [Broadcaster](https://www.anthonyburgess.org/about-anthony-burgess/burgess-on-film-television-and-radio/) [Burgess on Burgess](https://www.anthonyburgess.org/about-anthony-burgess/burgess-on-himself/) [Catholic](https://www.anthonyburgess.org/about-anthony-burgess/burgess-and-catholicism/) Composer: 'I wish people would think of me as a musician who writes novels, instead of as a novelist who writes music on the side' — Anthony Burgess Burgess was a talented and prolific composer who wrote over 250 musical works during a musical career that spanned more than 50 years. He wrote music across many genres and in many styles. His oeuvre includes symphonies, concertos, opera and musicals, chamber music including a great deal of work for solo piano, as well as a ballet suite, music for film, occasional pieces, songs and much more. As writer Paul Phillips writes in his study of Burgess's music, [A Clockwork Counterpoint](https://manchesteruniversitypress.co.uk/9780719072055/), 'his eclectic and ebullient style draws upon classical as well as jazz and popular music. Grounded in the tradition of tonality that spans the Baroque period through late 19th-century Romanticism and early 20th-century French Impressionism, Burgess's music is strongly influenced by the works of Debussy and the English school of Elgar, Delius, Holst, Walton, and Vaughan Williams.' Burgess writes about his development as a musician in the first volume of his autobiography, Little Wilson and Big God. He recalls that he attended regular concerts with his father, and he remembers the world premiere of Constant Lambert's Rio Grande at the Free Trade Hall in Manchester in 1929. He also recounts hearing Debussy's Prélude à l'après-midi d'un faune on the radio in the 1920s. Suffering from colour-blindness, Burgess claims that 'My impaired colour sense was already finding, in the quiet impact of Debussy's orchestra, an auditory compensation.' Burgess became a competent pianist, favouring large chords, jazzy sounds and rhythms, and he developed a fondness for jazz standards. He began to write music while he was at school, and he continued while he was a student at Manchester University (1937-40), producing short choral works, settings of T.S. Eliot and Ezra Pound, and a draft of Doctor Faustus, a projected one-act opera. All of these early compositions are now presumed to be lost, and it is not clear how many of them were in fact completed. The only source for many of Burgess's pieces is a list he compiled in 1982 for This Man and Music, his musical autobiography. During the 1939-45 war, Burgess was a pianist in the 54th Division Entertainment Section of the British Army, arranging many pieces for dance band. In 1945 he wrote a Sonata for Violincello and Piano in G Minor which is his earliest surviving completed work. His career as a writer developed after the war while he was working as a teacher in England, Malaya and Brunei. Alongside this he continued to write music including orchestral works, chamber pieces, settings of Eliot, Auden and Shakespeare's songs, and small pieces for the piano. From the late 1960s he began to write music for film, television and theatre, including a musical version of Shakespeare's life, music for a television series about Moses starring Burt Lancaster (Burgess's music was turned down by producer Lew Grade), and incidental music for a successful production of Cyrano de Bergerac, using his own translation, at the Guthrie Theater in Minneapolis. Symphony in C (1975), commissioned and performed by the University of Iowa Symphony Orchestra, was the first public presentation of an orchestral work by Burgess. He said of the performance: 'I had written over 30 books, but this was the truly great artistic moment. I wished my father had been present. It would have been a filial fulfilment of his own youthful dreams.' Burgess began composing with renewed vigour, completing (among other works) a piano concerto, a violin concerto, chamber pieces based on the poems of F.X. Enderby and T.S. Eliot's The Waste Land, a song cycle based on four poems by D.H. Lawrence, and a ballet suite for orchestra themed around the life of William Shakespeare. Blooms of Dublin, Burgess's operetta or musical play based on Joyce's Ulysses, was broadcast on BBC radio and by RTE in Ireland to mark the centenary of Joyce's birth in 1982. The text was published by Hutchinson. This was followed by an invitation from Scottish Opera to write a new libretto for Carl Maria von Weber's opera Oberon, and a commission from English National Opera to make a new translation of Georges Bizet's Carmen, performed at the Coliseum in London with Sally Burgess (no relation) as Carmen. In 1986 Burgess reworked his novel A Clockwork Orange as 'play with music', with songs based on melodies by Beethoven, and ending with a reworking of the 'Ode to Joy' from the Ninth Symphony. The first performance took place in West Germany in 1988, but Burgess's music was discarded in favour of new music composed by the punk band Die Toten Hosen, who later had a hit with the single 'Hier kommt Alex'. The musical version of A Clockwork Orange was broadcast by BBC Radio 3 in 2017, and there was another production featuring Burgess's songs and incidental music at the Everyman Theatre in Liverpool in 2018. The critic Paul Phillips characterises Burgess's music as having 'an angular, vigorous style, often dissonant although mostly tonal. He often wrote in conventional musical forms, such as sonata and passacaglia, and tended to write traditionally structured works such as four-movement symphonies and three-movement concertos. Burgess had a deep love of polyphony and composed enormous amounts of counterpoint; in his autobiography he wrote that each morning he tried "to emulate Bach and compose at least a fugal exposition." Curiosity compelled him to experiment with twelve-tone music, but his conservative musical tendencies led him no further in the direction of the avant-garde.' Commercial recordings include The Piano Music of Anthony Burgess (2015), performed by Richard Casey and released by Prima Facie; The Man and His Music, an anthology including four recorder pieces by Burgess, played by John Turner and Harvey Davies, released by Métier; and Orchestral Music, including the pieces Mr W.S., Marche pour une révolution and Mr Burgess's Almanack, played by Brown University Orchestra and released by Naxos. Burgess's sequence of [24 Preludes and Fugues](https://naxosdirect.com/items/burgess-the-bad-tempered-electronic-keyboard-433365) was recorded by Stephane Ginsburgh and released by Naxos on the Grand Piano label in 2018. You can hear an informative [podcast about this recording here](https://blog.naxos.com/2018/02/23/podcast-burgess-meets-bach/). There have been performances of Burgess's music all over the world since his death in 1993. With a growing number of high-profile recordings, radio broadcasts and performances by professional orchestras in recent years, it is clear that more attention is now being paid to this important aspect of Burgess's creative life. Burgess writes at length about his life as a musician in This Man and Music, an autobiographical volume in which he gives a detailed account of composing his Symphony in C. This book, edited and annotated by the musicologist Christine Lee Gengaro, was [published in the Irwell Edition of the Works of Anthony Burgess in 2020](https://manchesteruniversitypress.co.uk/9781526123916/this-man-and-music/). In 2024 Carcanet published a 550-page selection of Burgess's essays on music. The book is titled The Devil Prefers Mozart (see link below). A selection of scores of musical works by Anthony Burgess can be found on our [music pages](https://www.anthonyburgess.org/music-anthony-burgess/). Further reading: [Anthony Burgess: The Devil Prefers Mozart: Writings on Music and Musicians (Carcanet, 2024).](https://blackwells.co.uk/bookshop/product/The-Devil-Prefers-Mozart-by-Anthony-Burgess-author-Paul-Schuyler-Phillips-editor/9781800173088)

Magnus Carlsen

https://www.telegraph.co.uk/news/celebritynews/my-perfect-weekend/8177372/My-perfect-weekend-Magnus-Carlsen.html

Last Monday I was still a teenager and my lifestyle reflects that. I can be quite disorganised in some ways and, if there is no particular reason to get up in the morning, I can stay in bed until lunchtime. I will be laid-back one minute, intellectually sharp and focused the next. Did I feel excited about finally entering my twenties this week, after years of being regarded as some kind of child prodigy, with everything that went with that? Not really. It was just another birthday as far as I was concerned. In the nature of my profession, my weekends don't follow a regular pattern. If there is no chess tournament on the horizon, I might relax by playing football with friends or having a game of squash or tennis. My main residence is a basement apartment in my parents' house in Baerum, a suburb of Oslo. My sisters also still live at home, so it is quite a family-centred existence. One of the things that first motivated me to take up chess as a child was the desire to beat my elder sister. My father, a fine chess player himself, has been a massive influence throughout my life. I also have friends locally with whom I will hang out if I am not playing chess. Baerum is a wealthy suburb, with the highest proportion of university graduates in Norway. It is situated on a rugged stretch of coastline, on a river inlet, but backed by large forests, so there is no shortage of walking options at the weekend. I enjoy hiking and skiing, like most Norwegians. In winter, there will be snow for months on end. In the summer, there are the long evenings to enjoy. But a quiet weekend at home is the exception rather than the rule. As an elite chess player, I have to travel all over the world, taking part in tournaments. It means competing against the same small group of players again and again, but I have no problem with that. Hotel rooms can be a bit samey, of course, and I spend a lot of time in the air, or waiting around at airports, but it is not a monotonous existence. One of the things that first attracted me to chess is that it brings you into contact with intelligent, civilised people – men of the stature of Garry Kasparov, the former world champion, who was my part-time coach. There are very few unpleasant people in chess, which cannot be said of all professional sports. More and more people, myself included, play chess on the internet, but there is no substitute for the real thing, two players across a board, trying to outwit each other. The preparation for a big match can take longer than the match itself. There is a lot of analysis involved. But if I am feeling tense, I might listen to music, to put me in the mood. I am currently ranked No 2 in the world, having slipped from No 1, but I want to get the top spot back and become world champion as well. The ambition to get better and better is one of the driving forces in any top chess player. If you lose that, you might as well give up. I spend about 200 days a year away from home, but that does not bother me. Chess aside, it is a great way to see the world, whether it is Russia, China, India or somewhere closer to home, like Holland, a country I always enjoy visiting. I am looking forward to playing in London this month. I had a great time there last year. I got the travel bug when I was quite young. My parents took me and my sisters out of school and we travelled all over Europe. It was an eye-opening experience and, although I love Norway, I also enjoy visiting new countries. I don't get homesick. Because of my itinerant existence, much of it spent in foreign hotels, I am very dependent on the internet for keeping in touch with friends and family. Sometimes I play online poker. Or I watch a DVD or download music. If there is a football match on television, I might watch that – my favourite team is Real Madrid. In the evenings, I either have a meal in my room or go out to a restaurant, depending how on I am feeling. But I am not a great drinker. I couldn't afford to be – I would lose my edge. I am not a fitness fanatic either, but if the hotel has a gym, I might spend some time there. In the chess world, there is a danger of becoming obsessive, lying awake at night thinking about possible moves and permutations of moves, but I hope I have managed to avoid that trap. There is a lot of preparation required before a big tournament, but I like to think I know when to be focused and when to relax. Chess has opened some interesting doors for me – I have recently modelled some clothes for the Dutch fashion brand G-Star Raw, which I enjoyed – but this is not a sport for a playboy. There is a lot of hard work involved. Despite some of the preconceptions about me, I wouldn't say I have a freakishly high IQ. I am just someone who is naturally curious. I like to stretch myself. For as long as I can remember, I have liked to learn things for myself by trial and error, rather than have them drummed into me by someone else. I was doing quite complex jigsaw puzzles before I was two. A year later, I started memorising the names of motor cars. Then it was onto geography. By the time I was five or six, I was studying maps, and mugging up on facts and figures. I knew the capitals and populations of half the countries in the world. Chess was a kind of extension of that compulsion to learn and study and master detail. But, with so much of my life ahead of me, I don't want to become obsessive or lose touch with reality. There is a world beyond chess and I am looking forward to exploring it. IN SHORT Herbal tea or stiff drink? Definitely not a stiff drink when I am playing. And I am not a great one for herbal tea either. I would be more likely to have a fruit juice. Do you believe in the spirit world? It is not something to which I have given a lot of thought. Who is your inspiration? Originally, it was my father who gave me my passion for chess. Now that I study classic matches, I learn from all the great players of the past. What was the last film you saw? The latest Harry Potter. What was the last piece of music you bought? I usually listen to music on the internet, sites like Spotify, rather than buying CDs. I listen to quite a lot of rap. How do you feel on a typical Friday evening? And Monday morning? If I am in a big tournament, I will be keyed up for that. By Monday, I will be exhausted and can sleep in for hours. Beach or snow? Either, according to season. How would you describe yourself to an alien from another planet? An enthusiast for a game that is civilised and challenging. Definitely not as a genius or freak of nature. - Magnus Carlsen is playing in the London Chess Classic at Olympia from December 8-15

Magnus Carlsen

http://en.chessbase.com/post/magnus-the-chess-movie

[ ChessBase 17 - Mega package - Edition 2024 ](https://shop.chessbase.com/en/products/chessbase_17_mega_package_edition_2024?ref=RF5-TYB55LUOVF) It is the program of choice for anyone who loves the game and wants to know more about it. Start your personal success story with ChessBase and enjoy the game even more. Magnus Carlsen is widely known as the 'Mozart of Chess' because, unlike many chess grandmasters, he not only possesses an innate ability and a remarkable memory, but he blends those attributes with unrivaled creativity and intuition. Memorized moves and calculated probabilities can carry a chess player extremely far. But Magnus' journey eventually proves that there can be other elements of the game, ones that are impossible to measure or calculate. From a young age Magnus Carlsen had aspirations of becoming a champion chess player. While many players seek out an intensely rigid environment to hone their skills, Magnus' brilliance shines brightest when surrounded by his loving and supportive family. Through an extensive amount of archival footage and home movies, director Benjamin Ree reveals this young man's unusual and rapid trajectory to the pinnacle of the chess world. This film allows the audience to not only peek inside this isolated community but also witness the maturation of a modern genius. The film "Magnus" will now premiere at the prestigious TriBeCa festival in New York. It is a festival that was started in 2002 by, among others, Robert De Niro, in response to the Sept. 11 terrorist attacks. The film is the first Norwegian cinema documentary that makes its world premiere at this festival. More than 6,000 contributions were submitted, and "Magnus" was selected as one of 101 films altogether. Film information: Production year: 2016, Length: 76 minutes, Language: English, Norwegian. Director: Benjamin Ree, Screenwriter: Linn-Jeanethe Kyed, Benjamin Ree, Producer: Sigurd Mikal Karoliussen, Editor: Perry Eriksen, Martin Stoltz, Cinematographer: Magnus Flåto, Benjamin Ree, Øyvind Asbjørnsen, Executive Producer: Aage Aaberge, Øyvind Asbjørnsen, Composer: Uno Helmersson, Co-Producer: VG TV, Main Island Production, Nordisk Film, Cast: Magnus Carlsen, Garry Kasparov, Viswanathan Anand. Director Benjamin Ree is a Norwegian documentary filmmaker. He studied journalism at the Oslo University College and moved on to work as a journalist for Reuters and freelance for BBC. A few years later he started making award winning short documentaries, which premiered at IDFA and Chicago International Children's Film Festival. You can read more about Benjamin (above with Magnus) in this [Time to Riot blog](http://timetoriot.com/blog/54) The film will be screening in the Regal Cinemas in Battery Park 11, Manhattan, NYC. Date and time of screenings: Thursday April 14, 9:15 p.m. (11-6), Sunday April 17, 8:00 p.m. (11-3), Tuesday April 19, 3:15 p.m. (11-6), Saturday April 23, 4:30 p.m. (11-9) – brackets indicate cinema number. The tickets can be purchased from March 29 at [Tribeca Film Festival's web page](https://tribecafilm.com/filmguide/magnus-2016). Magnus Carlsen - New Chess Movie 2016 – Teaser Trailer Also read: ScreenDaily: [TrustNordisk moves on chess champion doc 'Magnus'](http://www.screendaily.com/news/trustnordisk-moves-on-chess-champion-doc-magnus/5092953.article#) Scandinavian sales agent TrustNordisk has picked up worldwide rights to a documentary about young world chess champion Magnus Carlsen. Magnus has been compiled from more than 500 hours of footage shot over a decade, from when a 13-year-old Carlsen was being bullied by his classmates in Norway for his obsession with chess to becoming world champion and the highest ranked player of all time aged 22. |Advertising| We use cookies and comparable technologies to provide certain functions, to improve the user experience and to offer interest-oriented content. Depending on their intended use, cookies may be used in addition to technically required cookies, analysis cookies and marketing cookies. You can decide which cookies to use by selecting the appropriate options below. Please note that your selection may affect the functionality of the service. Further information can be found in our [privacy policy](/pages/security).

Mark Hamill

https://www.telegraph.co.uk/film/star-wars-the-force-awakens/mark-hamill-luke-skywalker-trivia-profile/

He may not be its biggest star, but here's why the man known as Luke Skywalker is the true centre of the [Star Wars](http://www.telegraph.co.uk/star-wars) universe This article was first published in December 2015 There's nothing about the kid that immediately screams "saviour of the galaxy". He's 24, in a checked shirt and dark pullover, and spends the first few minutes of the video looking down at his feet. His line readings are equally subdued – but given the lines themselves include "I doubt if the actual security there is any greater than it was on Aquilae or Sullust, and what there is is most likely directed towards a large-scale assault", it'd perhaps be unfair to expect him to sound like Brando in Streetcar. But towards the end of the audition, something happens. The kid shifts forward in his seat, his eyes widen, and he starts to glow. "How many more systems have to get blown away before you have no place to hide and are forced to fight?" he asks the 30-something actor sitting beside him. (It's [Harrison Ford](http://www.telegraph.co.uk/harrison-ford), from the smash hit George Lucas film American Graffiti.) What he's got is conviction – but a strange, contagious kind that makes those overstuffed lines feel as urgent and real to you as they seem to be to him. Back in December 1975, Mark Hamill was nobody special – a jobbing television actor, with a few bit parts in sitcoms and soap operas under his belt. But in that moment, he became someone you could believe in. Almost 40 years after that tape was recorded, I saw Hamill on stage in California, talking about JJ Abrams's [Star Wars Episode VII: The Force Awakens](http://www.telegraph.co.uk/film/star-wars-the-force-awakens/), and his long-awaited return to the role that made him. Looking a little paunchy and crumpled in a grey-blue shirt and loose leather jacket, with a Nineties news-anchor haircut, you probably wouldn't place the now-64-year-old actor as a saviour of the galaxy either: if pushed, you might guess former Top Gear presenter. But from the reactions of the 7,500-strong crowd in the Anaheim Convention Centre who'd given up their Saturday evenings to hear him speak, you'd have to say the Force was still with him. He reminisced about the old days, revelling in the shoestring weirdness of the original productions. While filming the scenes in the swamps of Dagobah for [The Empire Strikes Back](http://www.telegraph.co.uk/film/star-wars--the-empire-strikes-back/review/), for example, Yoda's dialogue had been fed to him through a radio earpiece that would often pick up a local pop music station – and he recalled that during one particularly heartfelt scene, the ancient Jedi master's croaky wisdom had been suddenly replaced by More More More, a disco song by the former adult film star Andrea True. He also spoke about the lunch he'd shared with Lucas and Carrie Fisher in 2013 during which Lucas had broached the subject of them both returning, along with Ford, for Episode VII. "My wife said beforehand, 'Maybe they're doing another film,' and I laughed at her," he said. "I thought he was going to ask us to do press for the 3D versions, or another box set. "I was in a state of shock…I couldn't say yes or no. But later I thought, 'It's not like a choice. It's like I was drafted. Can you imagine if, for some reason, I'd said I didn't want to do it? I'd have all of you" – he gestured to the arena – "surrounding my house like the angry villagers in a Frankenstein picture. I'd be the most hated person in fandom." For now, though, Hamill's standing seems secure. There's a genuine fondness in his relationship with Star Wars fans: take his [autographs](http://www.telegraph.co.uk/film/star-wars--a-new-hope/mark-hamill-jokes-signed-trading-cards/), which often come with a self-deprecating aside. (On a trading card that shows a heartbroken Luke outside the smouldering shell of Uncle Owen and Aunt Beru's homestead, he once scribbled: "Well, now I can go to Tosche Station whenever I want.") And while those fans know roughly what to expect from Han and Leia in Episode VII, it's Luke, while apparently a lynchpin of the plot, that remains a mystery. The trailers have offered only one glimpse of him to date: a robotic hand resting on [R2-D2's](http://www.telegraph.co.uk/film/star-wars-the-force-awakens/c3po-actor-r2d2-feud/) head, while sparks from a nearby bonfire drift through the dark. But Hamill's very Alec Guinness-esque beard during a spell filming on the remote Irish island of Skellig Michael in July 2014 suggests that Luke may have gone into exile in much the same way as Guinness's Obi-Wan Kenobi did in the original Star Wars film – perhaps guarding the relics of Darth Vader that the series' latest masked villain, Adam Driver's Kylo Ren, seems so eager to obtain. Or perhaps, as rumour has it, he's the film's bad guy in chief. There's no question that Hamill still matters – both to Star Wars and its fans. But I've resisted calling him a movie star because, after seeing him that night, even with the entire arena cheering him on, I'm not entirely sure he is one. In 1981, shortly after the release of The Empire Strikes Back, People magazine quoted the actor as saying the Star Wars films had turned him into "an icon, like Mickey Mouse – and though the piece made no mention of his tone, it seems unlikely to have been untrammelled glee." Not that there's anything wrong with Mickey Mouse: in fact, the cartoon character was a welcome note of constancy in Hamill's otherwise unsettled childhood. His father was a captain in the U.S. Navy, which meant he and his six siblings (Hamill was the fourth of seven children) grew up between California, Virginia, New York and Yokohama and Yokosuka in Japan. Watching The Mickey Mouse Club after school with his brothers and sisters was a favourite activity – as was losing himself in the colour funnies that came with his father's Sunday newspaper. Before he could read, he'd pore over silent strips like Henry and The Little King, while the black-and-white Adventures of Superman TV series, starring George Reeves, introduced him to the pleasures of superheroism. (He remains a keen comic-book reader and collector: as for the Disney connection, he named his firstborn son Nathan Elias after the famous Walter Elias, AKA Walt.) As a child, he harboured dreams of cartooning but the drama club at his English-speaking high school in Yokosuka made him think again. When he was 17, his family returned to California, and he moved to the city, studying drama at Los Angeles City College and renting a place of his own (a garden shed, for $55 a month). One of his first acting jobs was at a Renaissance Faire, performing six skits a day, arresting Robin Hood one minute and being cured of a broken leg by St. Peter's magic bone the next. The pay was $8 a day, though it was docked if you dropped character and broke the spell. He was blond, chipper and good-looking in an earnest kind of way: obviously, network television beckoned. His first bit-part was on The Bill Cosby Show in 1970, playing a member of a high-school poetry club, while his first regular gig came two years later, as a lovestruck teen on the ABC soap opera General Hospital. Others soon followed: a voice in the Saturday morning cartoon Jeannie, a lead role in the short-lived sitcom The Texas Wheelers. He also provided the voice of Sean, the diminutive "leader of the Knights of Stardust", in Ralph Bakshi's delirious counterculture fantasy animation, Wizards, and would later reminisce about the notoriously gruff Bakshi grunting at him in the recording booth: "You call that a f_____' pixie?" It was in 1975 that Hamill's friend Robert Englund – who would go on to play the dream-stalking serial killer Freddie Krueger in Nightmare on Elm Street – who tipped him off about a promising-sounding audition. Two hot young directors, George Lucas and Brian De Palma, were holding a joint casting call at Goldwyn Studios in Hollywood. Lucas was looking for new faces for a long-gestating sci-fi fantasy adventure, that was then-titled The Star Wars: From the Adventures of Luke Starkiller. Ford had agreed to read the part of Han Solo, a galactic freebooter, as a favour to his old director, and in a 1976 interview, given before Star Wars was released, Hamill remembered overhearing Ford saying to the man the young actor had been politely calling Mr Lucas: "Aw s___ George, let's get this f_____' thing over with and get the hell outta here." Before that day, Lucas had intended to give the part of Luke to William Katt, another bright-eyed, blond, young TV actor. But as the audition tape attests, Hamill was the New Hope the director had been searching for. Katt, meanwhile, got the not-insignificant consolation prize of playing Tommy Ross, the pig-blood-slathered prom date of one Carrie White in De Palma's own next film. Star Wars changed everything – almost, if not quite, in a heartbeat. On the day the film opened, Lucas called Hamill and asked if he felt famous yet: when he said no, Lucas said in that case he should come to the studio and re-record some dialogue for the monaural prints (the original release was mixed in stereo). On their way home, they drove past Grauman's Chinese Theatre on Hollywood Boulevard, and noticed the line for Star Wars ran around the block. "I wanted to lean out the window," he told Gossip magazine in 1978, "and say, 'Why are you here? Why did you do this?'" At the time, Hamill thought Star Wars might be as big as Goldfinger, which made almost $125 million in the U.S. In the event, it made $307 million, and played for almost a year. Even before adjusting for inflation and adding the reissues and Special Edition, it remains [the seventh most successful film ever released](http://www.telegraph.co.uk/film/star-wars-the-force-awakens/george-lucas-box-office-disney/). It's strange and not a little eerie to think that Star Wars was almost Hamill's final film as well as his first. On January 11, 1977, a little over five months before the film's release, Hamill was driving his new BMW along a freeway in Southern California, fast – while listening to Tchaikovsky's 1812 Overture, of all things. He realised he was about to miss his exit, and swerved, hard, across four lanes in an attempt to reach it. The car flipped onto its side and rolled off-road. Hamill broke his nose and both cheekbones. The face that cinema-goers around the world were about to get to know – was gone. "I just woke up and I was in the hospital, and I knew that I had hurt myself very, very badly," he said in 1978. "And then someone held a mirror up to my face, and I just felt that my career was over." Surgeons were able to repair much of the damage, using cartilage from his ear to rebuild his nose. But the difference between his appearance in Star Wars and in the teen comedy Corvette Summer, which he made six months after the accident, is apparent – as it is in the 1978 Star Wars Holiday Special, a universally reviled made-for-TV variety show, in which he appears, very obviously, under a thick coat of make-up and on heavy painkillers. Hamill has rarely spoken about the crash, other than to acknowledge it happened, and that his dramatic facial scarring at the opening of The Empire Strikes Back – after his mauling on the ice-blown wastes of Hoth by a hungry wampa – was only partly artificial. In May 1981, a year after the release of The Empire Strikes Back, he relocated to New York with his wife, Marilou York, a dental hygienist he'd met between making the two Star Wars films, and their son. His plan was to broaden his range, do a little theatre, before returning to Elstree Studios in early 1982 to shoot Return of the Jedi. And he had a juicy Broadway debut lined up: the lead role in Bernard Pomerance's heart-rending melodrama The Elephant Man. But the show, which had then been running for over two years, closed wihin three weeks of his debut, before even the official opening night. No doubt that slump was quickened by an advertising campaign – Hamill in his Luke Skywalker costume, with the tagline "And the Force continues…on Broadway!" – that might kindly be described as poorly targeted. A second assault – taking over the title role in Amadeus from Tim Curry, for a nine-month run in 1983 – was significantly more successful, and Hamill spent most of the remainder of the 1980s on stage. Occasionally he dipped back into film, although the films rarely merited the effort. (An exception – arguably the exception – is The Big Red One, a war movie he made in 1980 with Samuel Fuller, between Star Wars and Empire.) You might think his role in Amadeus would have stood him in perfect stead for Miloš Forman's 1984 film adaptation of that play. But apparently a fretful executive producer told Forman and his casting directors: "I don't want Luke Skywalker in this film." And that, more or less, has been Hollywood's mantra ever since. What's so cheering about Hamill, though, is he hasn't let it stop him. His love of comics helped win him a role in the acclaimed Batman: The Animated Series in 1993, first as a supporting villain in a Mr. Freeze episode, and then as the Joker, another role in which he replaced Tim Curry. Warner Bros. Animation were so impressed by Hamill's reading of the character – "I saw the laugh as a musical instrument," he once told an interviewer, "that it had colours depending on his mood" – that they had him re-record all seven of the episodes Curry had already completed. Until he was in the booth, Hamill was convinced the job was too good to be true. "Because of my background, because of playing Luke," he had already concluded, "there was no way I was going to get this part." But away from the cinema, he's since become the go-to-guy. That flesh-creeping cackle in the recent, million-selling Batman: Arkham Asylum, City and Knight video games? That's him. A slew of voice-acting work followed, and more recently, higher-profile live-action roles too, many of which trade on his pop-culture cachet. He was a climate change professor in Matthew Vaughn's Kingsman, a lightsaber-wielding bad guy called Cocknocker in Kevin Smith's Jay and Silent Bob Strike Back, and popped up in the current superhero series The Flash as The Trickster, a villain he'd previously played in the 1990 Flash live-action show and the 2000s Justice League cartoon. (The writers even gave him an "I am your father" line, for old time's sake.) For him, however, Episode VII is filmmaking on another scale. It's easy to forget that the original Star Wars trilogy were seat-of-the-pants productions: Hamill once (very generously) compared the gulf between them and Lucas's more recent prequels to that between "a garage band" and "a philharmonic". Under the sprightly baton of JJ Abrams, he's finally sitting with the orchestra.

Mark Hamill

http://www.markhamill.com/biograph.htm

| | Mark was born on 25 September 1951 in Oakland, CA. The middle child of William and Suzanne Hamill, he has six siblings: Terry, Jan, Jeanie, William Jr, Kim, and Patrick. His father being a captain in the United States Navy, Mark grew up in a variety of places, including California, Virginia, New York City, and Japan. After he graduated from Yokohama HS in 1969, the Hamills moved back to California, where Mark entered Los Angeles City College as a Theatre Arts major. Mark's professional acting debut was on the original Bill Cosby Show, in 1971. He played an ongoing role on the soap opera General Hospital, and was a co-star in The Texas Wheelers, the first comedy show not to use a 'laugh track'. While he did a voice-over in the animated movie Wizards, (his character looks like him), his film debut was in Star Wars, 1977. He was in a car accident; specific parts of the wampa scene in The Empire Strikes Back, 1980, were written to explain the facial changes. Mark married Marilou York in 1978. They have three children: Nathan, born 25 June 1979; Griffin, born 4 March 1983; Chelsea, born 27 July 1988. Their main residence is in Malibu, California. After Return of the Jedi, 1983, Mark concentrated on theatre, and appeared in several Broadway plays, including The Elephant Man, and Amadeus. His most challenging role was the one he originated, that of Tony Hart in Harrigan 'n Hart. He sang and danced in that role, and garnered a Drama Desk nomination for Best Actor in a Musical. He also did several off- Broadway plays. Returning to film in 1989, Mark has also made several guest appearances on television shows. Two favourites with fans are Just Shoot Me! and The Simpsons. Using his talent for disguising his voice, Mark is much in demand as a voice-over actor Watch Robot Chicken, or Super Robot Monkey Team Hyperforce to hear how versatile he is! Mark has done several projects in the computer games field, as well. Most notable is as Colonel Christopher Blair in Wing Commander III and IV, and Wing Commander:Prophecy. The Black Pearl, a five-part graphic novel Mark co-wrote with Eric Johnson, was released on 18 September 1996. It has been adapted to a screenplay. Look for more information on this project in the future! Mark produced and starred in ComicBook: The Movie, a homage to collectors everywhere. A good bit of this was filmed at the San Diego ComicCon in 2001. He made a rare convention appearance, at Star Wars Celebration Europe Friday and Saturday, 13th - 14th July 2007 signing autographs. After a one hour talk session with Warwick Davis on the Friday, he participated in the Opening Ceremonies for Celebration Europe.

Etniese suiwering in Bhoetan

http://www.refworld.org/cgi-bin/texis/vtx/rwmain?page=country&category=&publisher=MARP&type=&coi=BTN&rid=&docid=469f386a1e&skip=0

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Etniese suiwering in Bhoetan

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/1171693.stm

Bhutan profile - Timeline - Published A chronology of key events: 1907 - Ugyen Wangchuck is chosen as hereditary ruler. 1910 - Treaty signed with British giving them control over Bhutan's foreign relations. 1949 - Treaty signed with newly-independent India guaranteeing non-interference in Bhutan's internal affairs, but allowing Delhi influence over foreign relations. 1952 - Reformist monarch Jigme Dorji Wangchuck succeeds to throne. 1952 - National assembly established. Modernisation 1958 - Slavery abolished. Other social reforms follow in subsequent years. 1959 - Several thousand refugees given asylum after Chinese annex Tibet. 1964, 1965 - Prime minister killed in dispute among competing political factions. Unsuccessful attempt to assassinate monarch. 1968 - First cabinet established. 1971 - Bhutan joins United Nations. 1972 - King Jigme Dorji Wangchuck dies and is succeeded by his son, Jigme Singye Wangchuck, who continues policy of cautious modernisation. 1974 - First foreign tourists allowed in. Ethnic tension 1986 - New law granting citizenship on basis of length of residence in Bhutan. 1988 - Census leads to branding of many ethnic Nepalis as illegal immigrants. New measures adopted to enforce citizenship law. Government also introduces other measures to stress Tibetan-based Bhutanese culture, antagonising minority ethnic Nepali community. 1989 - Nepali ceases to be a language of instruction in schools. 1990 - Violent ethnic unrest and anti-government protests in southern Bhutan pressing for greater democracy and respect for Nepali rights. Bhutan People's Party begins campaign of violence. Thousands of ethnic Nepalis flee to Nepal. Democracy and human rights 1992 - Leader of illegal Bhutan People's Party sentenced to life imprisonment. 1993 - Bhutan and Nepal try to resolve refugee problem. 1996 - Nepal demands all 80,000 or so refugees should be accepted back by Bhutan. 1997 - Amnesty International raises serious concerns over human rights situation in southern Bhutan. 1998 - King cedes some powers to national assembly, giving up role as head of government; cabinet now elected by assembly; famous "Tiger's Lair" Buddhist monastery damaged by fire. 1999 - Limited television and internet services allowed; several dozen political prisoners released. 2000 - First internet cafe opens in Thimphu; Bhutan hit by landslides following severe flooding in region, causing at least 200 deaths. Refugee issue 2001 August - Bhutanese, Nepalese ministers meet to discuss the repatriation of Bhutanese refugees living in Nepal. Some 100,000 ethnic Nepalese say they were forced out of Bhutan in the 1980s and 1990s, alleging ethnic and political repression. 2002 January - Indian state of Assam says two rebel groups still have camps in Bhutan, despite Bhutan's deadline for them to leave the country by the end of 2001. 2003 December - Bhutanese soldiers fight Indian separatist rebels in an attempt to drive them from their bases in the south of the country. 2005 March - Proposed constitution is unveiled. It envisages a parliamentary democracy and will be adopted or rejected in a referendum. Succession 2005 December - King Jigme Singye Wangchuck says he will abdicate in 2008, when democratic parliamentary elections are held. The crown prince will take over as monarch. 2006 June-August - Bhutanese refugees in Nepal demonstrate over several weeks to press for third-country resettlement. 2006 September - Preparations start in earnest for first ever elections in 2008. Officials begin training for the polls which will appoint a government to take over from the absolute monarchy. 2006 December - King Jigme Singye Wangchuck abdicates; Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck, the crown prince, assumes the throne. The former monarch had been expected to stay in power until 2008. 2007 February - Bhutan signs a landmark agreement with India which revises ties with its neighbour, giving Bhutan more say over its foreign and defence policies. 2007 April - Mock elections are staged to familiarise voters with the concept of parliamentary democracy ahead of planned polls in 2008. 2007 July - Prime Minister Khandu Wangchuck resigns so he can compete in elections planned for February and March 2008. 2008 January and February - A string of bomb blasts hits the country ahead of elections set for March 24. The attacks are blamed on groups fighting for the rights of ethnic Nepalis exiled in 1991. 2008 March - Pro-monarchy Bhutan Harmony Party wins 44 out of the 47 seats in the country's first parliamentary elections. Another pro-monarchy party wins the remaining seats. 2008 November - Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck is crowned king. India alleges links between Assamese separatists and Bhutan dissident Druk National Congress. 2009 April - Huanglongbing virus wipes out much of orange crop. Oranges are an important export for Bhutan. 2011 October - King Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck marries 21-year-old student Jetsun Pema. 2013 July - Parliamentary elections: opposition People's Democratic Party wins 32 seats in the lower house, against the incumbent Druk Phuensum Tshogpa party's 15 seats. 2013 August - Prime Minister Tshering Tobgay says Bhutan's much lauded concept of Gross National Happiness is overused and masks the real problems facing the country like increasing debt, chronic unemployment, poverty and corruption. 2015 January - John Kerry becomes the first-ever US secretary of state to hold a cabinet-level meeting with a Bhutanese official when he meets Bhutanese Prime Minister Tshering Tobgay in India. 2016 February - King Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck and his wife, Queen Jetsun Pema announce the birth of Crown Prince Jigme Namgyal Wangchuck. 2017 June - Bhutan protests to China over its building of a road in disputed territory.

Etniese suiwering in Bhoetan

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/1171693.stm

Bhutan profile - Timeline - Published A chronology of key events: 1907 - Ugyen Wangchuck is chosen as hereditary ruler. 1910 - Treaty signed with British giving them control over Bhutan's foreign relations. 1949 - Treaty signed with newly-independent India guaranteeing non-interference in Bhutan's internal affairs, but allowing Delhi influence over foreign relations. 1952 - Reformist monarch Jigme Dorji Wangchuck succeeds to throne. 1952 - National assembly established. Modernisation 1958 - Slavery abolished. Other social reforms follow in subsequent years. 1959 - Several thousand refugees given asylum after Chinese annex Tibet. 1964, 1965 - Prime minister killed in dispute among competing political factions. Unsuccessful attempt to assassinate monarch. 1968 - First cabinet established. 1971 - Bhutan joins United Nations. 1972 - King Jigme Dorji Wangchuck dies and is succeeded by his son, Jigme Singye Wangchuck, who continues policy of cautious modernisation. 1974 - First foreign tourists allowed in. Ethnic tension 1986 - New law granting citizenship on basis of length of residence in Bhutan. 1988 - Census leads to branding of many ethnic Nepalis as illegal immigrants. New measures adopted to enforce citizenship law. Government also introduces other measures to stress Tibetan-based Bhutanese culture, antagonising minority ethnic Nepali community. 1989 - Nepali ceases to be a language of instruction in schools. 1990 - Violent ethnic unrest and anti-government protests in southern Bhutan pressing for greater democracy and respect for Nepali rights. Bhutan People's Party begins campaign of violence. Thousands of ethnic Nepalis flee to Nepal. Democracy and human rights 1992 - Leader of illegal Bhutan People's Party sentenced to life imprisonment. 1993 - Bhutan and Nepal try to resolve refugee problem. 1996 - Nepal demands all 80,000 or so refugees should be accepted back by Bhutan. 1997 - Amnesty International raises serious concerns over human rights situation in southern Bhutan. 1998 - King cedes some powers to national assembly, giving up role as head of government; cabinet now elected by assembly; famous "Tiger's Lair" Buddhist monastery damaged by fire. 1999 - Limited television and internet services allowed; several dozen political prisoners released. 2000 - First internet cafe opens in Thimphu; Bhutan hit by landslides following severe flooding in region, causing at least 200 deaths. Refugee issue 2001 August - Bhutanese, Nepalese ministers meet to discuss the repatriation of Bhutanese refugees living in Nepal. Some 100,000 ethnic Nepalese say they were forced out of Bhutan in the 1980s and 1990s, alleging ethnic and political repression. 2002 January - Indian state of Assam says two rebel groups still have camps in Bhutan, despite Bhutan's deadline for them to leave the country by the end of 2001. 2003 December - Bhutanese soldiers fight Indian separatist rebels in an attempt to drive them from their bases in the south of the country. 2005 March - Proposed constitution is unveiled. It envisages a parliamentary democracy and will be adopted or rejected in a referendum. Succession 2005 December - King Jigme Singye Wangchuck says he will abdicate in 2008, when democratic parliamentary elections are held. The crown prince will take over as monarch. 2006 June-August - Bhutanese refugees in Nepal demonstrate over several weeks to press for third-country resettlement. 2006 September - Preparations start in earnest for first ever elections in 2008. Officials begin training for the polls which will appoint a government to take over from the absolute monarchy. 2006 December - King Jigme Singye Wangchuck abdicates; Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck, the crown prince, assumes the throne. The former monarch had been expected to stay in power until 2008. 2007 February - Bhutan signs a landmark agreement with India which revises ties with its neighbour, giving Bhutan more say over its foreign and defence policies. 2007 April - Mock elections are staged to familiarise voters with the concept of parliamentary democracy ahead of planned polls in 2008. 2007 July - Prime Minister Khandu Wangchuck resigns so he can compete in elections planned for February and March 2008. 2008 January and February - A string of bomb blasts hits the country ahead of elections set for March 24. The attacks are blamed on groups fighting for the rights of ethnic Nepalis exiled in 1991. 2008 March - Pro-monarchy Bhutan Harmony Party wins 44 out of the 47 seats in the country's first parliamentary elections. Another pro-monarchy party wins the remaining seats. 2008 November - Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck is crowned king. India alleges links between Assamese separatists and Bhutan dissident Druk National Congress. 2009 April - Huanglongbing virus wipes out much of orange crop. Oranges are an important export for Bhutan. 2011 October - King Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck marries 21-year-old student Jetsun Pema. 2013 July - Parliamentary elections: opposition People's Democratic Party wins 32 seats in the lower house, against the incumbent Druk Phuensum Tshogpa party's 15 seats. 2013 August - Prime Minister Tshering Tobgay says Bhutan's much lauded concept of Gross National Happiness is overused and masks the real problems facing the country like increasing debt, chronic unemployment, poverty and corruption. 2015 January - John Kerry becomes the first-ever US secretary of state to hold a cabinet-level meeting with a Bhutanese official when he meets Bhutanese Prime Minister Tshering Tobgay in India. 2016 February - King Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck and his wife, Queen Jetsun Pema announce the birth of Crown Prince Jigme Namgyal Wangchuck. 2017 June - Bhutan protests to China over its building of a road in disputed territory.

Etniese suiwering in Bhoetan

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/1171693.stm

Bhutan profile - Timeline - Published A chronology of key events: 1907 - Ugyen Wangchuck is chosen as hereditary ruler. 1910 - Treaty signed with British giving them control over Bhutan's foreign relations. 1949 - Treaty signed with newly-independent India guaranteeing non-interference in Bhutan's internal affairs, but allowing Delhi influence over foreign relations. 1952 - Reformist monarch Jigme Dorji Wangchuck succeeds to throne. 1952 - National assembly established. Modernisation 1958 - Slavery abolished. Other social reforms follow in subsequent years. 1959 - Several thousand refugees given asylum after Chinese annex Tibet. 1964, 1965 - Prime minister killed in dispute among competing political factions. Unsuccessful attempt to assassinate monarch. 1968 - First cabinet established. 1971 - Bhutan joins United Nations. 1972 - King Jigme Dorji Wangchuck dies and is succeeded by his son, Jigme Singye Wangchuck, who continues policy of cautious modernisation. 1974 - First foreign tourists allowed in. Ethnic tension 1986 - New law granting citizenship on basis of length of residence in Bhutan. 1988 - Census leads to branding of many ethnic Nepalis as illegal immigrants. New measures adopted to enforce citizenship law. Government also introduces other measures to stress Tibetan-based Bhutanese culture, antagonising minority ethnic Nepali community. 1989 - Nepali ceases to be a language of instruction in schools. 1990 - Violent ethnic unrest and anti-government protests in southern Bhutan pressing for greater democracy and respect for Nepali rights. Bhutan People's Party begins campaign of violence. Thousands of ethnic Nepalis flee to Nepal. Democracy and human rights 1992 - Leader of illegal Bhutan People's Party sentenced to life imprisonment. 1993 - Bhutan and Nepal try to resolve refugee problem. 1996 - Nepal demands all 80,000 or so refugees should be accepted back by Bhutan. 1997 - Amnesty International raises serious concerns over human rights situation in southern Bhutan. 1998 - King cedes some powers to national assembly, giving up role as head of government; cabinet now elected by assembly; famous "Tiger's Lair" Buddhist monastery damaged by fire. 1999 - Limited television and internet services allowed; several dozen political prisoners released. 2000 - First internet cafe opens in Thimphu; Bhutan hit by landslides following severe flooding in region, causing at least 200 deaths. Refugee issue 2001 August - Bhutanese, Nepalese ministers meet to discuss the repatriation of Bhutanese refugees living in Nepal. Some 100,000 ethnic Nepalese say they were forced out of Bhutan in the 1980s and 1990s, alleging ethnic and political repression. 2002 January - Indian state of Assam says two rebel groups still have camps in Bhutan, despite Bhutan's deadline for them to leave the country by the end of 2001. 2003 December - Bhutanese soldiers fight Indian separatist rebels in an attempt to drive them from their bases in the south of the country. 2005 March - Proposed constitution is unveiled. It envisages a parliamentary democracy and will be adopted or rejected in a referendum. Succession 2005 December - King Jigme Singye Wangchuck says he will abdicate in 2008, when democratic parliamentary elections are held. The crown prince will take over as monarch. 2006 June-August - Bhutanese refugees in Nepal demonstrate over several weeks to press for third-country resettlement. 2006 September - Preparations start in earnest for first ever elections in 2008. Officials begin training for the polls which will appoint a government to take over from the absolute monarchy. 2006 December - King Jigme Singye Wangchuck abdicates; Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck, the crown prince, assumes the throne. The former monarch had been expected to stay in power until 2008. 2007 February - Bhutan signs a landmark agreement with India which revises ties with its neighbour, giving Bhutan more say over its foreign and defence policies. 2007 April - Mock elections are staged to familiarise voters with the concept of parliamentary democracy ahead of planned polls in 2008. 2007 July - Prime Minister Khandu Wangchuck resigns so he can compete in elections planned for February and March 2008. 2008 January and February - A string of bomb blasts hits the country ahead of elections set for March 24. The attacks are blamed on groups fighting for the rights of ethnic Nepalis exiled in 1991. 2008 March - Pro-monarchy Bhutan Harmony Party wins 44 out of the 47 seats in the country's first parliamentary elections. Another pro-monarchy party wins the remaining seats. 2008 November - Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck is crowned king. India alleges links between Assamese separatists and Bhutan dissident Druk National Congress. 2009 April - Huanglongbing virus wipes out much of orange crop. Oranges are an important export for Bhutan. 2011 October - King Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck marries 21-year-old student Jetsun Pema. 2013 July - Parliamentary elections: opposition People's Democratic Party wins 32 seats in the lower house, against the incumbent Druk Phuensum Tshogpa party's 15 seats. 2013 August - Prime Minister Tshering Tobgay says Bhutan's much lauded concept of Gross National Happiness is overused and masks the real problems facing the country like increasing debt, chronic unemployment, poverty and corruption. 2015 January - John Kerry becomes the first-ever US secretary of state to hold a cabinet-level meeting with a Bhutanese official when he meets Bhutanese Prime Minister Tshering Tobgay in India. 2016 February - King Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck and his wife, Queen Jetsun Pema announce the birth of Crown Prince Jigme Namgyal Wangchuck. 2017 June - Bhutan protests to China over its building of a road in disputed territory.

Etniese suiwering in Bhoetan

http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/south_asia/1171693.stm

Bhutan profile - Timeline - Published A chronology of key events: 1907 - Ugyen Wangchuck is chosen as hereditary ruler. 1910 - Treaty signed with British giving them control over Bhutan's foreign relations. 1949 - Treaty signed with newly-independent India guaranteeing non-interference in Bhutan's internal affairs, but allowing Delhi influence over foreign relations. 1952 - Reformist monarch Jigme Dorji Wangchuck succeeds to throne. 1952 - National assembly established. Modernisation 1958 - Slavery abolished. Other social reforms follow in subsequent years. 1959 - Several thousand refugees given asylum after Chinese annex Tibet. 1964, 1965 - Prime minister killed in dispute among competing political factions. Unsuccessful attempt to assassinate monarch. 1968 - First cabinet established. 1971 - Bhutan joins United Nations. 1972 - King Jigme Dorji Wangchuck dies and is succeeded by his son, Jigme Singye Wangchuck, who continues policy of cautious modernisation. 1974 - First foreign tourists allowed in. Ethnic tension 1986 - New law granting citizenship on basis of length of residence in Bhutan. 1988 - Census leads to branding of many ethnic Nepalis as illegal immigrants. New measures adopted to enforce citizenship law. Government also introduces other measures to stress Tibetan-based Bhutanese culture, antagonising minority ethnic Nepali community. 1989 - Nepali ceases to be a language of instruction in schools. 1990 - Violent ethnic unrest and anti-government protests in southern Bhutan pressing for greater democracy and respect for Nepali rights. Bhutan People's Party begins campaign of violence. Thousands of ethnic Nepalis flee to Nepal. Democracy and human rights 1992 - Leader of illegal Bhutan People's Party sentenced to life imprisonment. 1993 - Bhutan and Nepal try to resolve refugee problem. 1996 - Nepal demands all 80,000 or so refugees should be accepted back by Bhutan. 1997 - Amnesty International raises serious concerns over human rights situation in southern Bhutan. 1998 - King cedes some powers to national assembly, giving up role as head of government; cabinet now elected by assembly; famous "Tiger's Lair" Buddhist monastery damaged by fire. 1999 - Limited television and internet services allowed; several dozen political prisoners released. 2000 - First internet cafe opens in Thimphu; Bhutan hit by landslides following severe flooding in region, causing at least 200 deaths. Refugee issue 2001 August - Bhutanese, Nepalese ministers meet to discuss the repatriation of Bhutanese refugees living in Nepal. Some 100,000 ethnic Nepalese say they were forced out of Bhutan in the 1980s and 1990s, alleging ethnic and political repression. 2002 January - Indian state of Assam says two rebel groups still have camps in Bhutan, despite Bhutan's deadline for them to leave the country by the end of 2001. 2003 December - Bhutanese soldiers fight Indian separatist rebels in an attempt to drive them from their bases in the south of the country. 2005 March - Proposed constitution is unveiled. It envisages a parliamentary democracy and will be adopted or rejected in a referendum. Succession 2005 December - King Jigme Singye Wangchuck says he will abdicate in 2008, when democratic parliamentary elections are held. The crown prince will take over as monarch. 2006 June-August - Bhutanese refugees in Nepal demonstrate over several weeks to press for third-country resettlement. 2006 September - Preparations start in earnest for first ever elections in 2008. Officials begin training for the polls which will appoint a government to take over from the absolute monarchy. 2006 December - King Jigme Singye Wangchuck abdicates; Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck, the crown prince, assumes the throne. The former monarch had been expected to stay in power until 2008. 2007 February - Bhutan signs a landmark agreement with India which revises ties with its neighbour, giving Bhutan more say over its foreign and defence policies. 2007 April - Mock elections are staged to familiarise voters with the concept of parliamentary democracy ahead of planned polls in 2008. 2007 July - Prime Minister Khandu Wangchuck resigns so he can compete in elections planned for February and March 2008. 2008 January and February - A string of bomb blasts hits the country ahead of elections set for March 24. The attacks are blamed on groups fighting for the rights of ethnic Nepalis exiled in 1991. 2008 March - Pro-monarchy Bhutan Harmony Party wins 44 out of the 47 seats in the country's first parliamentary elections. Another pro-monarchy party wins the remaining seats. 2008 November - Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck is crowned king. India alleges links between Assamese separatists and Bhutan dissident Druk National Congress. 2009 April - Huanglongbing virus wipes out much of orange crop. Oranges are an important export for Bhutan. 2011 October - King Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck marries 21-year-old student Jetsun Pema. 2013 July - Parliamentary elections: opposition People's Democratic Party wins 32 seats in the lower house, against the incumbent Druk Phuensum Tshogpa party's 15 seats. 2013 August - Prime Minister Tshering Tobgay says Bhutan's much lauded concept of Gross National Happiness is overused and masks the real problems facing the country like increasing debt, chronic unemployment, poverty and corruption. 2015 January - John Kerry becomes the first-ever US secretary of state to hold a cabinet-level meeting with a Bhutanese official when he meets Bhutanese Prime Minister Tshering Tobgay in India. 2016 February - King Jigme Khesar Namgyel Wangchuck and his wife, Queen Jetsun Pema announce the birth of Crown Prince Jigme Namgyal Wangchuck. 2017 June - Bhutan protests to China over its building of a road in disputed territory.

Kevin Hart

http://www.upenn.edu/almanac/volumes/v53/n22/obit.html

| | |Deaths || | | | February 13, 2007, Volume 53, No. 22 | | Nancy Hart, Student Registration Nancy Hart, systems analyst for the Office of Student Registration and Financial Services, died on January 23, at the age of 56. After graduation from Key West High School in Florida in 1968, Ms. Hart relocated to Philadelphia to attend Pierce Junior College and upon completion she earned a B.A. in Commerce and Engineering from Drexel University. Beginning in 1988, Ms. Hart worked as a programmer/analyst in Penn's Office of Institutional Research. In 1998, she joined the University Registrar's Office as a programmer/analyst and she was later promoted to assistant registrar responsible for Course and Classroom Scheduling. In 2003, Ms. Hart became a systems analyst for the Office of Student Registration and Financial Services, dedicated to support of the Student Registration System (SRS), Advisor InTouch, and student information in the Data Warehouse. Ms. Hart is survived by her father, Richard Hart, Sr.; two sons, Robert Kenneth and Kevin Darnell; their father, Henry Robert Witherspoon; her siblings, Willie Mae Lasswell, Patsy West, Richard Jr., and Albert Nathaniel; three grandchildren, Santasha Glynnis, Heaven Leigh and Erica; one aunt, Hattie Glover White; six nieces, Michelle, Kimberly, Felicia, Natasha, Makeba and Keasha; three nephews, Derrick, Darryl and Marshall and a host of cousins, friends and colleagues. Dr. MacDiarmid, Nobel Laureate in Chemistry Dr. Alan G. MacDiarmid, Blanchard Professor in Chemistry and Nobel Laureate, passed away February 7. He was 79. "This is such a sad day for all of us in the Penn family. With Alan's passing, we have lost not only a great chemist and scientist of extraordinary accomplishment and global stature but also an enthusiastic friend and wonderful colleague who was modest and gracious even as he won the honor of all honors, the Nobel Prize," said President Amy Gutmann. Dr. MacDiarmid was the recipient of the 2000 Nobel Prize in Chemistry, along with former Penn professor and director of LRSM Dr. Alan J. Heeger, now at the University of California at Santa Barbara, and Dr. Hideki Shirakawa of the University of Tsukuba in Japan. They were honored for their 1977 discovery that plastics, or polymers, can be made to conduct electricity much like metals. This finding turned on its head the conventional wisdom that polymers could not conduct electricity, and unleashed new research among physicists, chemists and materials scientists worldwide. This technology is now applied in cell phones. Born in Masterton, New Zealand, Dr. Mac- Diarmid studied at the University of New Zealand earning his B.Sc in 1948 and his M.Sc. in 1950. He won a Fulbright Fellowship to the University of Wisconsin where he earned his Ph.D. in 1953. He received another Ph.D. from the University of Cambridge in 1955. Dr. MacDiarmid joined Penn's department of chemistry in 1955. He was appointed assistant professor in 1956, associate professor in 1961 and professor in 1964. In 2002 he joined the faculty of the University of Texas at Dallas and in 2004 the Jilin University in China. He was also involved in the establishment of the Jilin MacDiarmid Institute of organic nanomaterials in China and the MacDiarmid Institute of Materials Science and Nanotechnology at Victoria University of Wellington, New Zealand. "The School of Arts and Sciences had the great fortune of counting Alan MacDiarmid as a faculty member for over half a century. We will remember him not only as a path-breaking scientist but also as a cherished colleague, teacher, and mentor," said SAS Dean Rebecca Bushnell. Dr. MacDiarmid received numerous honors and awards. He was the recipient of the Chemical Pioneer Award from the American Institute of Chemists (1984), the "Top 100" Innovation Award from Science Digest (1985), the University of Pennsylvania's Medal for Distinguished Achievement (2001), and many awards from the American Chemical Society. In 2003 he was elected a fellow of the Royal Society of London, the world's oldest scientific academy founded in 1660. At Penn, the Alan MacDiarmid Endowed Term Chair in Chemistry was named in his honor. He published over 600 research papers and held over two dozen patents. He had many memberships in professional societies including the National Academy of Science. Dr. MacDiarmid is survived by his wife, Gayl Gentile; three daughters, Heather McConnell, Dawn Hazelett, and Gail Williams; a son, Duncan; nine grandchildren; a sister, Alice Palmer; and two brothers, Roderick and Colin. A University Memorial Service will be held on Friday, March 2, at 3 p.m. at Irvine Auditorium, Spruce at 34th Street, with reception to follow. Contributions in memory of Dr. MacDiarmid to support graduate chemistry education at the University of Pennsylvania and Victoria University of Wellington may be sent to Elizabeth Caimi, Suite 300, 3440 Market St., Philadelphia, PA 19104. To see a video of his October 10, 2000, Nobel Prize Press Conference, visit [www.upenn.edu/almanac/v47/NobelVideo/PressConf.html](https://almanac.upenn.edu/archive/v47/NobelVideo/PressConf.html). | | To Report A Death Almanac appreciates being informed of the deaths of current and former faculty and staff members, students, and other members of the University community. However, notices of alumni deaths should be directed to the Alumni Records Office at Room 545, Franklin Building, (215) 898-8136 or e-mail [[email protected]](mailto:[email protected]).

Tony Hawk

http://www.entrepreneur.com/article/203408

[ For Subscribers ](https://info.entrepreneur.com/subscribe?utm_campaign=Entrepreneur_Plus&utm_source=Website&utm_medium=Article&utm_content=E-Plus-Icon) Tony Hawk Carves a New Niche The master of the half-pipe and creator of a skateboard empire is about to introduce his latest trick: a skateboard without wheels Tony Hawk got his first skateboard when he was 9 years old, and he's been rolling ever since: He turned pro at 14, won more competitions than any other pro skater in history and in 1999 astonished the world by becoming the first to land a "900"--a 900-degree turn, that's two-and-a-half midair spins--at the X Games in San Francisco. In a sport rooted in the hard-partying fringe of Southern California, Hawk was something different: While he was still in high school, he used his winnings to buy a house in Carlsbad, and a few years later, he started his first company--Birdhouse--even though the skateboard industry was tanking at the time. Hawk was convinced better days were ahead. Billions of dollars later, who wouldn't agree? At 41, Hawk rules an empire. He is the world's highest-paid action sports athlete, according to Forbes, with estimated earnings of $12 million last year. There are Tony Hawk skateboards, bicycles, clothes, shoes, a bestselling autobiography, the Boom Boom HuckJam exhibition tour and a video game series that's a phenomenon unto itself, with worldwide sales topping $1.6 billion since 1999. The rest of this article is locked. Join Entrepreneur+ today for access. [Subscribe Now](https://info.entrepreneur.com/subscribe?utm_campaign=Entrepreneur_Plus&utm_source=Website&utm_medium=Article&utm_content=Small-Content-Gate) Already have an account? [Sign In](/login)

Tony Hawk

http://www.notablebiographies.com/news/Ge-La/Hawk-Tony.html

May 12, 1968 • San Diego, California Skateboarder, businessman According to Newsweek magazine, Tony Hawk is the "most famous skateboarder, like, ever." A big claim, but with a lot to support it. In the 1980s and 1990s, Hawk almost single-handedly transformed skateboarding from a kids' parking-lot pastime into a respected sport. He won virtually every skateboarding competition he entered, and before he was twenty, he was considered to be the number one vertical skateboarder in the world. Hawk was equally talented off the ramp. His business ventures and product endorsements have made him a very wealthy man, and have also kept him in the spotlight. As skateboarding icon Stacy Peralta told Sports Illustrated, "Tony is the first skateboarder who has given the world a face to put on the sport. He has become a part of American pop culture." When Anthony Frank Hawk was born on May 12, 1968, his parents could not have realized that skateboarding was eventually going to become such an integral part of their lives. As Hawk readily admitted in his autobiography, he was a "hyperactive demon child" who regularly terrorized his babysitters, his teachers, and his parents. He was very bright, with an IQ of 144, but he was also frustrated and unfocused, and would frequently fly into rages. His father, Frank, a retired U.S. Navy officer and small appliance salesman, and his mother, Nancy, a homemaker and part-time business teacher, were equally frustrated about what to do with their youngest child. When Hawk was eight, his older brother Steve bought him, on a whim, a blue fiberglass hand-me-down skateboard, and his father built a skating ramp in the backyard. They hoped that skateboarding might be the outlet that young Tony needed. Hawk was instantly hooked, and soon the young boy with the behavior problems was practicing up to six hours a day, every day. He especially enjoyed the freedom that came with the sport. As he explained to Charlie Rose of CBS News, skateboarding was not like baseball or basketball, which required teamwork and regular practice schedules. "I liked that no one was telling me how to do it," he remarked. When Hawk outgrew his backyard ramp, he began practicing at skateparks near his home in San Diego, California. The scrawny kid with the wild blonde hair stood out among the other skaters. He was so skinny that he had to wear elbow pads on his knees, but the young skateboarder was already experimenting with daredevil moves. "I feel like if I'm not out there getting banged up, then I'm not getting better." Frank Hawk, realizing that the sport had virtually saved his son, became the ultimate skateboard supporter and Tony Hawk's numberone fan. He began by driving Hawk to and from competitions all over the state of California, and soon became even more involved. In 1980, dissatisfied by the quality of the competitions and the lack of sponsoring organizations, Frank Hawk founded the California Amateur Skateboard League (CASL). Three years later, in 1983, he established the National Skateboarding Association (NSA), the first professional skateboarding organization of its kind. Ultimately the high-profile events put on by the NSA were credited with boosting the popularity of skateboarding in the 1980s. Inside the world of skateboarding there is a very real rivalry between two camps: street skaters and vertical skaters. Street skating is done on any surface or any structure found in the urban landscape, including parking lots, handrails, benches, or curbs. Vertical skating is performed on vertical ramps or other structures built specifically for the sport. Street skating came first, coming to light in the late 1970s in California with surfers executing dangerous stunts on the curved walls of empty swimming pools. There were no competitions with prize money, and skaters did not wear expensive designer duds. Street skaters considered themselves to be hip rebels, outside the mainstream. Street-style skaters are still very much present in the 2000s. According to skateboarding insiders, as reported in Sports Illustrated, there are between 350 and 400 street skaters who are considered to be professionals, some of them as young as sixteen. They earn their reputations the old-fashioned way, performing outrageous tricks, without safety gear, in out-of-the-way, illegal places. Although they consider themselves to be "outlaws," many of them make a living from skateboarding. Just like Hawk, they get contracts from skateboard apparel and accessory companies, and they can bring home anywhere from $1,000 to $5,000 a month. However, diehard street skaters do not appreciate the spotlight that Tony Hawk has turned on skateboarding. Many accuse him of selling out to corporate America and watering down what was once an edgy sport. Darrell Stanton, a teenage pro street skater who spoke with Sports Illustrated, echoed that sentiment: "I hope the whole skateboarding popularity thing stops before it gets too mainstream. I'd like for it to stay a raw sport." But statistics suggest that Stanton is unlikely to get his wish. According to the polling company American Sports Data, Inc., in 2003 more kids under the age of eighteen were skating than playing baseball. The biggest boost, however, came in the form of Tony Hawk himself. By age fourteen Hawk had turned professional, joining the Powell Peralta skateboard team called the Bones Brigade. By age sixteen he was dominating the sport. The road, however, was not an easy one. As Hawk won competition after competition, some veteran skaters cried favoritism, since his father was the NSA president. They also dismissed his wild, crazy skating as showboating. But that same creative skating gave birth to the Ollie, which became one of the most important moves in vertical skating. It also helped Hawk win three NSA championships and almost twenty additional pro events by the time he was eighteen. Before he graduated from Torrey Pines High School in 1986, Hawk was earning $100,000 a year from skating in competitions, making public appearances, and endorsing products such as Mountain Dew. Known as the Birdman because of his high-flying acrobatics, he was also a featured performer in Bones Brigade videos, which to this day are watched by would-be skaters. Hawk bought his first house just before graduation, and as he told the New York Times, "That was an inkling that [skateboarding] was already my career." By the end of the 1980s skateboarding was a hot sport, and Hawk was its king. But, like all things, popularity goes in cycles, and in the 1990s the public's interest in skateboarding had begun to wane. Part of the problem was the high cost of insurance required to run competitions and maintain skateparks. As a result, competitions were cancelled and skateparks around the United States were closed. This signaled disaster for Hawk, who now had very little money coming in, and a wife and child to support. In 1990 he had married his first wife, Cindy; two years later the couple had a son, Riley. His career sport was losing popularity, and a worried Hawk considered getting a regular nine-to-five job, possibly in computers, since he was a self-proclaimed techno geek. "I did demos where I could count the spectators on two hands," he recalled to Tim Layden of Sports Illustrated. Instead, Hawk decided to throw himself into a new business venture. In 1990 he and fellow skateboarder Per Welinder launched Birdhouse Projects, a company to manufacture skateboards and skate accessories. In 1992 Birdhouse was followed by Blitz, which distributed other skateboard brands. Hawk mortgaged and eventually sold his home in order to finance his businesses. The rocky start-up proved to be too much of a strain on his family, however, and Tony and Cindy divorced. But just when it seemed that things could not get any worse, skateboarding once again came to the rescue. In 1995 Hawk got a call from executives at the television sports network ESPN, who asked him to skate in a new alternative competition called X Games (Extreme Games). A more-than-interested Hawk flew to Rhode Island, where the contest was being held, and took first place in the vertical competition and second place in street skating. The televised event was seen by millions of people, and almost overnight the interest in skateboarding was re-ignited, as well as interest in Hawk and his career. Soon he was again "hawking" products on television, appearing in countless commercials for companies such as Coca-Cola, Pepsi, and Campbell's Soup. He also hosted a number of sports specials, including MTV's Sports and Music Festival. Of course, Hawk also pumped up his skateboarding. He traveled around the world to skate in exhibitions, and year after year he swept the X Games, taking home both singles and doubles titles. By 1999 the king was back on his throne. During the 1999 X Games, Hawk made history during the Best Trick event, when he introduced a move called the 900, a move so spectacular and dangerous that no one has successfully landed it since. The 900 is a two-and-a-half rotation midair flip above the lip of the vertical ramp. Hawk had been working on the move for more than a decade, and had been seriously injured along the way. Landing the 900 was a personal triumph. As Hawk explained to Rose, "I just felt this great sense of relief that I'd finally conquered this beast that had plagued me for so long." After the 900, it seemed that Hawk could do no wrong, especially in business, where he became a one-man marketing phenomenon. Birdhouse and Blitz took off, becoming two of the largest skate-boarding companies in the world. In 1999, however, Hawk ventured into what would become his most lucrative enterprise—video games. He had been trying to interest companies in a skateboarding game since the mid-1990s, but executives did not bite. "They just didn't get it," Hawk explained to Sports Illustrated. Finally Activision, a California-based company, approached Hawk in September of 1998 about developing a video game. Computer engineers mocked up a working version and Hawk tinkered with it for months, providing feedback and offering suggestions for improvement. When Tony Hawk's Pro Skater was introduced in the fall of 1999, it created an immediate buzz. By Christmas it had zoomed to the top of the video sales charts. In 2004 Activison released the fourth version of Pro Skater and added Tony Hawk's Underground to its catalog of games. Each game sold better than the last, and the Hawk series became one of the bestselling video lines of all time, with worldwide yearly sales in the hundreds of millions of dollars. Eager to cash in on Hawk's obvious appeal, more businesses lined up to strike deals. In 2000 the skate-boarder became the spokesman for Hot Bites frozen snack foods. Hawk went on to lend his name to a slew of products, including toys, shoes, clothing, and DVDs. His most recent endorsement deals, which were reportedly worth over $1 million each, included McDonald's, Hershey's chocolate milk, and Frito Lay snacks. According to Jake Phelps, editor of Thrasher magazine (a skateboard magazine), who spoke with Layden, "Tony Hawk means ka-ching." Analysts have attributed Hawk's success to several factors. First, even in his thirties he continues to be one of the most talented skateboarders to ever hit the vertical ramp. Second, because of his many personal appearances, he is accessible to his fans. For example, every summer Hawk goes on a multi-city skateboarding tour with members of his Birdhouse team. For those who cannot make it to see Hawk in person, his tours are televised as ESPN specials. Third, according to marketers, Hawk has a squeaky-clean image and is viewed as the perfect family man, which makes him appealing not only to kids but to their parents. In 1999 Hawk remarried; he and his second wife, Erin, have two sons, Spencer and Keegan. All three of the Hawk boys seem to be following in their father's footsteps, and Riley, the oldest, has been skating since he was four. Perhaps the biggest reason for Hawk's success, however, is that he remains passionate about the sport he picked up when he was a child. He still skates every day and, although he claims to be retired, he continues to compete in the X Games. In addition, Hawk is determined to grow the sport even further. One way to do that is through the Tony Hawk brainchild, Boom Boom Huck Jam, an annual event that combines rock music and extreme sports. As Hawk explained to Devin Gordon of Newsweek, "'Hucking' refers to launching in the air. 'Jam' is a gathering of talent. And 'boom boom' is just to give it some flavor." The ninety-minute spectacle was unveiled in 2002 in Las Boom Boom Huck Jam is introducing a whole new generation of kids to skateboarding, but Hawk also wants to make sure that every kid who wants to skate has a chance. In 2002 he established the Tony Hawk Foundation, which provides money to help build and promote skateparks in low-income urban centers throughout the United States. Since its inception the foundation has given assistance to more than 125 skateparks across the country. Hawk has endured many on-the-job hazards, including a broken elbow, cracked ribs, more sprains and scrapes than he can count, and multiple lost teeth. On the other hand, he has become a multi-millionaire and a living legend, all from riding on a board with wheels. A real pioneer of skateboarding, Hawk invented nearly one hundred tricks and moves that have been handed down to young skaters today. More important, he continues to serve as a role model and inspiration for children who consider him to be one of their all-time favorite sports stars. In fact, in the early 2000s, Hawk consistently topped most teen polls. For example, in 2003 and 2004 he was named Favorite Male Athlete at the Nickelodeon Kids' Choice Awards. All this, however, is just icing on the cake for Hawk. As he explained to Sports Illustrated: "Here's what skateboarding is to me. It's my form of exercise, my sport, my means of expression since I was nine years old. It's what I love. I never expected it to give me anything more than that." Hawk, Tony, with Sean Mortimer. Hawk: Occupation: Skateboarder. New York, ReganBooks, 2002. Ault, Susanne. "Hawk Splices Games, Music, Sports for HuckJam." Billboard (September 28, 2002): p. 16. Givens, Ron. "Skateboarding's Best Seller." New York Times Upfront (December 11, 2000): p. 20. Gordon, Devin. "Newsmakers: Tony Hawk." Newsweek (October 14, 2002): p. 71. Layden, Tim. "What Is This 34-Year-Old Man Doing On A Skateboard? Making Millions." Sports Illustrated (June 10, 2002): pp. 80+. Rose, Charlie. "Tony Hawk Takes Off." CBSNews.com: 60 Minutes (June 16, 2004). [ http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2002/12/10/60II/main532506.shtml ](http://www.cbsnews.com/stories/2002/12/10/60II/main532506.shtml) (accessed on June 21, 2004). Tony Hawk Official Web site. [ http://www.tonyhawk.com ](http://www.tonyhawk.com) (accessed on June 21, 2004).

Tony Hawk

http://www.biography.com/people/tony-hawk-40989

(1968-) Who Is Tony Hawk? Tony Hawk was one of the top skateboarders in the world by the time he was 16, and in his 17-year career, he won more than 70 skateboarding contests. Hawk started his own skateboarding company, [Birdhouse](http://birdhouseskateboards.com/), and also has a successful line of video games and skateboarding videos. Through the [Tony Hawk Foundation](http://tonyhawkfoundation.org/), he provides grants and technical assistance for new parks, especially in low-income areas. Early Life Hawk was born on May 12, 1968, in San Diego, California. As a kid, Hawk was intelligent, high-strung, and hyperactive — a combination his mother once described as "challenging." When he was nine, he received a skateboard from his older brother. That gift changed his life and gave him an outlet for all of his energy. It didn't take long for Hawk to excel at skateboarding. By age 12, he got his first sponsor, Dogtown skateboards. Two years later, he became a professional skateboarder. Hawk was considered one of the top skateboarders in the world by the time he was 16 years old. Birdhouse Skateboards However, all of his talent and success could not prevent Hawk from experiencing some rough times in the early 1990s. At this time, the popularity of skateboarding was waning, as were his earnings. He had already spent much of his early winnings and almost went bankrupt. As a result, in 1992, he co-founded a skateboarding company, Birdhouse, with fellow pro Per Welinder. X Games Star and Historic '900' Their company struggled until the rise of extreme sports generated new interest in skateboarding. Hawk competed in the first Extreme Games — later simply called the X Games — in 1995. He landed back in the spotlight and became one of the best-known skateboarders in the world. His ability to perform impressive stunts fueled Hawk's popularity. He has created amazing tricks, including the "900." This trick calls for the skater to rotate 900 degrees —about two and a half turns — in mid-air. Hawk was the first to successfully complete this move in competition at the 1999 X Games. In his 17-year professional career, he won more than 70 skateboarding contests, including gold medals at the 1995 and 1997 X Games. Video Games, Tour and Screen Appearances Besides his skateboarding business, Hawk launched a successful line of video games, skateboarding videos and an extreme sports tour called Tony Hawk's Boom Boom HuckJam, which he started in 2002. Although the tour petered out by the end of the decade, Hawk announced he was reviving the Boom Boom HuckJam in 2019. Hawk also began hosting his long-running Demolition Radio show on SiriusXM in 2004 and launched the RIDE Channel on YouTube in 2011. Over the years, the skateboarding icon has appeared in movies like XXX (2002) and Lords of Dogtown (2005), as well as in TV programs like CSI: Miami and the reality competition series The Masked Singer. In 2019, he became a broadcaster for the Vans Park Series skateboarding tour. Foundation In addition to running his various business ventures, Hawk has worked to help young people by creating more public skateboard parks through the Tony Hawk Foundation. Since 2002, the foundation has provided grants and technical assistance for new parks in all 50 states, especially in low-income areas. Personal Life Hawk was married to Cindy Dunbar from 1990 to 1993. They had a son, Riley, in 1992, who followed in his father's footsteps and became a professional skateboarder. Hawk then married Erin Lee in 1996 and had two more sons, Spencer (b. 1999) and Keegan (b. 2001). After Hawk and Lee divorced in 2004, he married Lhotse Merriam in 2006 and welcomed a daughter, Kadence, in 2008. Following his divorce from Merriam in 2011, Hawk married Catherine Goodman in 2015. QUICK FACTS - Name: Tony Hawk - Birth Year: 1968 - Birth date: May 12, 1968 - Birth State: California - Birth City: San Diego - Birth Country: United States - Gender: Male - Best Known For: Tony Hawk rose to fame as a pro skateboarder before launching his own skateboarding company and a popular video game series. - Industries - Radio - Sports - Astrological Sign: Taurus Fact Check We strive for accuracy and fairness.If you see something that doesn't look right, [contact us](https://www.biography.com/contact-us)! CITATION INFORMATION - Article Title: Tony Hawk Biography - Author: Biography.com Editors - Website Name: The Biography.com website - Url: https://www.biography.com/athletes/tony-hawk - Access Date: - Publisher: A&E; Television Networks - Last Updated: May 13, 2021 - Original Published Date: April 2, 2014

Tony Hawk

http://www.biography.com/people/tony-hawk-40989

(1968-) Who Is Tony Hawk? Tony Hawk was one of the top skateboarders in the world by the time he was 16, and in his 17-year career, he won more than 70 skateboarding contests. Hawk started his own skateboarding company, [Birdhouse](http://birdhouseskateboards.com/), and also has a successful line of video games and skateboarding videos. Through the [Tony Hawk Foundation](http://tonyhawkfoundation.org/), he provides grants and technical assistance for new parks, especially in low-income areas. Early Life Hawk was born on May 12, 1968, in San Diego, California. As a kid, Hawk was intelligent, high-strung, and hyperactive — a combination his mother once described as "challenging." When he was nine, he received a skateboard from his older brother. That gift changed his life and gave him an outlet for all of his energy. It didn't take long for Hawk to excel at skateboarding. By age 12, he got his first sponsor, Dogtown skateboards. Two years later, he became a professional skateboarder. Hawk was considered one of the top skateboarders in the world by the time he was 16 years old. Birdhouse Skateboards However, all of his talent and success could not prevent Hawk from experiencing some rough times in the early 1990s. At this time, the popularity of skateboarding was waning, as were his earnings. He had already spent much of his early winnings and almost went bankrupt. As a result, in 1992, he co-founded a skateboarding company, Birdhouse, with fellow pro Per Welinder. X Games Star and Historic '900' Their company struggled until the rise of extreme sports generated new interest in skateboarding. Hawk competed in the first Extreme Games — later simply called the X Games — in 1995. He landed back in the spotlight and became one of the best-known skateboarders in the world. His ability to perform impressive stunts fueled Hawk's popularity. He has created amazing tricks, including the "900." This trick calls for the skater to rotate 900 degrees —about two and a half turns — in mid-air. Hawk was the first to successfully complete this move in competition at the 1999 X Games. In his 17-year professional career, he won more than 70 skateboarding contests, including gold medals at the 1995 and 1997 X Games. Video Games, Tour and Screen Appearances Besides his skateboarding business, Hawk launched a successful line of video games, skateboarding videos and an extreme sports tour called Tony Hawk's Boom Boom HuckJam, which he started in 2002. Although the tour petered out by the end of the decade, Hawk announced he was reviving the Boom Boom HuckJam in 2019. Hawk also began hosting his long-running Demolition Radio show on SiriusXM in 2004 and launched the RIDE Channel on YouTube in 2011. Over the years, the skateboarding icon has appeared in movies like XXX (2002) and Lords of Dogtown (2005), as well as in TV programs like CSI: Miami and the reality competition series The Masked Singer. In 2019, he became a broadcaster for the Vans Park Series skateboarding tour. Foundation In addition to running his various business ventures, Hawk has worked to help young people by creating more public skateboard parks through the Tony Hawk Foundation. Since 2002, the foundation has provided grants and technical assistance for new parks in all 50 states, especially in low-income areas. Personal Life Hawk was married to Cindy Dunbar from 1990 to 1993. They had a son, Riley, in 1992, who followed in his father's footsteps and became a professional skateboarder. Hawk then married Erin Lee in 1996 and had two more sons, Spencer (b. 1999) and Keegan (b. 2001). After Hawk and Lee divorced in 2004, he married Lhotse Merriam in 2006 and welcomed a daughter, Kadence, in 2008. Following his divorce from Merriam in 2011, Hawk married Catherine Goodman in 2015. QUICK FACTS - Name: Tony Hawk - Birth Year: 1968 - Birth date: May 12, 1968 - Birth State: California - Birth City: San Diego - Birth Country: United States - Gender: Male - Best Known For: Tony Hawk rose to fame as a pro skateboarder before launching his own skateboarding company and a popular video game series. - Industries - Radio - Sports - Astrological Sign: Taurus Fact Check We strive for accuracy and fairness.If you see something that doesn't look right, [contact us](https://www.biography.com/contact-us)! CITATION INFORMATION - Article Title: Tony Hawk Biography - Author: Biography.com Editors - Website Name: The Biography.com website - Url: https://www.biography.com/athletes/tony-hawk - Access Date: - Publisher: A&E; Television Networks - Last Updated: May 13, 2021 - Original Published Date: April 2, 2014

Tony Hawk

http://www.tonyhawk.com/

JUNE 14-15, 2024 JUNE 14-15, 2024 Skateboarding legends Tony Hawk and Rodney Mullen will take the stage together in April for two special shows called "Tony Hawk and Rodney Mullen: Darkslides & Secret Tapes." The shows take place at the Beacon Theater in New York April 4 and Austin City Limits Live in Austin, Texas, Aug. 7. The evenings will feature Hawk and Mullen "discussing their lives and careers, and how they inspired each other to innovate," along with rare video content. The audience will also have the chance to ask the skateboard kings questions. An announcement from Mammoth notes that these are the only shows scheduled. Tickets are on sale now! MASTERCLASS TONY'S FIRST SKATEBOARD TONY'S FIRST SKATEBOARD Tony Hawk was age 9 when his older brother gave him a blue fiberglass skateboard, chipped and scratched from years of use. The first time Tony stepped on it and rolled down an alley behind the family's house in San Diego, there was no epiphany, no revelation … no foreshadowing whatsoever that he would go on to become the most famous skateboarder of all time. He reached the end driveway, looked back at his brother and shouted, "How do I turn?" Eventually, of course, Tony learned to do more than merely turn. Practicing at the now-defunct Oasis Skatepark, the undersized prodigy soon began to attract attention by performing maneuvers well beyond his years. At age 12 he was winning amateur contests throughout California, at 14 he turned pro, and at 16 he was widely regarded as the best competitive skateboarder in the world. By the time he was 25, he'd competed in 103 pro contests, winning 73 of them and placing second in 19—a record that will almost certainly never be matched. He was crowned vertical skating's world champion 12 years in a row. As a 17-year old high school senior, Tony's annual income surpassed that of his teachers, mostly as a result of royalties from his primary sponsor, Powell Peralta skateboards. He was able to buy his first home before he graduated. Through the late '80s, he traveled the world, skating demos and contests. Then, in 1991, the sport of skateboarding died a quiet but sudden death. Tony's income shrank drastically; times were so lean that he survived on a $5-a-day Taco Bell allowance. But while many of his peers moved on to other, more traditional pursuits, Tony never gave up on the sport he loved. The next few years flew by in a blur of financial uncertainty. Confident that skating would rebound, Tony refinanced his first house and with a friend launched his own skateboard company, Birdhouse Projects. The first few years were rough: Birdhouse wasn't making money, and Tony's future was sketchy. But, almost as abruptly as it died, skating's popularity surged skyward, and the Hawk became the Phoenix. Birdhouse grew into one of the biggest and best-known skate companies in the world, and Tony signed a wide range of endorsement deals. In 1998, he and his family started a children's skate clothing company called Hawk Clothing. A year later, skating rocketed to unprecedented heights, from which it has yet to descend. Tony's career came with it; in fact, he provided much of the fuel. In 1999, Tony teamed up with Activision to create the Tony Hawk's Pro Skater video game franchise. The Tony Hawk video game series became one of the most popular game franchises in history (and has now surpassed $1.4 billion in sales) and in September 2020, an all-new Pro Skater 1+2 in 4K launched, bringing the franchise full circle. In a stroke of good timing, at the X Games that year, Tony also became the first skateboarder to ever land a 900, a maneuver that had eluded (and occasionally hobbled) him for 10 years . It was one of skating's most gripping moments, playing out in front of a collection of his peers and fans, and on national TV. That exposure, along with his successful video game, helped establish Tony's mainstream celebrity Soon after the 1999 X Games, Tony retired from competition, although he continues to put on demos and exhibitions all over the world. His Boom Boom HuckJam Tour featured some of the top skateboarders, BMXers and freestyle motocross riders in a giant tour that played in large arenas and theme parks across the country. Tony's action sports exhibitions and shows continue to pack venues worldwide. Tony has won numerous awards, including Make-A-Wish's Favorite Male Athlete, Teen Choice Awards' Choice Male Athlete and Nickelodeon's Kid's Choice Awards' Favorite Male Athlete, beating out such sports icons as Shaquille O'Neal, Tiger Woods, and Kobe Bryant. From video games to skateboards to online media to clothing to world tours, Tony has dominated the Action Sports market with his laid-back style. He is the most recognized Action Sports figure in the world and, according to some marketing surveys, one of the most recognizable athlete of any kind in the United States. Today, his business skills have helped create a Tony Hawk brand that includes a billion-dollar video game franchise, successful businesses such as [Birdhouse Skateboards](http://birdhouseskateboards.com/), Hawk Clothing, and the Tony Hawk Signature Series sporting goods and toys. Tony regularly appears on television and in films, and on his Hawk V Wolf Podcast with Jason Ellis. His autobiography, HAWK—Occupation: Skateboarder was a New York Times bestseller and is currently available in paperback. In 2010, Wiley Publishing released How Did I Get Here? The Ascent of an Unlikely CEO. During 2012, in partnership with Google, Inc. Tony's film production company, [900 Films](http://900films.com/), launched RIDE Channel on YouTube, the world's most popular video site. Tony is a role model for fans of all ages. His charitable foundation, The [Skatepark Project](https://www.skatepark.org) (formerly the Tony Hawk Foundation), has awarded over $13 million in grants to over 660 skatepark projects throughout the United States. Over 8 million users annually enjoy skateparks that the foundation has helped fund. TO LEARN MORE ABOUT THE LIFE OF TONY HAWK, WATCH THE HBO DOCUMENTARY ["TONY HAWK: UNTIL THE WHEELS FALL OFF"](https://www.hbo.com/movies/tony-hawk-until-the-wheels-fall-off) BY AWARD WINNING FILM MAKER SAM JONES

Corey Jackson (kletsrymer)

http://wtvr.com/2017/02/17/corey-jackson-lil-c-note/

ATLANTA — Standing less than 5 feet tall, it's easy to overlook "Corey J." in a crowded room. Until he opens his mouth. "There are two types of people in this world," says 10-year-old Corey Jackson. "There are dreamers. And there are dream chasers. I'm chasing my dreams!" He may only be 10, but rapper Corey J., aka Lil C Note, is fast gaining traction in the Atlanta hip-hop scene. In the last year, the fifth-grader — a self-proclaimed "positive hip-hop" recording artist — received endorsements from some of the biggest names in the rap industry, including Cash Money Records CEO Bryan "Birdman" Williams and Atlanta trap star rapper Young Thug. The early success isn't a surprise for the Jackson, Mississippi, native. He's been rapping since before he even knew how to ride a bike. "I made my first song 'Crayons' at 6 years old," he says with a big smile. But his love for the art came earlier. "At first my dad was doing it. He took me to the studio a few times, and I said, I think I want to do that, it looks pretty cool. But my first song, I was only 4 and it was hard for me to stay on beat. It took me a couple of years to get the hang of it." Home base: Atlanta Jackson lives in Mississippi, but like a lot of artists in the Southeast, he calls Atlanta his second home: it's where hip hop is flourishing. Since early 2012, Jackson has spent most of his life traveling across the country with his dad, Cornell Jackson, to promote his music. In the last four years, he's sold more than 250,000 CDs, according to his family and Patchwerk Recording Studios in Atlanta, which acts as a promoter for the young rapper. "That's 250,000 … and counting," Jackson says with a smirk. Corey J.'s father calls his son "amazing." "What he's doing is amazing. As far as we know, he's the only kid in music to be out here independently selling tens of thousands of CDs. It makes me proud to be his father. I'm just glad to be a part of it," Cornell Jackson says. "I know I've had an influence on him to get into rapping, but the rest is all him. He's the one out here putting in the work. He's the one and only Hustle Kid!" he adds, laughing. 'Anything is possible' Lil C Note, who is home-schooled, says he's now making "more than six figures" a year. When asked, he wouldn't give an exact amount of his net worth, but says it was enough to buy his family a new home. "Ya see, when I was growing up on Cromwell Street, in the old house, it wasn't as good as now. I'm going tell you like this, the water wasn't always hot," he says. "But I had confidence that it would get better. I had people who believe in me." His album sales are a testament to his hustle, he says. And his approach is as dynamic as his megawatt smile. "I just love to show the other kids that anything is possible, anything is possible at any age," he says. "I just want to be a role model. That's one of the main reasons why I'm a recording artist." Giving back His passion to uplift his community took on an even deeper meaning after the election of Donald Trump as president of the United States, he says. "I just saw people in my community, in the black community, get really down about the election. I saw a lot of faces like this," he says, frowning. "I wanted to do something about it. People should be walking around like this," he says, smiling. In December, the young rapper raised $10,000 for a toy drive to give back to local elementary schools in his impoverished Jackson neighborhood. "I went to preach my message of positive hip-hop," he says about his giveaway after the presidential election. "I wanted to uplift people who were down about Trump becoming president. I wanted to show them that their lives can still be good, even if it's not the result they wanted. I'm going to keep on what I have to do." Even at his young age, he already has people who look up to him. For him, it's all part of the plan. "God has a plan for me, so I'm going to keep on following my path," he says. "The whole journey, this whole path, everything has been a highlight. This is not surreal, this is real. I worked hard for this. I love this. It's awesome!"

Andy Karl

http://articles.baltimoresun.com/1998-06-29/features/1998180045_1_rum-tum-tugger-andy-karl-cats

Skip to content All Sections Subscribe Now 76°F Monday, July 1st 2024 Baltimore Sun eNewspaper Home Page Close Menu Subscriber Services Manage Subscription EZ Pay Vacation Stop eNewspaper Daily Sun Evening Edition Carroll County Times Capital Gazette The Aegis Howard County Times Advertise with Us Advertise Classified Homes Jobs Special Sections News News Latest Crime and Public Safety Education Elections Environment Health Lottery Marijuana Nation Politics Sun Investigates World Carroll County Times Carroll County Times eNewspaper Education High School Sports News Opinion Obituaries Submit News The Aegis The Aegis eNewspaper Aegis Opinion Aegis Sports Harford Magazine Local News Local News Maryland Anne Arundel County Baltimore City Baltimore County Carroll County Times Harford County – The Aegis Howard County Eastern Shore Sports Sports Baltimore Orioles Baltimore Ravens High School Sports College Sports Terps Horse Racing Business Business Autos Best Reviews Real Estate Top Workplaces Opinion Opinion Editorials Opinion Columnists Dan Rodricks Op-Ed Readers Respond Submit Letter to the Editor Submit Op-Ed News Obituaries News Obituaries Death Notices How to submit a death notice Things To Do Things To Do Arts Entertainment Events Food and Drink Home and Garden Horoscopes Fun and Games Movies Music Branded Content Paid Partner Content Advertising by Ascend Paid Content by Brandpoint Close Menu Sign up for email newsletters Sign Up Subscribe Login Account Settings Contact Us Log Out Spoof a user Sign up for email newsletters Sign Up Subscribe Login Search 76°F Monday, July 1st 2024 Baltimore Sun eNewspaper eNewspaper Latest Headlines Sports News Obituaries Death Notices Things To Do Opinion Weather Trending: 💬 Asking Eric advice 🗳️ Recreational cannabis reader poll 🏆 Howard's Best Restaurants winners 🚗 Md. vehicle fee increase 🚨 Baltimore homicide map 🐕 Send question to 'Ask the Vet' Oops! That page can't be found. Close

Andy Karl

http://articles.baltimoresun.com/1998-06-29/features/1998180045_1_rum-tum-tugger-andy-karl-cats

Skip to content All Sections Subscribe Now 76°F Monday, July 1st 2024 Baltimore Sun eNewspaper Home Page Close Menu Subscriber Services Manage Subscription EZ Pay Vacation Stop eNewspaper Daily Sun Evening Edition Carroll County Times Capital Gazette The Aegis Howard County Times Advertise with Us Advertise Classified Homes Jobs Special Sections News News Latest Crime and Public Safety Education Elections Environment Health Lottery Marijuana Nation Politics Sun Investigates World Carroll County Times Carroll County Times eNewspaper Education High School Sports News Opinion Obituaries Submit News The Aegis The Aegis eNewspaper Aegis Opinion Aegis Sports Harford Magazine Local News Local News Maryland Anne Arundel County Baltimore City Baltimore County Carroll County Times Harford County – The Aegis Howard County Eastern Shore Sports Sports Baltimore Orioles Baltimore Ravens High School Sports College Sports Terps Horse Racing Business Business Autos Best Reviews Real Estate Top Workplaces Opinion Opinion Editorials Opinion Columnists Dan Rodricks Op-Ed Readers Respond Submit Letter to the Editor Submit Op-Ed News Obituaries News Obituaries Death Notices How to submit a death notice Things To Do Things To Do Arts Entertainment Events Food and Drink Home and Garden Horoscopes Fun and Games Movies Music Branded Content Paid Partner Content Advertising by Ascend Paid Content by Brandpoint Close Menu Sign up for email newsletters Sign Up Subscribe Login Account Settings Contact Us Log Out Spoof a user Sign up for email newsletters Sign Up Subscribe Login Search 76°F Monday, July 1st 2024 Baltimore Sun eNewspaper eNewspaper Latest Headlines Sports News Obituaries Death Notices Things To Do Opinion Weather Trending: 💬 Asking Eric advice 🗳️ Recreational cannabis reader poll 🏆 Howard's Best Restaurants winners 🚗 Md. vehicle fee increase 🚨 Baltimore homicide map 🐕 Send question to 'Ask the Vet' Oops! That page can't be found. Close

Eleusiniese misterieë

https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cXL-QIIhn5gC&pg=PA79

Search Images Maps Play YouTube News Gmail Drive More » Sign in Books Try the new Google Books Check out the new look and enjoy easier access to your favorite features Try it now No thanks Try the new Google Books Try the new Google Books My library Help Advanced Book Search Get print book No eBook available Princeton University Press Amazon.co.uk BookDepository Waterstones WHSmith Blackwell Google Product Search Find in a library All sellers » Dionysos By Karl Kerényi About this book Pages displayed by permission of Princeton University Press . Copyright . Page 79 Restricted Page You have reached your viewing limit for this book ( why? ).

Eleusiniese misterieë

https://books.google.co.uk/books?id=cXL-QIIhn5gC&pg=PA23

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Eleusiniese misterieë

http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/cgi-bin/ptext?lookup=Apollod.+1.5.2

[2] But for Triptolemus, the elder of Metanira's children, she made a chariot of winged dragons, and gave him wheat, with which, wafted through the sky, he sowed the whole inhabited earth. This text is part of: Search the Perseus Catalog for: Table of Contents: [text Library](javascript:toggleExpand('N65542');) [book 1](javascript:toggleExpand('N65554');) [chapter 7](javascript:toggleExpand('N66047');) [book 2](javascript:toggleExpand('N66659');) [chapter 4](javascript:toggleExpand('N66827');) [chapter 5](javascript:toggleExpand('N66996');) [book 3](javascript:toggleExpand('N67426');) [](xmltoc?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0022%3Atext%3DLibrary%3Abook%3D1%3Achapter%3D5%3Asection%3D2) [1](#note-link1) Compare Cornutus, Theologiae Graecae Compendium 28, pp. 53ff. ed. C. Lang; Ovid, Fasti iv.559ff.; Ovid, Tristia iii.8. (9) 1ff.; Hyginus, Fab. 147; Hyginus, Ast. ii.14; [Serv. Verg. G. 1.19, 163](text?doc=Serv. G. 1.19, 163&lang=original); Lactantius Placidus on Statius, Theb. ii.382; Scriptores rerum mythicarum Latini, ed. Bode, i. pp. 3, 107 (First Vatican Mythographer 8; Second Vatican Mythographer 97). The dragon-car of Triptolemus was mentioned by Sophocles in his lost tragedy Triptolemus. See TGF (Nauck 2nd ed.), p. 262, frag. 539; The Fragments of Sophocles, ed. A. C. Pearson, ii.243, frag. 596. In Greek vase-paintings Triptolemus is often represented in his dragon-car. As to the representations of the car in ancient art, see Stephani, in Compte Rendu (St. Petersburg) for 1859, pp. 82ff.; Frazer, note on Paus. vii.18.3 (vol. iv. pp. 142ff.); and especially A. B. Cook, Zeus, i. (Cambridge, 1914), pp. 211ff., who shows that on the earlier monuments Triptolemus is represented sitting on a simple wheel, which probably represents the sun. Apparently he was a mythical embodiment of the first sower. See Spirits of the Corn and of the Wild, i.72ff. [2](#note-link2) The accounts given of the parentage of Triptolemus were very various ( [Paus. 1.14.2ff.](text?doc=Paus. 1.14.2&lang=original)), which we need not wonder at when we remember that he was probably a purely mythical personage. As to [Eleusis](entityvote?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0022:text=Library:book=1:chapter=5:section=2&auth=perseus,Eleusis&n=2&type=place), the equally mythical hero who is said to have given his name to [Eleusis](entityvote?doc=Perseus:text:1999.01.0022:text=Library:book=1:chapter=5:section=2&auth=perseus,Eleusis&n=3&type=place), see [Paus. 8.38.7](text?doc=Paus. 8.38.7&lang=original). He is called Eleusinus by Hyginus, Fab. 147 and [Serv. Verg. G. 1.19](text?doc=Serv. G. 1.19&lang=original). This work is licensed under a [Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 3.0 United States License](https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/3.0/us/). An [XML version](dltext?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A1999.01.0022) of this text is available for download, with the additional restriction that you offer Perseus any modifications you make. Perseus provides credit for all accepted changes, storing new additions in a versioning system.

Eleusiniese misterieë

http://riviste.unimi.it/index.php/Dike/article/view/4290

ATHENIAN IMPIETY TRIALS: A REAPPRAISAL DOI: [https://doi.org/10.13130/1128-8221/4290](https://doi.org/10.13130/1128-8221/4290) AbstractThis paper aims to critically analyse the testimonies concerning Athenian impiety trials of the classical period. First, it reaffirms the arguments that some of them must have been an invention of Hellenistic and later authors. Second, it presents a likely political background behind the historical cases. Third, it discusses a number of legal issues, along with new arguments concerning the procedures employed. Finally, it examines some less well-known material from the fourth century BCE. Overall, it seeks to provide a possibly coherent and comprehensive framework of Athenian impiety trials based on their shared characteristics. Fascicolo Sezione Articoli Licenza - Gli autori mantengono i diritti sulla loro opera e cedono alla rivista il diritto di prima pubblicazione dell'opera, contemporaneamente licenziata sotto una [Licenza Creative Commons - Attribuzione - Condividi allo stesso modo](http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-sa/4.0/)che permette ad altri di condividere l'opera indicando la paternità intellettuale e la prima pubblicazione su questa rivista. - Gli autori possono aderire ad altri accordi di licenza non esclusiva per la distribuzione della versione dell'opera pubblicata (es. depositarla in un archivio istituzionale o pubblicarla in una monografia), a patto di indicare che la prima pubblicazione è avvenuta su questa rivista. - Gli autori possono diffondere la loro opera online (es. in repository istituzionali o nel loro sito web) prima e durante il processo di submission, poichè può portare a scambi produttivi e aumentare le citazioni dell'opera pubblicata (Vedi [The Effect of Open Access](http://opcit.eprints.org/oacitation-biblio.html)).

Eleusiniese misterieë

http://www.erowid.org/plants/ergot/ergot.shtml

Ergot BOTANICAL CLASSIFICATION Family : Hypocreaceae Genus : Claviceps Species : purpurea (rye); africana (sorghum); paspali COMMON NAMES Ergot EFFECTS CLASSIFICATION Deadly Poison; Psychedelic DESCRIPTION Ergot is a fungus that infects cereal grains, replacing kernels of the fruit with small black masses of mycelium. It produces ergotamine, a potent vasoconstrictor and precursor to LSD. Ergot poisoning (St Anthony's Fire) causes hallucinations, gangrenous loss of limbs, and death. Outbreaks plagued medieval Europe and were associated with witchcraft and the Inquisition. [Ergot Alkaloids Article](ergot_chemistry1.pdf), Kobel & Sanglier (PDF) [The Witch Trials of Finnmark, Northern Norway, [...]: Evidence for Ergotism as Contributing Factor](/references/refs_view.php?ID=6323)- 2004 [Ergot - a rich source of pharmacologically active substances](/references/refs_view.php?ID=5351)- A. Hofmann, 1972 [Submit a Report](/experiences/exp_submit.cgi)to our [Experience Vaults](/experiences/) [The Road to Eleusis](/library/books/road_to.shtml), by R. G. Wasson, A. Hofmann, and C. Ruck OFF-SITE RESOURCES [Claviceps purpurea Polymorhpism](http://web.archive.org/web/20030417003309/http://www.biomed.cas.cz/~pazouto/purpurea.html)(web archive version) [Forged in St Anthony's Fire](http://pubs.acs.org/hotartcl/mdd/99/marapr/forged.html), Hart 1999 [Ergot of Rye - Introduction and History](http://www.botany.hawaii.edu/faculty/wong/bot135/lect12.htm), Botany.Hawaii.Edu [Did the CIA Really Dose a French Village With LSD?](http://www.theatlanticwire.com/opinions/view/opinion/Did-the-CIA-Really-Dose-a-French-Village-With-LSD-2818), Mar 12 2010, Atlantic Wire [FDA Warns Migraine Medicine Makers](http://www.sfgate.com/cgi-bin/article.cgi?f=/n/a/2007/03/01/national/w140336S69.DTL), Mar 1 2007, SF Chronicle [Ergot Photos](http://ccag.tamu.edu/Odvody/ergot.htm)- great

Eleusiniese misterieë

https://books.google.com/books?id=BPkKCgAAQBAJ&pg=PA8

Search Images Maps Play YouTube News Gmail Drive More » Sign in Books Try the new Google Books Check out the new look and enjoy easier access to your favorite features Try it now No thanks Try the new Google Books Try the new Google Books My library Help Advanced Book Search Buy eBook - $120.00 Get this book in print Cambridge University Press Amazon.com Barnes&Noble.com Books-A-Million IndieBound All sellers » Bronze Age Eleusis and the Origins of the Eleusinian Mysteries By Michael B. Cosmopoulos About this book Terms of Service Pages displayed by permission of Cambridge University Press . Copyright . Page 8 Restricted Page You have reached your viewing limit for this book ( why? ).

Lisa Bonet

https://books.google.com/books?id=X7ZYsnTPIhwC&pg=PA49

Search Images Maps Play YouTube News Gmail Drive More » Sign in Books Try the new Google Books Check out the new look and enjoy easier access to your favorite features Try it now No thanks Try the new Google Books Try the new Google Books My library Help Advanced Book Search Buy eBook - $29.99 Get this book in print McFarland Amazon.com Barnes&Noble.com Books-A-Million IndieBound Find in a library All sellers » Encyclopedia of African American Actresses in Film and Television By Bob McCann About this book Terms of Service Pages displayed by permission of McFarland . Copyright . Page 49 Restricted Page You have reached your viewing limit for this book ( why? ).

Lisa Bonet

http://www.filmreference.com/film/45/Lisa-Bonet.html

- [Theatre, Film, and Television Biographies](../index.html) - [James D. Bissell to Marlon Brando](../James-D-Bissell-to-Marlon-Brando.html) Lisa Bonet Biography (1967-) Full name, Lisa Michelle Bonet; born November 16, 1967, in San Francisco, CA;daughter of Allen (an opera singer) and Arlene (a teacher) Boney; married Lenny Kravitz (a musician), 1987 (divorced, 1993); children: (with Kravitz) ZoeIsabella; (with Bryan Kest, a yoga instructor) another child. Addresses: Agent: Innovative Artists, 1505 Tenth St., Santa Monica, CA 90401.; Manager: 3 Arts New York, 888 Seventh Ave., Suite 3500, New York, NY 10106.; Contact: c/o 1511 Will Geer Rd., Topanga, CA 90290; 6435 Balcom, Reseda, CA 90335. - Nationality - American - Gender - Female - Occupation - Actress, director - Birth Details - November 16, 1967 - San Francisco, California, United States Famous Works - CREDITS - Film Appearances - Epiphany Proudfoot, Angel Heart, TriStar, 1987 - Priscilla, Bank Robber, I.R.S. Releasing Corp., 1993 - Catherine Biggs, Dead Connection (also known as Final Combination), 1994 - Rachel F. Banks, Enemy of the State, Buena Vista, 1998 - Marie DeSalle, High Fidelity, Buena Vista, 2000 - Queenie, Biker Boyz, DreamWorks, 2003 - Film Work - Director, Gentleman Who Fell, 1993 - Television Appearances - Series - Denise Huxtable, The Cosby Show, NBC, 1984-1987, then as Denise Huxtable Kendall, 1989-1992 - Denise Huxtable, A Different World, NBC, 1987-1988 - Also appeared in The Two of Us. - Movies - Lily, New Eden, Sci-Fi Channel, 1994 - Heather Lelache, Lathe of Heaven, Arts and Entertainment, 2002 - Episodic - Carla, "Entrapment," St. Elsewhere, NBC, 1983 - Justine, "The Satanic Piano," Tales from the Dark Side, syndicated, 1985 - The Arsenio Hall Show, syndicated, 1989 - Late Night with David Letterman, 1989 - Also appeared as guest player, Body Language. - Specials - Carrie, "Don't Touch," The ABC Afterschool Special, ABC, 1985 - Andy Williams and the NBC Kids Search for Santa, NBC, 1985 - NBC team member, Battle of the Network Stars XVIII, ABC, 1985 - The 37th Annual Prime Time Emmy Awards, ABC, 1985 - Night of 100 Stars II, 1985 - Fast Copy, NBC, 1985 - Motown Returns to the Apollo, NBC, 1985 - Disney World Celebrity Circus (also known as Walt Disney WorldCelebrity Circus), NBC, 1987 - Funny, You Don't Look 200 (also known as Funny, You Don't Look200: A Constitutional Vaudeville), ABC, 1987 - Our Common Future, Arts and Entertainment and syndicated, 1989 - Time Warner Presents the Earth Day Special, ABC, 1990 - Host, Why Bother Voting?, PBS, 1992 - Rock the Vote, Fox, 1992 - The Last Laugh: Memories of the Cosby Show, NBC, 1992 - (In archive footage) Herself, The Cosby Show: A Look Back, NBC, 2002 - RECORDINGS - Music Videos - Director, "Whatever It Takes" by Gardner Cole, 1991 Further Reference OTHER SOURCES Periodicals - Ebony, December, 1987, p. 150 - Essence, February, 1990, p. 54 - Interview, April, 1987, p. 42 - People, March 16, 1987 - Seventeen, July, 1985, p. 73; April, 1987, p. 79

Lisa Bonet

https://www.usmagazine.com/celebrity-news/news/jason-momoa-lisa-bonet-officially-marry-in-secret-wedding/

Surprise! It was widely believed that [Jason Momoa](https://www.usmagazine.com/celebrities/jason-momoa/) and [Lisa "Lilakoi" Bonet](https://www.usmagazine.com/celebrities/lisa-bonet/) married in November 2007, but they didn't make it official until this October, multiple sources confirm exclusively to Us Weekly. "Jason Momoa and Lisa Bonet had an official wedding a few weeks ago at their house in Topanga, California," one insider reveals. "Apparently they weren't officially married until then! They said they 'made it official.'" A second source confirms to Us that the couple — who share kids Lola, 10, and Nakoa-Wolf, 8 — purchased a marriage license from the Los Angeles County Registrar-Recorder/County Clerk's office on October 2, one week before they exchanged vows. Bonet's daughter [Zoë Kravitz](https://www.usmagazine.com/celebrities/zoe-kravitz/), whom she shares with ex-husband [Lenny Kravitz](https://www.usmagazine.com/celebrities/lenny-kravitz/), attended the wedding, as did [Alicia Vikander](https://www.usmagazine.com/celebrities/alicia-vikander/), [Michael Fassbender](https://www.usmagazine.com/celebrities/michael-fassbender/), famed rock climber Chris Sharma and several of Momoa's former costars. "He stays close with the people he works with on movies and is a really nice guy," the first source tells Us. "It was a big party and people came from out of town to attend." According to a Facebook user who saw a friend's photos from the wedding, the Game of Thrones alum, 38, wore an unbuttoned white shirt and a lei. He styled his long locks into a man bun. The Cosby Show alum, 49, "looked beautiful," according to the Facebook user's pal, who said some of the guests performed a traditional Māori haka for the bride. The couple first met through mutual friends in 2005. Momoa previously revealed that he had a crush on Bonet after watching her on The Cosby Show as a child. "The first time [we met] I was like, 'I want that one. I want her. I'm going to get her,'" he told [Katie Couric](https://www.usmagazine.com/celebrities/katie-couric/) in 2014. "I didn't tell her until after we had our two children. But I told her … 'I kind of stalked you. I was going to find you.'"

Alison Brie

http://www.wtfpod.com/podcast/episodes/episode_386_-_alison_brie

Alison Brie visits the Cat Ranch and Marc tries to figure out whether she's closer to Community's Annie or Mad Men's Trudy. In addition to talking about those two signature roles, Alison tells Marc about growing up around his neighborhood, participating in clothes-optional exploits in college and feeling the pressure of protecting the secrets of Mad Men. This episode is sponsored by [Squarespace](http://squarespace.com/wtf), [LegalZoom](http://legalzoom.com) and [Adam & Eve](http://adamandeve.com). [Episode 386 - Alison Brie](/podcast/episodes/episode_386_-_alison_brie) Alison Brie visits the Cat Ranch and Marc tries to figure out whether she's closer to Community's Annie or Mad Men's Trudy. In addition to talking about those two signature roles, Alison tells Marc about growing up around his neighborhood, participating in clothes-optional exploits in college and feeling the pressure of protecting the secrets of Mad Men. This episode is sponsored by

Alison Brie

http://deadline.com/2016/08/alison-brie-star-glow-netflix-wrestling-comedy-series-jenji-kohan-1201810007/

Community alumna [Alison Brie](https://deadline.com/tag/alison-brie/) is set as the lead in G.L.O.W., [Netflix](https://deadline.com/tag/netflix/)'s 10-episode straight-to-series comedy executive produced by Orange Is the New Black creator [Jenji Kohan](http://deadline.com/tag/jenji-kohan/). Created by Liz Flahive and Carly Mensch , G.L.O.W. was inspired by the real story of the 1980s female wrestling league. Set in Los Angeles and showcasing big hair and body slams, the series tells the fictionalized story of Ruth (Brie), an out-of-work, struggling actress who finds one last attempt to live her dreams when she's thrust into the glitter and spandex world of women's wrestling via a weekly series about female wrestlers. Kohan and Tara Herrmann executive produce, with Flahive and Mensch serving as showrunners. The Reagan-era female wrestling league [G.L.O.W.](https://deadline.com/tag/g-l-o-w/) (Gorgeous Ladies Of Wrestling), a female answer to the male-dominated World Wrestling Federation, was showcased in the eponymous kitschy, Las Vegas-based syndicated TV series, which ran for four seasons, featuring sketches, songs and wrestling. This is Brie's return to comedy series following her breakout role as Annie Edison on NBC/Yahoo's Community. She also recurred on AMC's drama series Mad Men and recently appeared in the Amazon original mini-series Julian Fellowes presents: Doctor Thorne. At Netflix, she voices a character on the animated series BoJack Horseman. She also is also a producer on the new TV Land comedy series Teachers. In features, Brie was last seen in the feature comedy How to be Single and in Jeff Baena's Joshy, which premiered at Sundance this year. She will next be seen in The Masterpiece opposite James Franco and The Headhunters Calling opposite Gerard Butler. Her voiceover work also includes playing Uni-Kitty in The Lego Movie. Brie is repped by WME, Rise Management and Sloane Offer. Must Read Stories Subscribe to [Deadline Breaking News Alerts](https://cloud.email.deadline.com/signup) and keep your inbox happy.

David Houle

http://www.peabody.uga.edu/winners/winners_1990s.php

Become a creative problem solver and leader in mass communications. Create multimedia narratives in service of the public interest. Innovate in film and television visual storytelling. Learn advanced skills for a career in mass communications. Publish and produce your own work while honing your skills as a writer. Train to be a future director, producer or cinematographer. Become a scholar and innovator in mass communications research. Gain advanced knowledge and understanding of new media. Study communications skills aimed at shaping public opinion. Meet society's evolving health needs with communication. Examine how we access, create and share media messages. Prepare for a dynamic career as a sports media professional. Influence strategic decisions with data-driven insights. Develop skills for a readiness approach addressing complex communication issues. Get everything you need to apply for Grady and advance your college education. Jumpstart your digital media career at Grady. Advance your education in one of the top graduate programs. Plan a visit and get a glimpse of your future at Grady. Find everything you need to set yourself up for success at Grady College and beyond. Schedule an appointment with your academic advisor. Explore opportunities within the Grady network. Explore study away opportunities, both domestic and abroad. Get more involved and expand your network at Grady. View Grady scholarships and financial aid opportunities. See all the amazing work being done by students at Grady. Everything you need to know about commencement. From the history of the college to our impressive faculty and staff, learn more about Grady. Learn what makes Grady one of the top communications schools. Read about our diversity, equity and inclusion efforts at Grady. Explore our state-of-the-art labs and facilities at Grady College. Join us in our service mission to enhance the lives of others. Get to know our award-winning faculty and staff. Learn about this prestigious award founded at UGA & based in Athens Stay in-the-know with the latest Grady news and events happening around campus. Discover what's new with Grady College and our alumni. Get details on upcoming events happening at Grady. Take me back to https://grady.uga.edu

David Houle

http://www.peabody.uga.edu/winners/winners_1990s.php

Become a creative problem solver and leader in mass communications. Create multimedia narratives in service of the public interest. Innovate in film and television visual storytelling. Learn advanced skills for a career in mass communications. Publish and produce your own work while honing your skills as a writer. Train to be a future director, producer or cinematographer. Become a scholar and innovator in mass communications research. Gain advanced knowledge and understanding of new media. Study communications skills aimed at shaping public opinion. Meet society's evolving health needs with communication. Examine how we access, create and share media messages. Prepare for a dynamic career as a sports media professional. Influence strategic decisions with data-driven insights. Develop skills for a readiness approach addressing complex communication issues. Get everything you need to apply for Grady and advance your college education. Jumpstart your digital media career at Grady. Advance your education in one of the top graduate programs. Plan a visit and get a glimpse of your future at Grady. Find everything you need to set yourself up for success at Grady College and beyond. Schedule an appointment with your academic advisor. Explore opportunities within the Grady network. Explore study away opportunities, both domestic and abroad. Get more involved and expand your network at Grady. View Grady scholarships and financial aid opportunities. See all the amazing work being done by students at Grady. Everything you need to know about commencement. From the history of the college to our impressive faculty and staff, learn more about Grady. Learn what makes Grady one of the top communications schools. Read about our diversity, equity and inclusion efforts at Grady. Explore our state-of-the-art labs and facilities at Grady College. Join us in our service mission to enhance the lives of others. Get to know our award-winning faculty and staff. Learn about this prestigious award founded at UGA & based in Athens Stay in-the-know with the latest Grady news and events happening around campus. Discover what's new with Grady College and our alumni. Get details on upcoming events happening at Grady. Take me back to https://grady.uga.edu

David Houle

http://www.afsinc.org/content/view/1131/326/

Skip to main content American Foundry Society About Message from the CEO Mission Board of Directors Staff Speakers Bureau Membership ROI Corporate Members List Corporate Members Map Careers at AFS Get Involved FAQs History Antitrust Compliance Policy Store Events Events Calendar Chapter Calendar Committee Calendar Sponsor an Event Institute Courses Tradeshows and Annual Meetings Conferences AFS OnLive Upcoming Webinars Webinar Archive Premier Speakers Regionals Join Membership ROI Corporate Membership Individual Membership Annual Report Grow Your Business with AFS Corporate Members List Corporate Members Map Log In Search Metalcasting About Metalcasting Quarterly Outlook Survey Metalcasting Economic Impact Industry Statistics Careers in Metalcasting Conversions Reshoring Environmental Health and Safety Sustainability AFS Store We Love Metalcasting Demonstrations (Foundry In a Box) Metalcasting Communications Resources Advocate Government Affairs Fly-In Policy Agenda Advocacy Efforts AFS Advocacy Achievements Castings. Wherever you are. Recycling and Beneficial Use of Foundry Byproducts Congressional Champion Award Metalcasting Training Training for Excellence in Metalcasting Foundry E-Learning Instructor-Led Training In-Plant Training Supervisor Development Careers Careers in Metalcasting Job Board Career Enrichment We Love Metalcasting Manufacturing Day AFS Young Professionals Women in Metalcasting Student Chapters Student Outreach Student Research Competition Innovation & Management Research AFS Policies and Authorship Guides AFS Library Casting Connection AFS Committees Human Resource Tools Metalcasting Marketing Energy Programs Regional Chapters AFS Peer Review Endorsed Insurance and Risk Management National Awards Nominations Designers & Buyers Casting Alloy Data Search Casting Source Directory Design Tutorials AFS Library Cast In North America Casting Source Communications & Magazines Publications Modern Casting Casting Source AFS OnLive Casting Connection SupplierMarketplace.net Proud Member Logos Advertising Photo Galleries Annual Report News About Message from the CEO Mission Board of Directors Staff Speakers Bureau Membership ROI Corporate Members List Corporate Members Map Careers at AFS Get Involved FAQs History Antitrust Compliance Policy Store Events Events Calendar Chapter Calendar Committee Calendar Sponsor an Event Institute Courses Tradeshows and Annual Meetings Conferences AFS OnLive Upcoming Webinars Webinar Archive Premier Speakers Regionals Join Membership ROI Corporate Membership Individual Membership Annual Report Grow Your Business with AFS Corporate Members List Corporate Members Map Log In Metalcasting About Metalcasting Quarterly Outlook Survey Metalcasting Economic Impact Industry Statistics Careers in Metalcasting Conversions Reshoring Environmental Health and Safety Sustainability AFS Store We Love Metalcasting Demonstrations (Foundry In a Box) Metalcasting Communications Resources Advocate Government Affairs Fly-In Policy Agenda Advocacy Efforts AFS Advocacy Achievements Castings. Wherever you are. Recycling and Beneficial Use of Foundry Byproducts Congressional Champion Award Metalcasting Training Training for Excellence in Metalcasting Foundry E-Learning Instructor-Led Training In-Plant Training Supervisor Development Careers Careers in Metalcasting Job Board Career Enrichment We Love Metalcasting Manufacturing Day AFS Young Professionals Women in Metalcasting Student Chapters Student Outreach Student Research Competition Innovation & Management Research AFS Policies and Authorship Guides AFS Library Casting Connection AFS Committees Human Resource Tools Metalcasting Marketing Energy Programs Regional Chapters AFS Peer Review Endorsed Insurance and Risk Management National Awards Nominations Designers & Buyers Casting Alloy Data Search Casting Source Directory Design Tutorials AFS Library Cast In North America Casting Source Communications & Magazines Publications Modern Casting Casting Source AFS OnLive Casting Connection SupplierMarketplace.net Proud Member Logos Advertising Photo Galleries Annual Report News The requested page could not be found.

David Houle

http://www.oprah.com/davidhoule

Love & Marriage: Huntsville [ ](https://www.oprah.com/own-loveandmarriagehuntsville/beyond-scared-stormi) Danger Next Door Til Death Do Us Part Wrongful Revenge A Secret Affair Justice for Jane Doe The House on Q Street Sight Unseen Blended Families Nanny Nook BFFs From Hell Tragedy on TV What the Camera Didn't See Skeletons in the Family Closet Beyond Scared Stormi Meet the Bradens! New Kids on the Cell Block Skeletons in the Family Closet Beyond Scared Stormi Secret Intentions Evidence of Love Deadly Business OWN Your Health A safe space for Black women to explore their health and take proactive approaches to their wellness. Love & Marriage: Huntsville Three high-powered African-American couples mix business with pleasure when they come together to revitalize the thriving city of Huntsville, Alabama. Newsletters Stay in the know! Sign up for any of OWN's free e-mail newsletters today.

Jacques Santer

https://wwwen.uni.lu/layout/set/print/welcome_to_luxembourg/facts_and_figures/personalities/jacques_santer

- Outreach 27 June 2024 Interdisciplinarity, a specialty of Uni.lu What do Leonardo da Vinci and the University of Luxembourg have in common? Interdisciplinarity. While the Master was renowned for his command of the arts, science, anatomy and architecture, the University also fosters collaboration among numerous areas of study. - Research 25 June 2024 Enjoy the ride: self-driving tech made in Luxembourg In the busy streets of Luxembourg, something exciting is happening. Scientists are working on perfecting autonomous driving, so that you and I can be chauffeured to work or school by a self-driving car. This future is what drives Professor Raphaël Frank and his team: they want to change the way we travel and make our daily trips safer and easier. - Education, Campus life 31 May 2024 How to be ready for your exam session Exam period can quickly become a source of stress and anxiety for students. Here are a few tips on how to boost your revision and have a successful exam session. Studying at our University Find your study programme - [Bachelor's and master's programmes Take a look at our range of degrees](https://www.uni.lu/en/education/study-programme-overview/#go) - [Doctoral schools Find out more about our doctoral programmes](https://www.uni.lu/research-en/doctoral-education/schools-and-programmes/) - [Specialised studies diplomas Our training offers for future medical specialists](https://www.uni.lu/en/education/study-programme-overview/#des) - [Continuing education Find out about vocational training & lifelong learning opportunities](https://www.uni.lu/en/education/study-programme-overview/#cped) Latest news - Glimpse exciting research at Nexus 2050!OutreachAutonomous Systems, Computer Science & ICT, Psychology, Neurosciences & Behavioural Economics [Learn more](https://www.uni.lu/snt-en/news/glimpse-exciting-research-at-nexus-2050/) - - First lessons for à la carte literacy teaching for school pupilsPress Releases, ResearchHumanities [Learn more](https://www.uni.lu/fhse-en/news/first-lessons-for-a-la-carte-literacy-teaching-for-school-pupils/) - The University of Luxembourg mourns for Prof. Dr.-Ing. Peter PlapperUniversityEngineering [Learn more](https://www.uni.lu/en/news/the-university-of-luxembourg-mourns-for-prof-dr-ing-peter-plapper/) - - HistorEsch project receives an honorary mention in the 2024 EU Prize for Citizen ScienceAwards & RankingsHumanities [Learn more](https://www.uni.lu/c2dh-en/news/historesch-project-receives-an-honorary-mention-in-the-2024-eu-prize-for-citizen-science/) Discover our research Shaping a digital, healthy and sustainable future The University of Luxembourg is a world-class research university. It strives for excellence in both fundamental and applied research, and in education. It drives innovation for society, has a high proportion of graduate students, and combines research, teaching and societal impact.

Jacques Santer

https://multimedia.europarl.europa.eu/en/history-fall-of-the-santer-commission_V001-0004_ev

Skip to main content EN - English ▼ BG - български ES - español CS - čeština DA - dansk DE - Deutsch ET - eesti keel EL - ελληνικά EN - English FR - français GA - Gaeilge HR - hrvatski IT - italiano LV - latviešu valoda LT - lietuvių kalba HU - magyar MT - Malti NL - Nederlands PL - polski PT - português RO - română SK - slovenčina SL - slovenščina FI - suomi SV - svenska News MEPs About Parliament Plenary Committees Delegations View other websites News MEPs About Parliament Plenary Committees Delegations At your service President's website Secretary General Think Tank EP Newshub Visits Legislative train Contracts and Grants Register Open Data Portal Liaison offices Multimedia Centre European Parliament Search European Parliament Menu Home Topics Events Streaming Video Photo Audio Infographic Tags Elections 2024 Home History: Fall of the Santer Commission Overview Shotlist Transcript Download Share

Bruinkool

https://www.t-online.de/leben/essen-und-trinken/grillen/id_41849770/grillen-mit-holzkohle-oder-briketts-.html

Grillen Holzkohle oder Briketts - was grillt besser? Für diesen Beitrag haben wir alle relevanten Fakten sorgfältig recherchiert. Eine Beeinflussung durch Dritte findet nicht statt. [Zum journalistischen Leitbild von t-online.](https://www.t-online.de/ueber-t-online/id_100280284/so-arbeitet-die-redaktion-von-t-online.html) Für viele Grillfans gibt es nichts Schöneres, als den Tag mit einem Grillabend ausklingen zu lassen. Doch schon bei den Vorbereitungen kann einiges schief gehen. Denn für ein leckeres Grillergebnis und eine lange Glut ist das richtige Grillmaterial entscheidend. Was aber ist besser: Holzkohle oder Briketts? Wir geben Tipps womit Sie am besten grillen und wie Sie dem Grill richtig einheizen. Mit Holzkohle oder Briketts grillen? Sowohl Holzkohle als auch Briketts haben Vor- und Nachteile. Die klassische Kohle lässt sich schneller entzünden - nach rund 25 Minuten ist die Glut gut - und sie wird in der Regel heißer, bis 700 Grad. Holzkohle eignet sich vor allem für kurze Grillevents mit Würstchen und Steaks. Ihr Nachteil: Die Glut hält nicht sehr lange an. In der Regel reicht die Hitze für maximal zwei Grillrunden. Nach etwa einer Stunde gibt sie keine Hitze mehr ab. Anders bei Briketts: Sie brauchen rund 50 Minuten Vorlauf, bis das erste Fleisch auf den Grill gelegt werden kann. Mit einem Anzündkamin sind die Briketts nach etwa 20 bis 30 Minuten einsatzbereit. Glühen sie aber erst einmal gleichmäßig, können gesellige Grillfreunde bis zu drei Stunden lang nachlegen. Briketts werden allerdings nicht ganz so heiß wie Holzkohle. Ein Wermutstropfen: Auf Briketts gegrilltes Fleisch hat einen weniger typischen Barbecue-Geschmack als auf Holzkohle zubereitetes Grillgut. Auf gute Qualität achten Beim Holzkohlekauf sollten Sie auf die Qualität achten. Auf der Verpackung sollte das DIN-Zeichen EN 1860-2 ersichtlich sein. Sorten mit dieser Aufschrift wurden nicht mit künstlichem Klebstoff hergestellt und sind frei von Schadstoffen. In preiswerten Kohlesäcken sind die Stücke häufig unregelmäßig groß, was eine ungleiche Hitzeverteilung und unregelmäßig gegrilltes Fleisch zur Folge hat. Diese Größenunterschiede gibt es bei Briketts nicht. Bei der Herstellung werden Kohlestaub und kleine Kohlestücke unter hohem Druck mit organischer Stärke als Klebstoff zu Briketts gepresst. Sie glühen gleichmäßig, langsam und kontrolliert. Auch bei ihnen lohnt es sich, auf Qualität zu achten. Die Mischung macht's Experten empfehlen, die gute Entflammbarkeit der Holzkohle und die lange Brenndauer der Briketts in Kombination zu nutzen. Mischen Sie einfach beide Materialien. Im Grill legen Sie Kohle und Briketts am besten zu einer Pyramide zusammen. Sie brennt, ähnlich einem Lagerfeuer, von unten nach oben ab. Das Ergebnis: eine lange währende Glut und Fleisch mit dem typischen Holzkohlearoma. Profi-Tipp: der Anzündkamin Holzkohle und Briketts sind nicht leicht entflammbar und brauchen deshalb Zündhilfen. Profis benutzen biologische Anzünder und einen Anzündkamin. Flüssige Anzünder müssen vor dem Anzünden einige Minuten in die Kohlen einwirken, erst dann wirken sie richtig. Bevor man Würstchen und Co. auflegt, müssen diese Anzünder vollständig abgebrannt sein, sonst geben sie ihren intensiven Geruch an das Grillgut ab. Von Eierkartons oder Zeitungspapier als Anzündhilfe raten Grillprofis ab. Reststückchen und Asche können durch die Luft wirbeln, Nachbarn und Gäste belästigen und unter Umständen sogar andernorts ungewollt Feuer entzünden. Brandbeschleuniger wie Brennspiritus oder Benzin haben beim Anzünden des Grillfeuers nichts zu suchen, empfiehlt die [Stiftung Warentest](/themen/stiftung-warentest/). Diese Mittel können eine schwere Verpuffung und Stichflammen verursachen.

Bruinkool

http://adsabs.harvard.edu/abs/1996JAfES..23...95C

Lignite from the western coastal plain of South Africa Abstract Scattered lignite deposits occur along the western coastal plain of South Africa, south of latitude 31°S. The lignite seams are very lenticular and significant deposits were only found at three localities, Koekenaap (300 km north of Cape Town), Bergrivier (120 km north of Cape Town) and Kraaifontein (25 km east of Cape Town). Palynological studies indicate a moderately warm and humid palaeoclimate and a Miocene age. The lignite is interbedded with clay, sand and minor gravel, which fill palaeochannels and palaeo-depressions excavated into pre-Cenozoic bedrock. These sediments were deposited in lacustrine palaeoenvironments at Koekenaap and Kraaifontein and in a fluvial meandering palaeoenvironment at Bergrivier. The lignite represents local peat-forming wetlands, which developed on: (1) the distal parts of small-scale alluvial fans bordering lakes and flanked by moderate-relief highlands at Koekenaap and Kraaifontein, and (2) floodplanns and in abandoned channels at Bergrivier. By far the largest " in situ exploitable resources" occur at Koekenaap (29.7 MT) with minor contributions from Bergrivier (0.027 MT) and Kraaifontein (0.09 MT). Mean seam widths are 3.24 m, 1.05 m and 2.3 m, respectively. The ash content of the lignite is very high, due to fluvial/lacustrine incursions into the wetlands and oxidative peat degradation during dry periods. The sulphide content (marcasite) is variable but high overall, attesting to acidic and anoxic paludal settings. High volatile matter contents and low calorific values reflect the low rank of the lignite, which is unsuitable for any use other than agricultural/horticultural. - Publication: - Journal of African Earth Sciences - Pub Date: - July 1996 - DOI: - [10.1016/S0899-5362(96)00055-3](/link_gateway/1996JAfES..23...95C/doi:10.1016/S0899-5362(96)00055-3) - Bibcode: - [1996JAfES..23...95C](/abs/1996JAfES..23...95C/abstract)

On the Road

https://www.theguardian.com/books/2007/aug/05/fiction.jackkerouac

On Wednesday 5 September 1957, the New York Times published a lengthy review of On the Road, the second novel by the 35-year-old [Jack Kerouac](https://www.theguardian.com/books/jackkerouac). The reviewer, Gilbert Millstein, called it 'the most beautifully executed, the clearest and the most important utterance yet made by the generation Kerouac himself named years ago as "beat", and whose principal avatar he is'. In Minor Characters, her illuminating memoir of life among the Beat writers, Joyce Johnson, who was with Kerouac on that day in New York, captures the seismic resonance of that single review. She had gone with Kerouac to buy an early edition of the newspaper from an all-night newsstand in midtown Manhattan. In a nearby bar, she had watched him read Millstein's article, shaking his head 'as if he couldn't figure out why he wasn't happier than he was'. Afterwards, they had walked back to Johnson's apartment on the Upper West Side where, as she memorably put it: 'Jack lay down obscure for the last time in his life. The ringing phone woke him next morning and he was famous.' Overnight, the Beat generation had gone overground, and the man who did most to define it suddenly found that his book was now defining him. It would continue to do so for the rest of his short life, and for many decades afterwards. 'Challenging the complacency and prosperity of postwar America hadn't been Kerouac's intent when he wrote his novel,' his first biographer, Ann Charters, later wrote, 'but he had created a book that heralded a change of consciousness in the country.' In the few years following its publication, On the Road became a major bestseller. It also, as Kerouac's friend and fellow Beat writer, William Burroughs, witheringly wrote, 'sold a trillion Levi's, a million espresso coffee machines, and also sent countless kids on the road'. Unwittingly, and to his increasing horror, Kerouac had written a zeitgeist book, one that would help determine the course of what would come to be known as youth culture over the following two decades. 'It changed my life like it changed everyone else's,' Bob Dylan would say many years later. Tom Waits, too, acknowledged its influence, hymning Jack and Neal in a song, and calling the Beats 'father figures'. At least two great American photographers were influenced by Kerouac: Robert Frank, who became his close friend - Kerouac wrote the introduction to The Americans - and Stephen Shore, who set out on an American road trip in the Seventies with Kerouac's book as a guide. It would be hard to imagine Hunter S Thompson's deranged Seventies road novel, Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas, had On the Road not laid down the template - likewise films such as Easy Rider, Paris, Texas, even Thelma and Louise. Remarkably, On the Road was actually written in 1951 when, so the story goes, Kerouac typed the words over three uninterrupted weeks on to a 120ft scroll of teletype paper, fuelled by Benzedrine and strong coffee. The novel recounts, in a breathless and impressionistic style, his travels to and fro across America, often in the company of his friend and prime influence, Neal Cassady, renamed Dean Moriarty in the book. In the six years it took for On the Road to be published, American culture changed dramatically: Elvis Presley altered the course of popular music; James Dean and Marlon Brando emerged as a new breed of brooding teenage icon; the painter Jackson Pollock came and went, his action paintings and the intense way he lived some kind of precursor to the 'nowness' that the Beats strived for in both art and life. 'The Beat literary movement came at exactly the right time,' William Burroughs wrote later, 'and said something that millions of people all over the world were waiting to hear... The alienation, the restlessness, the dissatisfaction were already there waiting when Kerouac pointed out the road.' Though undoubtedly ambitious, Kerouac was utterly unprepared for the fame, notoriety and controversy that followed On the Road. He was hurt by the many negative reviews of the book, and by the parodies of the Beat generation that suddenly started appearing on mainstream televison chat shows. In interviews from the time, he is palpably ill at ease, sometimes inebriated. In the most recent biography of the writer, Kerouac: His Life and Work, Paul Mather writes: 'The obscurity that Kerouac by turn loved and loathed had vanished. He began drinking.' Twelve years later, Kerouac was dead. The physical cause was cirrhosis of the liver, brought on by years of alcohol abuse. Many of those who knew him intimately, though, suspected that he also died of disillusionment. 'He was just so sensitive,' says Neal Cassady's widow Carolyn, who had a long affair with Kerouac. 'Everything hurt him deeply. He had the thin skin of the artist as well as the guilt that his Catholic upbringing had instilled in him. In the end, he was just so depressed about how he was being misrepresented, how his great and beautiful book was being blamed for all the excesses of the Sixties. He just couldn't take it.' Had Kerouac lived on into old age, he would have been even more appalled at the ways in which his legacy is currently being misrepresented. Two years ago, a range of Jack Kerouac clothing was launched in America. Later this year, the BBC will mark the 50th anniversary of the publication of On the Road by sending the comedian, presenter and self-styled dandy, Russell Brand, and his Radio 2 co-presenter, Matt Morgan, on a road trip. Thankfully, the anniversary will also be marked in a more reverent manner by the book's publishers, Penguin, who on 5 September will publish On the Road: The Original Scroll, the full, uncensored text that Kerouac famously wrote in those three frantic weeks. The cast of characters - Allen Ginsberg, Burroughs, the Cassadys - are no longer hidden behind Kerouac's often wonderful pseudonyms, and that famous opening line, 'I first met Dean not long after my wife and I had split up,' now reads, 'I first met Neal not long after my father died.' Many of the sex scenes, straight and gay, removed at his publishers' insistence, have been reinstated too, though they are tame by today's standards. The attraction that Ginsberg felt for Neal Cassady, briefly reciprocated, is now acknowledged in the first few pages, though in an almost offhand manner: 'I was in the same room. I heard them across the darkness and mused and said to myself, "Hmm, now there's something started but don't want anything to do with it."' Fifty years on, the book is being turned into a Hollywood film, scripted by Roman Coppola, son of Francis Ford, and directed by Walter Salles who made The Motorcyle Diaries, the story of Che Guevara's road trip across South America. Kirsten Dunst will star as Carolyn Cassady. Nearly 40 years after his premature death, then, Kerouac lives on - though in some odd and often contradictory ways. As is the case with Guevara, his legacy is contested, his cultural meaning blurred. At the Naropa University in Boulder, Colorado, for instance, where the Jack Kerouac School of Disembodied Poetics is housed, they will be celebrating the 50th anniversary of On the Road with a three-day Kerouac festival. The last remnants of the Beat generation, or at least those fit enough to travel, will be in attendance. One of the organisers, Junior Burke, chair of writing at Naropa, recently described On the Road as 'one of the truly defining works of American fiction', comparing it to The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, but adding: 'Instead of two guys on a raft on the Mississippi, it's two guys in a Hudson Hornet on the highways of America. I think it's something that young people still relate to.' For many young people in America, though, the name Jack Kerouac means nothing at all. In an age where youth culture is increasingly defined by consumerism, where the road trip has been replaced by the gap year, and where it is considered radical to be cool but not cool to be radical, whither Jack Kerouac and his beatific vision? 'It struck me when I was in Thailand last year that no one is even pretending to be beat any more,' says the young British novelist Hari Kunzru. 'You'd quite often see white guys with dreadlocks pulling wheelie cases down Khao San Road. The great adventure that was travelling overland in the Sixties and Seventies has become a middle-class ritual. The notion that you would throw yourself at the mercy of the road, and by doing so, gain some self-knowledge or even maturity, is long gone.' Carolyn Cassady, the last surviving member of Kerouac's closeknit coterie of friends and fellow Beats, now 84 and exiled in deepest Berkshire, is even more scathing about Noughties youth. 'It's all about money and surface now, the clothes you wear, the things you buy, and no one is the slightest bit ashamed of being superficial. I often thank God that Jack and Neal did not live long enough to see what has become of their vision'. When I was a teenager, though, On the Road was the bible for any aspiring bohemian, a book that was passed on from one generation to the next almost as a talismanic text. I was given a battered copy by an older friend and, even before I read it, knew that it carried within its pages some deep, abiding truth about youth, freedom and self-determination. On the Road instilled in me a belief that, in order to find oneself, one had to throw caution to the wind and travel long distances with no real goal and very little money. A few years later, I passed the same copy on to my younger brother, and was incensed when he passed it on to a friend who left it on a bus. I can see the irony now but back then I felt that something bigger than just a battered paperback had been lost. It was in this word-of-mouth way that On the Road, even long after its initial publication, became one of those rare novels that was often read by people who do not read novels as a rule. It may be that this is still the case, but I doubt it. Harry Potter is today's zeitgeist book. The Beats and their wild adventures seem light years away. And yet, for all that, On the Road continues to be read. What was once a zeitgeist book, though, and one that defined a transformative moment in postwar culture, has become a historical artefact. It may even be the case that today's teenagers read On the Road in much the same way that my generation read Laurie Lee's picaresque rites-of-passage novel As I Walked Out One Midsummer Morning - as a glimpse into an already distant past when things seemed simpler. When I asked my 20-year-old niece, Lucy, if she had read it, she nodded. 'I liked parts of it,' she said, 'but it seemed so old-fashioned.' Did she connect with it in any way? 'I suppose it does make you feel like you had missed out on something.' This, she added, was a familiar feeling among her generation. What was that something, though? 'Oh, some kind of meaning. It's set in a time when travelling across America and smoking weed or whatever meant something. It was a statement.' Hari Kunzru, who 'came to the book late and found it almost cringey in its emotional gushiness,' agrees. 'I was aware of its cultural weight in the canon of alternative literature before I read it, and even though I never had an intense love affair with it, there was no denying that the lives these guys lived was properly edgy in a way that my generation's wasn't. They were transgressing in a very real way and doing dangerous things at a time when the risks were high. To me, the lives were often more interesting than the writing.' While living in New York, Kerouac met the varied bunch of characters and fledgling writers who would later become the Beat generation, the likes of Ginsberg, Burroughs, John Clellon Holmes, who is said to have coined the term, and, most significantly, Neal Cassady. Kerouac had grown up in a relatively stable family. Cassady, on the other hand, had been brought up by an alcoholic father, and sent to reform school several times in his teens for stealing cars. To Ginsberg and Kerouac, Cassady was the real thing, an authentic free spirit at a time when authenticity - of experience, expression, vision - was all. 'Neal was an energetic and instinctively brilliant, self-educated guy with a photographic memory,' elaborates Carolyn Cassady. 'But, because of his background, a lot of the more academic Beats didn't like him, didn't trust him. Both Jack and Allen were blown away by him, though, his restless energy, his love of life, the way he talked, the way he lived purely for the moment.' Cassady epitomised the consciousness that Kerouac had christened 'beat' as early as 1948. The word had two connotations for Kerouac: 'beat' as in worn out by the conventions and constrictions of straight American society; and beat as in 'beatific' - blessed, holy, transcendent. The Beat writers had a shared vision that rejected many of the formal values of the accepted canon, and elevated energy, flow and engagement over reflection, refinement and detachment. In doing so, they also reflected the dissatisfactions of America's postwar young. Willam Burroughs, who was older and colder than the other Beats, saw the Beat generation as a media construct as much as an organic flowering of a shared transgressive vision: 'Those arch-opportunists, they know a story when they see one, and the Beat movement was a story, and a big one.' Following the crossover sucess of On The Road, Kerouac became the centre of that story, constantly referred to in the press as 'king of the Beats' and 'spokesman for a generation'. And, though he was eager for literary recognition, he was also the most ill-suited candidate for this kind of canonisation, at least until the similarly elusive Bob Dylan came along a decade later. Dylan, though, managed to reinvent himself continually. Kerouac tried many times and failed. In the end, Jack Kerouac outlived Neal Cassady by just over a year. Cassady, the man who had truly defined the essence of Beat, whose restlessness, amorality and manic energy had so inspired Kerouac to create his freeform, rhapsodic prose, was found dead by a railway track in Mexico in 1968. He had kept on moving, though, had even stamped his personality on another movement, Ken Kesey's LSD-fuelled Merry Pranksters, whose Day-Glo bus he piloted across America and had ended up in another zeitgeist book, Tom Wolfe's The Electric Kool-Aid Acid Test. Kerouac died in 1969 in St Petersburg, Florida. He had lived long enough to be blamed for the excesses of the Sixties generation, for whom he felt no empathy. According to Carolyn Cassady: 'Jack was essentially conservative, patriotic even, but not in any heavy-handed way. He was old-fashioned. I never once heard him swear. People who write about him can never seem to get a hold of the consciousness of that time, which was restless and questing, but also oddly reserved and responsible. His intention was not freedom without responsibility, but freedom of expression in art.' Which begs the inevitable question, does On the Road stand the test of time? Is it a great work of literature? Ann Charters thinks so, comparing it to both Huckleberry Finn and The Great Gatsby, as a novel that 'explores the themes of personal freedom and challenges the promise of the American dream'. Likewise the American novelist, AM Homes, who wrote recently that 'Kerouac was the man who allowed writers to enter the world of flow... his philosophy was about being in the current, open to possibility, allowing creativity to move through you, and you to be one with the process'. Hari Kunzru disagrees. 'On the Road is such a patchy book, like much Beat writing, in fact. The whole heart-on-the-sleeve romanticism is off-putting, even embarassing. Apart from some really brilliant descriptive passages, it just does not stand up. It's become a different book now, a historical artefact rather than a living, breathing work of literature.' When I re-read On the Road recently, it did indeed seem to me to be a different book from the one that I had so connected with as a teenager. The gush of emotionalism was apparent, and the narrative no longer held my attention in the same way. And yet there were moments of great descriptive prose about America, about jazz music, about the sheer joy of being young and alive, and about the fleeting freedom of the open road. More surprisingly, there was an undercurrent of great sadness and disillusionment that I had not picked up on, or chosen to overlook, first time around. It seemed, in its final part, to be an elegy for Kerouac and Cassady's youth, for their friendship, which ends in a kind of betrayal, and for the fabled road of the title that had promised so much but, in the end, delivered so little. Kerouac: On the record 1922 Born Jean-Louis Lebris de Kerouac in Lowell, Massachusetts to French-Canadian parents. 1939 Entered Columbia University on a football scholarship but dropped out in 1941. 1944 Arrested for helping Lucien Carr dispose of the body of David Kammerer, whom Carr had stabbed to death. Released on bail, put up by girlfriend Edie Parker after he agreed to marry her. 1950 Published first novel The Town and the City to respectable reviews but poor sales. 1951 Wrote On the Road 1957 Hailed as the voice of the Beat generation, after On the Road was finally published to ecstatic reviews. 1960s Moved to Florida to escape media attention and care for his mother. Wrote a series of lesser-known autobiographical novels. 1969 Died aged 47 from internal bleeding caused by cirrhosis of the liver. They said 'Someone handed me Mexico City Blues in 1959 and it blew my mind. It was the first poetry that spoke my language.' (Bob Dylan) 'That's not writing, that's typing.' (Truman Capote) He said 'The only people for me are the mad ones, the ones who are mad to live, mad to talk, mad to be saved, desirous of everything at the same time, the ones who never yawn or say a commonplace thing, but burn, burn, burn, like fabulous Roman candles exploding like spiders across the stars.' (From On the Road) Hugh Montgomery

On the Road

https://www.theguardian.com/books/2007/aug/05/fiction.jackkerouac

On Wednesday 5 September 1957, the New York Times published a lengthy review of On the Road, the second novel by the 35-year-old [Jack Kerouac](https://www.theguardian.com/books/jackkerouac). The reviewer, Gilbert Millstein, called it 'the most beautifully executed, the clearest and the most important utterance yet made by the generation Kerouac himself named years ago as "beat", and whose principal avatar he is'. In Minor Characters, her illuminating memoir of life among the Beat writers, Joyce Johnson, who was with Kerouac on that day in New York, captures the seismic resonance of that single review. She had gone with Kerouac to buy an early edition of the newspaper from an all-night newsstand in midtown Manhattan. In a nearby bar, she had watched him read Millstein's article, shaking his head 'as if he couldn't figure out why he wasn't happier than he was'. Afterwards, they had walked back to Johnson's apartment on the Upper West Side where, as she memorably put it: 'Jack lay down obscure for the last time in his life. The ringing phone woke him next morning and he was famous.' Overnight, the Beat generation had gone overground, and the man who did most to define it suddenly found that his book was now defining him. It would continue to do so for the rest of his short life, and for many decades afterwards. 'Challenging the complacency and prosperity of postwar America hadn't been Kerouac's intent when he wrote his novel,' his first biographer, Ann Charters, later wrote, 'but he had created a book that heralded a change of consciousness in the country.' In the few years following its publication, On the Road became a major bestseller. It also, as Kerouac's friend and fellow Beat writer, William Burroughs, witheringly wrote, 'sold a trillion Levi's, a million espresso coffee machines, and also sent countless kids on the road'. Unwittingly, and to his increasing horror, Kerouac had written a zeitgeist book, one that would help determine the course of what would come to be known as youth culture over the following two decades. 'It changed my life like it changed everyone else's,' Bob Dylan would say many years later. Tom Waits, too, acknowledged its influence, hymning Jack and Neal in a song, and calling the Beats 'father figures'. At least two great American photographers were influenced by Kerouac: Robert Frank, who became his close friend - Kerouac wrote the introduction to The Americans - and Stephen Shore, who set out on an American road trip in the Seventies with Kerouac's book as a guide. It would be hard to imagine Hunter S Thompson's deranged Seventies road novel, Fear and Loathing in Las Vegas, had On the Road not laid down the template - likewise films such as Easy Rider, Paris, Texas, even Thelma and Louise. Remarkably, On the Road was actually written in 1951 when, so the story goes, Kerouac typed the words over three uninterrupted weeks on to a 120ft scroll of teletype paper, fuelled by Benzedrine and strong coffee. The novel recounts, in a breathless and impressionistic style, his travels to and fro across America, often in the company of his friend and prime influence, Neal Cassady, renamed Dean Moriarty in the book. In the six years it took for On the Road to be published, American culture changed dramatically: Elvis Presley altered the course of popular music; James Dean and Marlon Brando emerged as a new breed of brooding teenage icon; the painter Jackson Pollock came and went, his action paintings and the intense way he lived some kind of precursor to the 'nowness' that the Beats strived for in both art and life. 'The Beat literary movement came at exactly the right time,' William Burroughs wrote later, 'and said something that millions of people all over the world were waiting to hear... The alienation, the restlessness, the dissatisfaction were already there waiting when Kerouac pointed out the road.' Though undoubtedly ambitious, Kerouac was utterly unprepared for the fame, notoriety and controversy that followed On the Road. He was hurt by the many negative reviews of the book, and by the parodies of the Beat generation that suddenly started appearing on mainstream televison chat shows. In interviews from the time, he is palpably ill at ease, sometimes inebriated. In the most recent biography of the writer, Kerouac: His Life and Work, Paul Mather writes: 'The obscurity that Kerouac by turn loved and loathed had vanished. He began drinking.' Twelve years later, Kerouac was dead. The physical cause was cirrhosis of the liver, brought on by years of alcohol abuse. Many of those who knew him intimately, though, suspected that he also died of disillusionment. 'He was just so sensitive,' says Neal Cassady's widow Carolyn, who had a long affair with Kerouac. 'Everything hurt him deeply. He had the thin skin of the artist as well as the guilt that his Catholic upbringing had instilled in him. In the end, he was just so depressed about how he was being misrepresented, how his great and beautiful book was being blamed for all the excesses of the Sixties. He just couldn't take it.' Had Kerouac lived on into old age, he would have been even more appalled at the ways in which his legacy is currently being misrepresented. Two years ago, a range of Jack Kerouac clothing was launched in America. Later this year, the BBC will mark the 50th anniversary of the publication of On the Road by sending the comedian, presenter and self-styled dandy, Russell Brand, and his Radio 2 co-presenter, Matt Morgan, on a road trip. Thankfully, the anniversary will also be marked in a more reverent manner by the book's publishers, Penguin, who on 5 September will publish On the Road: The Original Scroll, the full, uncensored text that Kerouac famously wrote in those three frantic weeks. The cast of characters - Allen Ginsberg, Burroughs, the Cassadys - are no longer hidden behind Kerouac's often wonderful pseudonyms, and that famous opening line, 'I first met Dean not long after my wife and I had split up,' now reads, 'I first met Neal not long after my father died.' Many of the sex scenes, straight and gay, removed at his publishers' insistence, have been reinstated too, though they are tame by today's standards. The attraction that Ginsberg felt for Neal Cassady, briefly reciprocated, is now acknowledged in the first few pages, though in an almost offhand manner: 'I was in the same room. I heard them across the darkness and mused and said to myself, "Hmm, now there's something started but don't want anything to do with it."' Fifty years on, the book is being turned into a Hollywood film, scripted by Roman Coppola, son of Francis Ford, and directed by Walter Salles who made The Motorcyle Diaries, the story of Che Guevara's road trip across South America. Kirsten Dunst will star as Carolyn Cassady. Nearly 40 years after his premature death, then, Kerouac lives on - though in some odd and often contradictory ways. As is the case with Guevara, his legacy is contested, his cultural meaning blurred. At the Naropa University in Boulder, Colorado, for instance, where the Jack Kerouac School of Disembodied Poetics is housed, they will be celebrating the 50th anniversary of On the Road with a three-day Kerouac festival. The last remnants of the Beat generation, or at least those fit enough to travel, will be in attendance. One of the organisers, Junior Burke, chair of writing at Naropa, recently described On the Road as 'one of the truly defining works of American fiction', comparing it to The Adventures of Huckleberry Finn, but adding: 'Instead of two guys on a raft on the Mississippi, it's two guys in a Hudson Hornet on the highways of America. I think it's something that young people still relate to.' For many young people in America, though, the name Jack Kerouac means nothing at all. In an age where youth culture is increasingly defined by consumerism, where the road trip has been replaced by the gap year, and where it is considered radical to be cool but not cool to be radical, whither Jack Kerouac and his beatific vision? 'It struck me when I was in Thailand last year that no one is even pretending to be beat any more,' says the young British novelist Hari Kunzru. 'You'd quite often see white guys with dreadlocks pulling wheelie cases down Khao San Road. The great adventure that was travelling overland in the Sixties and Seventies has become a middle-class ritual. The notion that you would throw yourself at the mercy of the road, and by doing so, gain some self-knowledge or even maturity, is long gone.' Carolyn Cassady, the last surviving member of Kerouac's closeknit coterie of friends and fellow Beats, now 84 and exiled in deepest Berkshire, is even more scathing about Noughties youth. 'It's all about money and surface now, the clothes you wear, the things you buy, and no one is the slightest bit ashamed of being superficial. I often thank God that Jack and Neal did not live long enough to see what has become of their vision'. When I was a teenager, though, On the Road was the bible for any aspiring bohemian, a book that was passed on from one generation to the next almost as a talismanic text. I was given a battered copy by an older friend and, even before I read it, knew that it carried within its pages some deep, abiding truth about youth, freedom and self-determination. On the Road instilled in me a belief that, in order to find oneself, one had to throw caution to the wind and travel long distances with no real goal and very little money. A few years later, I passed the same copy on to my younger brother, and was incensed when he passed it on to a friend who left it on a bus. I can see the irony now but back then I felt that something bigger than just a battered paperback had been lost. It was in this word-of-mouth way that On the Road, even long after its initial publication, became one of those rare novels that was often read by people who do not read novels as a rule. It may be that this is still the case, but I doubt it. Harry Potter is today's zeitgeist book. The Beats and their wild adventures seem light years away. And yet, for all that, On the Road continues to be read. What was once a zeitgeist book, though, and one that defined a transformative moment in postwar culture, has become a historical artefact. It may even be the case that today's teenagers read On the Road in much the same way that my generation read Laurie Lee's picaresque rites-of-passage novel As I Walked Out One Midsummer Morning - as a glimpse into an already distant past when things seemed simpler. When I asked my 20-year-old niece, Lucy, if she had read it, she nodded. 'I liked parts of it,' she said, 'but it seemed so old-fashioned.' Did she connect with it in any way? 'I suppose it does make you feel like you had missed out on something.' This, she added, was a familiar feeling among her generation. What was that something, though? 'Oh, some kind of meaning. It's set in a time when travelling across America and smoking weed or whatever meant something. It was a statement.' Hari Kunzru, who 'came to the book late and found it almost cringey in its emotional gushiness,' agrees. 'I was aware of its cultural weight in the canon of alternative literature before I read it, and even though I never had an intense love affair with it, there was no denying that the lives these guys lived was properly edgy in a way that my generation's wasn't. They were transgressing in a very real way and doing dangerous things at a time when the risks were high. To me, the lives were often more interesting than the writing.' While living in New York, Kerouac met the varied bunch of characters and fledgling writers who would later become the Beat generation, the likes of Ginsberg, Burroughs, John Clellon Holmes, who is said to have coined the term, and, most significantly, Neal Cassady. Kerouac had grown up in a relatively stable family. Cassady, on the other hand, had been brought up by an alcoholic father, and sent to reform school several times in his teens for stealing cars. To Ginsberg and Kerouac, Cassady was the real thing, an authentic free spirit at a time when authenticity - of experience, expression, vision - was all. 'Neal was an energetic and instinctively brilliant, self-educated guy with a photographic memory,' elaborates Carolyn Cassady. 'But, because of his background, a lot of the more academic Beats didn't like him, didn't trust him. Both Jack and Allen were blown away by him, though, his restless energy, his love of life, the way he talked, the way he lived purely for the moment.' Cassady epitomised the consciousness that Kerouac had christened 'beat' as early as 1948. The word had two connotations for Kerouac: 'beat' as in worn out by the conventions and constrictions of straight American society; and beat as in 'beatific' - blessed, holy, transcendent. The Beat writers had a shared vision that rejected many of the formal values of the accepted canon, and elevated energy, flow and engagement over reflection, refinement and detachment. In doing so, they also reflected the dissatisfactions of America's postwar young. Willam Burroughs, who was older and colder than the other Beats, saw the Beat generation as a media construct as much as an organic flowering of a shared transgressive vision: 'Those arch-opportunists, they know a story when they see one, and the Beat movement was a story, and a big one.' Following the crossover sucess of On The Road, Kerouac became the centre of that story, constantly referred to in the press as 'king of the Beats' and 'spokesman for a generation'. And, though he was eager for literary recognition, he was also the most ill-suited candidate for this kind of canonisation, at least until the similarly elusive Bob Dylan came along a decade later. Dylan, though, managed to reinvent himself continually. Kerouac tried many times and failed. In the end, Jack Kerouac outlived Neal Cassady by just over a year. Cassady, the man who had truly defined the essence of Beat, whose restlessness, amorality and manic energy had so inspired Kerouac to create his freeform, rhapsodic prose, was found dead by a railway track in Mexico in 1968. He had kept on moving, though, had even stamped his personality on another movement, Ken Kesey's LSD-fuelled Merry Pranksters, whose Day-Glo bus he piloted across America and had ended up in another zeitgeist book, Tom Wolfe's The Electric Kool-Aid Acid Test. Kerouac died in 1969 in St Petersburg, Florida. He had lived long enough to be blamed for the excesses of the Sixties generation, for whom he felt no empathy. According to Carolyn Cassady: 'Jack was essentially conservative, patriotic even, but not in any heavy-handed way. He was old-fashioned. I never once heard him swear. People who write about him can never seem to get a hold of the consciousness of that time, which was restless and questing, but also oddly reserved and responsible. His intention was not freedom without responsibility, but freedom of expression in art.' Which begs the inevitable question, does On the Road stand the test of time? Is it a great work of literature? Ann Charters thinks so, comparing it to both Huckleberry Finn and The Great Gatsby, as a novel that 'explores the themes of personal freedom and challenges the promise of the American dream'. Likewise the American novelist, AM Homes, who wrote recently that 'Kerouac was the man who allowed writers to enter the world of flow... his philosophy was about being in the current, open to possibility, allowing creativity to move through you, and you to be one with the process'. Hari Kunzru disagrees. 'On the Road is such a patchy book, like much Beat writing, in fact. The whole heart-on-the-sleeve romanticism is off-putting, even embarassing. Apart from some really brilliant descriptive passages, it just does not stand up. It's become a different book now, a historical artefact rather than a living, breathing work of literature.' When I re-read On the Road recently, it did indeed seem to me to be a different book from the one that I had so connected with as a teenager. The gush of emotionalism was apparent, and the narrative no longer held my attention in the same way. And yet there were moments of great descriptive prose about America, about jazz music, about the sheer joy of being young and alive, and about the fleeting freedom of the open road. More surprisingly, there was an undercurrent of great sadness and disillusionment that I had not picked up on, or chosen to overlook, first time around. It seemed, in its final part, to be an elegy for Kerouac and Cassady's youth, for their friendship, which ends in a kind of betrayal, and for the fabled road of the title that had promised so much but, in the end, delivered so little. Kerouac: On the record 1922 Born Jean-Louis Lebris de Kerouac in Lowell, Massachusetts to French-Canadian parents. 1939 Entered Columbia University on a football scholarship but dropped out in 1941. 1944 Arrested for helping Lucien Carr dispose of the body of David Kammerer, whom Carr had stabbed to death. Released on bail, put up by girlfriend Edie Parker after he agreed to marry her. 1950 Published first novel The Town and the City to respectable reviews but poor sales. 1951 Wrote On the Road 1957 Hailed as the voice of the Beat generation, after On the Road was finally published to ecstatic reviews. 1960s Moved to Florida to escape media attention and care for his mother. Wrote a series of lesser-known autobiographical novels. 1969 Died aged 47 from internal bleeding caused by cirrhosis of the liver. They said 'Someone handed me Mexico City Blues in 1959 and it blew my mind. It was the first poetry that spoke my language.' (Bob Dylan) 'That's not writing, that's typing.' (Truman Capote) He said 'The only people for me are the mad ones, the ones who are mad to live, mad to talk, mad to be saved, desirous of everything at the same time, the ones who never yawn or say a commonplace thing, but burn, burn, burn, like fabulous Roman candles exploding like spiders across the stars.' (From On the Road) Hugh Montgomery

Mitraïsme

http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/mithraism

MITHRAISM, the cult of Mithra as it developed in the West, its origins, its features, and its probable connection with Mithra worship in Iran. For most of the twentieth century the major problem addressed by scholarship on both Roman Mithraism and the Iranian god Mithra was the question of continuity. Did Mithra-worship migrate from Iran to the Roman Empire in some institutional form or was Mithraism invented in the West (with a few Iranian trappings) as a new institution altogether? At the start of the twenty first century, this issue appears to be less central to the concerns of scholarship on Western Mithraism, but it remains important nevertheless, and obviously it must be the lens through which Mithraism is examined in this article. The first task, though, is to describe the Mithras cult as it did in fact develop in the West, and in so far as we can reconstruct it objectively from its material remains. Reconstruction is not easy, since no ancient literary works about Mithraism and no substantial sacred texts from Mithraism have survived. Western Mithraism described. The term "Mithraism" is of course a modern coinage. In antiquity the cult was known as "the mysteries of Mithras"; alternatively, as "the mysteries of the Persians." The latter designation is significant. The Mithraists, who were manifestly not Persians in any ethnic sense, thought of themselves as cultic "Persians." Moreover, whatever moderns might think, the ancient Roman Mithraists themselves were convinced that their cult was founded by none other than Zoroaster, who "dedicated to Mithras, the creator and father of all, a cave in the mountains bordering Persia," an idyllic setting "abounding in flowers and springs of water" (Porphyry, On the Cave of the Nymphs 6). Persia (or Parthia) in those times was Rome's great rival and frequently at war with her. Nonetheless, there is no indication that this antagonism was ever problematic for the Mithraists socially or politically. Clearly, their cultic "Persian" identity, which they made no attempt to hide, was acceptable to the authorities and their fellow citizens. The socio-political acceptability of the Mithraists, despite their Perserie, can be explained largely by their social profile. They were the most conformist of men — and men indeed they were in the limited gender sense of the word, a factor which itself would add to their respectability or at least not detract from it (compare the charge against Christianity that it subverted the family by proselytizing the womenfolk). Mithraism drew its initiates disproportionately from the military, from the Empire's petty bureaucracy, and from moderately successful freedmen (i.e. ex-slaves), in fact from theretainer classes, the very people who had a stake in the current sociopolitical dispensation. (On Mithraism's social profile see Clauss 1992, Gordon 1972, Liebeschuetz 1994; Merkelbach 1984: pp. 153-88) We noticed above that Mithraism's original, archetypal sacred space was thought to be a cave. This perception, reported by an external source (the third-century CE philosopher Porphyry), is corroborated by internal data and the archaeological evidence. The Mithraists did indeed call their meeting places "caves," whether they actually were or not. Natural caves were used where available; and where not, especially in urban settings (Rome, Ostia), a room or suite of rooms within some larger structure was used and sometimes decorated so as to resemble a natural cave. Mithraea (our modern term), like natural caves and unlike most constructed temples, had no elaborate or even recognizable exteriors. (On the structure of the mithraeum see White 1990: pp. 47-59.) That Mithraists met in "caves" which were distinctively designed and furnished has had important consequences for the archaeological record and thus for our ability to reconstruct the cult. In addition to their cave-like appearance, mithraea were designed with raised platforms on either side of a central aisle to serve as banqueting couches for the cult meal (on which see below). They were also filled with much sacred art - sculptures (mostly in relief), altars, ritual pottery vessels, frescos, etc. - often with their dedications extant in whole or in part. There is no mistaking a mithraeum when archaeology brings it to light, and the chances are good that it will also divulge something about its membership. (On the furnishings and equipment of the mithraeum see Clauss 2000: 42-59, 114-30.) The scattering of mithraea, thus identified across the Roman Empire, is perhaps more informative about the cult's spread and social composition than are the material remains of any of its peers, early Christianity included. We have already looked at Mithraism's social catchment. As for its spread, though represented virtually everywhere in the Roman empire, it was much stronger in the Latin speaking West than in the (predominantly) Greek-speaking East. It flourished in particular in the city of Rome and its port, Ostia, and along the Rhine-Danube frontier — exactly where one would expect from its social profile. (For maps, see Clauss 1992, province by province). Without doubt, an intentional concomitant of the "cave" was the small size of Mithraic groups or cells. The upper limit to the number of persons who can feast intimately on side platforms in a cave or a cave-like inner room is soon reached. Mithraism, then, was a religion of small communities. These communities, moreover, were self-sufficient. There is not a shred of evidence for any co-ordinating, let alone regulating, higher authority. There were no Mithraic bishops; the contrast with contemporaneous Christianity, or for that matter with the contemporaneous state Zoroastrianism of Kerdir, could not be more extreme. As social institutions the Mithraic communities are classed among those groups termed (by moderns) "voluntary associations." Not all voluntary associations served religious ends. Some were analogous to trade guilds; perhaps the most common form was the burial society, clubs which could assure their members funerals in a more ample and sociable style than they could individually command. In the religious sphere, it is the voluntary nature of membership that distinguishes these associations from other religious enterprises. One chose to be initiated into the Mysteries of Mithras, whereas one belonged (normally in an entirely passive way) to the public cults of city and empire simply by virtue of belonging at one level or another, from emperor to slave, to those socio-political units: to the public cults you could no more opt in than you could opt out. It follows that ancient mystery cults, Mithraism included, were non-exclusive: as a Mithraist, you would expect, and be expected, to continue your participation in the public cults (On Mithraism as a voluntary association, see Beck 1996.) The "Mysteries of Mithras," to return to their ancient name, were one of a number of ancient religious "mysteries." A "mystery," in Greek, is something into which one is initiated. Modern connotations of the "mysterious" or the "mystical" are irrelevant, and although most ancient mysteries were in fact secret, secrecy was not always a requirement. Not all mysteries were transmitted in and by voluntary associations, and not all voluntary religious associations transmitted rites of initiation as their sole or even principal business. Indeed, Mithraism appears to be the only substantial pagan cult of which it can be said that initiation into its mysteries was both the necessary and the sufficient condition of membership. (On ancient mystery cults, see Burkert 1987.) Organizationally, the Mithraic groups functioned much as other voluntary associations, but in addition there was an esoteric hierarchy of seven grades. Scholars disagree about the extent of this hierarchy. Was it universal, or normative, or a refinement limited to the relatively few mithraea where it is directly attested? Was it a priesthood? Most scholars would agree that it was not ubiquitous in the sense of being a requirement for all mithraea; also that the initiate of the highest grade, the Father, excercised leadership in all aspects of the mithraeum's sacred business, and that virtually all mithraea would have had at least one Father (two are attested in some mithraea), regardless of the presence or absence of other grades. (On the grades see Clauss 2000: pp. 131-40; contra: Gordon 1994: pp. 465-7; on their esoteric significance, see Gordon 1980a: pp. 19-99.) Into what was a Mithraist initiated? What, in other words, constituted the sacred business of a mithraeum? Scholarship is in broad agreement that the principal act was the cult meal, celebrated both as an actual feast by the initiates reclining opposite each other on the platforms which served as banqueting couches and as a ritual re-enactment of the feast of Mithras and the Sun god celebrated on the hide of a bull freshly slain by Mithras. (On the cult meal, see Kane 1975.) That there was another purpose to the Mithraic mysteries and a corresponding ritual is attested in the same passage from Porphyry (On the Cave of the Nymphs 6), already cited above, which tells us that the Mithraists called their sacred places "caves" — and why. The intent of the Mithraists was to "induct the initiate into a mystery of the descent of souls and their exit back out again." It was for this ritual purpose (which has been generally misconstrued as a didactic purpose) that the Mithraists made their sacred space cave-like, for the cave is "the symbol of the universe," into which the soul enters for mortal existence and quits for immortality. Accordingly, Porphyry continues, the mithraeum is designed and furnished with "cosmic symbols appropriately arranged" so as to be an authentic microcosm. (On this ritual and the corresponding design function of the mithraeum, see Beck 2000: pp. 154-65; this article also describes and explicates the two previously unknown rituals depicted on opposite sides of the cult vessel discussed.) For other initiatory rites we depend primarily on the fresco scenes in the mithraeum at S. Maria Capua Vetere. These depict usually a triad of figures: the initiates, small, naked, humiliated; and two initiators, one behind and the other in front of the initiates, manipulating the instruments of initiations. (For illustrations, see Vermaseren 1971: Plates 21-8.) Mithraism was an astral religion. The perceivable heavens and the celestial bodies (sun, moon, the other five planets, stars) all played a part in the mysteries — the sun necessarily a very large part, since Mithras himself was the Sun god (see below). Astral symbolism (e.g. representations of the zodiac) was liberally deployed on the sculpted and painted monuments and in the design of the mithraeum in order to render it a true likeness of the cosmos "for induction into the mystery of the descent of souls and their exit back out again" (see above). Furthermore, each of the seven grades of the hierarchy was "under the tutelage of" one of the seven planets. Finally, in the principal cult icon, the representation of Mithras as bull-killer (see below), there is a remarkable correspondence between several of the standard elements of the composition and the constellations of a particular tract of the heavens (e.g. the raven and the constellation Corvus). The astral symbolism incorporated into the mysteries stems of course from the ancient Graeco-Roman construction of the heavens and their denizens in the astronomy/astrology of the times. On the intent of the symbolism there is no scholarly consensus. Indeed, several influential scholars have treated it as superficial decoration without any profound intent at all. That is mistaken. Granted, it is difficult to prove a negative. Nevertheless, the arguments against deep intent have so far merely re-asserted their premise as conclusion: astral symbolism is without deep intent because it is superficial. Only Franz Cumont, the founder of modern Mithraic studies, avoided this petitio principii. He did so by postulating the imposition of an astrological layer by the Chaldeans and by "Hellenized Magi" during the transmission of Iranian Mithra-worship from Iran to the West (Cumont 1903: pp. 119-30). (For arguments for deep intent in the astral symbolism, see Merkelbach 1984: pp. 75-133, 193-244; Beck 1988; Beck 1994; Beck 2000: pp. 154-65; Ulansey 1989; Jacobs 1999. As superficial imagery, (e.g.) Clauss 2000: pp. 87, 89, 97.) Roman Mithras. Since the function of its mysteries was to relate the initiate to Mithras, the cult was of course centred entirely on the person of the god. His cult title was "Deus Sol Invictus Mithras": thus, he was "god," he was "the Sun," he was "unconquered," he was "Mithras." To his identity as the Sun and to his invincibility must be added his Persian-ness, a "fact" known to outsiders as well as to his initiates. Iconographically, he is depicted in exotic non-Roman, specifically oriental garb: trousers and the "Persian" cap. Gods have their personal histories. The story of Mithras survives not in written form derived from an oral narrative — if such there ever was, it has disappeared without trace — but as scenes preserved on what are collectively termed "the monuments," for the most part as relief sculpture on icons, altars, etcetera, but also as statuary and in fresco on the walls of mithraea. In the frescos and on the great complex reliefs (the latter mostly from the Rhine and Danube frontier provinces) a selection of side-scenes representing various episodes surrounds the central scene, the god's sacrificial killing of a bull. More often this "tauroctony" is a self-contained icon, and from its privileged location at the head of the central aisle we know that it was the cult's principal icon; consequently, that the bull-killing was the main event in the Mithras myth. (The fundamental illustrated catalogue of Mithraic monuments is Vermaseren 1956-60. Merkelback 1984 and Clauss 2000 are also exceptionally well illustrated. On the iconography of Mithras, see Vollkommer 1992. On the myth of Mithras as inferred from the iconography, see Cumont 1903: pp. 104-49; Vermaseren 1960: pp. 56-88; Clauss 2000: pp. 62-101.) Some of the larger reliefs could be swiveled so as to display on their reverse the scene of Sol and Mithras feasting on the hide of the bull. The gods' banquet, then, is the outcome of the sacrifice, and since it is replicated in the cult meal of the initiates (see above), it must be supposed that the mythic sacrifice performed by Mithras is the salvafic cause of whatever benefits accrue to his mortal initiates in replicating the banquet of the two gods. The side-scenes are numerous, and they represent many different episodes in the myth, e.g. the pursuit and capture of the bull, the ascent of Mithras in the Sun's chariot, as well as occasional episodes which, as far as one can tell, do not include or concern Mithras at all. Moreover, there is no standard order or canon of scenes: only the internal logic of the narrative orders the episodes (e.g., bull-killing precedes banquet, because the bull's hide serves as couch cover for the banqueters). (On the composition of complex monuments, see Gordon 1980b; Beck 1984: pp. 2075-8) In addition to the bull-killing and the banquet, the scene of Mithras' birth is manifestly important. He is shown rising upright from a rock, not as a baby but in the prime of youth, with extended arms holding torch and sword. He has, it seems, no father. It would be wrong to say that he has no mother, for the rock itself, identified explicitly as Petra Genetrix ("the rock that gives birth") is his mother. Since the bull-killing was so obviously the god's principal act, and since the icon which represents it was so clearly the cult's primary locus of meaning, the scene as regularly represented (with remarkably few variations from the norm) must be described. At the mouth of a cave, Mithras straddles the bull, plunging a dagger into its heart. A dog and a snake dart up at the blood flowing from the wound. A scorpion fastens on the bull's genitals, and a raven perches on the god's billowing mantle. Miraculously, the tail of the dying bull has metamorphosed into an ear of wheat. On either side of the scene the twin gods Cautes and Cautopates are posed, the former holding a raised torch, the latter a lowered torch. Above and to the left is the Sun god, above and to the right the Moon goddess. Frequently in tauroctonies from the Rhine and Danube areas, a lion and a two-handled cup are added to the scene. Finding the "meaning" of the scene has been, perhaps to excess, the Great Game of Roman Mithraic hermeneutics. Yet a simple narrative solution, that the bull-killing is just an episode — albeit the principal episode — in the Mithras myth lacks plausibility because of the unusual and ill-assorted assemblage of beings which surround the sacrificing god. As an event, even a supernatural event, in a story it strains one's sense of narrative realism. So while the tauroctony does indeed represent an episode in a story, it represents, it evokes, it intimates something more; and it does so by means of the elements of the composition functioning as symbols, collectively or individually. Interpretations which look eastwards to Iran will be discussed in the next section. The other important modern interpretation looks upwards to the heavens and the notable correspondence between elements of the composition and the ancient constellations (see above, on Mithraism as an astral religion). The shortcoming of interpretations of this latter type is that they have tended to treat the tauroctony rather simplistically as a star chart from which one can decipher the celestial identity of the god as this or that constellation. (For a survey of interpretations of the tauroctony, see Beck 1984: pp. 2080-3; Martin 1994. For celestial interpretations, see Insler 1978; Ulansey 1989; Beck 1994; Jakobs 1999; Weiss 1998. For an important redirection of interpretation (the tauroctony as "cult scene" and "depiction of ritual sacrifice"), see Martin 1994. On the tauroctony in the context of Roman imperial art, see Zwirn 1989. Iranizing interpretations will be referenced in the next section.) As one would expect in a relatively elaborate Roman cult, Mithras does not lack for divine company. The Graeco-Roman Sun god Helios/Sol has already been mentioned — that Mithras both is and is not the Sun, depending on context, is one of those paradoxes which religions take in their stride — as have the planetary gods. Various of the Olympian gods also play a role, though a minor and marginal one. Finally, there are three esoteric deities, two of whom are the twins Cautes and Cautopates, already mentioned as witnesses to the bull-killing. In appearance they are clones of Mithras, and they represent through their primary attributes of the raised and lowered torches paired opposites in nature and in the heavens (e.g. rising sun and setting sun, flanking Mithras as the midday sun). Within the mystery, they symbolize and, as agents, control the entry of the soul downward into mortality (Cautopates) and its exit upwards into immortality (Cautes). (On this pair of deities, see Hinnells 1976; Beck 1984: pp. 2084-6). The third esoteric deity is the enigmatic "lion-headed god." Since his identification is bound up with the question of Mithraism's eastern origins, he will be discussed in the next section. Bibliographic note: The foundational study of Roman Mithraism is Cumont 1899 and Cumont 1903. Short general studies: Vermaseren 1963; Turcan 2000; Clauss 2000. Merkelbach 1984 is a fuller comprehensive study. On Mithraism as a mystery cult among other mysteries, Bianchi 1979a; Sfameni Gasparro 1979. There are four volumes of conference papers devoted both to Iranian Mithra and to Roman Mithras and Mithraism: Hinnells 1975; Duchesne-Guillemin 1978; Bianchi 1979; Hinnells 1994. Bibliographic survey: Beck 1984; Gordon in Clauss 2000: pp. 183-90. From Iranian Mithra to Roman Mithras: Continuity versus re-invention. That Roman Mithras was a Persian god in more than just the perception and self-definition of his Roman initiates is indisputable. To say that he was "the same" god, or that he "came from" Iran is equally true, though it begs as many questions as it appears to answer. Did he emigrate together with his cult? Was institutionalized Mithra-worship transmitted from East to West? Likewise the Mithra myth(s) and the concepts of the god, his powers, and his functions? Was he "the same" god in that strong sense? Or was he re-invented in the West, perhaps by those with some knowledge of the East, as a new god for new mysteries in a new type of cult association appropriate to the different social and cultural environment of the Roman Empire? Was he "the same" merely in the weaker sense that he was re-outfitted with Iranian trappings sufficient to authenticate him as "Persian" in his new context? Two statements at least may be made with some confidence about the century-long scholarly controversy over these questions: first, that at the beginning of the third millennium there is still no consensus; secondly, that in the last three decades the balance of opinion has shifted, rightly or wrongly, in favor of re-invention over continuity. What one might call the "default" transmission scenario (at least for the first two thirds of the twentieth century) was propounded by the founder of modern Mithraic studies, Franz Cumont, in 1899 (see also Cumont 1903). For Cumont, Mithraism in the West was Romanized Mazdaism, thus still at its core a Persian religion, though one which had undergone extensive metamorphoses in its passage first through Chaldaea, where it acquired its astrological overlay and the syncretic assimilation to Mithra of the Babylonian Sun god Šamaš; and secondly through Anatolia and the culture of the Magusaeans, the Hellenized Magi of the Iranian diaspora (on whom see Bidez and Cumont 1938, Beck 1991), where it acquired a Stoic cosmology of sorts, especially in its eschatology (on which see Cumont 1931, Beck 1995). In assessing Cumont's and later scholars' arguments for transmission, one must keep in mind the two types of evidence deployed: first, common traits, i.e. similarity of the features of Mithras and Mithras-worship in the West with those of Mithra and Mithra-worship in the East to the point that coincidental re-invention in the West would cease to be a credible hypothesis; secondly, evidence of actual intermediate stages in the East-West transfer. We begin here with the latter. It is the stronger of the two types of evidence, but in volume the more meager. The evidence, and some of the inferences drawn from them, are as follows. 1) Plutarch (late first century CE), in Life of Pompey 24, states that the Cilician pirates who were vanquished by Pompey in the mid 60's BCE "celebrated certain secret rites of initiation (Greek teletas), of which those of Mithras have survived up to now" (or "as far as here," i.e. Rome: his Greek phrase mechri deuro is ambiguous). It is possible, but not certain, that these 'initiations' were a prototype of the Roman mysteries of Mithras. (For contra, see Francis 1975.). 2) Mithras — moreover, a Mithras who was identified with the Greek Sun god Helios — was one of the deities of the syncretic Graeco-Iranian royal cult founded by Antiochus I (q.v.), king of the small but prosperous buffer state of Commagene (q.v.) in the mid first century BCE. It is improbable in the extreme that this cult played no part in the transmission of Mithra-worship westwards, although nothing about it compels one to accept that it was a prototype of the Roman mysteries. So far, nothing about the recently discovered mithraeum at Doliche (see Schütte-Maischatz and Winter 2000) suggests that its cult relief is other than a product of second or third century CE Mithraism. (On the royal cult of Commagene and the role of Mithras therein, see Boyce 1991: pp. 309-51; Dörner 1975; 1978; Duchesne-Guillemin 1978a; Jacobs 2000; Merkelbach 1984: pp. 50-72; Schwertheim 1979; Wagner 1983; 2000; 2000a; Waldmann 1991. For a scenario of transmission incorporating the Commagenian royal cult and the royal family of subsequent generations, see Beck 1998.) 3) While archaeology has (as yet) unearthed no evidence in Anatolia for an intermediate form of Mithras-worship which is unambiguously the precursor of the Roman mystery cult, several atypical monuments and inscriptions from this area (as well as from Crimea to the north across the Black Sea) make it entirely plausible that such intermediate forms may well have existed, and hence that Anatolia in the larger sense, not just Commagene, played some part in Mithraism's westward transmission. Cumont's Magusaeans (see above), though real enough in their own right, are no longer regarded as the conduit for Mithraism. (The Cumontian scenario was first challenged by Wikander 1951; subsequently by Gordon 1975; Beck 1991: pp. 539-50.) There are however other plausible scenarios, some (e.g. Colpe 1975: pp. 390-9; Boyce 1991: pp. 468-90) involving the Iranian diaspora in Anatolia. (On Mithras-worship in Anatolia and its atypical remains, and for theories of transmission through Anatolia, see Beck 1984: pp. 2018-19, 2071-3; Boyce 1991: pp. 468-90; Colpe 1975: pp. 390-9; Cumont: 1939; Gordon 1978: pp. 159-64, 169-71; Gordon 1994: pp. 469-71; Schwertheim 1979; Will 1955: pp. 144-69; Will 1978: pp. 527-8.) 4) In Syria it is the absence of data on any intermediary form of Mithraism that is remarkable (a Chestertonian "dog which did not bark"). With the single exception of the recently discovered Huwarti mithraeum, the few actual mithraea and the monuments lacking known provenance which have been recovered there exemplify either the norms of western Mithraism or minor variations on those norms. The Huwarti mithraeum, moreover, dates to the final decades of the fourth century CE. Accordingly, it speaks of the local redefinition of a religion in its final years, not of "a road not taken" in its formative years. Mithraism in Syria was not a transitional phase intermediate between East and West, but a back-formation from the West in the East. Even the mithraeum at Dura Europos on the Euphrates, at the easternmost margins of the Roman empire, proved no exception. Arguably, its only significant Iranian feature is the fresco of a pair of enthroned elders in local ceremonial garb with scrolls and canes. These Cumont identified as Zoroaster and Ostanes; but they could as well be the Fathers of this particular Mithraic community at the time. (On Mithraism in Syria, see Roll 1977; Downey 1978; also the proceedings of the Colloquium "Mithra en Syrie," Lyon, November 2000, forthcoming in Topoi, which will include discussion of the Huwarti mithraeum. On the Dura mithraeum, see Cumont 1975; Beck 1984: pp. 214-17.) 5) In a description of Zoroastrian dualism which he inserted into his important essay On Isis and Isiris (46-7), Plutarch speaks of Mithras as "in the middle" (meson) between the good Horomazes and the evil Areimanius, adding "and this is why the Persians call the Mediator Mithras." This, it is generally agreed, does not ascribe moral neutrality to Mithras; rather he is the referee, arbiter, or judge between the two warring parties. However, even if the clause is more than Plutarch's own gloss, it speaks not of transitional Mithraism but of Mithra in the context of a collateral form of Zoroastrianism known to that learned Greek author. (On the passage and its interpretation, see de Jong 1997: pp. 171-7; on Mithra as judge, see Shaked 1980.) 6) The final piece of evidence which speaks directly to the question of transfer is the report of the state visit of Tiridates of Armenia to Rome to be crowned by Nero. At the coronation Tiridates declared that he had come "in order to revere you [Nero] as Mithras" (Dio Cassius 63.5.2). In the same visit, according to Pliny (Natural History 30.1.6), Tiridates "initiated him [Nero] into magical feasts" (magicis cenis). Since Tiridates had brought Magi in his retinue, it is likely that the "feasts" were "Magian" rather than "magical" in the contemporary Roman sense. In the Cumontian scenario this episode cannot mark the definitive moment of transfer, for Mithraism in that scenario was already established in Rome, albeit on a scale too small to have left any trace in the historical or archaeological record. Nevertheless, it could have been a spur to Mithraism's emergence on to the larger stage of popular appeal. Perhaps, too, it affected in some way the development of Mithraism's central rite, the cult meal (see above). (On the episode and its implications for Mithraism, see Cumont 1933; for an alternative scenario which places the cult's institution after this episode, Beck 2002.) When we turn to the much ampler dossier of similarities between Iranian Mithra-worship and the Mithras-worship of the Roman mystery cult, we must keep in mind that arguments for continuity based on these similarities all imply that the similarities are so systematic and so detailed that a non-causal relationship is untenable. Necessarily, therefore, they entail some transfer scenario, whether or not they expound one explicitly. Arguments for Mithraism's invention or re-invention in the West, on the contrary, imply that the similarities are too slight and too haphazard to warrant a causal explanation. Accordingly, no transfer scenario is required beyond a certain awareness of "oriental" wisdom among Mithraism's founders. Of the latter position there is a strong and a weak form. The strong form, having noted the undeniable similarities, then describes the cult, its origins, and its early development entirely in terms of the socio-religious culture(s) of the Roman empire. A typical proponent of this strong form is M. Clauss (2000: pp. 3-8, 21-2), who locates the cult's origins and point of departure firmly in late first-century CE Rome. Not because it is wrong, but solely because it is not germane to the mandate of Encyclopaedia Iranica, there is no need to explore this version of Mithraic origins further. Discontinuity's weaker form of argument postulates re-invention among and for the denizens of the Roman empire (or certain sections thereof), but re-invention by a person or persons of some familiarity with Iranian religion in a form current on its western margins in the first century CE. Merkelbach (1984: pp. 75-7), expanding on a suggestion of M.P. Nilsson, proposes such a founder from eastern Anatolia, working in court circles in Rome. So does Beck 1998, with special focus on the dynasty of Commagene (see above). Jakobs 1999 proposes a similar scenario. We may now turn finally to the similarities between western Mithraism and Iranian Mithra-worship and to the scholarship which has argued, in the Cumontian tradition, for significant continuity. (The scholarship up to the time of writing is surveyed in Beck 1984: pp. 2059-75). Predictably, the similarities mostly cluster around the person of Mithra/Mithras (remarkably, the second two of the three given here are not so much similarities as inversions): (1) Roman Mithras was identified with the Sun (see above); Iranian Mithra was a god of the dawn light. When and how the Iranian god became the Sun, as eventually he did, has been much debated (Lommel 1962; Gershevitch 1975, Gnoli 1979, Lincoln 1982; see above on the solar Mithras of Commagene; see below on M. Weiss's theory of the non-solarity of Mithra/Mithras both East and West). (2) Iranian Mithra was a god of cattle and pastures; Roman Mithras was a "cattle-thief" (explicitly so called, e.g. Porphyry, On the Cave of the Nymphs 40), all the more outrageous an inversion because Iranian Mithra was a god of righteousness whose very name means "contract." (3) Most importantly, Roman Mithras, as his mightiest and most beneficent deed, sacrifices a bull (see above); while Iranian Mithra was not himself a bull-killer, the act of bull-killing does figure prominently in the Zoroastrian cosmological narratives. In the first instance it was an act of evil: Ahriman slew the primal Bull of creation. However, the destructive act was turned to good, when from the bull's sperm, purified in the moon, sprang the domestic animals. The second and future event is entirely beneficial. A savior figure, Sošyant, will sacrifice a bull from whose fat, mixed with hôm, the drink of corporal immortality will be prepared. The bull-killing of Mithras can be construed as the Roman translation of either — or indeed of both — of the Iranian cosmogonic and eschatological myths. Certain of the compositional details of the tauroctony resonate with the former: the bull's tail metamorphosed into the wheat ear, the scorpion at the bull's genitals, the presence of the Moon as well as the Sun. The Pahlavi texts, notably the Bundahišn, which carry the Zoroastrian cosmological accounts are several centuries later than the Roman-era artifacts, i.e. the tauroctonies, which carry the western representation of the bull-killing. Accordingly, Iranizing interpretations of the tauroctony (for a survey of these, see Hinnells 1975a; Beck 1984: pp. 2068-9, 2080-1) imply one of two scenarios, whether or not they make the choice explicitly. Either those who constructed the western Mysteries consciously altered the Zoroastrian cosmological myths which were already current in the form later attested by the Pahlavi sources; or they took over and reproduced a collateral, non-Zoroastrian form of Iranian religion (Mazdaist or otherwise), current at the time but subsequently extinguished without trace, in which Mithra was the bull-killer. A version of the latter argues that what the western mysteries adopted was an offshoot of the Vedic tradition in which Mitra reluctantly slays the Soma (= Iranian Haoma) god (Lommel 1949). More persuasive, perhaps, than postulating a precise Iranian/Vedic genealogy for the tauroctonous Mithras is the argument that the Mithraic bull-killing, both as concept and as image, reflects a peculiarly Iranian ideology of sacrifice as a creative act undertaken by god, not man (Hinnells 1975a; Turcan 1981; Turcan 2000: pp. 102-5) — with the implication, presumably, that it is so because those who first imagined the icon in the West had at least something of that ideology in mind. (On a fascinating continuity into modern Zoroastrianism in Iran, see Boyce 1975.) There is a further problem that complicates all transmission scenarios: how to accommodate the twin deities Cautes and Cautopates and the lion-headed god (both mentioned above). Are they part of the theological baggage transferred from Iran? The names of the twins may well be of Iranian origin (see Schwartz 1975; contra: Schmeja 1975: p. 20), for Roman Mithraism did in fact occasionally borrow genuinely Iranian words (see Gray 1926: pp. 89-99; Schmeja 1975), notably nama (= "hail!") and nabarzes (precise etymology disputed, see Schwartz 1975: pp. 422-3). That, however, does not extend to their functions in the theology of the western mysteries, which can be fully accounted for in solely western terms (Beck 1984: pp. 2084-6). The lion-headed god is more problematic, partly because his eventual place in the western cult's theology is as opaque as his provenance. (On the extant exemplars and their iconography, see Hinnells 1975b; on the various interpretations and identifications, see Beck 1984: pp. 2086-9). Of the several identities proposed for the lion-headed god, two link him unambiguously with Iran. The first, propounded by Cumont (1899: p. 78; 1903: pp. 107-10), identifies him as Zurvān, the god of infinite Time and the father and arbiter between the good Ohrmazd and the evil Ahriman. This would of course make Roman Mithraism the descendant of a Zurvanite branch of Mazdaism. Around this Iranian core accumulated the personae and attributes of various Egyptian and Hellenistic Greek deities, for the most part gods of Time (Pettazzoni 1954). The second Iranian identity, first proposed by I.F. Legge (1912-15), is Ahriman — an outrageous choice were it not that the name Arimanius is attested in Mithraic epigraphy, although never in a context which makes it more than a possibility that the Mithraic lion-headed god was Ahriman (Duchesne-Guillemin 1955; idem, 1958-62; on discussions of the epigraphy and the relevant monuments, see Beck 1984: pp. 2034-5). If the Mithraic lion-headed god was indeed a descendant of the Iranian Ahriman, there is no need to assume, for that reason alone, that he retained an exclusively negative and evil nature, or that, in consequence, the Roman Mithraists were devil-worshippers on the side. It would be impractical in a work of this scope to discuss every minute similarity which has been demonstrated or claimed between western Mithraism and Iranian Mithra-worship. (For a fuller summary, see Beck 1984: pp. 2056-89; for arguments stressing dissimilarities and discontinuities, see Colpe 1975; Drijvers 1978.) The time has come to review the principal scholarship which has argued for transmission and continuity based on the postulated similarities. The Cumontian "default" scenario has already been described. Of the post-Cumontian scenarios, three argue for continuity in the strongest terms. A.D.H. Bivar (1998, and earlier studies mentioned there) argues that western Mithraism was but one of several manifestations of Mithra-worship current in antiquity across a wide swathe of Asia and Europe. L.A. Campbell (1968) argues in the Cumontian tradition that western Mithraism replicated, through a thin disguise and with certain Graeco-Roman admixtures, a sometimes extraordinarily detailed and learned form of Zoroastrian Mazdaism. A continuity as thoroughgoing, though not quite so systematic ideologically, was proposed in several studies by G. Widengren (1965: pp. 222-32; 1966; 1980). Starting from the dissimilarities between Roman Mithraism and Zoroastrian Mazdaism, the most obvious of which are of course the different supreme deities in the two systems and the different agents and intents of the bull-killing (discussed above), scholarship on Iranian Mithra-worship has also looked for and found closer analogies with Mithraism in pre-Zoroastrian and non-Zoroastrian Iranian religion — and beyond that in Vedic religion. The strength of hypotheses based on the analogies with pre-/non-Zoroastrian systems is that they do not need to postulate a deliberate adaptation of Zoroastrianism into western Mithraism; their weakness is that they have to postulate instead the persistence in western Iran of an early collateral Indo-European form of Mithra-worship, ready for easy translation into Roman Mithraism, for which there is no direct evidence. P.G. Kreyenbroek (1994), by comparing cosmogonies (Mithraic similar to non/pre-Zoroastrian; both of these dissimilar to Zoroastrian), has advanced perhaps the most persuasive transmission scenario of this type to date. M. Weiss (1996, 1998) argues that Roman Mithras continues a very early Iranian and Vedic conception of Mithra/Mitra as the Nachthimmel, the starry heavens, an hypothesis entailing the awkward conception of a Mithras who is wholly distinct from the Sun god. Lastly, there are certain works specifically on Iranian religion, in addition to those of Widengren (1960, 1965) already mentioned, which discuss aspects of western Mithras or Mithraism in terms which assert or imply a fair measure of continuity: Gray 1926: pp. 89-99; Gershevitch 1959: pp. 61-72; Zaehner 1961: pp. 97-144; Duchesne-Guillemin 1962: pp. 248-57. Bibliography: (abbreviation, JMS = Journal of Mithraic Studies). R.L. Beck, "Mithraism since Franz Cumont," Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt, II.17.4, 1984, pp. 2002-115. Idem, Planetary Gods and Planetary Orders in the Mysteries of Mithras, Leiden, 1988. Idem, "Thus Spake Not Zarathuštra: Zoroastrian Pseudepigrapha of the Greco-Roman World," in Boyce and Grenet 1991 (see below), pp. 491-565. Idem "In the Place of the Lion: Mithras in the Tauroctony," in Hinnells 1994 (see below), pp. 29-50. Idem, "Dio Cocceianus," Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. 7, 1995, p. 421. Idem, "The Mysteries of Mithras," in J.S. Kloppenborg and S.G. Wilson (eds), Voluntary Associations in the Ancient World, London, 1996, pp. 176-85. Idem, "The Mysteries of Mithras: A new account of their genesis," Journal of Roman Studies 88, 1998, pp. 115-28. Idem, "Ritual, Myth, Doctrine, and Initiation in the Mysteries of Mithras: New evidence from a cult vessel," JRS 90, 2000, pp. 145-80. Idem, "History into Fiction: The metamorphoses of the Mithras myths," Ancient Narrative 1, 2001-02, pp. 283-300. U. Bianchi ed., Mysteria Mithrae, Leiden, 1979. Bianchi 1979a "The Religio-Historical Question of the Mysteries of Mithra," in Bianchi ed. 1979, pp. 3-60. J. Bidez and F. Cumont, Les Mages hellénisés, 2 vols, Paris, 1938 (repr. 1973). A.D.H. Bivar, The Personalities of Mithra in Archaeology and Literature, New York, 1998. M. Boyce, "Mihragān among the Irani Zoroastrians," in Hinnells ed. 1975, pp. 106-18. Boyce 1991 M. Boyce and F. Grenet, A History of Zoroastrianism , Vol. 3, Leiden, 1991. W. Burkert, Ancient Mystery Cults, Cambridge MA, 1987. L.A. Campbell, Mithraic Iconography and Ideology, Leiden, 1968. M. Clauss, Cultores Mithrae: Die Anhängerschaft des Mithras-Kultes, Stuttgart, 1992. Idem, The Roman Cult of Mithras, trans. R.L. Gordon, Edinburgh and New York, 2000. C. Colpe, "Mithra-Verehrung, Mithras-Kult und die Existenz iranischer Mysterien," in Hinnells ed. 1975, pp. 378-405. F. Cumont, Textes et monuments figurés relatifs aux mystères de Mithra, Vol. 1, Brussels, 1899. Idem, The Mysteries of Mithra, trans. T.J. McCormack, London, 1903 (repr. New York, 1956). Idem, "La fin du monde selon les mages occidentaux," Revue de l'Histoire des Religions, 103, 1931, pp. 29-96. Idem, "L'iniziazione di Nerone da parte di Tiridate d'Armenia," Rivista di Filologia, NS 11, 1933, pp. 145-54. Idem, "Mithra en Asie Mineure," in Anatolian Studies in Honour of W.H. Buckler, Manchester, 1939, pp. 67-76. Idem, "The Dura Mithraeum," ed. and trans. E.D. Francis, in Hinnells ed. 1975, pp. 151-214. A. de Jong, Traditions of the Magi: Zoroastrianism in Greek and Latin Literature, Leiden, 1997. F.K. Dörner, Kommagene, Antike Welt Sondernummer 1975. Idem, "Mithras in Kommagene," in Duchesne-Guillemin, ed. 1978 (see below), pp. 123-33. S.B. Downey, "Syrian Images of Mithras Tauroctonos," in Duchesne-Guillemin ed. 1978, pp. 135-49. H.J.W. Drijvers, "Mithra at Hatra?" in Duchesne-Guillemin, ed., 1978, pp. 151-86. J. Duchesne-Guillemin, "Ahriman et le dieu suprême dans les mystères de Mithra," Numen 2, 1955, pp. 190-5. Idem, "Aion et le léontocéphalique, Mithra et Ahriman," La Nouvelle Klio 10-12, 1958-62, pp. 91-8. Idem, La religion de l'Iran ancien, Paris, 1962. J. Duchesne-Guillemin ed., Études Mithiaques, Leiden, 1978. Idem, 1978a "Iran and Greece in Commagene," in Duchesne-Guillemin ed. 1978, pp. 187-99. E.D. Francis, "Plutarch's Mithraic Pirates," in Cumont 1975, pp. 207-10. I. Gershevitch, The Avestan Hymn to Mithra, Cambridge, 1959. Idem, Die Sonne das Beste," in Hinnells ed. 1975, pp. 68-89. G. Gnoli, "Sol Persice Mithra," in Bianchi ed. 1979, pp. 725-40. R.L. Gordon, "Mithraism and Roman Society: Social factors in the explanation of religious change in the Roman empire," Religion 2, 1972, pp. 92-121. Idem, "Franz Cumont and the Doctrines of Mithraism," in Hinnells, ed., 1975, pp. 215-48. Idem, "The Date and Significance of CIMRM 593," JMS 2, 1978, pp. 148-74* (* = reprinted in Gordon 1996). Gordon 1980a, "Reality, Evocation, and Boundary in the Mysteries of Mithras," JMS 3, 1980 pp. 19-99*. Gordon 1980b, "Panelled Complications," JMS 3, 1980, pp. 200-27*. Idem, "Who worshipped Mithras?" Journal of Roman Archaeology 7, 1994, pp. 459-74. R. L. Gordon, Image and Value in the Graeco-Roman World: Studies in Mithraism and religious art, Aldershot UK, 1996. L.H. Gray, The Foundations of the Iranian Religions, Bombay, 1926. J.R. Hinnells, ed., Mithraic Studies, 2 vols (consecutive pagination), Manchester, 1975. Idem, 1975a, "Reflections on the Bull-Slaying Scene," in Hinnells, ed., 1975, pp. 290-312. Idem, 1975b, "Reflections on the Lion-Headed Figure in Mithraism," in Monumentum H.S. Nyberg, Acta Iranica, Ser. 2, Vol. 1, Leiden, pp. 333-69. Idem, "The Iconography of Cautes and Cautopates," JMS 1, 1976, pp. 36-67. J.R. Hinnells ed., Studies in Mithraism, Rome, 1994. S. Insler, "A New Interpretation of the Bull-Slaying Motif," in M.B. de Boer and T.A. Edridge eds, Hommages à Maarten J. Vermaseren, Leiden, 1978, pp. 519-38. B. Jacobs, Die Herkunft und Entstehung der römischen Mithrasmysterien: Überlegungen zur Rolle des Stifters und zu den astronomischen Hintergründen der Kultlegende, Konstanz, 1999. Idem, "Die Religionspolitik des Antiochus I. von Kommagene," in Wagner ed. 2000, pp. 45-9. J.P. Kane, "The Mithraic Cult Meal in its Greek and Roman Environment," in Hinnells ed. 1975, pp. 313-51. P.G. Kreyenbroek, "Mithra and Ahreman in Iranian Cosmogonies," in Hinnells ed. 1994, pp. 175-82. I.F. Legge, "The Lion-Headed God of the Mithraic Mysteries," Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archaeology, 34, 1912, pp. 125-42; 37, 1915, 151-62. W. Liebeschuetz, "The Expansion of Mithraism among the Religious Cults of the Second Century," in Hinnells ed. 1994, pp. 195-216. B. Lincoln, "Mithra(s) as Sun and Savior," in U. Bianchi and M.J. Vermaseren eds., La soteriologia dei culti orientali nell'Impero Romano, Leiden, 1982, pp. 505-26. H. Lommel, "Mithra und das Stieropfer," Paideuma 3, 1949, pp. 207-18. Idem, "Die Sonne das Schlechteste?" Oriens 15, 1962, pp. 360-73. L.H. Martin, "Reflections on the Mithraic Tauroctony as Cult Scene," in Hinnells ed. 1994, pp. 217-228. R. Merkelbach, Mithras, Königstein/Ts., 1984. R. Pettazzoni, "The Monstrous Figure of Time in Mithraism," in Essays in the History of Religions, trans. H.J. Rose, Leiden, 1954. I. Roll, "The Mysteries of Mithras in the Roman Orient," JMS 2, 1977, pp. 18-52. H. Schmeja, Iranisches und Griechisches in den Mithrasmysterien, Innsbruck, 1975. A. Schütte-Maischatz and E. Winter, "Kultstätten der Mithrasmysterien in Doliche," in Wagner ed. 2000, pp. 93-99. M. Schwartz, "Cautes and Cautopates, the Mithraic Torchbearers," in Hinnells ed. 1975, pp. 406-23. E. Schwertheim, Mithras: Seine Denkmäler und sein Kult, Antike Welt Sondernummer 1979. G. Sfameni Gasparro, "Il mitraismo ...," in Bianchi ed. 1979, pp. 299-384. S. Shaked, "Mihr the Judge," Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam 2, 1980, pp. 1-31. R. Turcan, "Le sacrifice mithriaque: innovations de sens et de modalités," Entretiens sur l'antiquité classique (Fondation Hardt) 27, 1981, pp. 341-80. Idem, Mithra et le mithriacisme, Paris, 2000. D. Ulansey, The Origins of the Mithraic Mysteries, New York, 1989. M. J. Vermaseren, Corpus Inscriptionum et Monumentorum Religionis Mithriacae, 2 vols, The Hague, 1956-60. Idem, Mithra, ce dieu mystérieux., trans. M. Léman and L. Gilbert, Paris, 1960 (English translation by T. and V. Megaw, Mithras, the Secret God, London, 1963). Idem, Mithriaca I: The Mithraeum at S. Maria Capua Vetere, Leiden, 1971. R. Vollkommer, "Mithras," Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae 6.1, pp. 583-626 (text), 6.2, pp. 325-68 (plates), 1992. J. Wagner, "Dynastie und Herrscherkult in Kommagene," Istanbuler Mitteilungen 33, 1983, pp. 177-224. J. Wagner ed., Gottkönige am Euphrat: Neue Ausgrabungen und Forschungen in Kommagene, Mainz, 2000. Wagner 2000a = "Die Könige von Kommagene und ihr Herrscherkult," in Wagner ed. 2000, pp. 11-25. H. Waldmann, Der Kommagenische Mazdaismus, Tübingen, 1991. M. Weiss, Als Sonne Verkant — Mithras, Osterburken, 1996. Idem, "Mithras, der Nachthimmel: Eine Dekodierung der römischen Mithras-Kultbilder nit Hilfe des Awesta," Traditio, 53, 1998, pp. 1-36. L.M. White, Building God's House in the Roman World: Architectural Adaptation among Pagans, Jews, and Christians, Baltimore, 1990. G. Widengren, Die Religionen Irans, Stuttgart, 1965. Idem, "The Mithraic Mysteries in the Greco-Roman World, with special regard to their Iranian background," Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei, Anno 363, Quad. 76, 1966, pp. 433-55. Idem, "Reflections on the Origins of the Mithraic Mysteries," in Perennitas: Studi in honore di Angelo Brelich, Rome, 1980. S. Wikander, "Études sur les mystères de Mithras," Vetenskapssocieteten i Lund, Årsbok 1951, pp. 5-56. E. Will, Le relief cultuel gréco-romain, Paris, 1955. Idem, "Origine et nature du Mithriacisme," in Duchesne-Guillemin ed. 1978, pp. 527-36. R.C. Zaehner, The Dawn and Twilight of Zoroastrianism, London, 1961. S. Zwirn, "The Intention of Biographical Narration on Mithraic Cult Images," Word and Image 5, 1989, pp. 2-18. (Roger Beck) Originally Published: July 20, 2002 Last Updated: July 20, 2002

Mitraïsme

http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/mithraism

MITHRAISM, the cult of Mithra as it developed in the West, its origins, its features, and its probable connection with Mithra worship in Iran. For most of the twentieth century the major problem addressed by scholarship on both Roman Mithraism and the Iranian god Mithra was the question of continuity. Did Mithra-worship migrate from Iran to the Roman Empire in some institutional form or was Mithraism invented in the West (with a few Iranian trappings) as a new institution altogether? At the start of the twenty first century, this issue appears to be less central to the concerns of scholarship on Western Mithraism, but it remains important nevertheless, and obviously it must be the lens through which Mithraism is examined in this article. The first task, though, is to describe the Mithras cult as it did in fact develop in the West, and in so far as we can reconstruct it objectively from its material remains. Reconstruction is not easy, since no ancient literary works about Mithraism and no substantial sacred texts from Mithraism have survived. Western Mithraism described. The term "Mithraism" is of course a modern coinage. In antiquity the cult was known as "the mysteries of Mithras"; alternatively, as "the mysteries of the Persians." The latter designation is significant. The Mithraists, who were manifestly not Persians in any ethnic sense, thought of themselves as cultic "Persians." Moreover, whatever moderns might think, the ancient Roman Mithraists themselves were convinced that their cult was founded by none other than Zoroaster, who "dedicated to Mithras, the creator and father of all, a cave in the mountains bordering Persia," an idyllic setting "abounding in flowers and springs of water" (Porphyry, On the Cave of the Nymphs 6). Persia (or Parthia) in those times was Rome's great rival and frequently at war with her. Nonetheless, there is no indication that this antagonism was ever problematic for the Mithraists socially or politically. Clearly, their cultic "Persian" identity, which they made no attempt to hide, was acceptable to the authorities and their fellow citizens. The socio-political acceptability of the Mithraists, despite their Perserie, can be explained largely by their social profile. They were the most conformist of men — and men indeed they were in the limited gender sense of the word, a factor which itself would add to their respectability or at least not detract from it (compare the charge against Christianity that it subverted the family by proselytizing the womenfolk). Mithraism drew its initiates disproportionately from the military, from the Empire's petty bureaucracy, and from moderately successful freedmen (i.e. ex-slaves), in fact from theretainer classes, the very people who had a stake in the current sociopolitical dispensation. (On Mithraism's social profile see Clauss 1992, Gordon 1972, Liebeschuetz 1994; Merkelbach 1984: pp. 153-88) We noticed above that Mithraism's original, archetypal sacred space was thought to be a cave. This perception, reported by an external source (the third-century CE philosopher Porphyry), is corroborated by internal data and the archaeological evidence. The Mithraists did indeed call their meeting places "caves," whether they actually were or not. Natural caves were used where available; and where not, especially in urban settings (Rome, Ostia), a room or suite of rooms within some larger structure was used and sometimes decorated so as to resemble a natural cave. Mithraea (our modern term), like natural caves and unlike most constructed temples, had no elaborate or even recognizable exteriors. (On the structure of the mithraeum see White 1990: pp. 47-59.) That Mithraists met in "caves" which were distinctively designed and furnished has had important consequences for the archaeological record and thus for our ability to reconstruct the cult. In addition to their cave-like appearance, mithraea were designed with raised platforms on either side of a central aisle to serve as banqueting couches for the cult meal (on which see below). They were also filled with much sacred art - sculptures (mostly in relief), altars, ritual pottery vessels, frescos, etc. - often with their dedications extant in whole or in part. There is no mistaking a mithraeum when archaeology brings it to light, and the chances are good that it will also divulge something about its membership. (On the furnishings and equipment of the mithraeum see Clauss 2000: 42-59, 114-30.) The scattering of mithraea, thus identified across the Roman Empire, is perhaps more informative about the cult's spread and social composition than are the material remains of any of its peers, early Christianity included. We have already looked at Mithraism's social catchment. As for its spread, though represented virtually everywhere in the Roman empire, it was much stronger in the Latin speaking West than in the (predominantly) Greek-speaking East. It flourished in particular in the city of Rome and its port, Ostia, and along the Rhine-Danube frontier — exactly where one would expect from its social profile. (For maps, see Clauss 1992, province by province). Without doubt, an intentional concomitant of the "cave" was the small size of Mithraic groups or cells. The upper limit to the number of persons who can feast intimately on side platforms in a cave or a cave-like inner room is soon reached. Mithraism, then, was a religion of small communities. These communities, moreover, were self-sufficient. There is not a shred of evidence for any co-ordinating, let alone regulating, higher authority. There were no Mithraic bishops; the contrast with contemporaneous Christianity, or for that matter with the contemporaneous state Zoroastrianism of Kerdir, could not be more extreme. As social institutions the Mithraic communities are classed among those groups termed (by moderns) "voluntary associations." Not all voluntary associations served religious ends. Some were analogous to trade guilds; perhaps the most common form was the burial society, clubs which could assure their members funerals in a more ample and sociable style than they could individually command. In the religious sphere, it is the voluntary nature of membership that distinguishes these associations from other religious enterprises. One chose to be initiated into the Mysteries of Mithras, whereas one belonged (normally in an entirely passive way) to the public cults of city and empire simply by virtue of belonging at one level or another, from emperor to slave, to those socio-political units: to the public cults you could no more opt in than you could opt out. It follows that ancient mystery cults, Mithraism included, were non-exclusive: as a Mithraist, you would expect, and be expected, to continue your participation in the public cults (On Mithraism as a voluntary association, see Beck 1996.) The "Mysteries of Mithras," to return to their ancient name, were one of a number of ancient religious "mysteries." A "mystery," in Greek, is something into which one is initiated. Modern connotations of the "mysterious" or the "mystical" are irrelevant, and although most ancient mysteries were in fact secret, secrecy was not always a requirement. Not all mysteries were transmitted in and by voluntary associations, and not all voluntary religious associations transmitted rites of initiation as their sole or even principal business. Indeed, Mithraism appears to be the only substantial pagan cult of which it can be said that initiation into its mysteries was both the necessary and the sufficient condition of membership. (On ancient mystery cults, see Burkert 1987.) Organizationally, the Mithraic groups functioned much as other voluntary associations, but in addition there was an esoteric hierarchy of seven grades. Scholars disagree about the extent of this hierarchy. Was it universal, or normative, or a refinement limited to the relatively few mithraea where it is directly attested? Was it a priesthood? Most scholars would agree that it was not ubiquitous in the sense of being a requirement for all mithraea; also that the initiate of the highest grade, the Father, excercised leadership in all aspects of the mithraeum's sacred business, and that virtually all mithraea would have had at least one Father (two are attested in some mithraea), regardless of the presence or absence of other grades. (On the grades see Clauss 2000: pp. 131-40; contra: Gordon 1994: pp. 465-7; on their esoteric significance, see Gordon 1980a: pp. 19-99.) Into what was a Mithraist initiated? What, in other words, constituted the sacred business of a mithraeum? Scholarship is in broad agreement that the principal act was the cult meal, celebrated both as an actual feast by the initiates reclining opposite each other on the platforms which served as banqueting couches and as a ritual re-enactment of the feast of Mithras and the Sun god celebrated on the hide of a bull freshly slain by Mithras. (On the cult meal, see Kane 1975.) That there was another purpose to the Mithraic mysteries and a corresponding ritual is attested in the same passage from Porphyry (On the Cave of the Nymphs 6), already cited above, which tells us that the Mithraists called their sacred places "caves" — and why. The intent of the Mithraists was to "induct the initiate into a mystery of the descent of souls and their exit back out again." It was for this ritual purpose (which has been generally misconstrued as a didactic purpose) that the Mithraists made their sacred space cave-like, for the cave is "the symbol of the universe," into which the soul enters for mortal existence and quits for immortality. Accordingly, Porphyry continues, the mithraeum is designed and furnished with "cosmic symbols appropriately arranged" so as to be an authentic microcosm. (On this ritual and the corresponding design function of the mithraeum, see Beck 2000: pp. 154-65; this article also describes and explicates the two previously unknown rituals depicted on opposite sides of the cult vessel discussed.) For other initiatory rites we depend primarily on the fresco scenes in the mithraeum at S. Maria Capua Vetere. These depict usually a triad of figures: the initiates, small, naked, humiliated; and two initiators, one behind and the other in front of the initiates, manipulating the instruments of initiations. (For illustrations, see Vermaseren 1971: Plates 21-8.) Mithraism was an astral religion. The perceivable heavens and the celestial bodies (sun, moon, the other five planets, stars) all played a part in the mysteries — the sun necessarily a very large part, since Mithras himself was the Sun god (see below). Astral symbolism (e.g. representations of the zodiac) was liberally deployed on the sculpted and painted monuments and in the design of the mithraeum in order to render it a true likeness of the cosmos "for induction into the mystery of the descent of souls and their exit back out again" (see above). Furthermore, each of the seven grades of the hierarchy was "under the tutelage of" one of the seven planets. Finally, in the principal cult icon, the representation of Mithras as bull-killer (see below), there is a remarkable correspondence between several of the standard elements of the composition and the constellations of a particular tract of the heavens (e.g. the raven and the constellation Corvus). The astral symbolism incorporated into the mysteries stems of course from the ancient Graeco-Roman construction of the heavens and their denizens in the astronomy/astrology of the times. On the intent of the symbolism there is no scholarly consensus. Indeed, several influential scholars have treated it as superficial decoration without any profound intent at all. That is mistaken. Granted, it is difficult to prove a negative. Nevertheless, the arguments against deep intent have so far merely re-asserted their premise as conclusion: astral symbolism is without deep intent because it is superficial. Only Franz Cumont, the founder of modern Mithraic studies, avoided this petitio principii. He did so by postulating the imposition of an astrological layer by the Chaldeans and by "Hellenized Magi" during the transmission of Iranian Mithra-worship from Iran to the West (Cumont 1903: pp. 119-30). (For arguments for deep intent in the astral symbolism, see Merkelbach 1984: pp. 75-133, 193-244; Beck 1988; Beck 1994; Beck 2000: pp. 154-65; Ulansey 1989; Jacobs 1999. As superficial imagery, (e.g.) Clauss 2000: pp. 87, 89, 97.) Roman Mithras. Since the function of its mysteries was to relate the initiate to Mithras, the cult was of course centred entirely on the person of the god. His cult title was "Deus Sol Invictus Mithras": thus, he was "god," he was "the Sun," he was "unconquered," he was "Mithras." To his identity as the Sun and to his invincibility must be added his Persian-ness, a "fact" known to outsiders as well as to his initiates. Iconographically, he is depicted in exotic non-Roman, specifically oriental garb: trousers and the "Persian" cap. Gods have their personal histories. The story of Mithras survives not in written form derived from an oral narrative — if such there ever was, it has disappeared without trace — but as scenes preserved on what are collectively termed "the monuments," for the most part as relief sculpture on icons, altars, etcetera, but also as statuary and in fresco on the walls of mithraea. In the frescos and on the great complex reliefs (the latter mostly from the Rhine and Danube frontier provinces) a selection of side-scenes representing various episodes surrounds the central scene, the god's sacrificial killing of a bull. More often this "tauroctony" is a self-contained icon, and from its privileged location at the head of the central aisle we know that it was the cult's principal icon; consequently, that the bull-killing was the main event in the Mithras myth. (The fundamental illustrated catalogue of Mithraic monuments is Vermaseren 1956-60. Merkelback 1984 and Clauss 2000 are also exceptionally well illustrated. On the iconography of Mithras, see Vollkommer 1992. On the myth of Mithras as inferred from the iconography, see Cumont 1903: pp. 104-49; Vermaseren 1960: pp. 56-88; Clauss 2000: pp. 62-101.) Some of the larger reliefs could be swiveled so as to display on their reverse the scene of Sol and Mithras feasting on the hide of the bull. The gods' banquet, then, is the outcome of the sacrifice, and since it is replicated in the cult meal of the initiates (see above), it must be supposed that the mythic sacrifice performed by Mithras is the salvafic cause of whatever benefits accrue to his mortal initiates in replicating the banquet of the two gods. The side-scenes are numerous, and they represent many different episodes in the myth, e.g. the pursuit and capture of the bull, the ascent of Mithras in the Sun's chariot, as well as occasional episodes which, as far as one can tell, do not include or concern Mithras at all. Moreover, there is no standard order or canon of scenes: only the internal logic of the narrative orders the episodes (e.g., bull-killing precedes banquet, because the bull's hide serves as couch cover for the banqueters). (On the composition of complex monuments, see Gordon 1980b; Beck 1984: pp. 2075-8) In addition to the bull-killing and the banquet, the scene of Mithras' birth is manifestly important. He is shown rising upright from a rock, not as a baby but in the prime of youth, with extended arms holding torch and sword. He has, it seems, no father. It would be wrong to say that he has no mother, for the rock itself, identified explicitly as Petra Genetrix ("the rock that gives birth") is his mother. Since the bull-killing was so obviously the god's principal act, and since the icon which represents it was so clearly the cult's primary locus of meaning, the scene as regularly represented (with remarkably few variations from the norm) must be described. At the mouth of a cave, Mithras straddles the bull, plunging a dagger into its heart. A dog and a snake dart up at the blood flowing from the wound. A scorpion fastens on the bull's genitals, and a raven perches on the god's billowing mantle. Miraculously, the tail of the dying bull has metamorphosed into an ear of wheat. On either side of the scene the twin gods Cautes and Cautopates are posed, the former holding a raised torch, the latter a lowered torch. Above and to the left is the Sun god, above and to the right the Moon goddess. Frequently in tauroctonies from the Rhine and Danube areas, a lion and a two-handled cup are added to the scene. Finding the "meaning" of the scene has been, perhaps to excess, the Great Game of Roman Mithraic hermeneutics. Yet a simple narrative solution, that the bull-killing is just an episode — albeit the principal episode — in the Mithras myth lacks plausibility because of the unusual and ill-assorted assemblage of beings which surround the sacrificing god. As an event, even a supernatural event, in a story it strains one's sense of narrative realism. So while the tauroctony does indeed represent an episode in a story, it represents, it evokes, it intimates something more; and it does so by means of the elements of the composition functioning as symbols, collectively or individually. Interpretations which look eastwards to Iran will be discussed in the next section. The other important modern interpretation looks upwards to the heavens and the notable correspondence between elements of the composition and the ancient constellations (see above, on Mithraism as an astral religion). The shortcoming of interpretations of this latter type is that they have tended to treat the tauroctony rather simplistically as a star chart from which one can decipher the celestial identity of the god as this or that constellation. (For a survey of interpretations of the tauroctony, see Beck 1984: pp. 2080-3; Martin 1994. For celestial interpretations, see Insler 1978; Ulansey 1989; Beck 1994; Jakobs 1999; Weiss 1998. For an important redirection of interpretation (the tauroctony as "cult scene" and "depiction of ritual sacrifice"), see Martin 1994. On the tauroctony in the context of Roman imperial art, see Zwirn 1989. Iranizing interpretations will be referenced in the next section.) As one would expect in a relatively elaborate Roman cult, Mithras does not lack for divine company. The Graeco-Roman Sun god Helios/Sol has already been mentioned — that Mithras both is and is not the Sun, depending on context, is one of those paradoxes which religions take in their stride — as have the planetary gods. Various of the Olympian gods also play a role, though a minor and marginal one. Finally, there are three esoteric deities, two of whom are the twins Cautes and Cautopates, already mentioned as witnesses to the bull-killing. In appearance they are clones of Mithras, and they represent through their primary attributes of the raised and lowered torches paired opposites in nature and in the heavens (e.g. rising sun and setting sun, flanking Mithras as the midday sun). Within the mystery, they symbolize and, as agents, control the entry of the soul downward into mortality (Cautopates) and its exit upwards into immortality (Cautes). (On this pair of deities, see Hinnells 1976; Beck 1984: pp. 2084-6). The third esoteric deity is the enigmatic "lion-headed god." Since his identification is bound up with the question of Mithraism's eastern origins, he will be discussed in the next section. Bibliographic note: The foundational study of Roman Mithraism is Cumont 1899 and Cumont 1903. Short general studies: Vermaseren 1963; Turcan 2000; Clauss 2000. Merkelbach 1984 is a fuller comprehensive study. On Mithraism as a mystery cult among other mysteries, Bianchi 1979a; Sfameni Gasparro 1979. There are four volumes of conference papers devoted both to Iranian Mithra and to Roman Mithras and Mithraism: Hinnells 1975; Duchesne-Guillemin 1978; Bianchi 1979; Hinnells 1994. Bibliographic survey: Beck 1984; Gordon in Clauss 2000: pp. 183-90. From Iranian Mithra to Roman Mithras: Continuity versus re-invention. That Roman Mithras was a Persian god in more than just the perception and self-definition of his Roman initiates is indisputable. To say that he was "the same" god, or that he "came from" Iran is equally true, though it begs as many questions as it appears to answer. Did he emigrate together with his cult? Was institutionalized Mithra-worship transmitted from East to West? Likewise the Mithra myth(s) and the concepts of the god, his powers, and his functions? Was he "the same" god in that strong sense? Or was he re-invented in the West, perhaps by those with some knowledge of the East, as a new god for new mysteries in a new type of cult association appropriate to the different social and cultural environment of the Roman Empire? Was he "the same" merely in the weaker sense that he was re-outfitted with Iranian trappings sufficient to authenticate him as "Persian" in his new context? Two statements at least may be made with some confidence about the century-long scholarly controversy over these questions: first, that at the beginning of the third millennium there is still no consensus; secondly, that in the last three decades the balance of opinion has shifted, rightly or wrongly, in favor of re-invention over continuity. What one might call the "default" transmission scenario (at least for the first two thirds of the twentieth century) was propounded by the founder of modern Mithraic studies, Franz Cumont, in 1899 (see also Cumont 1903). For Cumont, Mithraism in the West was Romanized Mazdaism, thus still at its core a Persian religion, though one which had undergone extensive metamorphoses in its passage first through Chaldaea, where it acquired its astrological overlay and the syncretic assimilation to Mithra of the Babylonian Sun god Šamaš; and secondly through Anatolia and the culture of the Magusaeans, the Hellenized Magi of the Iranian diaspora (on whom see Bidez and Cumont 1938, Beck 1991), where it acquired a Stoic cosmology of sorts, especially in its eschatology (on which see Cumont 1931, Beck 1995). In assessing Cumont's and later scholars' arguments for transmission, one must keep in mind the two types of evidence deployed: first, common traits, i.e. similarity of the features of Mithras and Mithras-worship in the West with those of Mithra and Mithra-worship in the East to the point that coincidental re-invention in the West would cease to be a credible hypothesis; secondly, evidence of actual intermediate stages in the East-West transfer. We begin here with the latter. It is the stronger of the two types of evidence, but in volume the more meager. The evidence, and some of the inferences drawn from them, are as follows. 1) Plutarch (late first century CE), in Life of Pompey 24, states that the Cilician pirates who were vanquished by Pompey in the mid 60's BCE "celebrated certain secret rites of initiation (Greek teletas), of which those of Mithras have survived up to now" (or "as far as here," i.e. Rome: his Greek phrase mechri deuro is ambiguous). It is possible, but not certain, that these 'initiations' were a prototype of the Roman mysteries of Mithras. (For contra, see Francis 1975.). 2) Mithras — moreover, a Mithras who was identified with the Greek Sun god Helios — was one of the deities of the syncretic Graeco-Iranian royal cult founded by Antiochus I (q.v.), king of the small but prosperous buffer state of Commagene (q.v.) in the mid first century BCE. It is improbable in the extreme that this cult played no part in the transmission of Mithra-worship westwards, although nothing about it compels one to accept that it was a prototype of the Roman mysteries. So far, nothing about the recently discovered mithraeum at Doliche (see Schütte-Maischatz and Winter 2000) suggests that its cult relief is other than a product of second or third century CE Mithraism. (On the royal cult of Commagene and the role of Mithras therein, see Boyce 1991: pp. 309-51; Dörner 1975; 1978; Duchesne-Guillemin 1978a; Jacobs 2000; Merkelbach 1984: pp. 50-72; Schwertheim 1979; Wagner 1983; 2000; 2000a; Waldmann 1991. For a scenario of transmission incorporating the Commagenian royal cult and the royal family of subsequent generations, see Beck 1998.) 3) While archaeology has (as yet) unearthed no evidence in Anatolia for an intermediate form of Mithras-worship which is unambiguously the precursor of the Roman mystery cult, several atypical monuments and inscriptions from this area (as well as from Crimea to the north across the Black Sea) make it entirely plausible that such intermediate forms may well have existed, and hence that Anatolia in the larger sense, not just Commagene, played some part in Mithraism's westward transmission. Cumont's Magusaeans (see above), though real enough in their own right, are no longer regarded as the conduit for Mithraism. (The Cumontian scenario was first challenged by Wikander 1951; subsequently by Gordon 1975; Beck 1991: pp. 539-50.) There are however other plausible scenarios, some (e.g. Colpe 1975: pp. 390-9; Boyce 1991: pp. 468-90) involving the Iranian diaspora in Anatolia. (On Mithras-worship in Anatolia and its atypical remains, and for theories of transmission through Anatolia, see Beck 1984: pp. 2018-19, 2071-3; Boyce 1991: pp. 468-90; Colpe 1975: pp. 390-9; Cumont: 1939; Gordon 1978: pp. 159-64, 169-71; Gordon 1994: pp. 469-71; Schwertheim 1979; Will 1955: pp. 144-69; Will 1978: pp. 527-8.) 4) In Syria it is the absence of data on any intermediary form of Mithraism that is remarkable (a Chestertonian "dog which did not bark"). With the single exception of the recently discovered Huwarti mithraeum, the few actual mithraea and the monuments lacking known provenance which have been recovered there exemplify either the norms of western Mithraism or minor variations on those norms. The Huwarti mithraeum, moreover, dates to the final decades of the fourth century CE. Accordingly, it speaks of the local redefinition of a religion in its final years, not of "a road not taken" in its formative years. Mithraism in Syria was not a transitional phase intermediate between East and West, but a back-formation from the West in the East. Even the mithraeum at Dura Europos on the Euphrates, at the easternmost margins of the Roman empire, proved no exception. Arguably, its only significant Iranian feature is the fresco of a pair of enthroned elders in local ceremonial garb with scrolls and canes. These Cumont identified as Zoroaster and Ostanes; but they could as well be the Fathers of this particular Mithraic community at the time. (On Mithraism in Syria, see Roll 1977; Downey 1978; also the proceedings of the Colloquium "Mithra en Syrie," Lyon, November 2000, forthcoming in Topoi, which will include discussion of the Huwarti mithraeum. On the Dura mithraeum, see Cumont 1975; Beck 1984: pp. 214-17.) 5) In a description of Zoroastrian dualism which he inserted into his important essay On Isis and Isiris (46-7), Plutarch speaks of Mithras as "in the middle" (meson) between the good Horomazes and the evil Areimanius, adding "and this is why the Persians call the Mediator Mithras." This, it is generally agreed, does not ascribe moral neutrality to Mithras; rather he is the referee, arbiter, or judge between the two warring parties. However, even if the clause is more than Plutarch's own gloss, it speaks not of transitional Mithraism but of Mithra in the context of a collateral form of Zoroastrianism known to that learned Greek author. (On the passage and its interpretation, see de Jong 1997: pp. 171-7; on Mithra as judge, see Shaked 1980.) 6) The final piece of evidence which speaks directly to the question of transfer is the report of the state visit of Tiridates of Armenia to Rome to be crowned by Nero. At the coronation Tiridates declared that he had come "in order to revere you [Nero] as Mithras" (Dio Cassius 63.5.2). In the same visit, according to Pliny (Natural History 30.1.6), Tiridates "initiated him [Nero] into magical feasts" (magicis cenis). Since Tiridates had brought Magi in his retinue, it is likely that the "feasts" were "Magian" rather than "magical" in the contemporary Roman sense. In the Cumontian scenario this episode cannot mark the definitive moment of transfer, for Mithraism in that scenario was already established in Rome, albeit on a scale too small to have left any trace in the historical or archaeological record. Nevertheless, it could have been a spur to Mithraism's emergence on to the larger stage of popular appeal. Perhaps, too, it affected in some way the development of Mithraism's central rite, the cult meal (see above). (On the episode and its implications for Mithraism, see Cumont 1933; for an alternative scenario which places the cult's institution after this episode, Beck 2002.) When we turn to the much ampler dossier of similarities between Iranian Mithra-worship and the Mithras-worship of the Roman mystery cult, we must keep in mind that arguments for continuity based on these similarities all imply that the similarities are so systematic and so detailed that a non-causal relationship is untenable. Necessarily, therefore, they entail some transfer scenario, whether or not they expound one explicitly. Arguments for Mithraism's invention or re-invention in the West, on the contrary, imply that the similarities are too slight and too haphazard to warrant a causal explanation. Accordingly, no transfer scenario is required beyond a certain awareness of "oriental" wisdom among Mithraism's founders. Of the latter position there is a strong and a weak form. The strong form, having noted the undeniable similarities, then describes the cult, its origins, and its early development entirely in terms of the socio-religious culture(s) of the Roman empire. A typical proponent of this strong form is M. Clauss (2000: pp. 3-8, 21-2), who locates the cult's origins and point of departure firmly in late first-century CE Rome. Not because it is wrong, but solely because it is not germane to the mandate of Encyclopaedia Iranica, there is no need to explore this version of Mithraic origins further. Discontinuity's weaker form of argument postulates re-invention among and for the denizens of the Roman empire (or certain sections thereof), but re-invention by a person or persons of some familiarity with Iranian religion in a form current on its western margins in the first century CE. Merkelbach (1984: pp. 75-7), expanding on a suggestion of M.P. Nilsson, proposes such a founder from eastern Anatolia, working in court circles in Rome. So does Beck 1998, with special focus on the dynasty of Commagene (see above). Jakobs 1999 proposes a similar scenario. We may now turn finally to the similarities between western Mithraism and Iranian Mithra-worship and to the scholarship which has argued, in the Cumontian tradition, for significant continuity. (The scholarship up to the time of writing is surveyed in Beck 1984: pp. 2059-75). Predictably, the similarities mostly cluster around the person of Mithra/Mithras (remarkably, the second two of the three given here are not so much similarities as inversions): (1) Roman Mithras was identified with the Sun (see above); Iranian Mithra was a god of the dawn light. When and how the Iranian god became the Sun, as eventually he did, has been much debated (Lommel 1962; Gershevitch 1975, Gnoli 1979, Lincoln 1982; see above on the solar Mithras of Commagene; see below on M. Weiss's theory of the non-solarity of Mithra/Mithras both East and West). (2) Iranian Mithra was a god of cattle and pastures; Roman Mithras was a "cattle-thief" (explicitly so called, e.g. Porphyry, On the Cave of the Nymphs 40), all the more outrageous an inversion because Iranian Mithra was a god of righteousness whose very name means "contract." (3) Most importantly, Roman Mithras, as his mightiest and most beneficent deed, sacrifices a bull (see above); while Iranian Mithra was not himself a bull-killer, the act of bull-killing does figure prominently in the Zoroastrian cosmological narratives. In the first instance it was an act of evil: Ahriman slew the primal Bull of creation. However, the destructive act was turned to good, when from the bull's sperm, purified in the moon, sprang the domestic animals. The second and future event is entirely beneficial. A savior figure, Sošyant, will sacrifice a bull from whose fat, mixed with hôm, the drink of corporal immortality will be prepared. The bull-killing of Mithras can be construed as the Roman translation of either — or indeed of both — of the Iranian cosmogonic and eschatological myths. Certain of the compositional details of the tauroctony resonate with the former: the bull's tail metamorphosed into the wheat ear, the scorpion at the bull's genitals, the presence of the Moon as well as the Sun. The Pahlavi texts, notably the Bundahišn, which carry the Zoroastrian cosmological accounts are several centuries later than the Roman-era artifacts, i.e. the tauroctonies, which carry the western representation of the bull-killing. Accordingly, Iranizing interpretations of the tauroctony (for a survey of these, see Hinnells 1975a; Beck 1984: pp. 2068-9, 2080-1) imply one of two scenarios, whether or not they make the choice explicitly. Either those who constructed the western Mysteries consciously altered the Zoroastrian cosmological myths which were already current in the form later attested by the Pahlavi sources; or they took over and reproduced a collateral, non-Zoroastrian form of Iranian religion (Mazdaist or otherwise), current at the time but subsequently extinguished without trace, in which Mithra was the bull-killer. A version of the latter argues that what the western mysteries adopted was an offshoot of the Vedic tradition in which Mitra reluctantly slays the Soma (= Iranian Haoma) god (Lommel 1949). More persuasive, perhaps, than postulating a precise Iranian/Vedic genealogy for the tauroctonous Mithras is the argument that the Mithraic bull-killing, both as concept and as image, reflects a peculiarly Iranian ideology of sacrifice as a creative act undertaken by god, not man (Hinnells 1975a; Turcan 1981; Turcan 2000: pp. 102-5) — with the implication, presumably, that it is so because those who first imagined the icon in the West had at least something of that ideology in mind. (On a fascinating continuity into modern Zoroastrianism in Iran, see Boyce 1975.) There is a further problem that complicates all transmission scenarios: how to accommodate the twin deities Cautes and Cautopates and the lion-headed god (both mentioned above). Are they part of the theological baggage transferred from Iran? The names of the twins may well be of Iranian origin (see Schwartz 1975; contra: Schmeja 1975: p. 20), for Roman Mithraism did in fact occasionally borrow genuinely Iranian words (see Gray 1926: pp. 89-99; Schmeja 1975), notably nama (= "hail!") and nabarzes (precise etymology disputed, see Schwartz 1975: pp. 422-3). That, however, does not extend to their functions in the theology of the western mysteries, which can be fully accounted for in solely western terms (Beck 1984: pp. 2084-6). The lion-headed god is more problematic, partly because his eventual place in the western cult's theology is as opaque as his provenance. (On the extant exemplars and their iconography, see Hinnells 1975b; on the various interpretations and identifications, see Beck 1984: pp. 2086-9). Of the several identities proposed for the lion-headed god, two link him unambiguously with Iran. The first, propounded by Cumont (1899: p. 78; 1903: pp. 107-10), identifies him as Zurvān, the god of infinite Time and the father and arbiter between the good Ohrmazd and the evil Ahriman. This would of course make Roman Mithraism the descendant of a Zurvanite branch of Mazdaism. Around this Iranian core accumulated the personae and attributes of various Egyptian and Hellenistic Greek deities, for the most part gods of Time (Pettazzoni 1954). The second Iranian identity, first proposed by I.F. Legge (1912-15), is Ahriman — an outrageous choice were it not that the name Arimanius is attested in Mithraic epigraphy, although never in a context which makes it more than a possibility that the Mithraic lion-headed god was Ahriman (Duchesne-Guillemin 1955; idem, 1958-62; on discussions of the epigraphy and the relevant monuments, see Beck 1984: pp. 2034-5). If the Mithraic lion-headed god was indeed a descendant of the Iranian Ahriman, there is no need to assume, for that reason alone, that he retained an exclusively negative and evil nature, or that, in consequence, the Roman Mithraists were devil-worshippers on the side. It would be impractical in a work of this scope to discuss every minute similarity which has been demonstrated or claimed between western Mithraism and Iranian Mithra-worship. (For a fuller summary, see Beck 1984: pp. 2056-89; for arguments stressing dissimilarities and discontinuities, see Colpe 1975; Drijvers 1978.) The time has come to review the principal scholarship which has argued for transmission and continuity based on the postulated similarities. The Cumontian "default" scenario has already been described. Of the post-Cumontian scenarios, three argue for continuity in the strongest terms. A.D.H. Bivar (1998, and earlier studies mentioned there) argues that western Mithraism was but one of several manifestations of Mithra-worship current in antiquity across a wide swathe of Asia and Europe. L.A. Campbell (1968) argues in the Cumontian tradition that western Mithraism replicated, through a thin disguise and with certain Graeco-Roman admixtures, a sometimes extraordinarily detailed and learned form of Zoroastrian Mazdaism. A continuity as thoroughgoing, though not quite so systematic ideologically, was proposed in several studies by G. Widengren (1965: pp. 222-32; 1966; 1980). Starting from the dissimilarities between Roman Mithraism and Zoroastrian Mazdaism, the most obvious of which are of course the different supreme deities in the two systems and the different agents and intents of the bull-killing (discussed above), scholarship on Iranian Mithra-worship has also looked for and found closer analogies with Mithraism in pre-Zoroastrian and non-Zoroastrian Iranian religion — and beyond that in Vedic religion. The strength of hypotheses based on the analogies with pre-/non-Zoroastrian systems is that they do not need to postulate a deliberate adaptation of Zoroastrianism into western Mithraism; their weakness is that they have to postulate instead the persistence in western Iran of an early collateral Indo-European form of Mithra-worship, ready for easy translation into Roman Mithraism, for which there is no direct evidence. P.G. Kreyenbroek (1994), by comparing cosmogonies (Mithraic similar to non/pre-Zoroastrian; both of these dissimilar to Zoroastrian), has advanced perhaps the most persuasive transmission scenario of this type to date. M. Weiss (1996, 1998) argues that Roman Mithras continues a very early Iranian and Vedic conception of Mithra/Mitra as the Nachthimmel, the starry heavens, an hypothesis entailing the awkward conception of a Mithras who is wholly distinct from the Sun god. Lastly, there are certain works specifically on Iranian religion, in addition to those of Widengren (1960, 1965) already mentioned, which discuss aspects of western Mithras or Mithraism in terms which assert or imply a fair measure of continuity: Gray 1926: pp. 89-99; Gershevitch 1959: pp. 61-72; Zaehner 1961: pp. 97-144; Duchesne-Guillemin 1962: pp. 248-57. Bibliography: (abbreviation, JMS = Journal of Mithraic Studies). R.L. Beck, "Mithraism since Franz Cumont," Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt, II.17.4, 1984, pp. 2002-115. Idem, Planetary Gods and Planetary Orders in the Mysteries of Mithras, Leiden, 1988. Idem, "Thus Spake Not Zarathuštra: Zoroastrian Pseudepigrapha of the Greco-Roman World," in Boyce and Grenet 1991 (see below), pp. 491-565. Idem "In the Place of the Lion: Mithras in the Tauroctony," in Hinnells 1994 (see below), pp. 29-50. Idem, "Dio Cocceianus," Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. 7, 1995, p. 421. Idem, "The Mysteries of Mithras," in J.S. Kloppenborg and S.G. Wilson (eds), Voluntary Associations in the Ancient World, London, 1996, pp. 176-85. Idem, "The Mysteries of Mithras: A new account of their genesis," Journal of Roman Studies 88, 1998, pp. 115-28. Idem, "Ritual, Myth, Doctrine, and Initiation in the Mysteries of Mithras: New evidence from a cult vessel," JRS 90, 2000, pp. 145-80. Idem, "History into Fiction: The metamorphoses of the Mithras myths," Ancient Narrative 1, 2001-02, pp. 283-300. U. Bianchi ed., Mysteria Mithrae, Leiden, 1979. Bianchi 1979a "The Religio-Historical Question of the Mysteries of Mithra," in Bianchi ed. 1979, pp. 3-60. J. Bidez and F. Cumont, Les Mages hellénisés, 2 vols, Paris, 1938 (repr. 1973). A.D.H. Bivar, The Personalities of Mithra in Archaeology and Literature, New York, 1998. M. Boyce, "Mihragān among the Irani Zoroastrians," in Hinnells ed. 1975, pp. 106-18. Boyce 1991 M. Boyce and F. Grenet, A History of Zoroastrianism , Vol. 3, Leiden, 1991. W. Burkert, Ancient Mystery Cults, Cambridge MA, 1987. L.A. Campbell, Mithraic Iconography and Ideology, Leiden, 1968. M. Clauss, Cultores Mithrae: Die Anhängerschaft des Mithras-Kultes, Stuttgart, 1992. Idem, The Roman Cult of Mithras, trans. R.L. Gordon, Edinburgh and New York, 2000. C. Colpe, "Mithra-Verehrung, Mithras-Kult und die Existenz iranischer Mysterien," in Hinnells ed. 1975, pp. 378-405. F. Cumont, Textes et monuments figurés relatifs aux mystères de Mithra, Vol. 1, Brussels, 1899. Idem, The Mysteries of Mithra, trans. T.J. McCormack, London, 1903 (repr. New York, 1956). Idem, "La fin du monde selon les mages occidentaux," Revue de l'Histoire des Religions, 103, 1931, pp. 29-96. Idem, "L'iniziazione di Nerone da parte di Tiridate d'Armenia," Rivista di Filologia, NS 11, 1933, pp. 145-54. Idem, "Mithra en Asie Mineure," in Anatolian Studies in Honour of W.H. Buckler, Manchester, 1939, pp. 67-76. Idem, "The Dura Mithraeum," ed. and trans. E.D. Francis, in Hinnells ed. 1975, pp. 151-214. A. de Jong, Traditions of the Magi: Zoroastrianism in Greek and Latin Literature, Leiden, 1997. F.K. Dörner, Kommagene, Antike Welt Sondernummer 1975. Idem, "Mithras in Kommagene," in Duchesne-Guillemin, ed. 1978 (see below), pp. 123-33. S.B. Downey, "Syrian Images of Mithras Tauroctonos," in Duchesne-Guillemin ed. 1978, pp. 135-49. H.J.W. Drijvers, "Mithra at Hatra?" in Duchesne-Guillemin, ed., 1978, pp. 151-86. J. Duchesne-Guillemin, "Ahriman et le dieu suprême dans les mystères de Mithra," Numen 2, 1955, pp. 190-5. Idem, "Aion et le léontocéphalique, Mithra et Ahriman," La Nouvelle Klio 10-12, 1958-62, pp. 91-8. Idem, La religion de l'Iran ancien, Paris, 1962. J. Duchesne-Guillemin ed., Études Mithiaques, Leiden, 1978. Idem, 1978a "Iran and Greece in Commagene," in Duchesne-Guillemin ed. 1978, pp. 187-99. E.D. Francis, "Plutarch's Mithraic Pirates," in Cumont 1975, pp. 207-10. I. Gershevitch, The Avestan Hymn to Mithra, Cambridge, 1959. Idem, Die Sonne das Beste," in Hinnells ed. 1975, pp. 68-89. G. Gnoli, "Sol Persice Mithra," in Bianchi ed. 1979, pp. 725-40. R.L. Gordon, "Mithraism and Roman Society: Social factors in the explanation of religious change in the Roman empire," Religion 2, 1972, pp. 92-121. Idem, "Franz Cumont and the Doctrines of Mithraism," in Hinnells, ed., 1975, pp. 215-48. Idem, "The Date and Significance of CIMRM 593," JMS 2, 1978, pp. 148-74* (* = reprinted in Gordon 1996). Gordon 1980a, "Reality, Evocation, and Boundary in the Mysteries of Mithras," JMS 3, 1980 pp. 19-99*. Gordon 1980b, "Panelled Complications," JMS 3, 1980, pp. 200-27*. Idem, "Who worshipped Mithras?" Journal of Roman Archaeology 7, 1994, pp. 459-74. R. L. Gordon, Image and Value in the Graeco-Roman World: Studies in Mithraism and religious art, Aldershot UK, 1996. L.H. Gray, The Foundations of the Iranian Religions, Bombay, 1926. J.R. Hinnells, ed., Mithraic Studies, 2 vols (consecutive pagination), Manchester, 1975. Idem, 1975a, "Reflections on the Bull-Slaying Scene," in Hinnells, ed., 1975, pp. 290-312. Idem, 1975b, "Reflections on the Lion-Headed Figure in Mithraism," in Monumentum H.S. Nyberg, Acta Iranica, Ser. 2, Vol. 1, Leiden, pp. 333-69. Idem, "The Iconography of Cautes and Cautopates," JMS 1, 1976, pp. 36-67. J.R. Hinnells ed., Studies in Mithraism, Rome, 1994. S. Insler, "A New Interpretation of the Bull-Slaying Motif," in M.B. de Boer and T.A. Edridge eds, Hommages à Maarten J. Vermaseren, Leiden, 1978, pp. 519-38. B. Jacobs, Die Herkunft und Entstehung der römischen Mithrasmysterien: Überlegungen zur Rolle des Stifters und zu den astronomischen Hintergründen der Kultlegende, Konstanz, 1999. Idem, "Die Religionspolitik des Antiochus I. von Kommagene," in Wagner ed. 2000, pp. 45-9. J.P. Kane, "The Mithraic Cult Meal in its Greek and Roman Environment," in Hinnells ed. 1975, pp. 313-51. P.G. Kreyenbroek, "Mithra and Ahreman in Iranian Cosmogonies," in Hinnells ed. 1994, pp. 175-82. I.F. Legge, "The Lion-Headed God of the Mithraic Mysteries," Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archaeology, 34, 1912, pp. 125-42; 37, 1915, 151-62. W. Liebeschuetz, "The Expansion of Mithraism among the Religious Cults of the Second Century," in Hinnells ed. 1994, pp. 195-216. B. Lincoln, "Mithra(s) as Sun and Savior," in U. Bianchi and M.J. Vermaseren eds., La soteriologia dei culti orientali nell'Impero Romano, Leiden, 1982, pp. 505-26. H. Lommel, "Mithra und das Stieropfer," Paideuma 3, 1949, pp. 207-18. Idem, "Die Sonne das Schlechteste?" Oriens 15, 1962, pp. 360-73. L.H. Martin, "Reflections on the Mithraic Tauroctony as Cult Scene," in Hinnells ed. 1994, pp. 217-228. R. Merkelbach, Mithras, Königstein/Ts., 1984. R. Pettazzoni, "The Monstrous Figure of Time in Mithraism," in Essays in the History of Religions, trans. H.J. Rose, Leiden, 1954. I. Roll, "The Mysteries of Mithras in the Roman Orient," JMS 2, 1977, pp. 18-52. H. Schmeja, Iranisches und Griechisches in den Mithrasmysterien, Innsbruck, 1975. A. Schütte-Maischatz and E. Winter, "Kultstätten der Mithrasmysterien in Doliche," in Wagner ed. 2000, pp. 93-99. M. Schwartz, "Cautes and Cautopates, the Mithraic Torchbearers," in Hinnells ed. 1975, pp. 406-23. E. Schwertheim, Mithras: Seine Denkmäler und sein Kult, Antike Welt Sondernummer 1979. G. Sfameni Gasparro, "Il mitraismo ...," in Bianchi ed. 1979, pp. 299-384. S. Shaked, "Mihr the Judge," Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam 2, 1980, pp. 1-31. R. Turcan, "Le sacrifice mithriaque: innovations de sens et de modalités," Entretiens sur l'antiquité classique (Fondation Hardt) 27, 1981, pp. 341-80. Idem, Mithra et le mithriacisme, Paris, 2000. D. Ulansey, The Origins of the Mithraic Mysteries, New York, 1989. M. J. Vermaseren, Corpus Inscriptionum et Monumentorum Religionis Mithriacae, 2 vols, The Hague, 1956-60. Idem, Mithra, ce dieu mystérieux., trans. M. Léman and L. Gilbert, Paris, 1960 (English translation by T. and V. Megaw, Mithras, the Secret God, London, 1963). Idem, Mithriaca I: The Mithraeum at S. Maria Capua Vetere, Leiden, 1971. R. Vollkommer, "Mithras," Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae 6.1, pp. 583-626 (text), 6.2, pp. 325-68 (plates), 1992. J. Wagner, "Dynastie und Herrscherkult in Kommagene," Istanbuler Mitteilungen 33, 1983, pp. 177-224. J. Wagner ed., Gottkönige am Euphrat: Neue Ausgrabungen und Forschungen in Kommagene, Mainz, 2000. Wagner 2000a = "Die Könige von Kommagene und ihr Herrscherkult," in Wagner ed. 2000, pp. 11-25. H. Waldmann, Der Kommagenische Mazdaismus, Tübingen, 1991. M. Weiss, Als Sonne Verkant — Mithras, Osterburken, 1996. Idem, "Mithras, der Nachthimmel: Eine Dekodierung der römischen Mithras-Kultbilder nit Hilfe des Awesta," Traditio, 53, 1998, pp. 1-36. L.M. White, Building God's House in the Roman World: Architectural Adaptation among Pagans, Jews, and Christians, Baltimore, 1990. G. Widengren, Die Religionen Irans, Stuttgart, 1965. Idem, "The Mithraic Mysteries in the Greco-Roman World, with special regard to their Iranian background," Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei, Anno 363, Quad. 76, 1966, pp. 433-55. Idem, "Reflections on the Origins of the Mithraic Mysteries," in Perennitas: Studi in honore di Angelo Brelich, Rome, 1980. S. Wikander, "Études sur les mystères de Mithras," Vetenskapssocieteten i Lund, Årsbok 1951, pp. 5-56. E. Will, Le relief cultuel gréco-romain, Paris, 1955. Idem, "Origine et nature du Mithriacisme," in Duchesne-Guillemin ed. 1978, pp. 527-36. R.C. Zaehner, The Dawn and Twilight of Zoroastrianism, London, 1961. S. Zwirn, "The Intention of Biographical Narration on Mithraic Cult Images," Word and Image 5, 1989, pp. 2-18. (Roger Beck) Originally Published: July 20, 2002 Last Updated: July 20, 2002

Mitraïsme

http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/ancient/romans/paganshadowchrist_article_01.shtml

What were the similarities between Christianity and other 'mystery cults' like Mithraism? Did they influence each other, and if so, how? [ British Broadcasting CorporationHome ](/) By Professor Roger Beck Last updated 2011-02-17 What were the similarities between Christianity and other 'mystery cults' like Mithraism? Did they influence each other, and if so, how? Suppose that we view the Roman empire of the first four centuries AD as a market in which assorted religions competed for business. In business, enterprising firms raid each other for useful ideas and marketing strategies. Did the upstart Christian firm borrow from pagan salesmanship, or vice versa, or was there a two-way flow of borrowings? Or did the rival firms not compete, but rather follow different strategies independently? This article will survey the field, gradually narrowing the focus to the most plausible candidate for a source of pagan influence on Christianity (or vice versa) — Mithraism, or, as its contemporaries called this religious cult - the 'Mysteries of Mithras'. The prime method of keeping the gods 'onside' was blood sacrifice. We'll begin with the big picture, retaining the metaphor of businesses competing for custom. We could see competing pagan firms as the innumerable cults of the gods and goddesses across the empire. But in fact almost all those cults were not in competition at all. They are better seen as complementary enterprises - the locally controlled branches of a multi-national. The firm's function was twofold: (1) to secure and retain the goodwill of the gods and thereby the wellbeing of the empire and its communities; and (2) to preserve the socio-political order through appropriate activities, principally the festivities of the local religious calendars. The prime method of getting (and keeping) the gods 'onside' was blood sacrifice. The glue which kept each level of society in its proper place was the system by which imperial and local élites fed and entertained the masses (the famous 'bread and circuses') in return for respect and acquiescence in the divinely sanctioned order of things. It is not difficult to see how emperor-worship, a franchise for which rival cities competed avidly, fits into this picture: the emperor's powers of benefaction were of an order that seemed to eclipse those of mere mortals. In addition to the cult of a particular god in a particular temple in a particular city, the firm also licensed outlets for specialised services and products, notably: (a) oracles to foretell the future and explain the present, and (b) healing shrines, which offered the best that antiquity had to offer in human as well as divine medicine. Brand loyalty was assumed, not enforced. In any case the religion business made few demands on the ordinary citizens of Rome and the communities of her empire. Opting in was not a deliberate choice, and opting out was not an option. Only national groups were allowed a distinct religion. Rome greatly respected institutions which could legitimately present themselves as 'traditional' and 'ancestral', and thus as agents of a sound and conservative status quo. Judaism effectively withdrew from the arena of religious competition. Judaism was just such an ancestral religion. It was licensed not only in its homeland but in the diaspora communities elsewhere in the empire. In the homeland, Judaism was focused on the cult of Jahweh in the Temple in Jerusalem, a cult of blood sacrifice of a type familiar to the Romans, peculiar only in its exclusive monotheism. In 70 AD Judaism underwent a great sea change: with the destruction of the Temple in 70 AD at the climax of the first rebellion, the sacrificial cult ended. Judaism as we know it today is the descendant of the religion of the synagogues of the diaspora and of Palestine after the second rebellion (ended 135 AD). Proselytizing was then strictly forbidden, so Judaism effectively withdrew from the arena of religious competition. By elimination this leaves us with a group of religions known as the 'mystery cults'. The Greek word mystêrion denotes initiation: a 'mystery' is something into which you are initiated. Baptism initiates you into the Christian mystery, for example; and yes, early Christianity both can and should be classified with the pagan mystery cults. Fellowship in a bleak world, where pain and poverty are the norms, is a precious commodity. Initiation brings you into a relationship with the god or gods of the cult. Much as Christian initiation brings you into a relationship with Jesus, the Christ, so initiation into the pagan mysteries brings you into a relationship with 'Egyptian' Isis, or 'Persian' Mithras, or home-grown Dionysus-Bacchus, or one or other of the several Great Mother goddesses and their junior consorts (Cybele and Attis for example). If asked to define the essence of the 'relationship' in a single word most initiates would probably reply with the Greek or Latin words (sôtêria, salus) meaning the state of being 'safe and sound', of being 'saved'. 'Salvation' is also a fair translation, provided we remember that for most pagan initiates it would mean physical and material protection, health and well-being vouchsafed by the god, with or without the bonus of spiritual rescue now and in the hereafter. By initiation into a mystery you enter a community of fellow initiates. Now fellowship in a bleak world, where pain and poverty are the norms, is a precious commodity. In market terms, it enhances a firm's competitiveness. Apart from Judaism, only two religious 'firms' in antiquity developed this feature of community life to the full: Christianity and Mithraism. The Mithraists were worshippers of the 'Unconquered Sun God Mithras', as the inscriptions call him. We know a good deal about them because archaeology has disinterred many meeting places together with numerous artifacts and representations of the cult myth, mostly in the form of relief sculpture. From this evidence we know that the cult was the last of the important mystery cults to evolve and that it thrived in the second and third centuries AD and waned in the fourth as élite patronage was gradually transferred to Christianity. The cult was limited to men (not a good strategy for maximising market share), popular with the military (hence over-represented in the frontier provinces), with a large constituency in the city of Rome and its port Ostia. It consisted overwhelmingly of those a notch above the absolutely poor, a religion of the reputable but not of the élite. While Christianity developed hierarchically and strove to form and maintain a single Church - at least in principle - Mithraism remained comfortably local. We know of no Mithraic authority higher than the 'Father' presiding over his group of thirty or so brother initiates: no Mithraic bishops or pope, and no orthodoxy to define and squabble about. Typically, the Mithraic meeting place was a medium-sized room, furnished with solid platforms on the longer walls. On these 'side-benches' the initiates reclined for the cult meal, which was their principal ceremony. This cult meal was both an actual feast and a ritual memorial, unlike the Christian eucharist which developed solely into a sacramental ritual. In the Eucharistic sacrament, Christians memorialise Christ's self-sacrifice by partaking of Christ's body and blood in the form of bread and wine. The Mithraists in their cult meal memorialised the feast which Mithras and the Sun shared as they reclined on the hide of the bull sacrificed by Mithras in the sacred story. One needs only add, because of rampant misinformation, that the actual killing of a bull played no part in Mithraic ritual. The discovery 30 years ago of a Mithraic pottery vessel with scenes of ritual moulded on its sides allows another significant comparison. One of the seven persons represented is a Mithraic 'father' aiming an arrow at the initiate - a much smaller, cowering, naked figure. From painted scenes and references elsewhere we know that initiation by terror was normal in Mithraism. What is exciting about this newly discovered scene is that the 'father', who is dressed like Mithras himself, initiates by re-enacting one of the god's feats, the 'water miracle', in which Mithras fires an arrow at a rock face and miraculously elicits water. The element of water reminds one of the Christian initiation, the water of baptism. We have two striking instances of the analogous development of ritual and sacramental symbolism. So here we have two striking instances of the analogous development of ritual and sacramental symbolism occurring at approximately the same time in two different religions growing up within imperial Rome. There were, however, other features of Mithraism which afford no comparison with Christianity: an exotic structure of grades of initiation within individual communities: 'Raven' to 'Nymphus' (untranslatable) to 'Soldier' to 'Lion' to 'Persian' to 'Sun-Runner' to 'Father'; the use of astral symbolism as an esoteric language; initiation into what a contemporary source described as a 'mystery of the soul's descent and return' into and out of life on earth; calling their meeting places 'caves' — our term 'Mithraeum' is modern — because a cave is an 'image of the universe' and thus an appropriate venue for symbolic soul-travel; the use of interior rooms and actual caves (where available) as Mithraea to reinforce the point that as a symbolic universe a Mithraeum is an inside without an outside; the furnishing of the Mithraic 'cave' with 'symbols of the climes and elements of the universe' to match the microcosm with the macrocosm and so enable the mystery. It is seldom possible in history to prove a negative. One cannot say definitively that Mithraism did not influence Christianity — or Christianity Mithraism. Readers must judge for themselves whether the similarities are sufficient to suggest influence one way or the other, but as yet no medium of transfer has been identified. No Mithraist mentioned Christianity (unsurprising given the paucity of the written record) and although a few Christian authors did refer slightingly to Mithraism, none spoke of it as a serious competitor, let alone as the source of serious ideas. Books Religions of Rome (Vol. 1: A History; Vol. 2: A Sourcebook) by Mary Beard, John North, and Simon Price (Cambridge University Press, 1998) Ancient Mystery Cults by Walter Burkert (Harvard University Press, 1987) The Religion of the Mithras Cult in the Roman Empire: Mysteries of the Unconquered Sun by Roger Beck, (Oxford University Press, 2006) The Roman Cult of Mithras by Manfred Clauss, translated by Richard Gordon (Edinburgh University Press, 2000) The Cults of the Roman Empire by Robert Turcan, translated by Antonia Nevill (Blackwell Publishers) The Rise of Christianity by Rodney Stark (Harper Collins, 1997) Religious Rivalries in the Early Roman Empire and the Rise of Christianity by Leif E. Vaage (Wilfrid Laurier University Press, 2006) [A virtual tour of the Carrawburgh Mithraeum on Hadrian's Wall, as reconstructed in the Museum of Antiquities, Newcastle upon Tyne](http://museums.ncl.ac.uk/archive/mithras/intro.htm) [The story of the discovery of the Walbrook Mithraeum and its finds in the Museum of London ](http://www.museumoflondon.org.uk/learning/features_facts/digging/beliefs/s1.html) Professor Roger Beck is an emeritus professor of Classics at the University of Toronto. As well as Greek and Roman religion and the mystery cults, his research interests include the ancient novel and ancient astrology. His book, A Brief History of Ancient Astrology, will be released this autumn by Blackwell Publishing. BBC © 2014 [The BBC is not responsible for the content of external sites. Read more.](/help/web/links/) This page is best viewed in an up-to-date web browser with style sheets (CSS) enabled. 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Mitraïsme

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Mitraïsme

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Mitraïsme

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MITHRAISM, the cult of Mithra as it developed in the West, its origins, its features, and its probable connection with Mithra worship in Iran. For most of the twentieth century the major problem addressed by scholarship on both Roman Mithraism and the Iranian god Mithra was the question of continuity. Did Mithra-worship migrate from Iran to the Roman Empire in some institutional form or was Mithraism invented in the West (with a few Iranian trappings) as a new institution altogether? At the start of the twenty first century, this issue appears to be less central to the concerns of scholarship on Western Mithraism, but it remains important nevertheless, and obviously it must be the lens through which Mithraism is examined in this article. The first task, though, is to describe the Mithras cult as it did in fact develop in the West, and in so far as we can reconstruct it objectively from its material remains. Reconstruction is not easy, since no ancient literary works about Mithraism and no substantial sacred texts from Mithraism have survived. Western Mithraism described. The term "Mithraism" is of course a modern coinage. In antiquity the cult was known as "the mysteries of Mithras"; alternatively, as "the mysteries of the Persians." The latter designation is significant. The Mithraists, who were manifestly not Persians in any ethnic sense, thought of themselves as cultic "Persians." Moreover, whatever moderns might think, the ancient Roman Mithraists themselves were convinced that their cult was founded by none other than Zoroaster, who "dedicated to Mithras, the creator and father of all, a cave in the mountains bordering Persia," an idyllic setting "abounding in flowers and springs of water" (Porphyry, On the Cave of the Nymphs 6). Persia (or Parthia) in those times was Rome's great rival and frequently at war with her. Nonetheless, there is no indication that this antagonism was ever problematic for the Mithraists socially or politically. Clearly, their cultic "Persian" identity, which they made no attempt to hide, was acceptable to the authorities and their fellow citizens. The socio-political acceptability of the Mithraists, despite their Perserie, can be explained largely by their social profile. They were the most conformist of men — and men indeed they were in the limited gender sense of the word, a factor which itself would add to their respectability or at least not detract from it (compare the charge against Christianity that it subverted the family by proselytizing the womenfolk). Mithraism drew its initiates disproportionately from the military, from the Empire's petty bureaucracy, and from moderately successful freedmen (i.e. ex-slaves), in fact from theretainer classes, the very people who had a stake in the current sociopolitical dispensation. (On Mithraism's social profile see Clauss 1992, Gordon 1972, Liebeschuetz 1994; Merkelbach 1984: pp. 153-88) We noticed above that Mithraism's original, archetypal sacred space was thought to be a cave. This perception, reported by an external source (the third-century CE philosopher Porphyry), is corroborated by internal data and the archaeological evidence. The Mithraists did indeed call their meeting places "caves," whether they actually were or not. Natural caves were used where available; and where not, especially in urban settings (Rome, Ostia), a room or suite of rooms within some larger structure was used and sometimes decorated so as to resemble a natural cave. Mithraea (our modern term), like natural caves and unlike most constructed temples, had no elaborate or even recognizable exteriors. (On the structure of the mithraeum see White 1990: pp. 47-59.) That Mithraists met in "caves" which were distinctively designed and furnished has had important consequences for the archaeological record and thus for our ability to reconstruct the cult. In addition to their cave-like appearance, mithraea were designed with raised platforms on either side of a central aisle to serve as banqueting couches for the cult meal (on which see below). They were also filled with much sacred art - sculptures (mostly in relief), altars, ritual pottery vessels, frescos, etc. - often with their dedications extant in whole or in part. There is no mistaking a mithraeum when archaeology brings it to light, and the chances are good that it will also divulge something about its membership. (On the furnishings and equipment of the mithraeum see Clauss 2000: 42-59, 114-30.) The scattering of mithraea, thus identified across the Roman Empire, is perhaps more informative about the cult's spread and social composition than are the material remains of any of its peers, early Christianity included. We have already looked at Mithraism's social catchment. As for its spread, though represented virtually everywhere in the Roman empire, it was much stronger in the Latin speaking West than in the (predominantly) Greek-speaking East. It flourished in particular in the city of Rome and its port, Ostia, and along the Rhine-Danube frontier — exactly where one would expect from its social profile. (For maps, see Clauss 1992, province by province). Without doubt, an intentional concomitant of the "cave" was the small size of Mithraic groups or cells. The upper limit to the number of persons who can feast intimately on side platforms in a cave or a cave-like inner room is soon reached. Mithraism, then, was a religion of small communities. These communities, moreover, were self-sufficient. There is not a shred of evidence for any co-ordinating, let alone regulating, higher authority. There were no Mithraic bishops; the contrast with contemporaneous Christianity, or for that matter with the contemporaneous state Zoroastrianism of Kerdir, could not be more extreme. As social institutions the Mithraic communities are classed among those groups termed (by moderns) "voluntary associations." Not all voluntary associations served religious ends. Some were analogous to trade guilds; perhaps the most common form was the burial society, clubs which could assure their members funerals in a more ample and sociable style than they could individually command. In the religious sphere, it is the voluntary nature of membership that distinguishes these associations from other religious enterprises. One chose to be initiated into the Mysteries of Mithras, whereas one belonged (normally in an entirely passive way) to the public cults of city and empire simply by virtue of belonging at one level or another, from emperor to slave, to those socio-political units: to the public cults you could no more opt in than you could opt out. It follows that ancient mystery cults, Mithraism included, were non-exclusive: as a Mithraist, you would expect, and be expected, to continue your participation in the public cults (On Mithraism as a voluntary association, see Beck 1996.) The "Mysteries of Mithras," to return to their ancient name, were one of a number of ancient religious "mysteries." A "mystery," in Greek, is something into which one is initiated. Modern connotations of the "mysterious" or the "mystical" are irrelevant, and although most ancient mysteries were in fact secret, secrecy was not always a requirement. Not all mysteries were transmitted in and by voluntary associations, and not all voluntary religious associations transmitted rites of initiation as their sole or even principal business. Indeed, Mithraism appears to be the only substantial pagan cult of which it can be said that initiation into its mysteries was both the necessary and the sufficient condition of membership. (On ancient mystery cults, see Burkert 1987.) Organizationally, the Mithraic groups functioned much as other voluntary associations, but in addition there was an esoteric hierarchy of seven grades. Scholars disagree about the extent of this hierarchy. Was it universal, or normative, or a refinement limited to the relatively few mithraea where it is directly attested? Was it a priesthood? Most scholars would agree that it was not ubiquitous in the sense of being a requirement for all mithraea; also that the initiate of the highest grade, the Father, excercised leadership in all aspects of the mithraeum's sacred business, and that virtually all mithraea would have had at least one Father (two are attested in some mithraea), regardless of the presence or absence of other grades. (On the grades see Clauss 2000: pp. 131-40; contra: Gordon 1994: pp. 465-7; on their esoteric significance, see Gordon 1980a: pp. 19-99.) Into what was a Mithraist initiated? What, in other words, constituted the sacred business of a mithraeum? Scholarship is in broad agreement that the principal act was the cult meal, celebrated both as an actual feast by the initiates reclining opposite each other on the platforms which served as banqueting couches and as a ritual re-enactment of the feast of Mithras and the Sun god celebrated on the hide of a bull freshly slain by Mithras. (On the cult meal, see Kane 1975.) That there was another purpose to the Mithraic mysteries and a corresponding ritual is attested in the same passage from Porphyry (On the Cave of the Nymphs 6), already cited above, which tells us that the Mithraists called their sacred places "caves" — and why. The intent of the Mithraists was to "induct the initiate into a mystery of the descent of souls and their exit back out again." It was for this ritual purpose (which has been generally misconstrued as a didactic purpose) that the Mithraists made their sacred space cave-like, for the cave is "the symbol of the universe," into which the soul enters for mortal existence and quits for immortality. Accordingly, Porphyry continues, the mithraeum is designed and furnished with "cosmic symbols appropriately arranged" so as to be an authentic microcosm. (On this ritual and the corresponding design function of the mithraeum, see Beck 2000: pp. 154-65; this article also describes and explicates the two previously unknown rituals depicted on opposite sides of the cult vessel discussed.) For other initiatory rites we depend primarily on the fresco scenes in the mithraeum at S. Maria Capua Vetere. These depict usually a triad of figures: the initiates, small, naked, humiliated; and two initiators, one behind and the other in front of the initiates, manipulating the instruments of initiations. (For illustrations, see Vermaseren 1971: Plates 21-8.) Mithraism was an astral religion. The perceivable heavens and the celestial bodies (sun, moon, the other five planets, stars) all played a part in the mysteries — the sun necessarily a very large part, since Mithras himself was the Sun god (see below). Astral symbolism (e.g. representations of the zodiac) was liberally deployed on the sculpted and painted monuments and in the design of the mithraeum in order to render it a true likeness of the cosmos "for induction into the mystery of the descent of souls and their exit back out again" (see above). Furthermore, each of the seven grades of the hierarchy was "under the tutelage of" one of the seven planets. Finally, in the principal cult icon, the representation of Mithras as bull-killer (see below), there is a remarkable correspondence between several of the standard elements of the composition and the constellations of a particular tract of the heavens (e.g. the raven and the constellation Corvus). The astral symbolism incorporated into the mysteries stems of course from the ancient Graeco-Roman construction of the heavens and their denizens in the astronomy/astrology of the times. On the intent of the symbolism there is no scholarly consensus. Indeed, several influential scholars have treated it as superficial decoration without any profound intent at all. That is mistaken. Granted, it is difficult to prove a negative. Nevertheless, the arguments against deep intent have so far merely re-asserted their premise as conclusion: astral symbolism is without deep intent because it is superficial. Only Franz Cumont, the founder of modern Mithraic studies, avoided this petitio principii. He did so by postulating the imposition of an astrological layer by the Chaldeans and by "Hellenized Magi" during the transmission of Iranian Mithra-worship from Iran to the West (Cumont 1903: pp. 119-30). (For arguments for deep intent in the astral symbolism, see Merkelbach 1984: pp. 75-133, 193-244; Beck 1988; Beck 1994; Beck 2000: pp. 154-65; Ulansey 1989; Jacobs 1999. As superficial imagery, (e.g.) Clauss 2000: pp. 87, 89, 97.) Roman Mithras. Since the function of its mysteries was to relate the initiate to Mithras, the cult was of course centred entirely on the person of the god. His cult title was "Deus Sol Invictus Mithras": thus, he was "god," he was "the Sun," he was "unconquered," he was "Mithras." To his identity as the Sun and to his invincibility must be added his Persian-ness, a "fact" known to outsiders as well as to his initiates. Iconographically, he is depicted in exotic non-Roman, specifically oriental garb: trousers and the "Persian" cap. Gods have their personal histories. The story of Mithras survives not in written form derived from an oral narrative — if such there ever was, it has disappeared without trace — but as scenes preserved on what are collectively termed "the monuments," for the most part as relief sculpture on icons, altars, etcetera, but also as statuary and in fresco on the walls of mithraea. In the frescos and on the great complex reliefs (the latter mostly from the Rhine and Danube frontier provinces) a selection of side-scenes representing various episodes surrounds the central scene, the god's sacrificial killing of a bull. More often this "tauroctony" is a self-contained icon, and from its privileged location at the head of the central aisle we know that it was the cult's principal icon; consequently, that the bull-killing was the main event in the Mithras myth. (The fundamental illustrated catalogue of Mithraic monuments is Vermaseren 1956-60. Merkelback 1984 and Clauss 2000 are also exceptionally well illustrated. On the iconography of Mithras, see Vollkommer 1992. On the myth of Mithras as inferred from the iconography, see Cumont 1903: pp. 104-49; Vermaseren 1960: pp. 56-88; Clauss 2000: pp. 62-101.) Some of the larger reliefs could be swiveled so as to display on their reverse the scene of Sol and Mithras feasting on the hide of the bull. The gods' banquet, then, is the outcome of the sacrifice, and since it is replicated in the cult meal of the initiates (see above), it must be supposed that the mythic sacrifice performed by Mithras is the salvafic cause of whatever benefits accrue to his mortal initiates in replicating the banquet of the two gods. The side-scenes are numerous, and they represent many different episodes in the myth, e.g. the pursuit and capture of the bull, the ascent of Mithras in the Sun's chariot, as well as occasional episodes which, as far as one can tell, do not include or concern Mithras at all. Moreover, there is no standard order or canon of scenes: only the internal logic of the narrative orders the episodes (e.g., bull-killing precedes banquet, because the bull's hide serves as couch cover for the banqueters). (On the composition of complex monuments, see Gordon 1980b; Beck 1984: pp. 2075-8) In addition to the bull-killing and the banquet, the scene of Mithras' birth is manifestly important. He is shown rising upright from a rock, not as a baby but in the prime of youth, with extended arms holding torch and sword. He has, it seems, no father. It would be wrong to say that he has no mother, for the rock itself, identified explicitly as Petra Genetrix ("the rock that gives birth") is his mother. Since the bull-killing was so obviously the god's principal act, and since the icon which represents it was so clearly the cult's primary locus of meaning, the scene as regularly represented (with remarkably few variations from the norm) must be described. At the mouth of a cave, Mithras straddles the bull, plunging a dagger into its heart. A dog and a snake dart up at the blood flowing from the wound. A scorpion fastens on the bull's genitals, and a raven perches on the god's billowing mantle. Miraculously, the tail of the dying bull has metamorphosed into an ear of wheat. On either side of the scene the twin gods Cautes and Cautopates are posed, the former holding a raised torch, the latter a lowered torch. Above and to the left is the Sun god, above and to the right the Moon goddess. Frequently in tauroctonies from the Rhine and Danube areas, a lion and a two-handled cup are added to the scene. Finding the "meaning" of the scene has been, perhaps to excess, the Great Game of Roman Mithraic hermeneutics. Yet a simple narrative solution, that the bull-killing is just an episode — albeit the principal episode — in the Mithras myth lacks plausibility because of the unusual and ill-assorted assemblage of beings which surround the sacrificing god. As an event, even a supernatural event, in a story it strains one's sense of narrative realism. So while the tauroctony does indeed represent an episode in a story, it represents, it evokes, it intimates something more; and it does so by means of the elements of the composition functioning as symbols, collectively or individually. Interpretations which look eastwards to Iran will be discussed in the next section. The other important modern interpretation looks upwards to the heavens and the notable correspondence between elements of the composition and the ancient constellations (see above, on Mithraism as an astral religion). The shortcoming of interpretations of this latter type is that they have tended to treat the tauroctony rather simplistically as a star chart from which one can decipher the celestial identity of the god as this or that constellation. (For a survey of interpretations of the tauroctony, see Beck 1984: pp. 2080-3; Martin 1994. For celestial interpretations, see Insler 1978; Ulansey 1989; Beck 1994; Jakobs 1999; Weiss 1998. For an important redirection of interpretation (the tauroctony as "cult scene" and "depiction of ritual sacrifice"), see Martin 1994. On the tauroctony in the context of Roman imperial art, see Zwirn 1989. Iranizing interpretations will be referenced in the next section.) As one would expect in a relatively elaborate Roman cult, Mithras does not lack for divine company. The Graeco-Roman Sun god Helios/Sol has already been mentioned — that Mithras both is and is not the Sun, depending on context, is one of those paradoxes which religions take in their stride — as have the planetary gods. Various of the Olympian gods also play a role, though a minor and marginal one. Finally, there are three esoteric deities, two of whom are the twins Cautes and Cautopates, already mentioned as witnesses to the bull-killing. In appearance they are clones of Mithras, and they represent through their primary attributes of the raised and lowered torches paired opposites in nature and in the heavens (e.g. rising sun and setting sun, flanking Mithras as the midday sun). Within the mystery, they symbolize and, as agents, control the entry of the soul downward into mortality (Cautopates) and its exit upwards into immortality (Cautes). (On this pair of deities, see Hinnells 1976; Beck 1984: pp. 2084-6). The third esoteric deity is the enigmatic "lion-headed god." Since his identification is bound up with the question of Mithraism's eastern origins, he will be discussed in the next section. Bibliographic note: The foundational study of Roman Mithraism is Cumont 1899 and Cumont 1903. Short general studies: Vermaseren 1963; Turcan 2000; Clauss 2000. Merkelbach 1984 is a fuller comprehensive study. On Mithraism as a mystery cult among other mysteries, Bianchi 1979a; Sfameni Gasparro 1979. There are four volumes of conference papers devoted both to Iranian Mithra and to Roman Mithras and Mithraism: Hinnells 1975; Duchesne-Guillemin 1978; Bianchi 1979; Hinnells 1994. Bibliographic survey: Beck 1984; Gordon in Clauss 2000: pp. 183-90. From Iranian Mithra to Roman Mithras: Continuity versus re-invention. That Roman Mithras was a Persian god in more than just the perception and self-definition of his Roman initiates is indisputable. To say that he was "the same" god, or that he "came from" Iran is equally true, though it begs as many questions as it appears to answer. Did he emigrate together with his cult? Was institutionalized Mithra-worship transmitted from East to West? Likewise the Mithra myth(s) and the concepts of the god, his powers, and his functions? Was he "the same" god in that strong sense? Or was he re-invented in the West, perhaps by those with some knowledge of the East, as a new god for new mysteries in a new type of cult association appropriate to the different social and cultural environment of the Roman Empire? Was he "the same" merely in the weaker sense that he was re-outfitted with Iranian trappings sufficient to authenticate him as "Persian" in his new context? Two statements at least may be made with some confidence about the century-long scholarly controversy over these questions: first, that at the beginning of the third millennium there is still no consensus; secondly, that in the last three decades the balance of opinion has shifted, rightly or wrongly, in favor of re-invention over continuity. What one might call the "default" transmission scenario (at least for the first two thirds of the twentieth century) was propounded by the founder of modern Mithraic studies, Franz Cumont, in 1899 (see also Cumont 1903). For Cumont, Mithraism in the West was Romanized Mazdaism, thus still at its core a Persian religion, though one which had undergone extensive metamorphoses in its passage first through Chaldaea, where it acquired its astrological overlay and the syncretic assimilation to Mithra of the Babylonian Sun god Šamaš; and secondly through Anatolia and the culture of the Magusaeans, the Hellenized Magi of the Iranian diaspora (on whom see Bidez and Cumont 1938, Beck 1991), where it acquired a Stoic cosmology of sorts, especially in its eschatology (on which see Cumont 1931, Beck 1995). In assessing Cumont's and later scholars' arguments for transmission, one must keep in mind the two types of evidence deployed: first, common traits, i.e. similarity of the features of Mithras and Mithras-worship in the West with those of Mithra and Mithra-worship in the East to the point that coincidental re-invention in the West would cease to be a credible hypothesis; secondly, evidence of actual intermediate stages in the East-West transfer. We begin here with the latter. It is the stronger of the two types of evidence, but in volume the more meager. The evidence, and some of the inferences drawn from them, are as follows. 1) Plutarch (late first century CE), in Life of Pompey 24, states that the Cilician pirates who were vanquished by Pompey in the mid 60's BCE "celebrated certain secret rites of initiation (Greek teletas), of which those of Mithras have survived up to now" (or "as far as here," i.e. Rome: his Greek phrase mechri deuro is ambiguous). It is possible, but not certain, that these 'initiations' were a prototype of the Roman mysteries of Mithras. (For contra, see Francis 1975.). 2) Mithras — moreover, a Mithras who was identified with the Greek Sun god Helios — was one of the deities of the syncretic Graeco-Iranian royal cult founded by Antiochus I (q.v.), king of the small but prosperous buffer state of Commagene (q.v.) in the mid first century BCE. It is improbable in the extreme that this cult played no part in the transmission of Mithra-worship westwards, although nothing about it compels one to accept that it was a prototype of the Roman mysteries. So far, nothing about the recently discovered mithraeum at Doliche (see Schütte-Maischatz and Winter 2000) suggests that its cult relief is other than a product of second or third century CE Mithraism. (On the royal cult of Commagene and the role of Mithras therein, see Boyce 1991: pp. 309-51; Dörner 1975; 1978; Duchesne-Guillemin 1978a; Jacobs 2000; Merkelbach 1984: pp. 50-72; Schwertheim 1979; Wagner 1983; 2000; 2000a; Waldmann 1991. For a scenario of transmission incorporating the Commagenian royal cult and the royal family of subsequent generations, see Beck 1998.) 3) While archaeology has (as yet) unearthed no evidence in Anatolia for an intermediate form of Mithras-worship which is unambiguously the precursor of the Roman mystery cult, several atypical monuments and inscriptions from this area (as well as from Crimea to the north across the Black Sea) make it entirely plausible that such intermediate forms may well have existed, and hence that Anatolia in the larger sense, not just Commagene, played some part in Mithraism's westward transmission. Cumont's Magusaeans (see above), though real enough in their own right, are no longer regarded as the conduit for Mithraism. (The Cumontian scenario was first challenged by Wikander 1951; subsequently by Gordon 1975; Beck 1991: pp. 539-50.) There are however other plausible scenarios, some (e.g. Colpe 1975: pp. 390-9; Boyce 1991: pp. 468-90) involving the Iranian diaspora in Anatolia. (On Mithras-worship in Anatolia and its atypical remains, and for theories of transmission through Anatolia, see Beck 1984: pp. 2018-19, 2071-3; Boyce 1991: pp. 468-90; Colpe 1975: pp. 390-9; Cumont: 1939; Gordon 1978: pp. 159-64, 169-71; Gordon 1994: pp. 469-71; Schwertheim 1979; Will 1955: pp. 144-69; Will 1978: pp. 527-8.) 4) In Syria it is the absence of data on any intermediary form of Mithraism that is remarkable (a Chestertonian "dog which did not bark"). With the single exception of the recently discovered Huwarti mithraeum, the few actual mithraea and the monuments lacking known provenance which have been recovered there exemplify either the norms of western Mithraism or minor variations on those norms. The Huwarti mithraeum, moreover, dates to the final decades of the fourth century CE. Accordingly, it speaks of the local redefinition of a religion in its final years, not of "a road not taken" in its formative years. Mithraism in Syria was not a transitional phase intermediate between East and West, but a back-formation from the West in the East. Even the mithraeum at Dura Europos on the Euphrates, at the easternmost margins of the Roman empire, proved no exception. Arguably, its only significant Iranian feature is the fresco of a pair of enthroned elders in local ceremonial garb with scrolls and canes. These Cumont identified as Zoroaster and Ostanes; but they could as well be the Fathers of this particular Mithraic community at the time. (On Mithraism in Syria, see Roll 1977; Downey 1978; also the proceedings of the Colloquium "Mithra en Syrie," Lyon, November 2000, forthcoming in Topoi, which will include discussion of the Huwarti mithraeum. On the Dura mithraeum, see Cumont 1975; Beck 1984: pp. 214-17.) 5) In a description of Zoroastrian dualism which he inserted into his important essay On Isis and Isiris (46-7), Plutarch speaks of Mithras as "in the middle" (meson) between the good Horomazes and the evil Areimanius, adding "and this is why the Persians call the Mediator Mithras." This, it is generally agreed, does not ascribe moral neutrality to Mithras; rather he is the referee, arbiter, or judge between the two warring parties. However, even if the clause is more than Plutarch's own gloss, it speaks not of transitional Mithraism but of Mithra in the context of a collateral form of Zoroastrianism known to that learned Greek author. (On the passage and its interpretation, see de Jong 1997: pp. 171-7; on Mithra as judge, see Shaked 1980.) 6) The final piece of evidence which speaks directly to the question of transfer is the report of the state visit of Tiridates of Armenia to Rome to be crowned by Nero. At the coronation Tiridates declared that he had come "in order to revere you [Nero] as Mithras" (Dio Cassius 63.5.2). In the same visit, according to Pliny (Natural History 30.1.6), Tiridates "initiated him [Nero] into magical feasts" (magicis cenis). Since Tiridates had brought Magi in his retinue, it is likely that the "feasts" were "Magian" rather than "magical" in the contemporary Roman sense. In the Cumontian scenario this episode cannot mark the definitive moment of transfer, for Mithraism in that scenario was already established in Rome, albeit on a scale too small to have left any trace in the historical or archaeological record. Nevertheless, it could have been a spur to Mithraism's emergence on to the larger stage of popular appeal. Perhaps, too, it affected in some way the development of Mithraism's central rite, the cult meal (see above). (On the episode and its implications for Mithraism, see Cumont 1933; for an alternative scenario which places the cult's institution after this episode, Beck 2002.) When we turn to the much ampler dossier of similarities between Iranian Mithra-worship and the Mithras-worship of the Roman mystery cult, we must keep in mind that arguments for continuity based on these similarities all imply that the similarities are so systematic and so detailed that a non-causal relationship is untenable. Necessarily, therefore, they entail some transfer scenario, whether or not they expound one explicitly. Arguments for Mithraism's invention or re-invention in the West, on the contrary, imply that the similarities are too slight and too haphazard to warrant a causal explanation. Accordingly, no transfer scenario is required beyond a certain awareness of "oriental" wisdom among Mithraism's founders. Of the latter position there is a strong and a weak form. The strong form, having noted the undeniable similarities, then describes the cult, its origins, and its early development entirely in terms of the socio-religious culture(s) of the Roman empire. A typical proponent of this strong form is M. Clauss (2000: pp. 3-8, 21-2), who locates the cult's origins and point of departure firmly in late first-century CE Rome. Not because it is wrong, but solely because it is not germane to the mandate of Encyclopaedia Iranica, there is no need to explore this version of Mithraic origins further. Discontinuity's weaker form of argument postulates re-invention among and for the denizens of the Roman empire (or certain sections thereof), but re-invention by a person or persons of some familiarity with Iranian religion in a form current on its western margins in the first century CE. Merkelbach (1984: pp. 75-7), expanding on a suggestion of M.P. Nilsson, proposes such a founder from eastern Anatolia, working in court circles in Rome. So does Beck 1998, with special focus on the dynasty of Commagene (see above). Jakobs 1999 proposes a similar scenario. We may now turn finally to the similarities between western Mithraism and Iranian Mithra-worship and to the scholarship which has argued, in the Cumontian tradition, for significant continuity. (The scholarship up to the time of writing is surveyed in Beck 1984: pp. 2059-75). Predictably, the similarities mostly cluster around the person of Mithra/Mithras (remarkably, the second two of the three given here are not so much similarities as inversions): (1) Roman Mithras was identified with the Sun (see above); Iranian Mithra was a god of the dawn light. When and how the Iranian god became the Sun, as eventually he did, has been much debated (Lommel 1962; Gershevitch 1975, Gnoli 1979, Lincoln 1982; see above on the solar Mithras of Commagene; see below on M. Weiss's theory of the non-solarity of Mithra/Mithras both East and West). (2) Iranian Mithra was a god of cattle and pastures; Roman Mithras was a "cattle-thief" (explicitly so called, e.g. Porphyry, On the Cave of the Nymphs 40), all the more outrageous an inversion because Iranian Mithra was a god of righteousness whose very name means "contract." (3) Most importantly, Roman Mithras, as his mightiest and most beneficent deed, sacrifices a bull (see above); while Iranian Mithra was not himself a bull-killer, the act of bull-killing does figure prominently in the Zoroastrian cosmological narratives. In the first instance it was an act of evil: Ahriman slew the primal Bull of creation. However, the destructive act was turned to good, when from the bull's sperm, purified in the moon, sprang the domestic animals. The second and future event is entirely beneficial. A savior figure, Sošyant, will sacrifice a bull from whose fat, mixed with hôm, the drink of corporal immortality will be prepared. The bull-killing of Mithras can be construed as the Roman translation of either — or indeed of both — of the Iranian cosmogonic and eschatological myths. Certain of the compositional details of the tauroctony resonate with the former: the bull's tail metamorphosed into the wheat ear, the scorpion at the bull's genitals, the presence of the Moon as well as the Sun. The Pahlavi texts, notably the Bundahišn, which carry the Zoroastrian cosmological accounts are several centuries later than the Roman-era artifacts, i.e. the tauroctonies, which carry the western representation of the bull-killing. Accordingly, Iranizing interpretations of the tauroctony (for a survey of these, see Hinnells 1975a; Beck 1984: pp. 2068-9, 2080-1) imply one of two scenarios, whether or not they make the choice explicitly. Either those who constructed the western Mysteries consciously altered the Zoroastrian cosmological myths which were already current in the form later attested by the Pahlavi sources; or they took over and reproduced a collateral, non-Zoroastrian form of Iranian religion (Mazdaist or otherwise), current at the time but subsequently extinguished without trace, in which Mithra was the bull-killer. A version of the latter argues that what the western mysteries adopted was an offshoot of the Vedic tradition in which Mitra reluctantly slays the Soma (= Iranian Haoma) god (Lommel 1949). More persuasive, perhaps, than postulating a precise Iranian/Vedic genealogy for the tauroctonous Mithras is the argument that the Mithraic bull-killing, both as concept and as image, reflects a peculiarly Iranian ideology of sacrifice as a creative act undertaken by god, not man (Hinnells 1975a; Turcan 1981; Turcan 2000: pp. 102-5) — with the implication, presumably, that it is so because those who first imagined the icon in the West had at least something of that ideology in mind. (On a fascinating continuity into modern Zoroastrianism in Iran, see Boyce 1975.) There is a further problem that complicates all transmission scenarios: how to accommodate the twin deities Cautes and Cautopates and the lion-headed god (both mentioned above). Are they part of the theological baggage transferred from Iran? The names of the twins may well be of Iranian origin (see Schwartz 1975; contra: Schmeja 1975: p. 20), for Roman Mithraism did in fact occasionally borrow genuinely Iranian words (see Gray 1926: pp. 89-99; Schmeja 1975), notably nama (= "hail!") and nabarzes (precise etymology disputed, see Schwartz 1975: pp. 422-3). That, however, does not extend to their functions in the theology of the western mysteries, which can be fully accounted for in solely western terms (Beck 1984: pp. 2084-6). The lion-headed god is more problematic, partly because his eventual place in the western cult's theology is as opaque as his provenance. (On the extant exemplars and their iconography, see Hinnells 1975b; on the various interpretations and identifications, see Beck 1984: pp. 2086-9). Of the several identities proposed for the lion-headed god, two link him unambiguously with Iran. The first, propounded by Cumont (1899: p. 78; 1903: pp. 107-10), identifies him as Zurvān, the god of infinite Time and the father and arbiter between the good Ohrmazd and the evil Ahriman. This would of course make Roman Mithraism the descendant of a Zurvanite branch of Mazdaism. Around this Iranian core accumulated the personae and attributes of various Egyptian and Hellenistic Greek deities, for the most part gods of Time (Pettazzoni 1954). The second Iranian identity, first proposed by I.F. Legge (1912-15), is Ahriman — an outrageous choice were it not that the name Arimanius is attested in Mithraic epigraphy, although never in a context which makes it more than a possibility that the Mithraic lion-headed god was Ahriman (Duchesne-Guillemin 1955; idem, 1958-62; on discussions of the epigraphy and the relevant monuments, see Beck 1984: pp. 2034-5). If the Mithraic lion-headed god was indeed a descendant of the Iranian Ahriman, there is no need to assume, for that reason alone, that he retained an exclusively negative and evil nature, or that, in consequence, the Roman Mithraists were devil-worshippers on the side. It would be impractical in a work of this scope to discuss every minute similarity which has been demonstrated or claimed between western Mithraism and Iranian Mithra-worship. (For a fuller summary, see Beck 1984: pp. 2056-89; for arguments stressing dissimilarities and discontinuities, see Colpe 1975; Drijvers 1978.) The time has come to review the principal scholarship which has argued for transmission and continuity based on the postulated similarities. The Cumontian "default" scenario has already been described. Of the post-Cumontian scenarios, three argue for continuity in the strongest terms. A.D.H. Bivar (1998, and earlier studies mentioned there) argues that western Mithraism was but one of several manifestations of Mithra-worship current in antiquity across a wide swathe of Asia and Europe. L.A. Campbell (1968) argues in the Cumontian tradition that western Mithraism replicated, through a thin disguise and with certain Graeco-Roman admixtures, a sometimes extraordinarily detailed and learned form of Zoroastrian Mazdaism. A continuity as thoroughgoing, though not quite so systematic ideologically, was proposed in several studies by G. Widengren (1965: pp. 222-32; 1966; 1980). Starting from the dissimilarities between Roman Mithraism and Zoroastrian Mazdaism, the most obvious of which are of course the different supreme deities in the two systems and the different agents and intents of the bull-killing (discussed above), scholarship on Iranian Mithra-worship has also looked for and found closer analogies with Mithraism in pre-Zoroastrian and non-Zoroastrian Iranian religion — and beyond that in Vedic religion. The strength of hypotheses based on the analogies with pre-/non-Zoroastrian systems is that they do not need to postulate a deliberate adaptation of Zoroastrianism into western Mithraism; their weakness is that they have to postulate instead the persistence in western Iran of an early collateral Indo-European form of Mithra-worship, ready for easy translation into Roman Mithraism, for which there is no direct evidence. P.G. Kreyenbroek (1994), by comparing cosmogonies (Mithraic similar to non/pre-Zoroastrian; both of these dissimilar to Zoroastrian), has advanced perhaps the most persuasive transmission scenario of this type to date. M. Weiss (1996, 1998) argues that Roman Mithras continues a very early Iranian and Vedic conception of Mithra/Mitra as the Nachthimmel, the starry heavens, an hypothesis entailing the awkward conception of a Mithras who is wholly distinct from the Sun god. Lastly, there are certain works specifically on Iranian religion, in addition to those of Widengren (1960, 1965) already mentioned, which discuss aspects of western Mithras or Mithraism in terms which assert or imply a fair measure of continuity: Gray 1926: pp. 89-99; Gershevitch 1959: pp. 61-72; Zaehner 1961: pp. 97-144; Duchesne-Guillemin 1962: pp. 248-57. Bibliography: (abbreviation, JMS = Journal of Mithraic Studies). R.L. Beck, "Mithraism since Franz Cumont," Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt, II.17.4, 1984, pp. 2002-115. Idem, Planetary Gods and Planetary Orders in the Mysteries of Mithras, Leiden, 1988. Idem, "Thus Spake Not Zarathuštra: Zoroastrian Pseudepigrapha of the Greco-Roman World," in Boyce and Grenet 1991 (see below), pp. 491-565. Idem "In the Place of the Lion: Mithras in the Tauroctony," in Hinnells 1994 (see below), pp. 29-50. Idem, "Dio Cocceianus," Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. 7, 1995, p. 421. Idem, "The Mysteries of Mithras," in J.S. Kloppenborg and S.G. Wilson (eds), Voluntary Associations in the Ancient World, London, 1996, pp. 176-85. Idem, "The Mysteries of Mithras: A new account of their genesis," Journal of Roman Studies 88, 1998, pp. 115-28. Idem, "Ritual, Myth, Doctrine, and Initiation in the Mysteries of Mithras: New evidence from a cult vessel," JRS 90, 2000, pp. 145-80. Idem, "History into Fiction: The metamorphoses of the Mithras myths," Ancient Narrative 1, 2001-02, pp. 283-300. U. Bianchi ed., Mysteria Mithrae, Leiden, 1979. Bianchi 1979a "The Religio-Historical Question of the Mysteries of Mithra," in Bianchi ed. 1979, pp. 3-60. J. Bidez and F. Cumont, Les Mages hellénisés, 2 vols, Paris, 1938 (repr. 1973). A.D.H. Bivar, The Personalities of Mithra in Archaeology and Literature, New York, 1998. M. Boyce, "Mihragān among the Irani Zoroastrians," in Hinnells ed. 1975, pp. 106-18. Boyce 1991 M. Boyce and F. Grenet, A History of Zoroastrianism , Vol. 3, Leiden, 1991. W. Burkert, Ancient Mystery Cults, Cambridge MA, 1987. L.A. Campbell, Mithraic Iconography and Ideology, Leiden, 1968. M. Clauss, Cultores Mithrae: Die Anhängerschaft des Mithras-Kultes, Stuttgart, 1992. Idem, The Roman Cult of Mithras, trans. R.L. Gordon, Edinburgh and New York, 2000. C. Colpe, "Mithra-Verehrung, Mithras-Kult und die Existenz iranischer Mysterien," in Hinnells ed. 1975, pp. 378-405. F. Cumont, Textes et monuments figurés relatifs aux mystères de Mithra, Vol. 1, Brussels, 1899. Idem, The Mysteries of Mithra, trans. T.J. McCormack, London, 1903 (repr. New York, 1956). Idem, "La fin du monde selon les mages occidentaux," Revue de l'Histoire des Religions, 103, 1931, pp. 29-96. Idem, "L'iniziazione di Nerone da parte di Tiridate d'Armenia," Rivista di Filologia, NS 11, 1933, pp. 145-54. Idem, "Mithra en Asie Mineure," in Anatolian Studies in Honour of W.H. Buckler, Manchester, 1939, pp. 67-76. Idem, "The Dura Mithraeum," ed. and trans. E.D. Francis, in Hinnells ed. 1975, pp. 151-214. A. de Jong, Traditions of the Magi: Zoroastrianism in Greek and Latin Literature, Leiden, 1997. F.K. Dörner, Kommagene, Antike Welt Sondernummer 1975. Idem, "Mithras in Kommagene," in Duchesne-Guillemin, ed. 1978 (see below), pp. 123-33. S.B. Downey, "Syrian Images of Mithras Tauroctonos," in Duchesne-Guillemin ed. 1978, pp. 135-49. H.J.W. Drijvers, "Mithra at Hatra?" in Duchesne-Guillemin, ed., 1978, pp. 151-86. J. Duchesne-Guillemin, "Ahriman et le dieu suprême dans les mystères de Mithra," Numen 2, 1955, pp. 190-5. Idem, "Aion et le léontocéphalique, Mithra et Ahriman," La Nouvelle Klio 10-12, 1958-62, pp. 91-8. Idem, La religion de l'Iran ancien, Paris, 1962. J. Duchesne-Guillemin ed., Études Mithiaques, Leiden, 1978. Idem, 1978a "Iran and Greece in Commagene," in Duchesne-Guillemin ed. 1978, pp. 187-99. E.D. Francis, "Plutarch's Mithraic Pirates," in Cumont 1975, pp. 207-10. I. Gershevitch, The Avestan Hymn to Mithra, Cambridge, 1959. Idem, Die Sonne das Beste," in Hinnells ed. 1975, pp. 68-89. G. Gnoli, "Sol Persice Mithra," in Bianchi ed. 1979, pp. 725-40. R.L. Gordon, "Mithraism and Roman Society: Social factors in the explanation of religious change in the Roman empire," Religion 2, 1972, pp. 92-121. Idem, "Franz Cumont and the Doctrines of Mithraism," in Hinnells, ed., 1975, pp. 215-48. Idem, "The Date and Significance of CIMRM 593," JMS 2, 1978, pp. 148-74* (* = reprinted in Gordon 1996). Gordon 1980a, "Reality, Evocation, and Boundary in the Mysteries of Mithras," JMS 3, 1980 pp. 19-99*. Gordon 1980b, "Panelled Complications," JMS 3, 1980, pp. 200-27*. Idem, "Who worshipped Mithras?" Journal of Roman Archaeology 7, 1994, pp. 459-74. R. L. Gordon, Image and Value in the Graeco-Roman World: Studies in Mithraism and religious art, Aldershot UK, 1996. L.H. Gray, The Foundations of the Iranian Religions, Bombay, 1926. J.R. Hinnells, ed., Mithraic Studies, 2 vols (consecutive pagination), Manchester, 1975. Idem, 1975a, "Reflections on the Bull-Slaying Scene," in Hinnells, ed., 1975, pp. 290-312. Idem, 1975b, "Reflections on the Lion-Headed Figure in Mithraism," in Monumentum H.S. Nyberg, Acta Iranica, Ser. 2, Vol. 1, Leiden, pp. 333-69. Idem, "The Iconography of Cautes and Cautopates," JMS 1, 1976, pp. 36-67. J.R. Hinnells ed., Studies in Mithraism, Rome, 1994. S. Insler, "A New Interpretation of the Bull-Slaying Motif," in M.B. de Boer and T.A. Edridge eds, Hommages à Maarten J. Vermaseren, Leiden, 1978, pp. 519-38. B. Jacobs, Die Herkunft und Entstehung der römischen Mithrasmysterien: Überlegungen zur Rolle des Stifters und zu den astronomischen Hintergründen der Kultlegende, Konstanz, 1999. Idem, "Die Religionspolitik des Antiochus I. von Kommagene," in Wagner ed. 2000, pp. 45-9. J.P. Kane, "The Mithraic Cult Meal in its Greek and Roman Environment," in Hinnells ed. 1975, pp. 313-51. P.G. Kreyenbroek, "Mithra and Ahreman in Iranian Cosmogonies," in Hinnells ed. 1994, pp. 175-82. I.F. Legge, "The Lion-Headed God of the Mithraic Mysteries," Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archaeology, 34, 1912, pp. 125-42; 37, 1915, 151-62. W. Liebeschuetz, "The Expansion of Mithraism among the Religious Cults of the Second Century," in Hinnells ed. 1994, pp. 195-216. B. Lincoln, "Mithra(s) as Sun and Savior," in U. Bianchi and M.J. Vermaseren eds., La soteriologia dei culti orientali nell'Impero Romano, Leiden, 1982, pp. 505-26. H. Lommel, "Mithra und das Stieropfer," Paideuma 3, 1949, pp. 207-18. Idem, "Die Sonne das Schlechteste?" Oriens 15, 1962, pp. 360-73. L.H. Martin, "Reflections on the Mithraic Tauroctony as Cult Scene," in Hinnells ed. 1994, pp. 217-228. R. Merkelbach, Mithras, Königstein/Ts., 1984. R. Pettazzoni, "The Monstrous Figure of Time in Mithraism," in Essays in the History of Religions, trans. H.J. Rose, Leiden, 1954. I. Roll, "The Mysteries of Mithras in the Roman Orient," JMS 2, 1977, pp. 18-52. H. Schmeja, Iranisches und Griechisches in den Mithrasmysterien, Innsbruck, 1975. A. Schütte-Maischatz and E. Winter, "Kultstätten der Mithrasmysterien in Doliche," in Wagner ed. 2000, pp. 93-99. M. Schwartz, "Cautes and Cautopates, the Mithraic Torchbearers," in Hinnells ed. 1975, pp. 406-23. E. Schwertheim, Mithras: Seine Denkmäler und sein Kult, Antike Welt Sondernummer 1979. G. Sfameni Gasparro, "Il mitraismo ...," in Bianchi ed. 1979, pp. 299-384. S. Shaked, "Mihr the Judge," Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam 2, 1980, pp. 1-31. R. Turcan, "Le sacrifice mithriaque: innovations de sens et de modalités," Entretiens sur l'antiquité classique (Fondation Hardt) 27, 1981, pp. 341-80. Idem, Mithra et le mithriacisme, Paris, 2000. D. Ulansey, The Origins of the Mithraic Mysteries, New York, 1989. M. J. Vermaseren, Corpus Inscriptionum et Monumentorum Religionis Mithriacae, 2 vols, The Hague, 1956-60. Idem, Mithra, ce dieu mystérieux., trans. M. Léman and L. Gilbert, Paris, 1960 (English translation by T. and V. Megaw, Mithras, the Secret God, London, 1963). Idem, Mithriaca I: The Mithraeum at S. Maria Capua Vetere, Leiden, 1971. R. Vollkommer, "Mithras," Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae 6.1, pp. 583-626 (text), 6.2, pp. 325-68 (plates), 1992. J. Wagner, "Dynastie und Herrscherkult in Kommagene," Istanbuler Mitteilungen 33, 1983, pp. 177-224. J. Wagner ed., Gottkönige am Euphrat: Neue Ausgrabungen und Forschungen in Kommagene, Mainz, 2000. Wagner 2000a = "Die Könige von Kommagene und ihr Herrscherkult," in Wagner ed. 2000, pp. 11-25. H. Waldmann, Der Kommagenische Mazdaismus, Tübingen, 1991. M. Weiss, Als Sonne Verkant — Mithras, Osterburken, 1996. Idem, "Mithras, der Nachthimmel: Eine Dekodierung der römischen Mithras-Kultbilder nit Hilfe des Awesta," Traditio, 53, 1998, pp. 1-36. L.M. White, Building God's House in the Roman World: Architectural Adaptation among Pagans, Jews, and Christians, Baltimore, 1990. G. Widengren, Die Religionen Irans, Stuttgart, 1965. Idem, "The Mithraic Mysteries in the Greco-Roman World, with special regard to their Iranian background," Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei, Anno 363, Quad. 76, 1966, pp. 433-55. Idem, "Reflections on the Origins of the Mithraic Mysteries," in Perennitas: Studi in honore di Angelo Brelich, Rome, 1980. S. Wikander, "Études sur les mystères de Mithras," Vetenskapssocieteten i Lund, Årsbok 1951, pp. 5-56. E. Will, Le relief cultuel gréco-romain, Paris, 1955. Idem, "Origine et nature du Mithriacisme," in Duchesne-Guillemin ed. 1978, pp. 527-36. R.C. Zaehner, The Dawn and Twilight of Zoroastrianism, London, 1961. S. Zwirn, "The Intention of Biographical Narration on Mithraic Cult Images," Word and Image 5, 1989, pp. 2-18. (Roger Beck) Originally Published: July 20, 2002 Last Updated: July 20, 2002

Mitraïsme

http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/04166.htm

[Please help support the mission of New Advent and get the full contents of this website as an instant download. Includes the Catholic Encyclopedia, Church Fathers, Summa, Bible and more all for only $19.99...](https://gumroad.com/l/na2) In beginning this our sixth book, we desire, my reverend Ambrosius, to answer in it those accusations which Celsus brings against the [Christians](../cathen/03712a.htm), not, as might be supposed, those objections which he has adduced from writers on [philosophy](../cathen/12025c.htm). For he has quoted a considerable number of passages, chiefly from [Plato](../cathen/12159a.htm), and has placed alongside of these such declarations of [holy](../cathen/07386a.htm) Scripture as are fitted to impress even the intelligent mind; subjoining the assertion that these things are stated much better among the Greeks (than in the Now we maintain, that if it is the object of the ambassadors of the [Scriptures](../bible/index.html)), and in a manner which is free from all exaggerations and promises on the part of [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), or the [Son of God](../cathen/14142b.htm). [truth](../cathen/15073a.htm) to confer benefits upon the greatest possible number, and, so far as they can, to win over to its side, through their [love](../cathen/09397a.htm) to [men](../cathen/09580c.htm), every one without exception — intelligent as well as simple — not Greeks only, but also Barbarians (and great, indeed, is the humanity which should succeed in converting the rustic and the [ignorant](../cathen/07648a.htm) ), it is manifest that they must adopt a style of address fitted to do good to all, and to gain over to them men of every sort. Those, on the other hand, who turn away from the [ignorant](../cathen/07648a.htm) as being mere slaves, and unable to understand the flowing periods of a polished and [logical](../cathen/09324a.htm) discourse, and so devote their attention solely to such as have been brought up among literary pursuits, confine their views of the public good within very strait and narrow limits. I have made these remarks in reply to the charges which Celsus and others bring against the simplicity of the language of Scripture, which appears to be thrown into the shade by the splendour of polished discourse. For our [prophets](../cathen/12477a.htm), and Jesus Himself, and His [apostles](../cathen/01626c.htm), were careful to adopt a style of address which should not merely convey the [truth](../cathen/15073a.htm), but which should be fitted to gain over the multitude, until each one, attracted and led onwards, should ascend as far as he could towards the comprehension of those [mysteries](../cathen/10662a.htm) which are contained in these apparently simple words. For, if I may venture to say so, few have been benefited (if they have indeed been benefited at all) by the beautiful and polished style of [Plato](../cathen/12159a.htm), and those who have written like him; while, on the contrary, many have received advantage from those who wrote and taught in a simple and practical manner, and with a view to the wants of the multitude. It is easy, indeed, to observe that [Plato](../cathen/12159a.htm) is found only in the hands of those who profess to be literary men; while Epictetus is admired by [persons](../cathen/11726a.htm) of ordinary capacity, who have a desire to be benefited, and who perceive the improvement which may be derived from his writings. Now we make these remarks, not to disparage [Plato](../cathen/12159a.htm) (for the great world of men has found even him useful), but to point out the aim of those who said: And my speech and my preaching was not with enticing words of For the word of God declares that the preaching (although in itself [man's](../cathen/09580c.htm) wisdom, but in demonstration of the Spirit and of power, that our [faith](../cathen/05752c.htm) should not stand in the wisdom of [men](../cathen/09580c.htm), but in the power of [God](../cathen/06608a.htm). [true](../cathen/15073a.htm) and most worthy of belief) is not sufficient to reach the [human](../cathen/09580c.htm) heart, unless a certain power be imparted to the speaker from [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), and a [grace](../cathen/06689a.htm) appear upon his words; and it is only by the divine agency that this takes place in those who speak effectually. The [prophet](../cathen/12477a.htm) says in the [sixty-seventh Psalm](../bible/psa066.htm), that the Lord will give a word with great power to them who preach. If, then, it should be granted with respect to certain points, that the same doctrines are found among the Greeks as in our own Scriptures, yet they do not possess the same power of attracting and disposing the [souls](../cathen/14153a.htm) of men to follow them. And therefore the [disciples](../cathen/05029a.htm) of [Jesus](../cathen/08374c.htm), men [ignorant](../cathen/07648a.htm) so far as regards Grecian [philosophy](../cathen/12025c.htm), yet traversed many countries of the world, impressing, agreeably to the desire of the [Logos](../cathen/09328a.htm), each one of their hearers according to his deserts, so that they received a moral amelioration in proportion to the inclination of their will to accept of that which is [good](../cathen/06636b.htm). Let the ancient sages, then, make [known](../cathen/08673a.htm) their sayings to those who are capable of understanding them. Suppose that [Plato](../cathen/12159a.htm), for example, the son of Ariston, in one of his Epistles, is discoursing about the chief good, and that he says, The chief good can by no means be described in words, but is produced by long habit, and bursts forth suddenly as a light in the We, then, on hearing these words, admit that they are well said, for it is God who revealed to men these as well as all other noble expressions. And for this reason it is that we maintain that those who have entertained correct ideas regarding [soul](../cathen/14153a.htm), as from a fire which had leapt forth. [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), but who have not offered to Him a worship in harmony with the [truth](../cathen/15073a.htm), are liable to the punishments which fall on sinners. For respecting such [Paul](../cathen/11567b.htm) says in express words: The The [wrath](../cathen/01489a.htm) of God is revealed from heaven against all ungodliness and unrighteousness of [men](../cathen/09580c.htm), who hold the [truth](../cathen/15073a.htm) in unrighteousness; because that which may be [known](../cathen/08673a.htm) of God is manifest in them; for God has showed it unto them. For the invisible things of Him from the creation of the world are clearly seen, being understood by the things that are made, even His [eternal](../cathen/05551b.htm) power and Godhead; so that they are without excuse: because that, when they [knew](../cathen/08673a.htm) [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), they [glorified](../cathen/06585a.htm) Him not as [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), neither were thankful; but became vain in their imaginations, and their foolish heart was darkened. Professing themselves to be wise, they became fools, and changed the [glory](../cathen/06585a.htm) of the incorruptible God into an image made like to corruptible man, and to birds, and four-footed beasts, and creeping things. [truth](../cathen/15073a.htm), then, is verily held (in unrighteousness), as our Scriptures testify, by those who are of opinion that the chief good cannot be described in words, but who assert that, after long custom and familiar usage, a light becomes suddenly kindled in the [soul](../cathen/14153a.htm), as if by a fire springing forth, and that it now supports itself alone. Notwithstanding, those who have written in this manner regarding the chief good will go down to the Piræus and offer [prayer](../cathen/12345b.htm) to Artemis, as if she were [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), and will look (with approval) upon the solemn assembly held by [ignorant](../cathen/07648a.htm) men; and after giving utterance to [philosophical](../cathen/12025c.htm) remarks of such profundity regarding the [soul](../cathen/14153a.htm), and describing its passage (to a happier world) after a [virtuous](../cathen/15472a.htm) life, they pass from those great topics which [God](../cathen/06608a.htm) has revealed to them, and adopt mean and trifling thoughts, and offer a cock to Æsculapius! And although they had been enabled to form representations both of the invisible things of [God](../cathen/06608a.htm) and of the archetypal forms of things from the creation of the world, and from (the [contemplation](../cathen/04324b.htm) of) sensible things, from which they ascend to those objects which are comprehended by the understanding alone — and although they had no mean glimpses of His they nevertheless became [eternal](../cathen/05551b.htm) power and Godhead, foolish in their imaginations, and their foolish heart was involved in darkness and [ignorance](../cathen/07648a.htm) as to the ( [true](../cathen/15073a.htm)) worship of [God](../cathen/06608a.htm). Moreover, we may see those who greatly [pride](../cathen/12405a.htm) themselves upon their wisdom and theology worshipping the image of a corruptible man, in [honour](../cathen/07462a.htm), they say, of Him, and sometimes even descending, with the [Egyptians](../cathen/05329b.htm), to the worship of birds, and four-footed beasts, and creeping things! And although some may appear to have risen above such practices, nevertheless they will be found to have changed the [truth](../cathen/15073a.htm) of God into a [lie](../cathen/09469a.htm), and to worship and serve the creature more than the Creator. As the wise and learned among the Greeks, then, commit [errors](../cathen/05525a.htm) in the service which they render to [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), God chose the foolish things of the world to confound the wise; and base things of the world, and things that are weak, and things which are despised, and things which are nought, to bring to nought things that are; and this, [truly](../cathen/15073a.htm), that no flesh should Our wise men, however — [glory](../cathen/06585a.htm) in the presence of [God](../cathen/06608a.htm). [Moses](../cathen/10596a.htm), the most ancient of them all, and the [prophets](../cathen/12477a.htm) who followed him — [knowing](../cathen/08673a.htm) that the chief good could by no means be described in words, were the first who wrote that, as God manifests Himself to the deserving, and to those who are qualified to behold Him, He appeared to [Abraham](../cathen/01051a.htm), or to Isaac, or to Jacob. But who He was that appeared, and of what form, and in what manner, and like to which of mortal beings, they have left to be investigated by those who are able to show that they resemble those [persons](../cathen/11726a.htm) to whom God showed Himself: for He was seen not by their bodily eyes, but by the pure heart. For, according to the declaration of our Jesus, Blessed are the pure in heart, for they shall see God. But that a light is suddenly kindled in the [soul](../cathen/14153a.htm), as by a fire leaping forth, is a fact [known](../cathen/08673a.htm) long ago to our Scriptures; as when the [prophet](../cathen/12477a.htm) said, Light for yourselves the light of John also, who lived after him, said, [knowledge](../cathen/08673a.htm). That which was in the which [Logos](../cathen/09328a.htm) was life, and the life was the light of men; (i.e., the [true](../cathen/15073a.htm) light lightens every man that comes into the world [true](../cathen/15073a.htm) world, which is perceived by the understanding ), and makes him a light of the world: For this light shone in our hearts, to give the light of the [glorious](../cathen/06585a.htm) [Gospel](../cathen/06655b.htm) of [God](../cathen/06608a.htm) in the face of Christ Jesus. And therefore that very ancient [prophet](../cathen/12477a.htm), who prophesied many generations before the reign of Cyrus (for he was older than he by more than fourteen generations), expressed himself in these words: The Lord is my light and my and, [salvation](../cathen/13407a.htm): whom shall I [fear](../cathen/06021a.htm)? Your law is a lamp unto my feet, and a light unto my path; and again, The light of Your countenance, O Lord, was manifested towards us; and, In Your light we shall see light. And the [Logos](../cathen/09328a.htm), exhorting us to come to this light, says, in the prophecies of Isaiah: Enlighten yourself, enlighten yourself, O Jerusalem; for your light has come, and the The same [glory](../cathen/06585a.htm) of the Lord is risen upon you. [prophet](../cathen/12477a.htm) also, when predicting the advent of [Jesus](../cathen/08374c.htm), who was to turn away men from the worship of [idols](../cathen/07636a.htm), and of images, and of [demons](../cathen/04710a.htm), says, To those that sat in the land and shadow of death, upon them has the light arisen; and again, The people that sat in darkness saw a great light. Observe now the difference between the fine phrases of [Plato](../cathen/12159a.htm) respecting the chief good, and the declarations of our [prophets](../cathen/12477a.htm) regarding the light of the blessed; and notice that the [truth](../cathen/15073a.htm) as it is contained in [Plato](../cathen/12159a.htm) concerning this subject did not at all help his readers to attain to a pure worship of [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), nor even himself, who could philosophize so grandly about the chief good, whereas the simple language of the [holy Scriptures](../bible/index.html) has led to their honest readers being filled with a divine spirit; and this light is nourished within them by the oil, which in a certain [parable](../cathen/11460a.htm) is said to have preserved the light of the torches of the five wise [virgins](../cathen/15458a.htm). Seeing, however, that Celsus quotes from an epistle of [Plato](../cathen/12159a.htm) another statement to the following effect, viz.: If it appeared to me that these matters could be adequately explained to the multitude in writing and in oral address, what nobler pursuit in life could have been followed by me, than to commit to writing what was to prove of such advantage to — let us then consider this point briefly, viz., whether or not [human](../cathen/09580c.htm) beings, and to lead the [nature](../cathen/10715a.htm) of all [men](../cathen/09580c.htm) onwards to the light? [Plato](../cathen/12159a.htm) were acquainted with any doctrines more profound than are contained in his writings, or more divine than those which he has left behind him, leaving it to each one to investigate the subject according to his ability, while we demonstrate that our [prophets](../cathen/12477a.htm) did [know](../cathen/08673a.htm) of greater things than any in the [Scriptures](../bible/index.html), but which they did not commit to writing. Ezekiel, e.g., received a roll, written within and without, in which were contained lamentations, and songs, and denunciations; but at the command of the [Logos](../cathen/09328a.htm) he swallowed the book, in order that its contents might not be written, and so made [known](../cathen/08673a.htm) to unworthy [persons](../cathen/11726a.htm). John also is recorded to have seen and done a similar thing. Nay, [Paul](../cathen/11567b.htm) even heard unspeakable words, which it is not lawful for a man to utter. And it is related of [Jesus](../cathen/08374c.htm), who was greater than all these, that He conversed with His [disciples](../cathen/05029a.htm) in private, and especially in their sacred retreats, concerning the [Gospel](../cathen/06655b.htm) of [God](../cathen/06608a.htm); but the words which He uttered have not been preserved, because it appeared to the [evangelists](../cathen/05645a.htm) that they could not be adequately conveyed to the multitude in writing or in speech. And if it were not tiresome to repeat the [truth](../cathen/15073a.htm) regarding these illustrious individuals, I would say that they saw better than [Plato](../cathen/12159a.htm) (by means of the intelligence which they received by the [grace](../cathen/06689a.htm) of God), what things were to be committed to writing, and how this was to be done, and what was by no means to be written to the multitude, and what was to be expressed in words, and what was not to be so conveyed. And once more, John, in teaching us the difference between what ought to be committed to writing and what not, declares that he heard seven thunders instructing him on certain matters, and forbidding him to commit their words to writing. There might also be found in the writings of [Moses](../cathen/10596a.htm) and of the [prophets](../cathen/12477a.htm), who are older not only than [Plato](../cathen/12159a.htm), but even than Homer and the invention of letters among the Greeks, passages worthy of the [grace](../cathen/06689a.htm) of God bestowed upon them, and filled with great thoughts, to which they gave utterance, but not because they understood [Plato](../cathen/12159a.htm) imperfectly, as Celsus imagines. For how was it possible that they should have heard one who was not yet born? And if any one should apply the words of Celsus to the [apostles](../cathen/01626c.htm) of [Jesus](../cathen/08374c.htm), who were younger than [Plato](../cathen/12159a.htm), say whether it is not on the very face of it an incredible assertion, that [Paul](../cathen/11567b.htm) the tentmaker, and Peter the fisherman, and John who left his father's nets, should, through misunderstanding the language of [Plato](../cathen/12159a.htm) in his Epistles, have expressed themselves as they have done regarding God? But as Celsus now, after having often required of us immediate assent (to his views), as if he were babbling forth something new in addition to what he has already advanced, only repeats himself, what we have said in reply may suffice. Seeing, however, he produces another quotation from [Plato](../cathen/12159a.htm), in which he asserts that the employment of the method of question and answer sheds light on the thoughts of those who philosophize like him, let us show from the [holy Scriptures](../bible/index.html) that the word of God also encourages us to the practice of dialectics: Solomon, e.g., declaring in one passage, that instruction unquestioned goes astray; and Jesus the son of Sirach, who has left us the treatise called Wisdom, declaring in another, that the Our methods of discussion, however, are rather of a gentle kind; for we have learned that he who presides over the preaching of the word ought to be able to confute gainsayers. But if some continue indolent, and do not train themselves so as to attend to the reading of the word, and [knowledge](../cathen/08673a.htm) of the unwise is as words that will not stand investigation. to search the and, agreeably to the command of [Scriptures](../bible/index.html), [Jesus](../cathen/08374c.htm), to investigate the meaning of the sacred writings, and to ask of God concerning them, and to keep knocking at what may be closed within them, the [Scripture](../bible/index.html) is not on that account to be regarded as devoid of wisdom. In the next place, after other [Platonic](../cathen/12159a.htm) declarations, which demonstrate that the good can be [known](../cathen/08673a.htm) by few, he adds: Since the multitude, being puffed up with a contempt for others, which is far from right, and being filled with vain and lofty hopes, assert that, because they have come to the [knowledge](../cathen/08673a.htm) of some venerable doctrines, certain things are [true](../cathen/15073a.htm). Yet although Now, in answer to this we have to say, that with regard to [Plato](../cathen/12159a.htm) predicted these things, he nevertheless does not talk marvels, nor shut the mouth of those who wish to ask him for information on the subject of his promises; nor does he command them to come at once and [believe](../cathen/02408b.htm) that a God of a particular kind exists, and that he has a son of a particular nature, who descended (to earth) and conversed with me. [Plato](../cathen/12159a.htm), it is Aristander, I think, who has related that he was not the son of Ariston, but of a phantom, which approached Amphictione in the guise of Apollo. And there are several other of the followers of [Plato](../cathen/12159a.htm) who, in their lives of their master, have made the same statement. What are we to say, moreover, about Pythagoras, who relates the greatest possible amount of wonders, and who, in a general assembly of the Greeks, showed his ivory thigh, and asserted that he recognised the shield which he wore when he was Euphorbus, and who is said to have appeared on one day in two different cities! He, moreover, who will declare that what is related of [Plato](../cathen/12159a.htm) and Socrates belongs to the marvellous, will quote the story of the swan which was recommended to Socrates while he was asleep, and of the master saying when he met the young man, This, then, was the swan! Nay, the third eye which [Plato](../cathen/12159a.htm) saw that he himself possessed, he will refer to the category of prodigies. But occasion for [slanderous](../cathen/14035b.htm) accusations will never be wanting to those who are ill-disposed, and who wish to speak [evil](../cathen/05649a.htm) of what has happened to such as are raised above the multitude. Such [persons](../cathen/11726a.htm) will deride as a fiction even the [demon](../cathen/04710a.htm) of Socrates. We do not, then, relate marvels when we narrate the history of [Jesus](../cathen/08374c.htm), nor have His genuine [disciples](../cathen/05029a.htm) recorded any such stories of Him; whereas this Celsus, who professes universal [knowledge](../cathen/08673a.htm), and who quotes many of the sayings of [Plato](../cathen/12159a.htm), is, I think, intentionally silent on the discourse concerning the [Son of God](../cathen/14142b.htm) which is related in [Plato's](../cathen/12159a.htm) Epistle to Hermeas and Coriscus. [Plato's](../cathen/12159a.htm) words are as follows: And calling to [witness](../cathen/15677a.htm) the [God](../cathen/06608a.htm) of all things — the ruler both of things present and things to come, father and lord both of the ruler and [cause](../cathen/03459a.htm)— whom, if we are [philosophers](../cathen/12025c.htm) indeed, we shall all clearly [know](../cathen/08673a.htm), so far as it is possible for [happy](../cathen/07131b.htm) [human](../cathen/09580c.htm) beings to attain such [knowledge](../cathen/08673a.htm). Celsus quotes another saying of [Plato](../cathen/12159a.htm) to the following effect: It has occurred to me to speak once more upon these subjects at greater length, as perhaps I might express myself about them more clearly than I have already done for there is a certain 'real' Now, according to this division, John is introduced before Jesus as the voice of one crying in the wilderness, so as to correspond with the [cause](../cathen/03459a.htm), which proves a hindrance in the way of him who has ventured, even to a slight extent, to write on such topics; and as this has been frequently mentioned by me on former occasions, it appears to me that it ought to be stated now. In each of existing things, which are necessarily employed in the acquisition of [knowledge](../cathen/08673a.htm), there are three elements; [knowledge](../cathen/08673a.htm) itself is the fourth; and that ought to be laid down as the fifth which is both capable of being [known](../cathen/08673a.htm) and is [true](../cathen/15073a.htm). Of these, one is 'name;' the second is 'word;' the third, 'image;' the fourth, ' [knowledge](../cathen/08673a.htm).' name of [Plato](../cathen/12159a.htm); and the second after John, who is pointed out by him, is Jesus, with whom agrees the statement, The Word became flesh; and that corresponds to the word of [Plato](../cathen/12159a.htm). [Plato](../cathen/12159a.htm) terms the third image; but we, who apply the expression image to something different, would say with greater precision, that the mark of the wounds which is made in the [soul](../cathen/14153a.htm) by the word is the Christ which is in each one of us and this mark is impressed by Christ the Word. And whether Christ, the wisdom which is in those of us who are perfect, correspond to the fourth element — [knowledge](../cathen/08673a.htm)— will become [known](../cathen/08673a.htm) to him who has the capacity to ascertain it. He next continues: You see how But as Celsus adduces this to prove that we ought not to yield a simple assent, but to furnish a reason for our belief, we shall quote also the words of [Plato](../cathen/12159a.htm), although maintaining that (the chief good) cannot be described in words, yet, to avoid the appearance of retreating to an irrefutable position, subjoins a reason in explanation of this difficulty, as even 'nothing' might perhaps be explained in words. [Paul](../cathen/11567b.htm), where he says, in censuring the hasty believer, unless you have Now, through his practice of repeating himself, Celsus, so far as he can, forces us to be guilty of tautology, reiterating, after the boastful language which has been quoted, that [believed](../cathen/02408b.htm) inconsiderately. Now, if one wished to reply to Celsus, one might say in answer to such assertions, that even [Plato](../cathen/12159a.htm) is not guilty of boasting and [falsehood](../cathen/05781a.htm), giving out that he has made some new discovery, or that he has come down from heaven to announce it, but acknowledges whence these statements are derived. [Plato](../cathen/12159a.htm) is guilty of boasting, when in the Timæus he puts the following language in the month of Zeus: Gods of gods, whose creator and father I am, and so on. And if any one will defend such language on account of the meaning which is conveyed under the name of Zeus, thus speaking in the dialogue of [Plato](../cathen/12159a.htm), why should not he who investigates the meaning of the words of the [Son of God](../cathen/14142b.htm), or those of the Creator in the [prophets](../cathen/12477a.htm), express a profounder meaning than any conveyed by the words of Zeus in the Timæus? For the characteristic of divinity is the announcement of future events, predicted not by [human](../cathen/09580c.htm) power, but shown by the result to be due to a divine spirit in him who made the announcement. Accordingly, we do not say to each of our hearers, Believe, first of all, that He whom I introduce to you is the but we put the [Son of God](../cathen/14142b.htm); [Gospel](../cathen/06655b.htm) before each one, as his character and disposition may fit him to receive it, inasmuch as we have learned to [know](../cathen/08673a.htm) how we ought to answer every man. And there are some who are capable of receiving nothing more than an exhortation to [believe](../cathen/02408b.htm), and to these we address that alone; while we approach others, again, as far as possible, in the way of demonstration, by means of question and answer. Nor do we at all say, as Celsus scoffingly alleges, Believe that he whom I introduce to you is the neither do we add, [Son of God](../cathen/14142b.htm), although he was shamefully bound, and disgracefully punished, and very recently was most contumeliously treated before the eyes of all [men](../cathen/09580c.htm); Believe it even the more (on that account). For it is our endeavour to state, on each individual point, arguments more numerous even than we have brought forward in the preceding pages. After this Celsus continues: If these (meaning the Now we shall answer this objection in the following manner, as the clearness of the case impels us to do. If it had been recorded that several individuals had appeared in [Christians](../cathen/03712a.htm)) bring forward this person, and others, again, a different individual (as the Christ), while the common and ready cry of all parties is, 'Believe, if you will be saved, or else begone,' what shall those do who are in earnest about their [salvation](../cathen/13407a.htm)? Shall they cast the dice, in order to divine whither they may betake themselves, and whom they shall join? [human](../cathen/09580c.htm) life as sons of [God](../cathen/06608a.htm) in the manner in which Jesus did, and if each of them had drawn a party of adherents to his side, so that, on account of the similarity of the profession (in the case of each individual) that he was the [Son of God](../cathen/14142b.htm), he to whom his followers bore testimony to that effect was an object of dispute, there would have been ground for his saying, If these bring forward this person, and others a different individual, while the common and ready cry of all parties is, 'Believe, if you will be saved, or else begone,' and so on; whereas it has been proclaimed to the entire world that [Jesus Christ](../cathen/08374c.htm) is the only [Son of God](../cathen/14142b.htm) who visited the [human race](../cathen/09580c.htm): for those who, like Celsus, have supposed that (the acts of Jesus) were a series of prodigies, and who for that reason wished to perform acts of the same kind, that they, too, might gain a similar mastery over the [minds](../cathen/10321a.htm) of [men](../cathen/09580c.htm), were convicted of being utter nonentities. Such were Simon, the Magus of [Samaria](../cathen/13416a.htm), and [Dositheus](../cathen/05136c.htm), who was a native of the same place; since the former gave out that he was the power of God that is called great, and the latter that he was the [Son of God](../cathen/14142b.htm). Now [Simonians](../cathen/13797a.htm) are found nowhere throughout the world; and yet, in order to gain over to himself many followers, Simon freed his [disciples](../cathen/05029a.htm) from the danger of death, which the [Christians](../cathen/03712a.htm) were taught to prefer, by teaching them to regard [idolatry](../cathen/07636a.htm) as a matter of indifference. But even at the beginning of their [existence](../cathen/05543b.htm) the followers of Simon were not exposed to [persecution](../cathen/11703a.htm). For that [wicked](../cathen/05649a.htm) [demon](../cathen/04710a.htm) who was conspiring against the doctrine of [Jesus](../cathen/08374c.htm), was well aware that none of his own maxims would be weakened by the teaching of Simon. The [Dositheans](../cathen/05136c.htm), again, even in former times, did not rise to any eminence, and now they are completely extinguished, so that it is said their whole number does not amount to thirty. Judas of [Galilee](../cathen/06341c.htm) also, as Luke relates in the Acts of the Apostles, wished to call himself some great personage, as did Theudas before him; but as their doctrine was not of [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), they were destroyed, and all who [obeyed](../cathen/11181c.htm) them were immediately dispersed. We do not, then, cast the dice in order to divine whither we shall betake ourselves, and whom we shall join, as if there were many claimants able to draw us after them by the profession of their having come down from God to visit the [human race](../cathen/09580c.htm). On these points, however, we have said enough. Accordingly, let us pass on to another charge made by Celsus, who is not even acquainted with the words (of our sacred books), but who, from misunderstanding them, has said that we declare the wisdom that is among [men](../cathen/09580c.htm) to be foolishness with [God](../cathen/06608a.htm); [Paul](../cathen/11567b.htm) having said that the wisdom of the world is foolishness with Celsus says that [God](../cathen/06608a.htm). the reason of this has been stated long ago. And the reason he imagines to be, our desire to win over by means of this saying the But, as he himself has intimated, he has said the same thing before; and we, to the best of our ability, replied to it. Notwithstanding this, however, he wished to show that this statement was an invention of ours, and borrowed from the Grecian sages, who declare that [ignorant](../cathen/07648a.htm) and foolish alone. [human](../cathen/09580c.htm) wisdom is of one kind, and divine of another. And he quotes the words of Heraclitus, where he says in one passage, that man's method of action is not regulated by fixed principles, but that of God is; and in another, that a foolish man listens to a He quotes, moreover, the following from the Apology of Socrates, of which [demon](../cathen/04710a.htm), as a boy does to a [man](../cathen/09580c.htm). [Plato](../cathen/12159a.htm) was the author: For I, O men of Athens, have obtained this name by no other means than by my wisdom. And of what sort is this wisdom? Such, probably, as is Such are the passages adduced by Celsus. But I shall subjoin also the following from [human](../cathen/09580c.htm); for in that respect I venture to think that I am in reality wise. [Plato's](../cathen/12159a.htm) letter to Hermeas, and Erastus, and Coriscus: To Erastus and Coriscus I say, although I am an old man, that, in addition to this noble [knowledge](../cathen/08673a.htm) of 'forms' (which they possess), they need a wisdom, with regard to the class of [wicked](../cathen/05649a.htm) and [unjust](../cathen/08010c.htm) [persons](../cathen/11726a.htm), which may serve as a protective and repelling force against them. For they are inexperienced, in consequence of having passed a large portion of their lives with us, who are moderate individuals, and not [wicked](../cathen/05649a.htm). I have accordingly said that they need these things, in order that they may not be compelled to neglect the [true](../cathen/15073a.htm) wisdom, and to apply themselves in a greater degree than is proper to that which is necessary and [human](../cathen/09580c.htm). According to the foregoing, then, the one kind of wisdom is [human](../cathen/09580c.htm), and the other divine. Now the wisdom is that which is termed by us the wisdom of the [human](../cathen/09580c.htm) world, which is foolishness with whereas the [God](../cathen/06608a.htm); divine— being different from the because it is [human](../cathen/09580c.htm), divine— comes, through the [grace](../cathen/06689a.htm) of God who bestows it, to those who have evinced their capacity for receiving it, and especially to those who, from [knowing](../cathen/08673a.htm) the difference between either kind of wisdom, say, in their [prayers](../cathen/12345b.htm) to [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), Even if one among the sons of men be perfect, while the wisdom is wanting that comes from You, he shall be accounted as nothing. [Wisdom 9:6](../bible/wis009.htm#verse6) We maintain, indeed, that wisdom is an exercise for the [human](../cathen/09580c.htm) [soul](../cathen/14153a.htm), but that divine wisdom is the end, being also termed the strong meat of the [soul](../cathen/14153a.htm) by him who has said that strong meat belongs to them that are perfect, even those who by reason of use have their senses exercised to discern both good and This opinion, moreover, is [evil](../cathen/05649a.htm). [truly](../cathen/15073a.htm) an ancient one, its antiquity not being referred back, as Celsus thinks, merely to Heraclitus and [Plato](../cathen/12159a.htm). For before these individuals lived, the [prophets](../cathen/12477a.htm) distinguished between the two kinds of wisdom. It is sufficient for the present to quote from the words of David what he says regarding the man who is wise, according to divine wisdom, that he will not see corruption when he beholds wise men dying. Divine wisdom, accordingly, being different from [faith](../cathen/05752c.htm), is the first of the so-called charismata of [God](../cathen/06608a.htm); and the second after it — in the estimation of those who [know](../cathen/08673a.htm) how to distinguish such things accurately — is what is called and the [knowledge](../cathen/08673a.htm); third— seeing that even the more simple class of men who adhere to the service of [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), so far as they can, must be saved — is [faith](../cathen/05752c.htm). And therefore [Paul](../cathen/11567b.htm) says: To one is given by the Spirit the word of wisdom; to another the word of And therefore it is no ordinary individuals whom you will find to have participated in the [knowledge](../cathen/08673a.htm) by the same Spirit; to another [faith](../cathen/05752c.htm) by the same Spirit. divine wisdom, but the more excellent and distinguished among those who have given in their adherence to [Christianity](../cathen/03712a.htm); for it is not to the most that one would discourse upon the topics relating to the divine wisdom. [ignorant](../cathen/07648a.htm), or servile, or most uninstructed of [mankind](../cathen/09580c.htm), In designating others by the epithets of uninstructed, and servile, and Celsus, I suppose, means those who are not acquainted with his [ignorant](../cathen/07648a.htm), [laws](../cathen/09053a.htm), nor trained in the branches of Greek learning; while we, on the other hand, deem those to be uninstructed who are not ashamed to address (supplications) to inanimate objects, and to call upon those for health that have no strength, and to ask the dead for life, and to entreat the helpless for assistance. And although some may say that these objects are not gods, but only imitations and [symbols](../cathen/14373b.htm) of real divinities, nevertheless these very individuals, in imagining that the hands of low mechanics can frame imitations of divinity, are uninstructed, and servile, and for we assert that the lowest among us have been set free from this [ignorant](../cathen/07648a.htm); [ignorance](../cathen/07648a.htm) and want of [knowledge](../cathen/08673a.htm), while the most intelligent can understand and grasp the divine hope. We do not maintain, however, that it is impossible for one who has not been trained in earthly wisdom to receive the divine, but we do acknowledge that all [human](../cathen/09580c.htm) wisdom is folly in comparison with the divine. In the next place, instead of endeavouring to adduce reasons, as he ought, for his assertions, he terms us sorcerers, and asserts that we flee away with headlong speed from the more polished class of Now he did not observe that from the very beginning our wise men were trained in the external branches of learning: [persons](../cathen/11726a.htm), because they are not suitable subjects for our impositions, while we seek to decoy those who are more rustic. [Moses](../cathen/10596a.htm), e.g., in all the wisdom of the [Egyptians](../cathen/05329b.htm); Daniel, and Ananias, and Azariah, and Mishael, in all Assyrian learning, so that they were found to surpass in tenfold degree all the wise men of that country. At the present time, moreover, the Churches have, in proportion to the multitudes (of ordinary [believers](../cathen/05769a.htm)), a few wise men, who have come over to them from that wisdom which is said by us to be according to the flesh; and they have also some who have advanced from it to that wisdom which is divine. Celsus, in the next place, as one who has heard the subject of humility greatly talked about, but who has not been at the pains to understand it, would wish to speak [evil](../cathen/05649a.htm) of that humility which is practised among us, and imagines that it is borrowed from some words of [Plato](../cathen/12159a.htm) imperfectly understood, where he expresses himself in the Laws as follows: Now He did not observe, however, that in writers much older than [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), according to the ancient account, having in Himself both the beginning and end and middle of all existing things, proceeds according to nature, and marches straight on. He is constantly followed by [justice](../cathen/08571c.htm), which is the avenger of all breaches of the [divine law](../cathen/09071a.htm): he who is about to become [happy](../cathen/07131b.htm) follows her closely in humility, and becomingly adorned. [Plato](../cathen/12159a.htm) the following words occur in a [prayer](../cathen/12345b.htm): Lord, my heart is not etc. Now these words show that he who is of [haughty](../cathen/12405a.htm), nor my eyes lofty, neither do I walk in great matters, nor in things too wonderful for me; if I had not been [humble](../cathen/07543b.htm), [humble](../cathen/07543b.htm) mind does not by any means [humble](../cathen/07543b.htm) himself in an unseemly or inauspicious manner, falling down upon his knees, or casting himself headlong on the ground, putting on the dress of the miserable, or sprinkling himself with dust. But he who is of [humble](../cathen/07543b.htm) mind in the sense of the [prophet](../cathen/12477a.htm), while walking in great and wonderful things, which are above his capacity — viz., those doctrines that are [truly](../cathen/15073a.htm) great, and those thoughts that are wonderful — humbles himself under the mighty hand of If there are some, however, who through their stupidity have not clearly understood the doctrine of humiliation, and act as they do, it is not our doctrine which is to be blamed; but we must extend our forgiveness to the stupidity of those who aim at higher things, and owing to their fatuity of mind fail to attain them. He who is [God](../cathen/06608a.htm). is so in a greater degree than [humble](../cathen/07543b.htm) and becomingly adorned, [Plato's](../cathen/12159a.htm) individual: for he is becomingly adorned, on the one hand, because [humble](../cathen/07543b.htm) and becomingly adorned he walks in things great and wonderful, which are beyond his capacity; and [humble](../cathen/07543b.htm), on the other hand, because, while being in the midst of such, he yet voluntarily humbles himself, not under any one at random, but under the mighty hand of through [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), [Jesus Christ](../cathen/08374c.htm), the teacher of such instruction, who did not deem equality with God a thing to be eagerly clung to, but made Himself of no And so great is this doctrine of humiliation, that it has no ordinary individual as its teacher; but our great Saviour Himself says: [reputation](../cathen/12776c.htm), and took on Him the form of a servant, and being found in fashion as a [man](../cathen/09580c.htm), humbled Himself, and became [obedient](../cathen/11181c.htm) unto death, even the death of the cross. Learn of Me, for I am meek and lowly of heart, and you shall find rest for your [souls](../cathen/14153a.htm). In the next place, with regard to the declaration of [Jesus](../cathen/08374c.htm) against rich men, when He said, It is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle, than for a rich man to enter into the Celsus alleges that this saying manifestly proceeded from [kingdom of God](../cathen/08646a.htm), [Plato](../cathen/12159a.htm), and that [Jesus](../cathen/08374c.htm) perverted the words of the [philosopher](../cathen/12025c.htm), which were, that it was impossible to be distinguished for goodness, and at the same time for riches. Now who is there that is capable of giving even moderate attention to affairs — not merely among the [believers](../cathen/05769a.htm) on Jesus, but among the rest of [mankind](../cathen/09580c.htm)— that would not laugh at Celsus, on hearing that [Jesus](../cathen/08374c.htm), who was born and brought up among the [Jews](../cathen/08399a.htm), and was supposed to be the son of Joseph the carpenter, and who had not studied literature — not merely that of the Greeks, but not even that of the Hebrews — as the truth-loving Scriptures testify regarding Him, had read [Plato](../cathen/12159a.htm), and being pleased with the opinion he expressed regarding rich men, to the effect that it was impossible to be distinguished for goodness and riches at the same time, had perverted this, and changed it into, It is easier for a camel to go through the eye of a needle, than for a rich man to enter into the kingdom of God! Now, if Celsus had not perused the [Gospels](../cathen/06655b.htm) in a spirit of [hatred](../cathen/07149b.htm) and dislike, but had been imbued with a [love](../cathen/09397a.htm) of [truth](../cathen/15073a.htm), he would have turned his attention to the point why a camel — that one of animals which, as regards its physical structure, is crooked — was chosen as an object of comparison with a rich man, and what signification the narrow eye of a needle had for him who saw that strait and narrow was the way that leads unto life; and to this point also, that this animal. according to the law, is described as unclean, having one element of acceptability, viz. that it ruminates, but one of condemnation, viz., that it does not divide the hoof. He would have inquired, moreover, how often the camel was adduced as an object of comparison in the sacred Scriptures, and in reference to what objects, that he might thus ascertain the meaning of the [Logos](../cathen/09328a.htm) concerning the rich men. Nor would he have left without examination the fact that the poor are termed blessed by Jesus, while the rich are designated as miserable; and whether these words refer to the rich and poor who are visible to the senses, or whether there is any kind of poverty [known](../cathen/08673a.htm) to the [Logos](../cathen/09328a.htm) which is to be deemed altogether blessed, and any rich man who is to be wholly condemned. For even a common individual would not thus indiscriminately have praised the [poor](../cathen/12327a.htm), many of whom lead most [wicked](../cathen/05649a.htm) lives. But on this point we have said enough. Since Celsus, moreover, from a desire to depreciate the accounts which our Scriptures give of the [kingdom of God](../cathen/08646a.htm), has quoted none of them, as if they were unworthy of being recorded by him (or perhaps because he was unacquainted with them), while, on the other hand, he quotes the sayings of [Plato](../cathen/12159a.htm), both from his Epistles and the Phædrus, as if these were divinely inspired, but our Scriptures were not, let us set forth a few points, for the sake of comparison with these plausible declarations of [Plato](../cathen/12159a.htm), which did not however, dispose the [philosopher](../cathen/12025c.htm) to worship in a manner worthy of him the Maker of all things. For he ought not to have adulterated or polluted this worship with what we call but what the many would describe by the term [idolatry](../cathen/07636a.htm), Now, according to a Hebrew figure of speech, it is said of [superstition](../cathen/14339a.htm). [God](../cathen/06608a.htm) in the [eighteenth Psalm](../bible/psa017.htm), that He made darkness His secret place, to signify that those notions which should be worthily entertained of God are invisible and unknowable, because God conceals Himself in darkness, as it were, from those who cannot endure the splendours of His [knowledge](../cathen/08673a.htm), or are incapable of looking at them, partly owing to the pollution of their understanding, which is clothed with the body of mortal lowliness, and partly owing to its feebler power of comprehending God. And in order that it may appear that the [knowledge](../cathen/08673a.htm) of God has rarely been vouchsafed to [men](../cathen/09580c.htm), and has been found in very few individuals, [Moses](../cathen/10596a.htm) is related to have entered into the darkness where God was. And again, with regard to [Moses](../cathen/10596a.htm) it is said: And again, that the [Moses](../cathen/10596a.htm) alone shall come near the Lord, but the rest shall not come near. [prophet](../cathen/12477a.htm) may show the depth of the doctrines which relate to [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), and which is unattainable by those who do not possess the Spirit which searches all things, even the deep things of he added: [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), The abyss like a garment is His covering. Nay, our Lord and Saviour, the [Logos](../cathen/09328a.htm) of [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), manifesting that the greatness of the [knowledge](../cathen/08673a.htm) of the Father is appropriately comprehended and [known](../cathen/08673a.htm) pre-eminently by Him alone, and in the second place by those whose minds are enlightened by the [Logos](../cathen/09328a.htm) Himself and [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), declares: No man For no one can worthily [knows](../cathen/08673a.htm) the [Son](../cathen/14142b.htm), but the Father; neither [knows](../cathen/08673a.htm) any man the Father but the [Son](../cathen/14142b.htm), and he to whomsoever the Son will reveal Him. [know](../cathen/08673a.htm) the uncreated and [first-born](../cathen/06081a.htm) of all created nature like the Father who begot Him, nor any one the Father like the living [Logos](../cathen/09328a.htm), and His Wisdom and Truth. By sharing in Him who takes away from the Father what is called darkness, which He made His secret place, and the abyss, which is called His covering, and in this way unveiling the [Father](../cathen/06608a.htm), every one [knows](../cathen/08673a.htm) the Father who is capable of [knowing](../cathen/08673a.htm) Him. I thought it right to quote these few instances from a much larger number of passages, in which our sacred writers express their ideas regarding [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), in order to show that, to those who have eyes to behold the venerable character of Scripture, the sacred writings of the [prophets](../cathen/12477a.htm) contain things more worthy of reverence than those sayings of [Plato](../cathen/12159a.htm) which Celsus admires. Now the declaration of [Plato](../cathen/12159a.htm), quoted by Celsus, runs as follows: All things are around the King of all, and all things exist for his sake, and he is the I might have mentioned, moreover, what is said of those beings which are called seraphim by the Hebrews, and described in Isaiah, who cover the face and feet of [cause](../cathen/03459a.htm) of all [good](../cathen/06636b.htm) things. With things of the second rank he is second, and with those of the third rank he is third. The [human](../cathen/09580c.htm) [soul](../cathen/14153a.htm), accordingly, is eager to learn what these things are, looking to such things as are kindred to itself, none of which is perfect. But as regards the King and those things which I mentioned, there is nothing which resembles them. [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), and of those called [cherubim](../cathen/03646c.htm), whom Ezekiel has described, and the postures of these, and of the manner in which [God](../cathen/06608a.htm) is said to be borne upon the [cherubim](../cathen/03646c.htm). But since they are mentioned in a very [mysterious](../cathen/10662a.htm) manner, on account of the unworthy and the indecent, who are unable to enter into the great thoughts and venerable nature of theology, I have not deemed it becoming to discourse of them in this treatise. Celsus in the next place alleges, that certain By these words, indeed, he does not make it clear whether they also ascend beyond the God of the [Christians](../cathen/03712a.htm), having misunderstood the words of [Plato](../cathen/12159a.htm), loudly boast of a 'super-celestial' [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), thus ascending beyond the heaven of the [Jews](../cathen/08399a.htm). [Jews](../cathen/08399a.htm), or only beyond the heaven by which they [swear](../cathen/11176a.htm). It is not our purpose at present, however, to speak of those who acknowledge another god than the one worshipped by the [Jews](../cathen/08399a.htm), but to defend ourselves, and to show that it was impossible for the [prophets](../cathen/12477a.htm) of the [Jews](../cathen/08399a.htm), whose writings are reckoned among ours, to have borrowed anything from [Plato](../cathen/12159a.htm), because they were older than he. They did not then borrow from him the declaration, that all things are around the King of all, and that all exist on account of him; for we have learned that nobler thoughts than these have been uttered by the [prophets](../cathen/12477a.htm), by Jesus Himself and His [disciples](../cathen/05029a.htm), who have clearly indicated the meaning of the spirit that was in them, which was none other than the spirit of [Christ](../cathen/08374c.htm). Nor was the [philosopher](../cathen/12025c.htm) the first to present to view the super-celestial place; for David long ago brought to view the profundity and multitude of the thoughts concerning God entertained by those who have ascended above visible things, when he said in the book of Psalms: Praise I do not, indeed, deny that [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), you heaven of heavens and you waters that be above the heavens, let them praise the name of the Lord . [Plato](../cathen/12159a.htm) learned from certain Hebrews the words quoted from the Phædrus, or even, as some have recorded, that he quoted them from a perusal of our prophetic writings, when he said: No poet here below has ever sung of the super-celestial place, or ever will sing in a becoming manner, and so on. And in the same passage is the following: For the Our [essence](../cathen/05543b.htm), which is both colorless and formless, and which cannot be touched, which really exists, is the pilot of the [soul](../cathen/14153a.htm), and is beheld by the understanding alone; and around it the genus of [true](../cathen/15073a.htm) [knowledge](../cathen/08673a.htm) holds this place. [Paul](../cathen/11567b.htm), moreover, [educated](../cathen/05295b.htm) by these words, and longing after things supra-mundane and super-celestial, and doing his utmost for their sake to attain them, says in the second Epistle to the Corinthians: For our light affliction, which is but for a moment, works for us a far more exceeding and [eternal](../cathen/05551b.htm) weight of [glory](../cathen/06585a.htm); while we look not at the things which are seen, but at the things which are not seen: for the things which are seen are temporal; but the things which are unseen are [eternal](../cathen/05551b.htm). Now, to those who are capable of understanding him, the apostle manifestly presents to view things which are the objects of perception, calling them things seen; while he terms unseen, things which are the object of the understanding, and cognisable by it alone. He [knows](../cathen/08673a.htm), also, that things seen and visible are temporal, but that things cognisable by the [mind](../cathen/10321a.htm), and not seen, are and desiring to remain in the [eternal](../cathen/05551b.htm); [contemplation](../cathen/04324b.htm) of these, and being assisted by his earnest longing for them, he deemed all affliction as light and as nothing, and during the season of afflictions and troubles was not at all bowed down by them, but by his [contemplation](../cathen/04324b.htm) of (divine) things deemed every calamity a light thing, seeing we also have a great High Priest, who by the greatness of His power and understanding has passed through the heavens, even Jesus the who has promised to all that have [Son of God](../cathen/14142b.htm), [truly](../cathen/15073a.htm) learned divine things, and have lived lives in harmony with them, to go before them to the things that are supra-mundane; for His words are: That where I go, you may be also. And therefore we hope, after the troubles and struggles which we suffer here, to reach the highest heavens, and receiving, agreeably to the teaching of [Jesus](../cathen/08374c.htm), the fountains of water that spring up unto [eternal](../cathen/05551b.htm) life, and being filled with the rivers of [knowledge](../cathen/08673a.htm), shall be united with those waters that are said to be above the heavens, and which praise His name. And as many of us as praise Him shall not be carried about by the revolution of the heaven, but shall be ever engaged in the [contemplation](../cathen/04324b.htm) of the invisible things of [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), which are no longer understood by us through the things which He has made from the creation of the world, but seeing, as it was expressed by the [true](../cathen/15073a.htm) [disciple](../cathen/05029a.htm) of [Jesus](../cathen/08374c.htm) in these words, then face to face; and in these, When that which is perfect has come, then that which is in part will be done away. The Scriptures which are current in the Churches of God do not speak of seven heavens, or of any definite number at all, but they do appear to teach the [existence](../cathen/05543b.htm) of heavens, whether that means the spheres of those bodies which the Greeks call planets, or something more [mysterious](../cathen/10662a.htm). Celsus, too, agreeably to the opinion of [Plato](../cathen/12159a.htm), asserts that [souls](../cathen/14153a.htm) can make their way to and from the earth through the planets; while [Moses](../cathen/10596a.htm), our most ancient [prophet](../cathen/12477a.htm), says that a divine vision was presented to the view of our [prophet](../cathen/12477a.htm) Jacob, — a ladder stretching to heaven, and the [angels](../cathen/01476d.htm) of God ascending and descending upon it, and the Lord supported upon its top — obscurely pointing, by this matter of the ladder, either to the same truths which [Plato](../cathen/12159a.htm) had in view, or to something greater than these. On this subject [Philo](../cathen/12023a.htm) has composed a treatise which deserves the thoughtful and intelligent investigation of all lovers of [truth](../cathen/15073a.htm). After this, Celsus, desiring to exhibit his learning in his treatise against us, quotes also certain Persian [mysteries](../cathen/10662a.htm), where he says: These things are obscurely hinted at in the accounts of the He next proceeds to examine the reason of the stars being arranged in this order, which is symbolized by the names of the rest of matter. Musical reasons, moreover, are added or quoted by the Persian theology; and to these, again, he strives to add a second explanation, connected also with musical considerations. But it seems to me, that to quote the language of Celsus upon these matters would be absurd, and similar to what he himself has done, when, in his accusations against [Persians](../cathen/11712a.htm), and especially in the [mysteries](../cathen/10662a.htm) of [Mithras](../cathen/10402a.htm), which are celebrated among them. For in the latter there is a representation of the two heavenly revolutions — of the movement, viz., of the fixed stars, and of that which take place among the planets, and of the passage of the [soul](../cathen/14153a.htm) through these. The representation is of the following nature: There is a ladder with lofty gates, and on the top of it an eighth gate. The first gate consists of lead, the second of tin, the third of copper, the fourth of iron, the fifth of a mixture of metals, the sixth of silver, and the seventh of gold. The first gate they assign to Saturn, indicating by the 'lead' the slowness of this star; the second to Venus, comparing her to the splendour and softness of tin; the third to Jupiter, being firm and solid; the fourth to Mercury, for both Mercury and iron are fit to endure all things, and are money-making and laborious; the fifth to Mars, because, being composed of a mixture of metals, it is varied and unequal; the sixth, of silver, to the Moon; the seventh, of gold, to the Sun — thus imitating the different colors of the two latter. [Christians](../cathen/03712a.htm) and [Jews](../cathen/08399a.htm), he quoted, most inappropriately, not only the words of [Plato](../cathen/12159a.htm); but, dissatisfied even with these, he adduced in addition the [mysteries](../cathen/10662a.htm) of the Persian [Mithras](../cathen/10402a.htm), and the explanation of them. Now, whatever be the case with regard to these — whether the Persians and those who conduct the [mysteries](../cathen/10662a.htm) of [Mithras](../cathen/10402a.htm) give false or [true](../cathen/15073a.htm) accounts regarding them — why did he select these for quotation, rather than some of the other [mysteries](../cathen/10662a.htm), with the explanation of them? For the [mysteries](../cathen/10662a.htm) of [Mithras](../cathen/10402a.htm) do not appear to be more famous among the Greeks than those of Eleusis, or than those in Ægina, where individuals are initiated in the [rites](../cathen/13064b.htm) of Hecate. But if he must introduce barbarian [mysteries](../cathen/10662a.htm) with their explanation, why not rather those of the [Egyptians](../cathen/05329b.htm), which are highly regarded by many, or those of the Cappadocians regarding the Comanian Diana, or those of the Thracians, or even those of the Romans themselves, who initiate the noblest members of their senate? But if he deemed it inappropriate to institute a comparison with any of these, because they furnished no aid in the way of accusing [Jews](../cathen/08399a.htm) or [Christians](../cathen/03712a.htm), why did it not also appear to him inappropriate to adduce the instance of the [mysteries](../cathen/10662a.htm) of [Mithras](../cathen/10402a.htm)? If one wished to obtain means for a profounder [contemplation](../cathen/04324b.htm) of the entrance of [souls](../cathen/14153a.htm) into divine things, not from the statements of that very insignificant [sect](../cathen/13674a.htm) from which he quoted, but from books — partly those of the [Jews](../cathen/08399a.htm), which are read in their [synagogues](../cathen/14379b.htm), and adopted by [Christians](../cathen/03712a.htm), and partly from those of [Christians](../cathen/03712a.htm) alone — let him peruse, at the end of Ezekiel's prophecies, the visions beheld by the [prophet](../cathen/12477a.htm), in which gates of different kinds are enumerated, which obscurely refer to the different modes in which divine [souls](../cathen/14153a.htm) enter into a better world; and let him peruse also, from the Apocalypse of John, what is related of the city of [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), the heavenly Jerusalem, and of its foundations and gates. And if he is capable of finding out also the road, which is indicated by [symbols](../cathen/14373b.htm), of those who will march on to divine things, let him read the book of [Moses](../cathen/10596a.htm) entitled Numbers, and let him seek the help of one who is capable of initiating him into the meaning of the narratives concerning the encampments of the children of [Israel](../cathen/08193a.htm); viz., of what sort those were which were arranged towards the east, as was the case with the first; and what those towards the south-west and south; and what towards the sea; and what the last were, which were stationed towards the north. For he will see that there is in the respective places a meaning not to be lightly treated, nor, as Celsus imagines, such as calls only for silly and servile listeners: but he will distinguish in the encampments certain things relating to the numbers that are enumerated, and which are specially adapted to each tribe, of which the present does not appear to us to be the proper time to speak. Let Celsus [know](../cathen/08673a.htm), moreover, as well as those who read his book, that in no part of the genuine and divinely accredited Scriptures are seven heavens mentioned; neither do our [prophets](../cathen/12477a.htm), nor the [apostles](../cathen/01626c.htm) of [Jesus](../cathen/08374c.htm), nor the [Son of God](../cathen/14142b.htm) Himself, repeat anything which they borrowed from the Persians or the Cabiri. After the instance borrowed from the [Mithraic](../cathen/10402a.htm) [mysteries](../cathen/10662a.htm), Celsus declares that he who would investigate the [Christian](../cathen/03712a.htm) [mysteries](../cathen/10662a.htm), along with the aforesaid Persian, will, on comparing the two together, and on unveiling the [rites](../cathen/13064b.htm) of the [Christians](../cathen/03712a.htm), see in this way the difference between them. Now, wherever he was able to give the names of the various [sects](../cathen/13674a.htm), he was nothing loth to quote those with which he thought himself acquainted; but when he ought most of all to have done this, if they were really [known](../cathen/08673a.htm) to him, and to have informed us which was the [sect](../cathen/13674a.htm) that makes use of the diagram he has drawn, he has not done so. It seems to me, however, that it is from some statements of a very insignificant [sect](../cathen/13674a.htm) called Ophites, which he has misunderstood, that, in my opinion, he has partly borrowed what he says about the diagram. Now, as we have always been animated by a [love](../cathen/09397a.htm) of learning, we have fallen in with this diagram, and we have found in it the representations of men who, as [Paul](../cathen/11567b.htm) says, creep into houses, and lead captive silly The diagram was, however, so destitute of all credibility, that neither these easily deceived [women](../cathen/15687b.htm) laden with [sins](../cathen/14004b.htm), led away with various [lusts](../cathen/09438a.htm); ever learning, and never able to come to the [knowledge](../cathen/08673a.htm) of the [truth](../cathen/15073a.htm). [women](../cathen/15687b.htm), nor the most rustic class of [men](../cathen/09580c.htm), nor those who were ready to be led away by any plausible pretender whatever, ever gave their assent to the diagram. Nor, indeed, have we ever met any individual, although we have visited many parts of the earth, and have sought out all those who anywhere made profession of [knowledge](../cathen/08673a.htm), that placed any [faith](../cathen/05752c.htm) in this diagram. In this diagram were described ten circles, distinct from each other, but united by one circle, which was said to be the [soul](../cathen/14153a.htm) of all things, and was called Leviathan. This Leviathan, the Jewish Scriptures say, whatever they mean by the expression, was created by [God](../cathen/06608a.htm) for a plaything; for we find in the Psalms: In wisdom have You made all things: the earth is full of Your creatures; so is this great and wide sea. There go the ships; small animals with great; there is this dragon, which You have formed to play therein. Instead of the word dragon, the term leviathan is in the Hebrew. This impious diagram, then, said of this leviathan, which is so clearly depreciated by the Psalmist, that it was the [soul](../cathen/14153a.htm) which had travelled through all things! We observed, also, in the diagram, the being named Behemoth, placed as it were under the lowest circle. The inventor of this accursed diagram had inscribed this leviathan at its circumference and centre, thus placing its name in two separate places. Moreover, Celsus says that the diagram was divided by a thick black line, and this line he asserted was called Gehenna, which is Tartarus. Now as we found that Gehenna was mentioned in the [Gospel](../cathen/06655b.htm) as a place of punishment, we searched to see whether it is mentioned anywhere in the ancient Scriptures, and especially because the [Jews](../cathen/08399a.htm) too use the word. And we ascertained that where the valley of the son of Ennom was named in Scripture in the Hebrew, instead of valley, with fundamentally the same meaning, it was termed both the valley of Ennom and also Geenna. And continuing our researches, we find that what was termed Geenna, or the valley of Ennom, was included in the lot of the tribe of Benjamin, in which Jerusalem also was situated. And seeking to ascertain what might be the inference from the heavenly Jerusalem belonging to the lot of Benjamin and the valley of Ennom, we find a certain confirmation of what is said regarding the place of punishment, intended for the purification of such [souls](../cathen/14153a.htm) as are to be purified by torments, agreeably to the saying: The Lord comes like a refiner's fire, and like fullers' soap: and He shall sit as a refiner and purifier of silver and of gold. It is in the precincts of Jerusalem, then, that punishments will be inflicted upon those who undergo the process of purification, who have received into the substance of their [soul](../cathen/14153a.htm) the elements of [wickedness](../cathen/05649a.htm), which in a certain place is figuratively termed lead, and on that account iniquity is represented in Zechariah as sitting upon a talent of lead. But the remarks which might be made on this topic are neither to be made to all, nor to be uttered on the present occasion; for it is not unattended with danger to commit to writing the explanation of such subjects, seeing the multitude need no further instruction than that which relates to the punishment of sinners; while to ascend beyond this is not expedient, for the sake of those who are with difficulty restrained, even by [fear](../cathen/06021a.htm) of [eternal](../cathen/05551b.htm) punishment, from plunging into any degree of [wickedness](../cathen/05649a.htm), and into the flood of [evils](../cathen/05649a.htm) which result from [sin](../cathen/14004b.htm). The doctrine of Geenna, then, is unknown both to the diagram and to Celsus: for had it been otherwise, the framers of the former would not have boasted of their pictures of animals and diagrams, as if the [truth](../cathen/15073a.htm) were represented by these; nor would Celsus, in his treatise against the [Christians](../cathen/03712a.htm), have introduced among the charges directed against them statements which they never uttered instead of what was spoken by some who perhaps are no longer in [existence](../cathen/05543b.htm), but have altogether disappeared, or been reduced to a very few individuals, and these easily counted. And as it does not beseem those who profess the doctrines of [Plato](../cathen/12159a.htm) to offer a defense of [Epicurus](../cathen/05500b.htm) and his impious opinions, so neither is it for us to defend the diagram, or to refute the accusations brought against it by Celsus. We may therefore allow his charges on these points to pass as superfluous and useless, for we would censure more severely than Celsus any who should be carried away by such opinions. After the matter of the diagram, he brings forward certain monstrous statements, in the form of question and answer, regarding what is called by [ecclesiastical](../cathen/03744a.htm) writers the seal, statements which did not arise from imperfect information; such as that he who impresses the seal is called father, and he who is sealed is called young man and son; and who answers, I have been anointed with white ointment from the tree of life,— things which we never heard to have occurred even among the [heretics](../cathen/07256b.htm). In the next place, he determines even the number mentioned by those who deliver over the seal, as that of seven and he asserts that the [angels](../cathen/01476d.htm), who attach themselves to both sides of the [soul](../cathen/14153a.htm) of the dying body; the one party being named [angels](../cathen/01476d.htm) of light, the others 'archontics;' ruler of those named 'archontics' is termed the 'accursed' god. Then, laying hold of the expression, he assails, not without reason, those who venture to use such language; and on that account we entertain a similar feeling of indignation with those who censure such individuals, if indeed there exist any who call the [God](../cathen/06608a.htm) of the [Jews](../cathen/08399a.htm)— who sends rain and thunder, and who is the Creator of this world, and the [God](../cathen/06608a.htm) of [Moses](../cathen/10596a.htm), and of the cosmogony which he records — an accursed divinity. Celsus, however, appears to have had in view in employing these expressions, not a rational object, but one of a most irrational kind, arising out of his [hatred](../cathen/07149b.htm) towards us, which is so unlike a [philosopher](../cathen/12025c.htm). For his aim was, that those who are unacquainted with our customs should, on perusing his treatise, at once assail us as if we called the noble Creator of this world an accursed divinity. He appears to me, indeed, to have acted like those [Jews](../cathen/08399a.htm) who, when [Christianity](../cathen/03712a.htm) began to be first preached, scattered abroad false reports of the [Gospel](../cathen/06655b.htm), such as that and again, [Christians](../cathen/03712a.htm) offered up an infant in [sacrifice](../cathen/13309a.htm), and partook of its flesh; that the professors of These [Christianity](../cathen/03712a.htm), wishing to do the 'works of darkness,' used to extinguish the lights (in their meetings), and each one to have sexual intercourse with any [woman](../cathen/15687b.htm) whom he chanced to meet. [calumnies](../cathen/03190c.htm) have long exercised, although unreasonably, an influence over the minds of very many, leading those who are aliens to the [Gospel](../cathen/06655b.htm) to [believe](../cathen/02408b.htm) that [Christians](../cathen/03712a.htm) are men of such a character; and even at the present day they mislead some, and prevent them from entering even into the simple intercourse of conversation with those who are [Christians](../cathen/03712a.htm). With some such object as this in view does Celsus seem to have been actuated, when he alleged that [Christians](../cathen/03712a.htm) term the Creator an accursed divinity; in order that he who believes these charges of his against us, should, if possible, arise and exterminate the [Christians](../cathen/03712a.htm) as the most impious of [mankind](../cathen/09580c.htm). Confusing, moreover, things that are distinct, he states also the reason why the [God](../cathen/06608a.htm) of the Mosaic cosmogony is termed accursed, asserting that such is his character, and worthy of execration in the opinion of those who so regard him, inasmuch as he pronounced a curse upon the serpent, who introduced the first Now he ought to have [human](../cathen/09580c.htm) beings to the [knowledge](../cathen/08673a.htm) of good and [evil](../cathen/05649a.htm). [known](../cathen/08673a.htm) that those who have espoused the [cause](../cathen/03459a.htm) of the serpent, because he gave good advice to the first [human](../cathen/09580c.htm) beings, and who go far beyond the Titans and Giants of fable, and are on this account called Ophites, are so far from being [Christians](../cathen/03712a.htm), that they bring accusations against Jesus to as great a degree as Celsus himself; and they do not admit any one into their assembly until he has uttered maledictions against Jesus. See, then, how irrational is the procedure of Celsus, who, in his discourse against the [Christians](../cathen/03712a.htm), represents as such those who will not even listen to the name of [Jesus](../cathen/08374c.htm), or omit even that He was a wise man, or a person of [virtuous](../cathen/15472a.htm) character! What, then, could evince greater folly or [madness](../cathen/08041a.htm), not only on the part of those who wish to derive their name from the serpent as the author of good, but also on the part of Celsus, who thinks that the accusations with which the Ophites are charged, are chargeable also against the [Christians](../cathen/03712a.htm)! Long ago, indeed, that Greek [philosopher](../cathen/12025c.htm) who preferred a state of poverty, and who exhibited the pattern of a [happy](../cathen/07131b.htm) life, showing that he was not excluded from [happiness](../cathen/07131b.htm) although he was possessed of nothing, termed himself a Cynic; while these impious wretches, as not being [human](../cathen/09580c.htm) beings, whose enemy the serpent is, but as being serpents, [pride](../cathen/12405a.htm) themselves upon being called Ophites from the serpent, which is an animal most hostile to and greatly dreaded by man, and boast of one Euphrates as the introducer of these unhallowed opinions. In the next place, as if it were the [Christians](../cathen/03712a.htm) whom he was [calumniating](../cathen/03190c.htm), he continues his accusations against those who termed the [God](../cathen/06608a.htm) of [Moses](../cathen/10596a.htm) and of his law an accursed divinity; and imagining that it is the [Christians](../cathen/03712a.htm) who so speak, he expresses himself thus: What could be more foolish or insane than such senseless wisdom? For what blunder has the Jewish lawgiver committed? And why do you accept, by means, as you say, of a certain allegorical and typical method of interpretation, the cosmogony which he gives, and the law of the Now, by such statements, this illustrious [Jews](../cathen/08399a.htm), while it is with unwillingness, O most impious man, that you give praise to the Creator of the world, who promised to give them all things; who promised to multiply their race to the ends of the earth, and to raise them up from the dead with the same flesh and blood, and who gave inspiration to their [prophets](../cathen/12477a.htm); and, again, you [slander](../cathen/14035b.htm) Him! When you feel the force of such considerations, indeed, you acknowledge that you worship the same [God](../cathen/06608a.htm); but when your teacher Jesus and the Jewish [Moses](../cathen/10596a.htm) give contradictory decisions, you seek another [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), instead of Him, and the Father! [philosopher](../cathen/12025c.htm) Celsus distinctly [slanders](../cathen/14035b.htm) the [Christians](../cathen/03712a.htm), asserting that, when the [Jews](../cathen/08399a.htm) press them hard, they acknowledge the same God as they do; but that when Jesus legislates differently from [Moses](../cathen/10596a.htm), they seek another god instead of Him. Now, whether we are conversing with the [Jews](../cathen/08399a.htm), or are alone with ourselves, we [know](../cathen/08673a.htm) of only one and the same [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), whom the [Jews](../cathen/08399a.htm) also worshipped of old time, and still profess to worship as [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), and we are guilty of no impiety towards Him. We do not assert, however, that God will raise men from the dead with the same flesh and blood, as has been shown in the preceding pages; for we do not maintain that the natural body, which is sown in corruption, and in dishonour, and in weakness, will rise again such as it was sown. On such subjects, however, we have spoken at adequate length in the foregoing pages. He next returns to the subject of the Seven ruling Demons, whose names are not found among [Christians](../cathen/03712a.htm), but who, I think, are accepted by the Ophites. We found, indeed, that in the diagram, which on their account we procured a sight of, the same order was laid down as that which Celsus has given. Celsus says that the goat was shaped like a lion, not mentioning the name given him by those who are [truly](../cathen/15073a.htm) the most impious of individuals; whereas we discovered that He who is honoured in [holy](../cathen/07386a.htm) Scripture as the [angel](../cathen/01476d.htm) of the Creator is called by this accursed diagram Michael the Lion-like. Again, Celsus says that the second in order is a bull; whereas the diagram which we possessed made him to be Suriel, the bull-like. Further, Celsus termed the third an amphibious sort of animal, and one that hissed frightfully; while the diagram described the third as Raphael, the serpent-like. Moreover, Celsus asserted that the fourth had the form of an eagle; the diagram representing him as Gabriel, the eagle-like. Again, the fifth, according to Celsus, had the countenance of a bear; and this, according to the diagram, was Thauthabaoth, the bear-like. Celsus continues his account, that the sixth was described as having the face of a dog; and him the diagram called Erataoth. The seventh, he adds, had the countenance of an ass, and was named Thaphabaoth or Onoel; whereas we discovered that in the diagram he is called Onoel, or Thartharaoth, being somewhat asinine in appearance. We have thought it proper to be exact in stating these matters, that we might not appear to be [ignorant](../cathen/07648a.htm) of those things which Celsus professed to [know](../cathen/08673a.htm), but that we [Christians](../cathen/03712a.htm), [knowing](../cathen/08673a.htm) them better than he, may demonstrate that these are not the words of [Christians](../cathen/03712a.htm), but of those who are altogether alienated from [salvation](../cathen/13407a.htm), and who neither acknowledge Jesus as Saviour, nor [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), nor Teacher, nor [Son of God](../cathen/14142b.htm). Moreover, if any one would wish to become acquainted with the artifices of those sorcerers, through which they desire to lead men away by their teaching (as if they possessed the [knowledge](../cathen/08673a.htm) of certain secret [rites](../cathen/13064b.htm)), but are not at all successful in so doing, let him listen to the instruction which they receive after passing through what is termed the fence of — gates which are subjected to the world of ruling spirits. (The following, then, is the manner in which they proceed): [wickedness](../cathen/05649a.htm), I salute the one-formed king, the bond of blindness, complete oblivion, the first power, preserved by the spirit of They say also that the beginnings of the Ogdoad are derived from this. In the next place, they are taught to say as follows, while passing through what they call Ialdabaoth: [providence](../cathen/12510a.htm) and by wisdom, from whom I am sent forth pure, being already part of the light of the son and of the father: [grace](../cathen/06689a.htm) be with me; yea, O father, let it be with me. You, O first and seventh, who art born to command with confidence, you, O Ialdabaoth, who art the rational ruler of a pure They say, moreover, that the star Phænon is in sympathy with the lion-like ruler. They next [mind](../cathen/10321a.htm), and a perfect work to son and father, bearing the [symbol](../cathen/14373b.htm) of life in the character of a type, and opening to the world the gate which you closed against your kingdom, I pass again in freedom through your realm. Let [grace](../cathen/06689a.htm) be with me; yea, O father, let it be with me. [imagine](../cathen/07672a.htm) that he who has passed through Ialdabaoth and arrived at Iao ought thus to speak: You, O second Iao, who shines by night, who art the ruler of the secret They next come to Sabaoth, to whom they think the following should be addressed: [mysteries](../cathen/10662a.htm) of son and father, first prince of death, and portion of the innocent, bearing now my own beard as [symbol](../cathen/14373b.htm), I am ready to pass through your realm, having strengthened him who is born of you by the living word. Grace be with me; father, let it be with me. O governor of the fifth realm, powerful Sabaoth, defender of the law of your creatures, who are liberated by your And after Sabaoth they come to Astaphæus, to whom they [grace](../cathen/06689a.htm) through the help of a more powerful Pentad, admit me, seeing the faultless [symbol](../cathen/14373b.htm) of their art, preserved by the stamp of an image, a body liberated by a Pentad. Let [grace](../cathen/06689a.htm) be with me, O father, let [grace](../cathen/06689a.htm) be with me. [believe](../cathen/02408b.htm) the following [prayer](../cathen/12345b.htm) should be offered: O Astaphæus, ruler of the third gate, overseer of the first principle of water, look upon me as one of your initiated, admit me who am purified with the spirit of a After him comes Aloæus, who is to be thus addressed: [virgin](../cathen/15458a.htm), you who sees the [essence](../cathen/05543b.htm) of the world. Let [grace](../cathen/06689a.htm) be with me, O father, let [grace](../cathen/06689a.htm) be with me. O Aloæus, governor of the second gate, let me pass, seeing I bring to you the And last of all they name Horæus, and think that the following [symbol](../cathen/14373b.htm) of your mother, a [grace](../cathen/06689a.htm) which is hidden by the powers of the realms. Let [grace](../cathen/06689a.htm) be with me, O father, let it be with me. [prayer](../cathen/12345b.htm) ought to be offered to him: You who fearlessly leaped over the rampart of fire, O Horæus, who obtained the government of the first gate, let me pass, seeing you behold the [symbol](../cathen/14373b.htm) of your own power, sculptured on the figure of the tree of life, and formed after this image, in the likeness of innocence. Let [grace](../cathen/06689a.htm) be with me, O father, let [grace](../cathen/06689a.htm) be with me. The supposed great learning of Celsus, which is composed, however, rather of curious trifles and silly talk than anything else, has made us touch upon these topics, from a wish to show to every one who peruses his treatise and our reply, that we have no lack of information on those subjects, from which he takes occasion to [calumniate](../cathen/03190c.htm) the [Christians](../cathen/03712a.htm), who neither are acquainted with, nor concern themselves about, such matters. For we, too, desired both to learn and set forth these things, in order that sorcerers might not, under pretext of [knowing](../cathen/08673a.htm) more than we, delude those who are easily carried away by the glitter of names. And I could have given many more illustrations to show that we are acquainted with the opinions of these deluders, and that we disown them, as being alien to ours, and impious, and not in harmony with the doctrines of [true](../cathen/15073a.htm) [Christians](../cathen/03712a.htm), of which we are ready to make confession even to the death. It must be noticed, too, that those who have drawn up this array of fictions, have, from neither understanding magic, nor discriminating the meaning of [holy](../cathen/07386a.htm) Scripture, thrown everything into confusion; seeing that they have borrowed from magic the names of Ialdabaoth, and Astaphæus, and Horæus, and from the Hebrew Scriptures him who is termed in Hebrew Iao or Jah, and Sabaoth, and Adonæus, and Eloæus. Now the names taken from the [Scriptures](../bible/index.html) are names of one and the same [God](../cathen/06608a.htm); which, not being understood by the enemies of [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), as even themselves acknowledge, led to their imagining that Iao was a different [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), and Sabaoth another, and Adonæus, whom the [Scriptures](../bible/index.html) term Adonai, a third besides, and that Eloæus, whom the [prophets](../cathen/12477a.htm) name in Hebrew Eloi, was also different Celsus next relates other fables, to the effect that certain We found also in the diagram which we possessed, and which Celsus called the [persons](../cathen/11726a.htm) return to the shapes of the archontics, so that some are called lions, others bulls, others dragons, or eagles, or bears, or dogs. square pattern, the statements made by these unhappy beings concerning the gates of Paradise. The flaming sword was depicted as the diameter of a flaming circle, and as if mounting guard over the tree of [knowledge](../cathen/08673a.htm) and of life. Celsus, however, either would not or could not repeat the harangues which, according to the fables of these impious individuals, are represented as spoken at each of the gates by those who pass through them; but this we have done in order to show to Celsus and those who read his treatise, that we [know](../cathen/08673a.htm) the depth of these unhallowed [mysteries](../cathen/10662a.htm), and that they are far removed from the worship which [Christians](../cathen/03712a.htm) offer up to [God](../cathen/06608a.htm). After finishing the foregoing, and those analogous matters which we ourselves have added, Celsus continues as follows: They continue to heap together one thing after another — discourses of In using such language as this, Celsus appears to me to confuse together matters which he has imperfectly heard. For it seems likely that, even supposing that he had heard a few words traceable to some existing [prophets](../cathen/12477a.htm), and circles upon circles, and effluents from an earthly church, and from [circumcision](../cathen/03777a.htm); and a power flowing from one Prunicos, a [virgin](../cathen/15458a.htm) and a living [soul](../cathen/14153a.htm); and a heaven slain in order to live, and an earth slaughtered by the sword, and many [put to death](../cathen/12565a.htm) that they may live, and death ceasing in the world, when the [sin](../cathen/14004b.htm) of the world is dead; and, again, a narrow way, and gates that open spontaneously. And in all their writings (is mention made) of the tree of life, and a resurrection of the flesh by means of the 'tree,' because, I [imagine](../cathen/07672a.htm), their teacher was nailed to a cross, and was a carpenter by craft; so that if he had chanced to have been cast from a precipice, or thrust into a pit, or suffocated by hanging, or had been a leather-cutter, or stone-cutter, or worker in iron, there would have been (invented) a precipice of life beyond the heavens, or a pit of resurrection, or a cord of [immortality](../cathen/07687a.htm), or a blessed stone, or an iron of [love](../cathen/09397a.htm), or a sacred leather! Now what old [woman](../cathen/15687b.htm) would not be ashamed to utter such things in a whisper, even when making stories to lull an infant to sleep? [heresy](../cathen/07256b.htm), he did not clearly understand the meaning intended to be conveyed; but heaping the words together, he wished to show before those who [knew](../cathen/08673a.htm) nothing either of our opinions or of those of the [heretics](../cathen/07256b.htm), that he was acquainted with all the doctrines of the [Christians](../cathen/03712a.htm). And this is evident also from the foregoing words. It is our practice, indeed, to make use of the words of the [prophets](../cathen/12477a.htm), who demonstrate that [Jesus](../cathen/08374c.htm) is the Christ predicted by them, and who show from the prophetic writings the events in the [Gospels](../cathen/06655b.htm) regarding Jesus have been fulfilled. But when Celsus speaks of circles upon circles, (he perhaps borrowed the expression) from the aforementioned [heresy](../cathen/07256b.htm), which includes in one circle (which they call the [soul](../cathen/14153a.htm) of all things, and Leviathan) the seven circles of archontic [demons](../cathen/04710a.htm), or perhaps it arises from misunderstanding the preacher, when he says: The wind goes in a circle of circles, and returns again upon its circles. The expression, too, effluents of an earthly church and of was probably taken from the fact that the church on earth was called by some an effluent from a heavenly church and a better world; and that the [circumcision](../cathen/03777a.htm), [circumcision](../cathen/03777a.htm) described in the law was a [symbol](../cathen/14373b.htm) of the [circumcision](../cathen/03777a.htm) performed there, in a certain place set apart for purification. The adherents of [Valentinus](../cathen/15256a.htm), moreover, in keeping with their system of [error](../cathen/05525a.htm), give the name of Prunicos to a certain kind of wisdom, of which they would have the [woman](../cathen/15687b.htm) afflicted with the twelve years' issue of blood to be the [symbol](../cathen/14373b.htm); so that Celsus, who confuses together all sorts of opinions — Greek, Barbarian, and Heretical — having heard of her, asserted that it was a power flowing forth from one Prunicos, a [virgin](../cathen/15458a.htm). The living again, is perhaps mysteriously referred by some of the followers of [soul](../cathen/14153a.htm), [Valentinus](../cathen/15256a.htm) to the being whom they term the psychic creator of the world; or perhaps, in contradistinction to a dead [soul](../cathen/14153a.htm), the living [soul](../cathen/14153a.htm) is termed by some, not inelegantly, the [soul](../cathen/14153a.htm) of him who is saved. I [know](../cathen/08673a.htm) nothing, however, of a heaven which is said to be slain, or of an earth slaughtered by the sword, or of many [persons](../cathen/11726a.htm) slain in order that they might live; for it is not unlikely that these were coined by Celsus out of his own brain. We would say, moreover, that death ceases in the world when the [sin](../cathen/14004b.htm) of the world dies, referring the saying to the mystical words of the apostle, which run as follows: When He shall have put all enemies under His feet, then the last enemy that shall be destroyed is death. And also: When this corruptible shall have put on incorruption, then shall be brought to pass the saying that is written, Death is swallowed up in victory. The strait descent, again, may perhaps be referred by those who hold the doctrine of transmigration of [souls](../cathen/14153a.htm) to that view of things. And it is not incredible that the gates which are said to open spontaneously are referred obscurely by some to the words, Open to me the gates of righteousness, that I may go into them, and praise the Lord; this gate of the Lord, into it the righteous shall enter; and again, to what is said in the ninth psalm, You that lifts me up from the gates of death, that I may show forth all Your praise in the gates of the daughter of Zion. The Scripture further gives the name of gates of death to those [sins](../cathen/14004b.htm) which lead to destruction, as it terms, on the contrary, good actions the gates of Zion. So also the gates of righteousness, which is an equivalent expression to the gates of and these are ready to be opened to him who follows after [virtue](../cathen/15472a.htm), [virtuous](../cathen/15472a.htm) pursuits. The subject of the tree of life will be more appropriately explained when we interpret the statements in the book of Genesis regarding the paradise planted by [God](../cathen/06608a.htm). Celsus, moreover, has often mocked at the subject of a resurrection, — a doctrine which he did not comprehend; and on the present occasion, not satisfied with what he has formerly said, he adds, And there is said to be a resurrection of the flesh by means of the tree; not understanding, I think, the [symbolic](../cathen/14373b.htm) expression, that through the tree came death, and through the tree comes life, because death was in Adam, and life in [Christ](../cathen/08374c.htm). He next scoffs at the tree, assailing it on two grounds, and saying, For this reason is the tree introduced, either because our teacher was nailed to a cross, or because he was a carpenter by trade; not observing that the tree of life is mentioned in the Mosaic writings, and being blind also to this, that in none of the [Gospels](../cathen/06655b.htm) current in the Churches is Jesus Himself ever described as being a carpenter. Celsus, moreover, thinks that we have invented this tree of life to give an allegorical meaning to the cross; and in consequence of his [error](../cathen/05525a.htm) upon this point, he adds: If he had happened to be cast down a precipice, or shoved into a pit, or suffocated by hanging, there would have been invented a precipice of life far beyond the heavens, or a pit of resurrection, or a cord of And again: [immortality](../cathen/07687a.htm). If the 'tree of life' were an invention, because he — Jesus — (is reported) to have been a carpenter, it would follow that if he had been a leather-cutter, something would have been said about Now, who does not see at once the paltry nature of his charge, in thus [holy](../cathen/07386a.htm) leather; or had he been a stone-cutter, about a blessed stone; or if a worker in iron, about an iron of [love](../cathen/09397a.htm). [calumniating](../cathen/03190c.htm) men whom he professed to convert on the ground of their being deceived? And after these remarks, he goes on to speak in a way quite in harmony with the tone of those who have invented the fictions of lion-like, and ass-headed, and serpent-like ruling [angels](../cathen/01476d.htm), and other similar absurdities, but which does not affect those who belong to the [Church](../cathen/03744a.htm). Of a [truth](../cathen/15073a.htm), even a drunken old [woman](../cathen/15687b.htm) would be ashamed to chaunt or whisper to an infant, in order to lull him to sleep, any such fables as those have done who invented the beings with asses' heads, and the harangues, so to speak, which are delivered at each of the gates. But Celsus is not acquainted with the doctrines of the members of the [Church](../cathen/03744a.htm), which very few have been able to comprehend, even of those who have devoted all their lives, in conformity with the command of [Jesus](../cathen/08374c.htm), to the searching of the [Scriptures](../bible/index.html), and have laboured to investigate the meaning of the sacred books, to a greater degree than Greek [philosophers](../cathen/12025c.htm) in their efforts to attain a so-called wisdom. Our noble (friend), moreover, not satisfied with the objections which he has drawn from the diagram, desires, in order to strengthen his accusations against us, who have nothing in common with it, to introduce certain other charges, which he adduces from the same ( [heretics](../cathen/07256b.htm)), but yet as if they were from a different source. His words are: And that is not the least of their marvels, for there are between the upper circles — those that are above the heavens — certain inscriptions of which they give the interpretation, and among others two words especially, 'a greater and a less,' which they refer to Father and Son. Now, in the diagram referred to, we found the greater and the lesser circle, upon the diameter of which was inscribed Father and Son; and between the greater circle (in which the lesser was contained) and another composed of two circles — the outer one of which was yellow, and the inner blue — a barrier inscribed in the shape of a hatchet. And above it, a short circle, close to the greater of the two former, having the inscription Love; and lower down, one touching the same circle, with the word Life. And on the second circle, which was intertwined with and included two other circles, another figure, like a rhomboid, (entitled) The foresight of wisdom. And within their point of common section was The nature of wisdom. And above their point of common section was a circle, on which was inscribed Knowledge; and lower down another, on which was the inscription, Understanding. We have introduced these matters into our reply to Celsus, to show to our readers that we [know](../cathen/08673a.htm) better than he, and not by mere report, those things, even although we also disapprove of them. Moreover, if those who [pride](../cathen/12405a.htm) themselves upon such matters profess also a kind of magic and sorcery — which, in their opinion, is the summit of wisdom — we, on the other hand, make no affirmation about it, seeing we never have discovered anything of the kind. Let Celsus, however, who has been already often convicted of false [witness](../cathen/15677a.htm) and irrational accusations, see whether he is not guilty of [falsehood](../cathen/05781a.htm) in these also, or whether he has not extracted and introduced into his treatise, statements taken from the writings of those who are foreigners and strangers to our [Christian](../cathen/03712a.htm) [faith](../cathen/05752c.htm). In the next place, speaking of those who employ the arts of magic and sorcery, and who invoke the barbarous names of [demons](../cathen/04710a.htm), he remarks that such [persons](../cathen/11726a.htm) act like those who, in reference to the same things, perform marvels before those who are [ignorant](../cathen/07648a.htm) that the names of [demons](../cathen/04710a.htm) among the Greeks are different from what they are among the Scythians. He then quotes a passage from Herodotus, stating that Apollo is called Gongosyrus by the Scythians; Poseidon, Thagimasada; Aphrodite, Argimpasan; Hestia, Tabiti. Now, he who has the capacity can inquire whether in these matters Celsus and Herodotus are not both wrong; for the Scythians do not understand the same thing as the Greeks, in what relates to those beings which are deemed to be gods. For how is it credible that Apollo should be called Gongosyrus by the Scythians? I do not suppose that Gongosyrus, when transferred into the Greek language, yields the same etymology as Apollo; or that Apollo, in the dialect of the Scythians, has the signification of Gongosyrus. Nor has any such assertion hitherto been made regarding the other names, for the Greeks took occasion from different circumstances and etymologies to give to those who are by them deemed gods the names which they bear; and the Scythians, again, from another set of circumstances; and the same also was the case with the [Persians](../cathen/11712a.htm), or Indians, or [Ethiopians](../cathen/05566a.htm), or Libyans, or with those who delight to bestow names (from fancy), and who do not abide by the just and pure idea of the Creator of all things. Enough, however, has been said by us in the preceding pages, where we wished to demonstrate that Sabaoth and Zeus were not the same deity, and where also we made some remarks, derived from the [holy Scriptures](../bible/index.html), regarding the different dialects. We willingly, then, pass by these points, on which Celsus would make us repeat ourselves. In the next place, again, mixing up together matters which belong to magic and sorcery, and referring them perhaps to no one — because of the non- [existence](../cathen/05543b.htm) of any who practise magic under pretence of a worship of this character, — and yet, perhaps, having in view some who do employ such practices in the presence of the simple (that they may have the appearance of acting by divine power), he adds: What need to number up all those who have taught methods of purification, or expiatory In respect to these matters, reason does not require us to offer any defense, since we are not liable in the slightest degree to suspicions of such a nature. [hymns](../cathen/07595a.htm), or spells for averting [evil](../cathen/05649a.htm), or (the making of) images, or resemblances of [demons](../cathen/04710a.htm), or the various sorts of antidotes against poison (to be found) in clothes, or in numbers, or stones, or plants, or roots, or generally in all kinds of things? After these things, Celsus appears to me to act like those who, in their intense [hatred](../cathen/07149b.htm) of the [Christians](../cathen/03712a.htm), maintain, in the presence of those who are utterly [ignorant](../cathen/07648a.htm) of the [Christian](../cathen/03712a.htm) [faith](../cathen/05752c.htm), that they have actually ascertained that [Christians](../cathen/03712a.htm) devour the flesh of infants, and give themselves without restraint to sexual intercourse with their [women](../cathen/15687b.htm). Now, as these statements have been condemned as falsehoods invented against the [Christians](../cathen/03712a.htm), and this admission made by the multitude and those altogether aliens to our [faith](../cathen/05752c.htm); so would the following statements of Celsus be found to be [calumnies](../cathen/03190c.htm) invented against the [Christians](../cathen/03712a.htm), where he says that he has seen in the hands of certain asserting further, that [presbyters](../cathen/12406a.htm) belonging to our [faith](../cathen/05752c.htm) barbarous books, containing the names and marvellous doings of [demons](../cathen/04710a.htm); these Would, indeed, that all that is said by Celsus against the [presbyters](../cathen/12406a.htm) of our [faith](../cathen/05752c.htm) professed to do no good, but all that was calculated to injure [human](../cathen/09580c.htm) beings. [Christians](../cathen/03712a.htm) was of such a nature as to be refuted by the multitude, who have ascertained by experience that such things are untrue, seeing that most of them have lived as neighbours with the [Christians](../cathen/03712a.htm), and have not even heard of the [existence](../cathen/05543b.htm) of any such alleged practices! In the next place, as if he had forgotten that it was his object to write against the [Christians](../cathen/03712a.htm), he says that, having become acquainted with one Dionysius, an If, now, it had been our purpose to treat of magic, we could have added a few remarks in addition to what we have already said on this topic; but since it is only the more important matters which we have to notice in answer to Celsus, we shall say of magic, that any one who chooses to inquire whether [Egyptian](../cathen/05329b.htm) musician, the latter told him, with respect to magic arts, that it was only over the uneducated and men of corrupt morals that they had any power, while on [philosophers](../cathen/12025c.htm) they were unable to produce any effect, because they were careful to observe a healthy manner of life. [philosophers](../cathen/12025c.htm) were ever led captive by it or not, can read what has been written by Moiragenes regarding the memoirs of the magician and [philosopher](../cathen/12025c.htm) Apollonius of Tyana, in which this individual, who is not a [Christian](../cathen/03712a.htm), but a [philosopher](../cathen/12025c.htm), asserts that some [philosophers](../cathen/12025c.htm) of no mean note were won over by the magic power possessed by Apollonius, and resorted to him as a sorcerer; and among these, I think, he especially mentioned Euphrates and a certain Epicurean. Now we, on the other hand, affirm, and have learned by experience, that they who worship the [God](../cathen/06608a.htm) of all things in conformity with the [Christianity](../cathen/03712a.htm) which comes by Jesus, and who live according to His [Gospel](../cathen/06655b.htm), using night and day, continuously and becomingly, the prescribed [prayers](../cathen/12345b.htm), are not carried away either by magic or [demons](../cathen/04710a.htm). For verily the from all [angel](../cathen/01476d.htm) of the Lord encamps round about them that [fear](../cathen/06021a.htm) Him, and delivers them [evil](../cathen/05649a.htm); and the [angels](../cathen/01476d.htm) of the little ones in the [Church](../cathen/03744a.htm), who are appointed to watch over them, are said always to behold the face of their Father who is in heaven, whatever be the meaning of face or of behold. After these matters, Celsus brings the following charges against us from another quarter: Certain most impious he says, [errors](../cathen/05525a.htm), are committed by them, due to their extreme In the next place, desiring to point out the [ignorance](../cathen/07648a.htm), in which they have wandered away from the meaning of the divine enigmas, creating an adversary to [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), the [devil](../cathen/04764a.htm), and naming him in the Hebrew tongue, [Satan](../cathen/04764a.htm). Now, of a [truth](../cathen/15073a.htm), such statements are altogether of mortal invention, and not even proper to be repeated, viz., that the mighty [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), in His desire to confer good upon men, has yet one counterworking Him, and is helpless. The [Son of God](../cathen/14142b.htm), it follows, is vanquished by the [devil](../cathen/04764a.htm); and being punished by him, teaches us also to despise the punishments which he inflicts, telling us beforehand that [Satan](../cathen/04764a.htm), after appearing to men as He Himself had done, will exhibit great and marvellous works, claiming for himself the [glory](../cathen/06585a.htm) of [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), but that those who wish to keep him at a distance ought to pay no attention to these works of [Satan](../cathen/04764a.htm), but to place their [faith](../cathen/05752c.htm) in Him alone. Such statements are manifestly the words of a deluder, planning and manœuvring against those who are opposed to his views, and who rank themselves against them. enigmas, our mistakes regarding which lead to the introduction of our views concerning [Satan](../cathen/04764a.htm), he continues: The ancients allude obscurely to a certain After having made such statements, and not having got over the difficulty as to the way in which these accounts contain a higher view of things, while our accounts are erroneous copies of them, he continues his abuse of us, remarking that [war](../cathen/15546c.htm) among the gods, Heraclitus speaking thus of it: 'If one must say that there is a general [war](../cathen/15546c.htm) and discord, and that all things are done and administered in strife.' Pherecydes, again, who is much older than Heraclitus, relates a myth of one army drawn up in hostile array against another, and names Kronos as the leader of the one, and Ophioneus of the other, and recounts their challenges and struggles, and mentions that agreements were entered into between them, to the end that whichever party should fall into the ocean should be held as vanquished, while those who had expelled and conquered them should have possession of heaven. The [mysteries](../cathen/10662a.htm) relating to the Titans and Giants also had some such ( [symbolic](../cathen/14373b.htm)) meaning, as well as the [Egyptian](../cathen/05329b.htm) [mysteries](../cathen/10662a.htm) of Typhon, and Horus, and Osiris. these are not like the stories which are related of a And in the same way he understands Homer, as if he referred obscurely to matters similar to those mentioned by Heraclitus, and Pherecydes, and the originators of the [devil](../cathen/04764a.htm), or [demon](../cathen/04710a.htm), or, as he remarks with more [truth](../cathen/15073a.htm), of a man who is an [impostor](../cathen/07698b.htm), who wishes to establish an opposite doctrine. [mysteries](../cathen/10662a.htm) about the Titans and Giants, in those words which Hephæstus addresses to Hera as follows:— Once in your [cause]I felt his matchless might, Hurled headlong downward from the ethereal height. And in those of Zeus to Hera:— Have you forgot, when, bound and fix'd on high, From the vast concave of the spangled sky, I hung you trembling in a golden chain, And all the raging gods opposed in vain? Headlong I hurled them from the Olympian hall, Stunn'd in the whirl, and breathless with the fall. Interpreting, moreover, the words of Homer, he adds: The words of Zeus addressed to Hera are the words of God addressed to matter; and the words addressed to matter obscurely signify that the matter which at the beginning was in a state of discord (with God), was taken by Him, and bound together and arranged under These words of Homer, he alleges, were so understood by Pherecydes, when he said that beneath that region is the region of Tartarus, which is guarded by the Harpies and Tempest, daughters of Boreas, and to which Zeus banishes any one of the gods who becomes disorderly. With the same ideas also are closely connected the peplos of Athena, which is beheld by all in the procession of the Panathenæa. For it is manifest from this, he continues, that a motherless and unsullied [laws](../cathen/09053a.htm), which may be analogically compared to chains; and that by way of chastising the [demons](../cathen/04710a.htm) who create disorder in it, he hurls them down headlong to this lower world. [demon](../cathen/04710a.htm) has the mastery over the daring of the Giants. While accepting, moreover, the fictions of the Greeks, he continues to heap against us such accusations as the following, viz., that the [Son of God](../cathen/14142b.htm) is punished by the [devil](../cathen/04764a.htm), and teaches us that we also, when punished by him, ought to endure it. Now these statements are altogether ridiculous. For it is the [devil](../cathen/04764a.htm), I think, who ought rather to be punished, and those [human](../cathen/09580c.htm) beings who are [calumniated](../cathen/03190c.htm) by him ought not to be threatened with chastisement. Mark now, whether he who charges us with having committed [errors](../cathen/05525a.htm) of the most impious kind, and with having wandered away from the ( [true](../cathen/15073a.htm) meaning) of the divine enigmas, is not himself clearly in [error](../cathen/05525a.htm), from not observing that in the writings of [Moses](../cathen/10596a.htm), which are much older not merely than Heraclitus and Pherecydes, but even than Homer, mention is made of this [wicked](../cathen/05649a.htm) one, and of his having fallen from heaven. For the serpent — from whom the Ophioneus spoken of by Pherecydes is derived — having become the [cause](../cathen/03459a.htm) of [man's](../cathen/09580c.htm) expulsion from the divine Paradise, obscurely shadows forth something similar, having deceived the [woman](../cathen/15687b.htm) by a promise of divinity and of greater blessings; and her example is said to have been followed also by the man. And, further, who else could the destroying [angel](../cathen/01476d.htm) mentioned in the Exodus of [Moses](../cathen/10596a.htm) be, than he who was the author of destruction to them that [obeyed](../cathen/11181c.htm) him, and did not withstand his [wicked](../cathen/05649a.htm) [deeds](../cathen/01115a.htm), nor struggle against them? Moreover (the goat), which in the book of Leviticus is sent away (into the wilderness), and which in the Hebrew language is named Azazel, was none other than this; and it was necessary to send it away into the [desert](../cathen/04749a.htm), and to treat it as an expiatory [sacrifice](../cathen/13309a.htm), because on it the lot fell. For all who belong to the worse part, on account of their [wickedness](../cathen/05649a.htm), being opposed to those who are God's heritage, are deserted by [God](../cathen/06608a.htm). Nay, with respect to the sons of [Belial](../cathen/02408a.htm) in the book of Judges, whose sons are they said to be, save his, on account of their [wickedness](../cathen/05649a.htm)? And besides all these instances, in the book of Job, which is older even than [Moses](../cathen/10596a.htm) himself, the [devil](../cathen/04764a.htm) is distinctly described as presenting himself before [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), and asking for power against Job, that he might involve him in trials of the most painful kind; the first of which consisted in the loss of all his goods and of his children, and the second in afflicting the whole body of Job with the so-called disease of elephantiasis. I pass by what might be quoted from the [Gospels](../cathen/06655b.htm) regarding the [devil](../cathen/04764a.htm) who tempted the [Saviour](../cathen/08374c.htm), that I may not appear to quote in reply to Celsus from more recent writings on this question. In the last (chapter) also of Job, in which the Lord utters to Job amid tempest and clouds what is recorded in the book which bears his name, there are not a few things referring to the serpent. I have not yet mentioned the passages in Ezekiel, where he speaks, as it were, of [Pharaoh](../cathen/11788c.htm), or [Nebuchadnezzar](../cathen/10666c.htm), or the prince of [Tyre](../cathen/15109a.htm); or those in Isaiah, where lament is made for the king of [Babylon](../cathen/02179b.htm), from which not a little might be learned concerning [evil](../cathen/05649a.htm), as to the [nature](../cathen/10715a.htm) of its origin and generation, and as to how it derived its [existence](../cathen/05543b.htm) from some who had lost their wings, and who had followed him who was the first to lose his own. For it is impossible that the good which is the result of accident, or of communication, should be like that good which comes by nature; and yet the former will never be lost by him who, so to speak, partakes of the living bread with a view to his own preservation. But if it should fail any one, it must be through his own fault, in being [slothful](../cathen/14057c.htm) to partake of this living bread and genuine drink, by means of which the wings, nourished and watered, are fitted for their purpose, even according to the saying of Solomon, the wisest of [men](../cathen/09580c.htm), concerning the [truly](../cathen/15073a.htm) rich man, that he made to himself wings like an eagle, and returns to the house of his patron. For it became [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), who [knows](../cathen/08673a.htm) how to turn to proper account even those who in their [wickedness](../cathen/05649a.htm) have [apostatized](../cathen/01624b.htm) from Him, to place [wickedness](../cathen/05649a.htm) of this sort in some part of the [universe](../cathen/15183a.htm), and to appoint a training-school of [virtue](../cathen/15472a.htm), wherein those must exercise themselves who would desire to recover in a lawful manner the possession (which they had lost); in order that being tested, like gold in the fire, by the [wickedness](../cathen/05649a.htm) of these, and having exerted themselves to the utmost to prevent anything base injuring their rational nature, they may appear deserving of an ascent to divine things, and may be elevated by the Word to the blessedness which is above all things, and so to speak, to the very summit of goodness. Now he who in the Hebrew language is named [Satan](../cathen/04764a.htm), and by some Satanas — as being more in conformity with the genius of the Greek language — signifies, when translated into Greek, adversary. But every one who prefers [vice](../cathen/15403c.htm) and a vicious life, is (because acting in a manner contrary to [virtue](../cathen/15472a.htm)) Satanas, that is, an adversary to the [Son of God](../cathen/14142b.htm), who is righteousness, and [truth](../cathen/15073a.htm), and wisdom. With more propriety, however, is he called adversary, who was the first among those that were living a peaceful and [happy](../cathen/07131b.htm) life to lose his wings, and to fall from blessedness; he who, according to Ezekiel, walked faultlessly in all his ways, until iniquity was found in him, and who being the seal of resemblance and the crown of beauty in the paradise of [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), being filled as it were with [good](../cathen/06636b.htm) things, fell into destruction, in accordance with the word which said to him in a mystic sense: You have fallen into destruction, and shall not abide forever. We have ventured somewhat rashly to make these few remarks, although in so doing we have added nothing of importance to this treatise. If any one, however, who has leisure for the examination of the sacred writings, should collect together from all sources and form into one body of doctrine what is recorded concerning the origin of [evil](../cathen/05649a.htm), and the manner of its dissolution, he would see that the views of [Moses](../cathen/10596a.htm) and the [prophets](../cathen/12477a.htm) regarding [Satan](../cathen/04764a.htm) had not been even dreamed of either by Celsus or any one of those whose [soul](../cathen/14153a.htm) had been dragged down, and torn away from [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), and from right views of Him, and from His word, by this [wicked](../cathen/05649a.htm) [demon](../cathen/04710a.htm). But since Celsus rejects the statements concerning [Antichrist](../cathen/01559a.htm), as it is termed, having neither read what is said of him in the book of Daniel nor in the writings of [Paul](../cathen/11567b.htm), nor what the Saviour in the [Gospels](../cathen/06655b.htm) has predicted about his coming, we must make a few remarks upon this subject also; because, as faces do not resemble faces, so also neither do men's hearts resemble one another. It is certain, then, that there will be diversities among the hearts of [men](../cathen/09580c.htm) — those which are inclined to [virtue](../cathen/15472a.htm) not being all modelled and shaped towards it in the same or like degree; while others, through neglect of [virtue](../cathen/15472a.htm), rush to the opposite extreme. And among the latter are some in whom [evil](../cathen/05649a.htm) is deeply engrained, and others in whom it is less deeply rooted. Where is the absurdity, then, in holding that there exist among [men](../cathen/09580c.htm), so to speak, two extremes, — the one of [virtue](../cathen/15472a.htm), and the other of its opposite; so that the perfection of [virtue](../cathen/15472a.htm) dwells in the man who realizes the ideal given in Jesus, from whom there flowed to the [human race](../cathen/09580c.htm) so great a conversion, and healing, and amelioration, while the opposite extreme is in the man who embodies the notion of him that is named [Antichrist](../cathen/01559a.htm)? For [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), comprehending all things by means of His foreknowledge, and foreseeing what consequences would result from both of these, wished to make these [known](../cathen/08673a.htm) to [mankind](../cathen/09580c.htm) by His [prophets](../cathen/12477a.htm), that those who understand their words might be familiarized with the [good](../cathen/06636b.htm), and be on their guard against its opposite. It was proper, moreover, that the one of these extremes, and the best of the two, should be styled the [Son of God](../cathen/14142b.htm), on account of His pre-eminence; and the other, who is diametrically opposite, be termed the son of the [wicked](../cathen/05649a.htm) [demon](../cathen/04710a.htm), and of [Satan](../cathen/04764a.htm), and of the [devil](../cathen/04764a.htm). And, in the next place, since [evil](../cathen/05649a.htm) is specially characterized by its diffusion, and attains its greatest height when it simulates the appearance of the [good](../cathen/06636b.htm), for that reason are signs, and marvels, and lying [miracles](../cathen/10338a.htm) found to accompany [evil](../cathen/05649a.htm), through the co-operation of its father the [devil](../cathen/04764a.htm). For, far surpassing the help which these [demons](../cathen/04710a.htm) give to jugglers (who deceive men for the basest of purposes), is the aid which the [devil](../cathen/04764a.htm) himself affords in order to deceive the [human race](../cathen/09580c.htm). [Paul](../cathen/11567b.htm), indeed, speaks of him who is called [Antichrist](../cathen/01559a.htm), describing, though with a certain reserve, both the manner, and time, and [cause](../cathen/03459a.htm) of his coming to the [human race](../cathen/09580c.htm). And notice whether his language on this subject is not most becoming, and undeserving of being treated with even the slightest degree of ridicule. It is thus that the apostle expresses himself: We beseech you, brethren, by the coming of To explain each particular here referred to does not belong to our present purpose. The [our Lord Jesus Christ](../cathen/08374c.htm), and by our gathering together unto Him, that you be not soon shaken in [mind](../cathen/10321a.htm), or be troubled, neither by word, nor by spirit, nor by letter as from us, as that the day of the Lord is at hand. Let no man deceive you by any means: for that day shall not come, except there come a falling away first, and that man of [sin](../cathen/14004b.htm) be revealed, the son of perdition; who opposes and exalts himself above all that is called [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), or that is worshipped; so that he sits in the temple of [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), showing himself that he is [God](../cathen/06608a.htm). Do you not remember that, when I was yet with you, I told you these things? And now you [know](../cathen/08673a.htm) what withholds, that he might be revealed in his time. For the [mystery](../cathen/10662a.htm) of iniquity does already work: only he who now lets will let, until he be taken out of the way. And then shall that Wicked be revealed, whom the Lord shall consume with the spirit of His mouth, and shall destroy with the brightness of His coming: even him, whose coming is after the working of [Satan](../cathen/04764a.htm), with all power, and signs, and lying wonders, and with all deceivableness of unrighteousness in them that perish; because they received not the [love](../cathen/09397a.htm) of the [truth](../cathen/15073a.htm), that they might be saved. And for this [cause](../cathen/03459a.htm) God shall send them strong delusion, that they should [believe](../cathen/02408b.htm) a [lie](../cathen/09469a.htm); that they all might be damned who [believed](../cathen/02408b.htm) not the [truth](../cathen/15073a.htm), but had pleasure in unrighteousness. [prophecy](../cathen/12473a.htm) also regarding [Antichrist](../cathen/01559a.htm) is stated in the book of Daniel, and is fitted to make an intelligent and candid reader admire the words as [truly](../cathen/15073a.htm) divine and prophetic; for in them are mentioned the things relating to the coming kingdom, beginning with the times of Daniel, and continuing to the destruction of the world. And any one who chooses may read it. Observe, however, whether the [prophecy](../cathen/12473a.htm) regarding [Antichrist](../cathen/01559a.htm) be not as follows: And at the latter time of their kingdom, when their What is stated by [sins](../cathen/14004b.htm) are coming to the full, there shall arise a king, bold in countenance, and understanding riddles. And his power shall be great, and he shall destroy wonderfully, and prosper, and practise; and shall destroy mighty men, and the [holy](../cathen/07386a.htm) people. And the yoke of his chain shall prosper: there is craft in his hand, and he shall magnify himself in his heart, and by craft shall destroy many; and he shall stand up for the destruction of many, and shall crush them as eggs in his hand. [Paul](../cathen/11567b.htm) in the words quoted from him, where he says, so that he sits in the temple of is in Daniel referred to in the following fashion: [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), showing himself that he is [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), And on the temple shall be the abomination of desolations, and at the end of the time an end shall be put to the desolation. So many, out of a greater number of passages, have I thought it right to adduce, that the hearer may understand in some slight degree the meaning of [holy](../cathen/07386a.htm) Scripture, when it gives us information concerning the [devil](../cathen/04764a.htm) and [Antichrist](../cathen/01559a.htm); and being satisfied with what we have quoted for this purpose, let us look at another of the charges of Celsus, and reply to it as we best may. Celsus, after what has been said, goes on as follows: I can tell how the very thing occurred, viz., that they should call him ' He is therefore of opinion that we employed the expression [Son of God](../cathen/14142b.htm).' Men of ancient times termed this world, as being born of [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), both his child and his son. Both the one and other ' [Son of God](../cathen/14142b.htm),' then, greatly resembled each other. having perverted what is said of the world, as being born of [Son of God](../cathen/14142b.htm), [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), and being His Son, and a God. For he was unable so to consider the times of [Moses](../cathen/10596a.htm) and the [prophets](../cathen/12477a.htm), as to see that the Jewish [prophets](../cathen/12477a.htm) predicted generally that there was a long before the Greeks and those men of ancient time of whom Celsus speaks. Nay, he would not even quote the passage in the letters of [Son of God](../cathen/14142b.htm) [Plato](../cathen/12159a.htm), to which we referred in the preceding pages, concerning Him who so beautifully arranged this world, as being the [Son of God](../cathen/14142b.htm); lest he too should be compelled by [Plato](../cathen/12159a.htm), whom he often mentions with respect, to admit that the architect of this world is the [Son of God](../cathen/14142b.htm), and that His Father is the first God and Sovereign Ruler over all things. Nor is it at all wonderful if we maintain that the [soul](../cathen/14153a.htm) of [Jesus](../cathen/08374c.htm) is made one with so great a [Son of God](../cathen/14142b.htm) through the highest union with Him, being no longer in a state of separation from Him. For the sacred language of [holy](../cathen/07386a.htm) Scripture [knows](../cathen/08673a.htm) of other things also, which, although dual in their own nature, are considered to be, and really are, one in respect to one another. It is said of husband and wife, They are no longer two, but one flesh; and of the perfect man, and of him who is joined to the [true](../cathen/15073a.htm) Lord, Word, and Wisdom, and Truth, that he who is joined to the Lord is one spirit. And if he who is joined to the Lord is one spirit, who has been joined to the Lord, the Very Word, and Wisdom, and Truth, and Righteousness, in a more intimate union, or even in a manner at all approaching to it than the [soul](../cathen/14153a.htm) of Jesus? And if this be so, then the [soul](../cathen/14153a.htm) of [Jesus](../cathen/08374c.htm) and [God the Word](../cathen/09328a.htm)— the [first-born](../cathen/06081a.htm) of every creature — are no longer two, (but one). In the next place, when the [philosophers](../cathen/12025c.htm) of the Porch, who assert that the [virtue](../cathen/15472a.htm) of [God](../cathen/06608a.htm) and [man](../cathen/09580c.htm) is the same, maintain that the God who is over all things is not happier than their wise man, but that the [happiness](../cathen/07131b.htm) of both is equal, Celsus neither ridicules nor scoffs at their opinion. If, however, [holy](../cathen/07386a.htm) [Scripture](../bible) says that the perfect man is joined to and made one with the Very Word by means of [virtue](../cathen/15472a.htm), so that we infer that the [soul](../cathen/14153a.htm) of [Jesus](../cathen/08374c.htm) is not separated from the [first-born](../cathen/06081a.htm) of all creation, he laughs at Jesus being called not observing what is said of Him with a secret and mystical signification in the [Son of God](../cathen/14142b.htm), [holy Scriptures](../bible/index.html). But that we may win over to the reception of our views those who are willing to accept the inferences which flow from our doctrines, and to be benefited thereby, we say that the [holy Scriptures](../bible/index.html) declare the body of [Christ](../cathen/08374c.htm), animated by the [Son of God](../cathen/14142b.htm), to be the whole [Church](../cathen/03744a.htm) of [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), and the members of this body — considered as a whole — to consist of those who are [believers](../cathen/05769a.htm); since, as a [soul](../cathen/14153a.htm) vivifies and moves the body, which of itself has not the natural power of motion like a living being, so the Word, arousing and moving the whole body, the [Church](../cathen/03744a.htm), to befitting action, awakens, moreover, each individual member belonging to the [Church](../cathen/03744a.htm), so that they do nothing apart from the Word. Since all this, then, follows by a train of reasoning not to be depreciated, where is the difficulty in maintaining that, as the [soul](../cathen/14153a.htm) of [Jesus](../cathen/08374c.htm) is joined in a perfect and inconceivable manner with the very Word, so the person of [Jesus](../cathen/08374c.htm), generally speaking, is not separated from the only-begotten and [first-born](../cathen/06081a.htm) of all creation, and is not a different being from Him? But enough here on this subject. Let us notice now what follows, where, expressing in a single word his opinion regarding the Mosaic cosmogony, without offering, however, a single argument in its support, he finds fault with it, saying: Moreover, their cosmogony is extremely silly. Now, if he had produced some credible [proofs](../cathen/12454c.htm) of its silly character, we should have endeavoured to answer them; but it does not appear to me reasonable that I should be called upon to demonstrate, in answer to his mere assertion, that it is not silly. If any one, however, wishes to see the reasons which led us to accept the Mosaic account, and the arguments by which it may be defended, he may read what we have written upon Genesis, from the beginning of the book up to the passage, And this is the book of the generation of where we have tried to show from the [men](../cathen/09580c.htm), [holy Scriptures](../bible/index.html) themselves what the heaven was which was created in the beginning; and what the earth, and the invisible part of the earth, and that which was without and what the [form](../cathen/06137b.htm); deep was, and the darkness that was upon it; and what the water was, and the which was [Spirit of God](../cathen/07409a.htm) borne over it; and what the light which was created, and what the firmament, as distinct from the heaven which was created in the beginning; and so on with the other subjects that follow. Celsus has also expressed his opinion that the narrative of the [creation](../cathen/04470a.htm) of [man](../cathen/09580c.htm) is exceedingly silly, without stating any [proofs](../cathen/12454c.htm), or endeavouring to answer our arguments; for he had no evidence, in my judgment, which was fitted to overthrow the statement that man has been made in the image of He does not even understand the meaning of the [God](../cathen/06608a.htm). Paradise that was planted by [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), and of the life which man first led in it; and of that which resulted from accident, when man was cast forth on account of his [sin](../cathen/14004b.htm), and was settled opposite the Paradise of delight. Now, as he asserts that these are silly statements, let him turn his attention not merely to each one of them (in general), but to this in particular, He placed the and say whether [cherubim](../cathen/03646c.htm), and the flaming sword, which turned every way, to keep the way of the tree of life, [Moses](../cathen/10596a.htm) wrote these words with no serious object in view, but in the spirit of the writers of the old Comedy, who have sportively related that Prœtus slew Bellerophon, and that Pegasus came from Arcadia. Now their object was to create laughter in composing such stories; whereas it is incredible that he who left behind him [laws](../cathen/09053a.htm) for a whole nation, regarding which he wished to persuade his subjects that they were given by [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), should have written words so little to the purpose, and have said without any meaning, He placed the or made any other statement regarding the [cherubim](../cathen/03646c.htm), and the flaming sword, which turned every way, to keep the way of the tree of life, [creation](../cathen/04470a.htm) of [man](../cathen/09580c.htm), which is the subject of [philosophic](../cathen/12025c.htm) investigation by the Hebrew sages. In the next place, Celsus, after heaping together, simply as mere assertions, the varying opinions of some of the ancients regarding the world, and the origin of [man](../cathen/09580c.htm), alleges that If he had shown, now, how it appeared to him that the [Moses](../cathen/10596a.htm) and the [prophets](../cathen/12477a.htm), who have left to us our books, not [knowing](../cathen/08673a.htm) at all what the [nature](../cathen/10715a.htm) of the world is, and of [man](../cathen/09580c.htm), have woven together a web of sheer nonsense. [holy Scriptures](../bible/index.html) contained sheer nonsense, we should have tried to demolish the arguments which appeared to him to establish their nonsensical character; but on the present occasion, following his own example, we also sportively give it as our opinion that Celsus, [knowing](../cathen/08673a.htm) nothing at all about the [nature](../cathen/10715a.htm) of the meaning and language of the [prophets](../cathen/12477a.htm), composed a work which contained sheer nonsense, and boastfully gave it the title of a And since he makes the statements about the [true](../cathen/15073a.htm) discourse. days of creation ground of accusation — as if he understood them clearly and correctly, some of which elapsed before the creation of light and heaven, and sun, and moon, and stars, and some of them after the creation of these — we shall only make this observation, that [Moses](../cathen/10596a.htm) must then have forgotten that he had said a little before, that in six days the creation of the world had been finished, and that in consequence of this act of forgetfulness he subjoins to these words the following: This is the book of the But it is not in the least credible, that after what he had said respecting the six days, [creation](../cathen/04470a.htm) of [man](../cathen/09580c.htm), in the day when God made the heaven and the earth! [Moses](../cathen/10596a.htm) should immediately add, without a special meaning, the words, in the day that and if any one thinks that these words may be referred to the statement, [God](../cathen/06608a.htm) made the heavens and the earth; In the beginning God made the heaven and the earth, let him observe that before the words, Let there be light, and there was light, and these, it has been stated that [God](../cathen/06608a.htm) called the light day, in the beginning God made the heaven and the earth. On the present occasion, however, it is not our object to enter into an explanation of the subject of intelligent and sensible beings, nor of the manner in which the different kinds of days were allotted to both sorts, nor to investigate the details which belong to the subject, for we should need whole treatises for the exposition of the Mosaic cosmogony; and that work we had already performed, to the best of our ability, a considerable time before the commencement of this answer to Celsus, when we discussed with such measure of capacity as we then possessed the question of the Mosaic cosmogony of the six days. We must keep in [mind](../cathen/10321a.htm), however, that the Word promises to the righteous through the mouth of Isaiah, that days will come when not the sun, but the Lord Himself, will be to them an everlasting light, and God will be their [glory](../cathen/06585a.htm). And it is from misunderstanding, I think, some pestilent [heresy](../cathen/07256b.htm) which gave an erroneous interpretation to the words, Let there be light, as if they were the expression of a wish merely on the part of the Creator, that Celsus made the remark: The Creator did not borrow light from above, like those Misunderstanding, moreover, another impious [persons](../cathen/11726a.htm) who kindle their lamps at those of their neighbours. [heresy](../cathen/07256b.htm), he has said: If, indeed, there did exist an accursed god opposed to the great So far are we from offering a defense of such puerilities, that we desire, on the contrary, distinctly to arraign the statements of these [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), who did this contrary to his approval, why did he lend him the light? [heretics](../cathen/07256b.htm) as erroneous, and to undertake to refute, not those of their opinions with which we are unacquainted, as Celsus does, but those of which we have attained an accurate [knowledge](../cathen/08673a.htm), derived in part from the statements of their own adherents, and partly from a careful perusal of their writings. Celsus proceeds as follows: With regard to the origin of the world and its destruction, whether it is to be regarded as uncreated and indestructible, or as created indeed, but not destructible, or the reverse, I at present say nothing. For this reason we too say nothing on these points, as the work in hand does not require it. Nor do we allege that the Spirit of the universal God mingled itself in things here below as in things alien to itself, as might appear from the expression, The nor do we assert that certain [Spirit of God](../cathen/07409a.htm) moved upon the water; [wicked](../cathen/05649a.htm) devices directed against His Spirit, as if by a different creator from the great [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), and which were tolerated by the Supreme Divinity, needed to be completely frustrated. And, accordingly, I have nothing further to say to those who utter such absurdities; nor to Celsus, who does not refute them with ability. For he ought either not to have mentioned such matters at all, or else, in keeping with that character for philanthropy which he assumes, have carefully set them forth, and then endeavoured to rebut these impious assertions. Nor have we ever heard that the great [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), after giving his spirit to the creator, demands it back again. Proceeding next foolishly to assail these impious assertions, he asks: What god gives anything with the intention of demanding it back? For it is the mark of a needy person to demand back (what he has given), whereas God stands in need of nothing. To this he adds, as if saying something clever against certain parties: Why, when he lent (his spirit), was he He asks, further: [ignorant](../cathen/07648a.htm) that he was lending it to an [evil](../cathen/05649a.htm) being? Why does he pass without notice a [wicked](../cathen/05649a.htm) creator who was counter-working his purposes? In the next place, mixing up together various [heresies](../cathen/07256b.htm), and not observing that some statements are the utterances of one [heretical](../cathen/07256b.htm) [sect](../cathen/13674a.htm), and others of a different one, he brings forward the objections which we raised against [Marcion](../cathen/09645c.htm). And, probably, having heard them from some paltry and [ignorant](../cathen/07648a.htm) individuals, he assails the very arguments which combat them, but not in a way that shows much intelligence. Quoting then our arguments against [Marcion](../cathen/09645c.htm), and not observing that it is against [Marcion](../cathen/09645c.htm) that he is speaking, he asks: Why does he send secretly, and destroy the works which he has created? Why does he secretly employ force, and persuasion, and deceit? Why does he allure those who, as you assert, have been condemned or accused by him, and carry them away like a slave-dealer? Why does he teach them to steal away from their Lord? Why to flee from their father? Why does he claim them for himself against the father's will? Why does he profess to be the father of strange children? To these questions he subjoins the following remark, as if by way of expressing his surprise: Venerable, indeed, is the god who desires to be the father of those sinners who are condemned by another (god), and of the needy, and, as themselves say, of the very offscourings (of men), and who is unable to capture and punish his messenger, who escaped from him! After this, as if addressing us who acknowledge that this world is not the work of a different and strange god, he continues in the following strain: If these are his works, how is it that God created Now it does not appear to me that by these remarks he makes clear what [evil](../cathen/05649a.htm)? And how is it that he cannot persuade and admonish (men)? And how is it that he repents on account of the ingratitude and [wickedness](../cathen/05649a.htm) of men? He finds fault, moreover, with his own handwork, and [hates](../cathen/07149b.htm), and threatens, and destroys his own offspring? Whither can he transport them out of this world, which he himself has made? is; and although there have been among the Greeks many [evil](../cathen/05649a.htm) [sects](../cathen/13674a.htm) who differ as to the [nature](../cathen/10715a.htm) of good and [evil](../cathen/05649a.htm), he hastily concludes, as if it were a consequence of our maintaining that this world also is a work of the universal [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), that in our judgment God is the author of [evil](../cathen/05649a.htm). Let it be, however, regarding [evil](../cathen/05649a.htm) as it may — whether created by [God](../cathen/06608a.htm) or not — it nevertheless follows only as a result when you compare the principal design. And I am greatly surprised if the inference regarding God's authorship of [evil](../cathen/05649a.htm), which he thinks follows from our maintaining that this world also is the work of the universal [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), does not follow too from his own statements. For one might say to Celsus: If these are His works, how is it that God created It is indeed the greatest [evil](../cathen/05649a.htm)? And how is it that He cannot persuade and admonish men? [error](../cathen/05525a.htm) in reasoning to accuse those who are of different opinions of holding unsound doctrines, when the accuser himself is much more liable to the same charge with regard to his own. Let us see, then, briefly what [holy](../cathen/07386a.htm) Scripture has to say regarding good and [evil](../cathen/05649a.htm), and what answer we are to return to the questions, How is it that God created and, [evil](../cathen/05649a.htm)? How is He incapable of persuading and admonishing men? Now, according to [holy](../cathen/07386a.htm) Scripture, properly speaking, [virtues](../cathen/15472a.htm) and [virtuous](../cathen/15472a.htm) actions are good, as, properly speaking, the reverse of these are [evil](../cathen/05649a.htm). We shall be satisfied with quoting on the present occasion some verses from the [thirty-fourth Psalm](../bible/psa033.htm), to the following effect: They that seek the Lord shall not want any good thing. Come, you children, hearken unto me; I will teach you the Now, the injunctions to [fear](../cathen/06021a.htm) of the Lord . What man is he that desires life, and loves many days, that he may see good? Keep your tongue from [evil](../cathen/05649a.htm), and your lips from speaking guile. Depart from [evil](../cathen/05649a.htm), and do good. depart from do not refer either to corporeal [evil](../cathen/05649a.htm), and to do good, [evils](../cathen/05649a.htm) or corporeal blessings, as they are termed by some, nor to external things at all, but to blessings and [evils](../cathen/05649a.htm) of a spiritual kind; since he who departs from such [evils](../cathen/05649a.htm), and performs such [virtuous](../cathen/15472a.htm) actions, will, as one who desires the [true](../cathen/15073a.htm) life, come to the enjoyment of it; and as one loving to see good days, in which the word of righteousness will be the Sun, he will see them, God taking him away from this present and from those [evil](../cathen/05649a.htm) world, [evil](../cathen/05649a.htm) days concerning which [Paul](../cathen/11567b.htm) said: Redeeming the time, because the days are [evil](../cathen/05649a.htm). Passages, indeed, might be found where corporeal and external (benefits) are improperly called good,— those things, viz., which contribute to the natural life, while those which do the reverse are termed It is in this sense that Job says to his wife: [evil](../cathen/05649a.htm). If we have received good at the hand of the Lord, shall we not also receive Since, then, there is found in the sacred Scriptures, in a certain passage, this statement put into the mouth of [evil](../cathen/05649a.htm)! [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), I make peace, and create and again another, where it is said of Him that [evil](../cathen/05649a.htm); — passages which have disturbed many readers of Scripture, who are unable to see what Scripture means by [evil](../cathen/05649a.htm) came down from the Lord to the gate of Jerusalem, the noise of chariots and horsemen, good and — it is probable that Celsus, being perplexed thereby, gave utterance to the question, [evil](../cathen/05649a.htm), How is it that God created or, perhaps, having heard some one discussing the matters relating to it in an [evil](../cathen/05649a.htm)? [ignorant](../cathen/07648a.htm) manner, he made this statement which we have noticed. We, on the other hand, maintain that or [evil](../cathen/05649a.htm), and the actions which proceed from it, were not created by [wickedness](../cathen/05649a.htm), [God](../cathen/06608a.htm). For if God created that which is really [evil](../cathen/05649a.htm), how was it possible that the proclamation regarding (the last) judgment should be confidently announced, which informs us that the [wicked](../cathen/05649a.htm) are to be punished for their [evil deeds](../cathen/14004b.htm) in proportion to the amount of their [wickedness](../cathen/05649a.htm), while those who have lived a [virtuous](../cathen/15472a.htm) life, or performed [virtuous](../cathen/15472a.htm) actions, will be in the enjoyment of blessedness, and will receive rewards from God? I am well aware that those who would daringly assert that these [evils](../cathen/05649a.htm) were created by [God](../cathen/06608a.htm) will quote certain expressions of Scripture (in their support), because we are not able to show one consistent series of passages; for although Scripture (generally) blames the [wicked](../cathen/05649a.htm) and approves of the righteous, it nevertheless contains some statements which, although comparatively few in number, seem to disturb the minds of [ignorant](../cathen/07648a.htm) readers of [holy](../cathen/07386a.htm) Scripture. I have not, however, deemed it appropriate to my present treatise to quote on the present occasion those discordant statements, which are many in number, and their explanations, which would require a long array of [proofs](../cathen/12454c.htm). Evils, then, if those be meant which are properly so called, were not created by [God](../cathen/06608a.htm); but some, although few in comparison with the order of the whole world, have resulted from His principal works, as there follow from the chief works of the carpenter such things as spiral shavings and sawdust, or as architects might appear to be the [cause](../cathen/03459a.htm) of the rubbish which lies around their buildings in the form of the filth which drops from the stones and the plaster. If we speak, however, of what are called corporeal and external [evils](../cathen/05649a.htm) — which are improperly so termed — then it may be granted that there are occasions when some of these have been called into [existence](../cathen/05543b.htm) by [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), in order that by their means the conversion of certain individuals might be effected. And what absurdity would follow from such a course? For as, if we should hear those sufferings improperly termed which are inflicted by fathers, and instructors, and pedagogues upon those who are under their care, or upon patients who are operated upon or cauterized by the surgeons in order to effect a cure, we were to say that a father was ill-treating his son, or pedagogues and instructors their pupils, or physicians their patients, no blame would be laid upon the operators or chastisers; so, in the same way, if God is said to bring upon men such [evils](../cathen/05649a.htm) [evils](../cathen/05649a.htm) for the conversion and cure of those who need this discipline, there would be no absurdity in the view, nor would — which [evils](../cathen/05649a.htm) come down from the Lord upon the gates of Jerusalem, [evils](../cathen/05649a.htm) consist of the punishments inflicted upon the [Israelites](../cathen/08193a.htm) by their enemies with a view to their conversion; nor would one visit with a rod the transgressions of those who forsake the law of the Lord, and their iniquities with stripes; nor could it be said, You have coals of fire to set upon them; they shall be to you a help. In the same way also we explain the expressions, I, who make peace, and create for He calls into [evil](../cathen/05649a.htm); [existence](../cathen/05543b.htm) corporeal or external [evils](../cathen/05649a.htm), while purifying and training those who would not be disciplined by the word and sound doctrine. This, then, is our answer to the question, How is it that God created [evil](../cathen/05649a.htm)? With respect to the question, How is he incapable of persuading and admonishing men? it has been already stated that, if such an objection were really a ground of charge, then the objection of Celsus might be brought against those who accept the doctrine of [providence](../cathen/12510a.htm). Any one might answer the charge that God is incapable of admonishing men; for He conveys His admonitions throughout the whole of Scripture, and by means of those [persons](../cathen/11726a.htm) who, through God's gracious appointment, are the instructors of His hearers. Unless, indeed, some peculiar meaning be understood to attach to the word admonish, as if it signified both to penetrate into the mind of the person admonished, and to make him hear the words of his instructor, which is contrary to the usual meaning of the word. To the objection, How is he incapable of persuading?— which also might be brought against all who [believe](../cathen/02408b.htm) in [providence](../cathen/12510a.htm) — we have to make the following remarks. Since the expression to be persuaded belongs to those words which are termed, so to speak, reciprocal (compare the phrase to shave a when he makes an effort to submit himself to the barber ), there is for this reason needed not merely the effort of him who persuades, but also the submission, so to speak, which is to be yielded to the persuader, or the acceptance of what is said by him. And therefore it must not be said that it is because God is incapable of persuading men that they are not persuaded, but because they will not accept the faithful words of [man](../cathen/09580c.htm), [God](../cathen/06608a.htm). And if one were to apply this expression to men who are the artificers of persuasion, he would not be wrong; for it is possible for a man who has thoroughly learned the principles of rhetoric, and who employs them properly, to do his utmost to persuade, and yet appear to fail, because he cannot overcome the [will](../cathen/15624a.htm) of him who ought to yield to his persuasive arts. Moreover, that persuasion does not come from [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), although persuasive words may be uttered by him, is distinctly taught by [Paul](../cathen/11567b.htm), when he says: This persuasion comes not of him that calls you. Such also is the view indicated by these words: If you be willing and For that one may (really) desire what is addressed to him by one who admonishes, and may become deserving of those promises of God which he hears, it is necessary to secure the [obedient](../cathen/11181c.htm), you shall eat the good of the land; but if you refuse and rebel, a sword shall devour you. [will](../cathen/15624a.htm) of the hearer, and his inclination to what is addressed to him. And therefore it appears to me, that in the book of Deuteronomy the following words are uttered with peculiar emphasis: And now, O [Israel](../cathen/08193a.htm), what does the Lord your God require of you, but to [fear](../cathen/06021a.htm) the Lord your [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), and to walk in all His ways, and to [love](../cathen/09397a.htm) Him, and to keep His commandments? There is next to be answered the following query: And how is it that he repents when men become ungrateful and Now Celsus here [wicked](../cathen/05649a.htm); and finds fault with his own handwork, and [hates](../cathen/07149b.htm), and threatens, and destroys his own offspring? [calumniates](../cathen/03190c.htm) and falsities what is written in the book of Genesis to the following effect: And the Lord quoting words which are not written in Scripture, as if they conveyed the meaning of what was actually written. For there is no mention in these words of the repentance of [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), seeing that the [wickedness](../cathen/05649a.htm) of men upon the earth was increasing, and that every one in his heart carefully meditated to do [evil](../cathen/05649a.htm) continually, was grieved He had made man upon the earth. And God meditated in His heart, and said, I will destroy man, whom I have made, from the face of the earth, both man and beast, and creeping thing, and fowl of the air, because I am grieved that I made them; [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), nor of His blaming and hating His own handwork. And if there is the appearance of God threatening the catastrophe of the deluge, and thus destroying His own children in it, we have to answer that, as the [soul](../cathen/14153a.htm) of man is [immortal](../cathen/07687a.htm), the supposed threatening has for its object the conversion of the hearers, while the destruction of men by the flood is a purification of the earth, as certain among the Greek [philosophers](../cathen/12025c.htm) of no mean repute have indicated by the expression: When the gods purify the earth. And with respect to the transference to God of those anthropopathic phrases, some remarks have been already made by us in the preceding pages. Celsus, in the next place, suspecting, or perhaps seeing clearly enough, the answer which might be returned by those who defend the destruction of men by the deluge, continues: But if he does not destroy his own offspring, whither does he convey them out of this world which he himself created? To this we reply, that God by no means removes out of the whole world, consisting of heaven and earth, those who suffered death by the deluge, but removes them from a life in the flesh, and, having set them free from their bodies, liberates them at the same time from an [existence](../cathen/05543b.htm) upon earth, which in many parts of Scripture it is usual to call the world. In the [Gospel](../cathen/06655b.htm) according to John especially, we may frequently find the regions of earth termed world, as in the passage, He was the as also in this, [true](../cathen/15073a.htm) Light, which lightens every man that comes into the 'world;' In the world you shall have tribulation; but be of good cheer, I have overcome the world. If, then, we understand by removing out of the world a transference from regions on earth, there is nothing absurd in the expression. If, on the contrary, the system of things which consists of heaven and earth be termed world, then those who perished in the deluge are by no means removed out of the so-called world. And yet, indeed, if we have regard to the words, Looking not at the things which are seen, but at the things which are not seen; and also to these, For the invisible things of Him from the creation of the world are clearly seen, being understood by the things that are made, — we might say that he who dwells amid the invisible things, and what are called generally things not seen, is gone out of the world, the Word having removed him hence, and transported him to the heavenly regions, in order to behold all beautiful things. But after this investigation of his assertions, as if his object were to swell his book by many words, he repeats, in different language, the same charges which we have examined a little ago, saying: By far the most silly thing is the distribution of the creation of the world over certain days, before days Now, what difference is there between these words and the following: [existed](../cathen/05543b.htm): for, as the heaven was not yet created, nor the foundation of the earth yet laid, nor the sun yet revolving, how could there be days? Moreover, taking and looking at these things from the beginning, would it not be absurd in the first and greatest God to issue the command, Let this (first thing) come into We answered to the best of our ability this objection to God's [existence](../cathen/05543b.htm), and this second thing, and this (third); and after accomplishing so much on the first day, to do so much more again on the second, and third, and fourth, and fifth, and sixth? commanding this first, second, and third thing to be created, when we quoted the words, He said, and it was done; He commanded, and all things stood fast; remarking that the immediate Creator, and, as it were, very Maker of the world was the Word, the [Son of God](../cathen/14142b.htm); while the Father of the Word, by commanding His own Son — the Word — to create the world, is primarily Creator. And with regard to the creation of the light upon the first day, and of the firmament upon the second, and of the gathering together of the waters that are under the heaven into their several reservoirs on the third (the earth thus causing to sprout forth those (fruits) which are under the control of nature alone ), and of the (great) lights and stars upon the fourth, and of aquatic animals upon the fifth, and of land animals and man upon the sixth, we have treated to the best of our ability in our notes upon Genesis, as well as in the foregoing pages, when we found fault with those who, taking the words in their apparent signification, said that the time of six days was occupied in the creation of the world, and quoted the words: These are the generations of the heavens and of the earth when they were created, in the day that the Lord God made the earth and the heavens. Again, not understanding the meaning of the words, And God ended on the sixth day His works which He had made, and ceased on the seventh day from all His works which He had made: and God blessed the seventh day, and hallowed it, because on it He had ceased from all His works which He had begun to make; and imagining the expression, He ceased on the seventh day, to be the same as this, He rested on the seventh day, he makes the remark: After this, indeed, he is weary, like a very bad workman, who stands in need of rest to refresh himself! For he [knows](../cathen/08673a.htm) nothing of the day of the [Sabbath](../cathen/13287b.htm) and rest of [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), which follows the completion of the world's creation, and which lasts during the duration of the world, and in which all those will keep festival with God who have done all their works in their six days, and who, because they have omitted none of their duties, will ascend to the [contemplation](../cathen/04324b.htm) (of celestial things), and to the assembly of righteous and blessed beings. In the next place, as if either the [Scriptures](../bible/index.html) made such a statement, or as if we ourselves so spoke of God as having rested from fatigue, he continues: It is not in keeping with the fitness of things that the first God should feel fatigue, or work with His hands, or give forth commands. Celsus says, that it is not in keeping with the fitness of things that the first God should feel fatigue. Now we would say that neither does [God the Word](../cathen/09328a.htm) feel fatigue, nor any of those beings who belong to a better and diviner order of things, because the sensation of fatigue is peculiar to those who are in the body. You can examine whether this is [true](../cathen/15073a.htm) of those who possess a body of any kind, or of those who have an earthly body, or one a little better than this. But neither is it consistent with the fitness of things that the first God should work with His own hands. If you understand the words work with His own hands literally, then neither are they applicable to the second [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), nor to any other being partaking of divinity. But suppose that they are spoken in an improper and figurative sense, so that we may translate the following expressions, And the firmament shows forth His handywork, and the heavens are the work of Your hands, and any other similar phrases, in a figurative manner, so far as respects the hands and limbs of Deity, where is the absurdity in the words, And as there is no absurdity in God thus working, so neither is there in His issuing [God](../cathen/06608a.htm) thus working with His own hands? commands; so that what is done at His bidding should be beautiful and praiseworthy, because it was God who commanded it to be performed. Celsus, again, having perhaps misunderstood the words, For the mouth of the Lord has spoken it, or perhaps because some [ignorant](../cathen/07648a.htm) individuals had rashly ventured upon the explanation of such things, and not understanding, moreover, on what principles parts called after the names of the bodily members are assigned to the attributes of [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), asserts: He has neither mouth nor voice. Truly, indeed, God can have no voice, if the voice is a concussion of the air, or a stroke on the air, or a species of air, or any other definition which may be given to the voice by those who are skilled in such matters; but what is called the voice of God is said to be seen as by the people in the passage, [God's](../cathen/06608a.htm) voice And all the people saw the voice of the word [God](../cathen/06608a.htm); saw being taken, agreeably to the custom of Scripture, in a spiritual sense. Moreover, he alleges that but of what things we have [God](../cathen/06608a.htm) possesses nothing else of which we have any [knowledge](../cathen/08673a.htm); [knowledge](../cathen/08673a.htm) he gives no indication. If he means limbs, we agree with him, understanding the things of which we have to be those called corporeal, and pretty generally so termed. But if we are to understand the words [knowledge](../cathen/08673a.htm) of which we have in a universal sense, then there are many things of which we have [knowledge](../cathen/08673a.htm) [knowledge](../cathen/08673a.htm), (and which may be attributed to God); for He possesses [virtue](../cathen/15472a.htm), and blessedness, and divinity. If we, however, put a higher meaning upon the words, of which we have since all that we [knowledge](../cathen/08673a.htm), [know](../cathen/08673a.htm) is less than [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), there is no absurdity in our also admitting that God possesses none of those things of which we have For the attributes which belong to God are far superior to all things with which not merely the [knowledge](../cathen/08673a.htm). [nature](../cathen/10715a.htm) of man is acquainted, but even that of those who have risen far above it. And if he had read the writings of the [prophets](../cathen/12477a.htm), David on the one hand saying, But You are the same, and Malachi on the other, I am (the Lord), and change not, he would have observed that none of us assert that there is any change in [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), either in act or thought. For abiding the same, He administers mutable things according to their nature, and His word elects to undertake their administration. Celsus, not observing the difference between after the image of God and next asserts that the [God's](../cathen/06608a.htm) image, is the image of [first-born](../cathen/06081a.htm) of every creature [God](../cathen/06608a.htm) — the very word and [truth](../cathen/15073a.htm), and also the very wisdom, being the image of His goodness, while man has been created after the image of [God](../cathen/06608a.htm); moreover, that every man whose head is Christ is the image and [glory](../cathen/06585a.htm) of [God](../cathen/06608a.htm) — and further, not observing to which of the characteristics of humanity the expression after the image of God belongs, and that it consists in a nature which never had nor longer has the old man with his being called [deeds](../cathen/01115a.htm), after the image of Him who created it, from its not possessing these qualities, — he maintains: Neither did He make man His image; for God is not such an one, nor like any other species of (visible) being. Is it possible to suppose that the element which is after the image of God should exist in the inferior part — I mean the body — of a compound being like man, because Celsus has explained that to be made after the image of God? For if that which is after the image of God be in the body only, the better part, the [soul](../cathen/14153a.htm), has been deprived of that which is after His image, and this (distinction) exists in the corruptible body — an assertion which is made by none of us. But if that which is after the image of God be in both together, then God must necessarily be a compound being, and consist, as it were, of [soul](../cathen/14153a.htm) and body, in order that the element which is after God's image, the better part, may be in the [soul](../cathen/14153a.htm); while the inferior part, and that which is according to the body, may be in the body — an assertion, again, which is made by none of us. It remains, therefore, that that which is after the image of God must be understood to be in our inner man, which is also renewed, and whose nature it is to be after the image of Him who created it, when a man becomes perfect, as our Father in heaven is perfect, and hears the command, Be and learning the precept, [holy](../cathen/07386a.htm), for I the Lord your God am [holy](../cathen/07386a.htm), Be followers of receives into his [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), [virtuous](../cathen/15472a.htm) [soul](../cathen/14153a.htm) the traits of God's image. The body, moreover, of him who possesses such a [soul](../cathen/14153a.htm) is a temple of [God](../cathen/06608a.htm); and in the [soul](../cathen/14153a.htm) God dwells, because it has been made after His image. Celsus, again, brings together a number of statements, which he gives as admissions on our part, but which no intelligent [Christian](../cathen/03712a.htm) would allow. For not one of us asserts that Nor does He even partake of [God](../cathen/06608a.htm) partakes of form or color. motion, because He stands firm, and His nature is permanent, and He invites the righteous man also to do the same, saying: But as for you, stand here by Me. And if certain expressions indicate a kind of motion, as it were, on His part, such as this, They heard the voice of the Lord God walking in the garden in the cool of the day, we must understand them in this way, that it is by sinners that God is understood as moving, or as we understand the sleep of [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), which is taken in a figurative sense, or His or any other similar attribute. But [anger](../cathen/01489a.htm), For He is partaken of (by others) rather than that Himself partakes of them, and He is partaken of by those who have the [God](../cathen/06608a.htm) does not partake even of substance. [Spirit of God](../cathen/07409a.htm). Our Saviour, also, does not partake of righteousness; but being Himself righteousness, He is partaken of by the righteous. A discussion about substance would be protracted and difficult, and especially if it were a question whether that which is permanent and immaterial be substance properly so called, so that it would be found that God is beyond substance, communicating of His substance, by means of office and power, to those to whom He communicates Himself by His Word, as He does to the [Word](../cathen/09328a.htm) Himself; or even if He is substance, yet He is said be in His nature invisible, in these words respecting our Saviour, who is said to be the image of the invisible while from the term [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), invisible it is indicated that He is immaterial. It is also a question for investigation, whether the only-begotten and is to be called [first-born](../cathen/06081a.htm) of every creature substance of substances, and idea of ideas, and the principle of all things, while above all there is His Father and God. Celsus proceeds to say of God that of Him are all things, abandoning (in so speaking), I [know](../cathen/08673a.htm) not how, all his principles; while our [Paul](../cathen/11567b.htm) declares, that of Him, and through Him, and to Him are all things, showing that He is the beginning of the substance of all things by the words of Him, and the bond of their subsistence by the expression through Him, and their final end by the terms to Him. Of a [truth](../cathen/15073a.htm), God is of nothing. But when Celsus adds, that He is not to be reached by word, I make a distinction, and say that if he means the word that is in us— whether the word conceived in the [mind](../cathen/10321a.htm), or the word that is uttered — I, too, admit that God is not to be reached by word. If, however, we attend to the passage, In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with we are of opinion that God is to be reached by this Word, and is comprehended not by Him only, but by any one whatever to whom He may reveal the Father; and thus we shall prove the falsity of the assertion of Celsus, when he says, [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), and the Word was [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), Neither is God to be reached by word. The statement, moreover, that He cannot be expressed by name, requires to be taken with a distinction. If he means, indeed, that there is no word or sign that can represent the attributes of [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), the statement is [true](../cathen/15073a.htm), since there are many qualities which cannot be indicated by words. Who, for example, could describe in words the difference between the quality of sweetness in a palm and that in a fig? And who could distinguish and set forth in words the peculiar qualities of each individual thing? It is no wonder, then, if in this way God cannot be described by name. But if you take the phrase to mean that it is possible to represent by words something of God's attributes, in order to lead the hearer by the hand, as it were, and so enable him to comprehend something of [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), so far as attainable by [human](../cathen/09580c.htm) [nature](../cathen/10715a.htm), then there is no absurdity in saying that He can be described by name. And we make a similar distinction with regard to the expression, for He has undergone no suffering that can be conveyed by words. It is [true](../cathen/15073a.htm) that the Deity is beyond all suffering. And so much on this point. Let us look also at his next statement, in which he introduces, as it were, a certain person, who, after hearing what has been said, expresses himself in the following manner, How, then, shall I He then answers, as it were, the individual who is thus perplexed, and thinks that he assigns the reason why darkness has been poured upon the eyes of him who uttered the foregoing words, when he asserts that [know](../cathen/08673a.htm) God? And how shall I learn the way that leads to Him? And how will you show Him to me? Because now, indeed, you throw darkness before my eyes, and I see nothing distinctly. those whom one would lead forth out of darkness into the brightness of light, being unable to withstand its splendours, have their power of vision affected and injured, and so In answer to this, we would say that all those indeed sit in darkness, and are rooted in it, who fix their gaze upon the [imagine](../cathen/07672a.htm) that they are smitten with blindness. [evil](../cathen/05649a.htm) handiwork of painters, and moulders and sculptors, and who will not look upwards, and ascend in thought from all visible and sensible things, to the Creator of all things, who is light; while, on the other hand, every one is in light who has followed the radiance of the Word, who has shown in consequence of what [ignorance](../cathen/07648a.htm), and impiety, and want of [knowledge](../cathen/08673a.htm) of divine things these objects were worshipped instead of [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), and who has conducted the [soul](../cathen/14153a.htm) of him who desires to be saved towards the uncreated [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), who is over all. For the people that sat in darkness — the — the God Jesus. No [Gentiles](../cathen/06422a.htm)— saw a great light, and to them who sat in the region and shadow of death light is sprung up, [Christian](../cathen/03712a.htm), then, would give Celsus, or any accuser of the divine Word, the answer, How shall I for each one of them [know](../cathen/08673a.htm) God? [knows](../cathen/08673a.htm) God according to his capacity. And no one asks, How shall I learn the way which leads to Him? because he has heard Him who says, I am the way, and the and has tasted, in the course of the journey, the [truth](../cathen/15073a.htm), and the life, [happiness](../cathen/07131b.htm) which results from it. And not a single [Christian](../cathen/03712a.htm) would say to Celsus, How will you show me God? The remark, indeed, was [true](../cathen/15073a.htm) which Celsus made, that any one, on hearing his words, would answer, seeing that his words are words of darkness, You pour darkness before my eyes. Celsus verily, and those like him, do desire to pour darkness before our eyes: we, however, by means of the light of the Word, disperse the darkness of their impious opinions. The [Christian](../cathen/03712a.htm), indeed, could retort on Celsus, who says nothing that is distinct or [true](../cathen/15073a.htm), I see nothing that is distinct among all your statements. It is not, therefore, out of darkness into the brightness of light that Celsus leads us forth: he wishes, on the contrary, to transport us from light into darkness, making the darkness light and the light darkness, and exposing himself to the woe well described by the [prophet](../cathen/12477a.htm) Isaiah in the following manner: Woe unto them that put darkness for light, and light for darkness. But we, the eyes of whose [soul](../cathen/14153a.htm) have been opened by the Word, and who see the difference between light and darkness, prefer by all means to take our stand in the light, and will have nothing to do with darkness at all. The [true](../cathen/15073a.htm) light, moreover, being endued with life, [knows](../cathen/08673a.htm) to whom his full splendours are to be manifested, and to whom his light; for he does not display his brilliancy on account of the still existing weakness in the eyes of the recipient. And if we must speak at all of sight being affected and injured, what other eyes shall we say are in this condition, than his who is involved in [ignorance](../cathen/07648a.htm) of [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), and who is prevented by his [passions](../cathen/11534a.htm) from seeing the [truth](../cathen/15073a.htm)? [Christians](../cathen/03712a.htm), however, by no means consider that they are blinded by the words of Celsus, or any other who is opposed to the worship of [God](../cathen/06608a.htm). But let those who perceive that they are blinded by following multitudes who are in [error](../cathen/05525a.htm), and tribes of those who keep festivals to [demons](../cathen/04710a.htm), draw near to the Word, who can bestow the gift of sight, in order that, like those poor and blind who had thrown themselves down by the wayside, and who were healed by Jesus because they said to Him, Son of David, have mercy upon me, they too may receive mercy and recover their eyesight, fresh and beautiful, as the [Word of God](../cathen/09328a.htm) can create it. Accordingly, if Celsus were to ask us how we think we [know](../cathen/08673a.htm) [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), and how we shall be saved by Him, we would answer that the [Word of God](../cathen/09328a.htm), which entered into those who seek Him, or who accept Him when He appears, is able to make [known](../cathen/08673a.htm) and to reveal the [Father](../cathen/06608a.htm), who was not seen (by any one) before the appearance of the Word. And who else is able to save and conduct the [soul](../cathen/14153a.htm) of man to the [God](../cathen/06608a.htm) of all things, save [God the Word](../cathen/09328a.htm), who, being in the beginning with became flesh for the sake of those who had cleaved to the flesh, and had become as flesh, that He might be received by those who could not behold Him, inasmuch as He was the Word, and was with [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), and was God? And discoursing in [human](../cathen/09580c.htm) [form](../cathen/06137b.htm), and announcing Himself as flesh, He calls to Himself those who are flesh, that He may in the first place [cause](../cathen/03459a.htm) them to be transformed according to the Word that was made flesh, and afterwards may lead them upwards to behold Him as He was before He became flesh; so that they, receiving the benefit, and ascending from their great introduction to Him, which was according to the flesh, say, Even if we have Therefore He became flesh, and having become flesh, [known](../cathen/08673a.htm) Christ after the flesh, yet henceforth [know](../cathen/08673a.htm) we Him no more. He tabernacled among us, not dwelling without us; and after tabernacling and dwelling within us, He did not continue in the form in which He first presented Himself, but caused us to ascend to the lofty mountain of His word, and showed us His own [glorious](../cathen/06585a.htm) form, and the splendour of His garments; and not His own form alone, but that also of the spiritual law, which is [Moses](../cathen/10596a.htm), seen in [glory](../cathen/06585a.htm) along with Jesus. He showed to us, moreover, all [prophecy](../cathen/12473a.htm), which did not perish even after His [incarnation](../cathen/07706b.htm), but was received up into heaven, and whose [symbol](../cathen/14373b.htm) was Elijah. And he who beheld these things could say, We beheld His Celsus, then, has exhibited considerable [glory](../cathen/06585a.htm), the [glory](../cathen/06585a.htm) as of the only-begotten of the [Father](../cathen/06608a.htm), full of [grace](../cathen/06689a.htm) and [truth](../cathen/15073a.htm). [ignorance](../cathen/07648a.htm) in the imaginary answer to his question which he puts into our mouth, How we think we can for our answer is what we have just stated. [know](../cathen/08673a.htm) God? And how we [know](../cathen/08673a.htm) we shall be saved by Him? Celsus, however, asserts that the answer which we give is based upon a probable conjecture, admitting that he describes our answer in the following terms: Since God is great and difficult to see, He put His own Spirit into a body that resembled ours, and sent it down to us, that we might be enabled to hear Him and become acquainted with Him. But the God and Father of all things is not the only being that is great in our judgment; for He has imparted (a share) of Himself and His greatness to His Only-begotten and First-born of every creature, in order that He, being the image of the invisible [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), might preserve, even in His greatness, the image of the Father. For it was not possible that there could exist a well-proportioned, so to speak, and beautiful image of the invisible [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), which did not at the same time preserve the image of His greatness. [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), moreover, is in our judgment invisible, because He is not a body, while He can be seen by those who see with the heart, that is, the understanding; not indeed with any kind of heart, but with one which is pure. For it is inconsistent with the fitness of things that a polluted heart should look upon [God](../cathen/06608a.htm); for that must be itself pure which would worthily behold that which is pure. Let it be granted, indeed, that God is difficult to see, yet He is not the only being who is so; for His Only-begotten also is difficult to see. For [God the Word](../cathen/09328a.htm) is difficult to see, and so also is His wisdom, by which [God](../cathen/06608a.htm) created all things. For who is capable of seeing the wisdom which is displayed in each individual part of the whole system of things, and by which [God](../cathen/06608a.htm) created every individual thing? It was not, then, because God was difficult to see that He sent God His Son to be an object easy to be seen. And because Celsus does not understand this, he has represented us as saying, Because God was 'difficult to see,' He put His own Spirit in a body resembling ours, and sent it down to us, that we might be enabled to hear Him and become acquainted with Him. Now, as we have stated, the Son also is difficult to see, because He is [God the Word](../cathen/09328a.htm), through whom all things were made, and who tabernacled among us. If Celsus, indeed, had understood our teaching regarding the [Spirit of God](../cathen/07409a.htm), and had [known](../cathen/08673a.htm) that as many as are led by the he would not have returned to himself the answer which he represents as coming from us, that [Spirit of God](../cathen/07409a.htm), these are the sons of [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), for God is perpetually bestowing of His own Spirit to those who are capable of receiving it, although it is not by way of division and separation that He dwells in (the hearts of) the deserving. Nor is the [God](../cathen/06608a.htm) put His own Spirit into a body, and sent it down to us; [Spirit](../cathen/07409a.htm), in our opinion, a body, any more than fire is a body, which [God](../cathen/06608a.htm) is said to be in the passage, Our God is a consuming fire. For all these are figurative expressions, employed to denote the [nature](../cathen/10715a.htm) of intelligent beings by means of familiar and corporeal terms. In the same way, too, if [sins](../cathen/14004b.htm) are called wood, and straw, and stubble, we shall not maintain that [sins](../cathen/14004b.htm) are corporeal; and if blessings are termed gold, and silver, and precious stones, we shall not maintain that blessings are corporeal; so also, if God be said to be a fire that consumes wood, and straw, and stubble, and all substance of [sin](../cathen/14004b.htm), we shall not understand Him to be a body, so neither do we understand Him to be a body if He should be called fire. In this way, if God be called spirit, we do not mean that He is a body. For it is the custom of Scripture to give to intelligent beings the names of spirits and spiritual things, by way of distinction from those which are the objects of sense; as when [Paul](../cathen/11567b.htm) says, But our sufficiency is of where by the [God](../cathen/06608a.htm); who has also made us able ministers of the [New Testament](../cathen/14530a.htm); not of the letter, but of the spirit; for the letter kills, but the spirit gives life, letter he means that exposition of Scripture which is apparent to the senses, while by the spirit that which is the object of the understanding. It is the same, too, with the expression, And because the prescriptions of the law were [God](../cathen/06608a.htm) is a Spirit. [obeyed](../cathen/11181c.htm) both by [Samaritans](../cathen/13416a.htm) and [Jews](../cathen/08399a.htm) in a corporeal and literal manner, our Saviour said to the [Samaritan](../cathen/13416a.htm) [woman](../cathen/15687b.htm), The hour is coming, when neither in Jerusalem, nor in this mountain, shall you worship the Father. God is a Spirit; and they that worship Him must worship Him in spirit and in And by these words He taught men that God must be worshipped not in the flesh, and with fleshly [truth](../cathen/15073a.htm). [sacrifices](../cathen/13309a.htm), but in the spirit. And He will be understood to be a Spirit in proportion as the worship rendered to Him is rendered in spirit, and with understanding. It is not, however, with images that we are to worship the [Father](../cathen/06608a.htm), but in which [truth](../cathen/15073a.htm), came by after the giving of the law by [Jesus Christ](../cathen/08374c.htm), [Moses](../cathen/10596a.htm). For when we turn to the Lord (and the Lord is a Spirit ), He takes away the veil which lies upon the heart when [Moses](../cathen/10596a.htm) is read. Celsus accordingly, as not understanding the doctrine relating to the [Spirit of God](../cathen/07409a.htm) ( for the natural man receives not the things of the ), weaves together (such a web) as pleases himself, imagining that we, in calling God a Spirit, differ in no respect in this particular from the [Spirit of God](../cathen/07409a.htm), for they are foolishness unto him; neither can he [know](../cathen/08673a.htm) them, because they are spiritually discerned [Stoics](../cathen/14299a.htm) among the Greeks, who maintain that Now the superintendence and [God](../cathen/06608a.htm) is a Spirit, diffused through all things, and containing all things within Himself. [providence](../cathen/12510a.htm) of God does extend through all things, but not in the way that spirit does, according to the [Stoics](../cathen/14299a.htm). Providence indeed contains all things that are its objects, and comprehends them all, but not as a containing body includes its contents, because they also are body, but as a divine power does it comprehend what it contains. According to the [philosophers](../cathen/12025c.htm) of the Porch, indeed, who assert that principles are corporeal, and who on that account make all things perishable, and who venture even to make the [God](../cathen/06608a.htm) of all things capable of perishing, the very [Word of God](../cathen/09328a.htm), who descends even to the lowest of [mankind](../cathen/09580c.htm), would be — did it not appear to them to be too gross an incongruity — nothing else than a corporeal spirit; whereas, in our opinion — who endeavour to demonstrate that the rational [soul](../cathen/14153a.htm) is superior to all corporeal nature, and that it is an invisible substance, and incorporeal — [God the Word](../cathen/09328a.htm), by whom all things were made, who came, in order that all things might be made by the Word, not to men only, but to what are deemed the very lowest of things, under the dominion of nature alone, would be no body. The [Stoics](../cathen/14299a.htm), then, may consign all things to destruction by fire; we, however, [know](../cathen/08673a.htm) of no incorporeal substance that is destructible by fire, nor (do we [believe](../cathen/02408b.htm)) that the [soul](../cathen/14153a.htm) of [man](../cathen/09580c.htm), or the substance of or of [angels](../cathen/01476d.htm), thrones, or dominions, or principalities, or powers, can be dissolved by fire. It is therefore in vain that Celsus asserts, as one who [knows](../cathen/08673a.htm) not the [nature](../cathen/10715a.htm) of the [Spirit of God](../cathen/07409a.htm), that as the He next becomes confused in his statements, as if there were some of us who did not admit that God is a Spirit, but maintain that only with regard to His Son, and he thinks that he can answer us by saying that there [Son of God](../cathen/14142b.htm), who [existed](../cathen/05543b.htm) in a [human](../cathen/09580c.htm) body, is a Spirit, this very [Son of God](../cathen/14142b.htm) would not be [immortal](../cathen/07687a.htm). is no kind of spirit which lasts forever. This is much the same as if, when we term God a consuming fire, he were to say that there is no kind of fire which lasts for ever; not observing the sense in which we say that our God is a fire, and what the things are which He consumes, viz., [sins](../cathen/14004b.htm), and [wickedness](../cathen/05649a.htm). For it becomes a God of goodness, after each individual has shown, by his efforts, what kind of combatant he has been, to consume [vice](../cathen/15403c.htm) by the fire of His chastisements. He proceeds, in the next place, to assume what we do not maintain, that from which also it follows that [God](../cathen/06608a.htm) must necessarily have given up the ghost; [Jesus](../cathen/08374c.htm) could not have risen again with His body. For God would not have received back the spirit which He had surrendered after it had been stained by contact with the body. It is foolish, however, for us to answer statements as ours which were never made by us. He proceeds to repeat himself, and after saying a great deal which he had said before, and ridiculing the birth of God from a [virgin](../cathen/15458a.htm) — to which we have already replied as we best could — he adds the following: If God had wished to send down His Spirit from Himself, what need was there to breathe it into the womb of a He had made these remarks, because he [woman](../cathen/15687b.htm)? For as one who [knew](../cathen/08673a.htm) already how to form men, He could also have fashioned a body for this person, without casting His own Spirit into so much pollution; and in this way He would not have been received with incredulity, if He had derived His [existence](../cathen/05543b.htm) immediately from above. [knows](../cathen/08673a.htm) not the [pure and virgin birth](../cathen/15448a.htm), unaccompanied by any corruption, of that body which was to minister to the [salvation](../cathen/13407a.htm) of men. For, quoting the sayings of the [Stoics](../cathen/14299a.htm), and affecting not to [know](../cathen/08673a.htm) the doctrine about things indifferent, he thinks that the divine nature was cast amid pollution, and was stained either by being in the body of a [woman](../cathen/15687b.htm), until a body was formed around it, or by assuming a body. And in this he acts like those who [imagine](../cathen/07672a.htm) that the sun's rays are polluted by dung and by foul-smelling bodies, and do not remain pure amid such things. If, however, according to the view of Celsus, the body of [Jesus](../cathen/08374c.htm) had been fashioned without generation, those who beheld the body would at once have [believed](../cathen/02408b.htm) that it had not been formed by generation; and yet an object, when seen, does not at the same time indicate the [nature](../cathen/10715a.htm) of that from which it has derived its origin. For example, suppose that there were some honey (placed before one) which had not been manufactured by bees, no one could tell from the taste or sight that it was not their workmanship, because the honey which comes from bees does not make [known](../cathen/08673a.htm) its origin by the senses, but experience alone can tell that it does not proceed from them. In the same way, too, experience teaches that wine comes from the vine, for taste does not enable us to distinguish (the wine) which comes from the vine. In the same manner, therefore, the visible body does not make [known](../cathen/08673a.htm) the manner of its [existence](../cathen/05543b.htm). And you will be induced to accept this view, by (regarding) the heavenly bodies, whose [existence](../cathen/05543b.htm) and splendour we perceive as we gaze at them; and yet, I presume, their appearance does not suggest to us whether they are created or uncreated; and accordingly different opinions have [existed](../cathen/05543b.htm) on these points. And yet those who say that they are created are not agreed as to the manner of their creation, for their appearance does not suggest it, although the force of reason may have discovered that they are created, and how their creation was effected. After this he returns to the subject of [Marcion's](../cathen/09645c.htm) opinions (having already spoken frequently of them), and states some of them correctly, while others he has misunderstood; these, however, it is not necessary for us to answer or refute. Again, after this he brings forward the various arguments that may be urged on [Marcion's](../cathen/09645c.htm) behalf, and also against him, enumerating what the opinions are which exonerate him from the charges, and what expose him to them; and when he desires to support the statement which declares that [Jesus](../cathen/08374c.htm) has been the subject of [prophecy](../cathen/12473a.htm) — in order to found a charge against [Marcion](../cathen/09645c.htm) and his followers — he distinctly asks, How could he, who was punished in such a manner, be shown to be God's Son, unless these things had been predicted of him? He next proceeds to jest, and, as his custom is, to pour ridicule upon the subject, introducing two sons of The remark which he made formerly we will turn against himself: [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), one the son of the Creator, and the other the son of [Marcion's](../cathen/09645c.htm) [God](../cathen/06608a.htm); and he portrays their single combats, saying that the Theomachies of the Fathers are like the battles between quails; or that the Fathers, becoming useless through age, and falling into their dotage do not meddle at all with one another, but leave their sons to fight it out. What old [woman](../cathen/15687b.htm) would not be ashamed to lull a child to sleep with such stories as he has inserted in the work which he entitles A True Discourse? For when he ought seriously to apply himself to argument, he leaves serious argument aside, and betakes himself to jesting and buffoonery, imagining that he is writing mimes or scoffing verses; not observing that such a method of procedure defeats his purpose, which is to make us abandon [Christianity](../cathen/03712a.htm) and give in our adherence to his opinions, which, perhaps, had they been stated with some degree of gravity, would have appeared more likely to convince, whereas since he continues to ridicule, and scoff, and play the buffoon, we answer that it is because he has no argument of weight (for such he neither had, nor could understand) that he has betaken himself to such drivelling. To the preceding remarks he adds the following: Since a divine Spirit inhabited the body (of Jesus), it must certainly have been different from that of other beings, in respect of grandeur, or beauty, or strength, or voice, or impressiveness, or persuasiveness. For it is impossible that He, to whom was imparted some divine quality beyond other beings, should not differ from others; whereas this person did not differ in any respect from another, but was, as they report, little, and ill-favoured, and ignoble. Now it is evident by these words, that when Celsus wishes to bring a charge against Jesus, he adduces the sacred writings, as one who [believed](../cathen/02408b.htm) them to be writings apparently fitted to afford a handle for a charge against Him; but wherever, in the same writings, statements would appear to be made opposed to those charges which are adduced, he pretends not even to [know](../cathen/08673a.htm) them! There are, indeed, admitted to be recorded some statements respecting the body of [Jesus](../cathen/08374c.htm) having been ill-favoured; not, however, ignoble, as has been stated, nor is there any certain evidence that he was little. The language of Isaiah runs as follows, who prophesied regarding Him that He would come and visit the multitude, not in comeliness of form, nor in any surpassing beauty: Lord, who has These passages, then, Celsus listened to, because he thought they were of use to him in bringing a charge against Jesus; but he paid no attention to the words of the [believed](../cathen/02408b.htm) our report, and to whom was the arm of the Lord revealed? He made announcement before Him, as a child, as a root in a thirsty ground. He has no form nor [glory](../cathen/06585a.htm), and we beheld Him, and He had no form nor beauty; but His form was without [honour](../cathen/07462a.htm), and inferior to that of the sons of men. [forty-fifth Psalm](../bible/psa044.htm), and why it is then said, Gird Your sword upon Your thigh, O most mighty, with Your comeliness and beauty; and continue, and prosper, and reign. Let it be supposed, however, that he had not read the [prophecy](../cathen/12473a.htm), or that he had read it, but had been drawn away by those who misinterpreted it as not being spoken of [Jesus Christ](../cathen/08374c.htm). What has he to say of the [Gospel](../cathen/06655b.htm), in the narratives of which Jesus ascended up into a high mountain, and was transfigured before the [disciples](../cathen/05029a.htm), and was seen in [glory](../cathen/06585a.htm), when both [Moses](../cathen/10596a.htm) and Elias, being seen in or when the [glory](../cathen/06585a.htm), spoke of the decease which He was about to accomplish at Jerusalem? [prophet](../cathen/12477a.htm) says, We beheld Him, and He had no form nor beauty, etc.? And Celsus accepts this [prophecy](../cathen/12473a.htm) as referring to Jesus, being blinded in so accepting it, and not seeing that it is a great [proof](../cathen/12454c.htm) that the Jesus who appeared to be without was the [form](../cathen/06137b.htm) [Son of God](../cathen/14142b.htm), that His very appearance should have been made the subject of [prophecy](../cathen/12473a.htm) many years before His birth. But if another [prophet](../cathen/12477a.htm) speak of His comeliness and beauty, he will no longer accept the [prophecy](../cathen/12473a.htm) as referring to Christ! And if it were to be clearly ascertained from the [Gospels](../cathen/06655b.htm) that He had no form nor beauty, but that His appearance was without it might be said that it was not with reference to the prophetic writings, but to the [honour](../cathen/07462a.htm), and inferior to that of the sons of [men](../cathen/09580c.htm), [Gospels](../cathen/06655b.htm), that Celsus made his remarks. But now, as neither the [Gospels](../cathen/06655b.htm) nor the apostolic writings indicate that He had no form nor beauty, it is evident that we must accept the declaration of the [prophets](../cathen/12477a.htm) as [true](../cathen/15073a.htm) of [Christ](../cathen/08374c.htm), and this will prevent the charge against Jesus from being advanced. But again, how did he who said, Since a divine Spirit inhabited the body (of Jesus), it must certainly have been different from that of other beings in respect of grandeur, or voice, or strength, or impressiveness, or persuasiveness, not observe the changing relation of His body according to the capacity of the spectators (and therefore its corresponding utility), inasmuch as it appeared to each one of such a nature as it was requisite for him to behold it? Moreover it is not a subject of wonder that the matter, which is by nature susceptible of being altered and changed, and of being transformed into anything which the Creator chooses, and is capable of receiving all the qualities which the Artificer desires, should at one time possess a quality, agreeably to which it is said, He had no form nor beauty, and at another, one so [glorious](../cathen/06585a.htm), and majestic, and marvellous, that the spectators of such surpassing loveliness — three [disciples](../cathen/05029a.htm) who had ascended (the mount) with Jesus — should fall upon their faces. He will say, however, that these are inventions, and in no respect different from myths, as are also the other marvels related of Jesus; which objection we have answered at greater length in what has gone before. But there is also something mystical in this doctrine, which announces that the varying appearances of [Jesus](../cathen/08374c.htm) are to be referred to the [nature](../cathen/10715a.htm) of the divine Word, who does not show Himself in the same manner to the multitude as He does to those who are capable of following Him to the high mountain which we have mentioned; for to those who still remain below, and are not yet prepared to ascend, the Word has neither form nor beauty, because to such [persons](../cathen/11726a.htm) His form is without and inferior to the words given forth by [honour](../cathen/07462a.htm), [men](../cathen/09580c.htm), which are figuratively termed sons of men. For we might say that the words of [philosophers](../cathen/12025c.htm)— who are sons of men — appear far more beautiful than the [Word of God](../cathen/09328a.htm), who is proclaimed to the multitude, and who also exhibits (what is called) the foolishness of preaching, and on account of this apparent foolishness of preaching those who look at this alone say, We saw Him; but He had no form nor beauty. To those, indeed, who have received power to follow Him, in order that they may attend Him even when He ascends to the lofty mount, He has a diviner appearance, which they behold, if there happens to be (among them) a Peter, who has received within himself the edifice of the [Church](../cathen/03744a.htm) based upon the Word, and who has gained such a habit (of goodness) that none of the gates of Hades will prevail against him, having been exalted by the Word from the gates of death, that he may publish the praises of and any others who have derived their birth from impressive preaching, and who are not at all inferior to [God](../cathen/06608a.htm) in the gates of the daughter of Sion, sons of thunder. But how can Celsus and the enemies of the divine Word, and those who have not examined the doctrines of [Christianity](../cathen/03712a.htm) in the spirit of [truth](../cathen/15073a.htm), [know](../cathen/08673a.htm) the meaning of the different appearances of Jesus? And I refer also to the different stages of His life, and to any actions performed by Him before His sufferings, and after His [resurrection](../cathen/12789a.htm) from the dead. Celsus next makes certain observations of the following nature: Again, if Observe in such language as this the irreverent character of Celsus, who, unlike a [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), like Jupiter in the comedy, should, on awaking from a lengthened slumber, desire to rescue the [human race](../cathen/09580c.htm) from [evil](../cathen/05649a.htm), why did He send this Spirit of which you speak into one corner (of the earth)? He ought to have breathed it alike into many bodies, and have sent them out into all the world. Now the comic poet, to [cause](../cathen/03459a.htm) laughter in the theatre, wrote that Jupiter, after awakening, dispatched Mercury to the [Athenians](../cathen/02043b.htm) and Lacedæmonians; but do not you think that you have made the [Son of God](../cathen/14142b.htm) more ridiculous in sending Him to the [Jews](../cathen/08399a.htm)? [philosopher](../cathen/12025c.htm), takes the writer of a comedy, whose business is to [cause](../cathen/03459a.htm) laughter, and compares our [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), the Creator of all things, to the being who, as represented in the play, on awaking, dispatches Mercury (on an errand)! We stated, indeed, in what precedes, that it was not as if awakening from a lengthened slumber that God sent Jesus to the [human race](../cathen/09580c.htm), who has now, for good reasons, fulfilled the economy of His [incarnation](../cathen/07706b.htm), but who has always conferred benefits upon the [human race](../cathen/09580c.htm). For no noble deed has ever been performed among men, where the divine Word did not visit the [souls](../cathen/14153a.htm) of those who were capable, although for a little time, of admitting such operations of the divine Word. Moreover, the advent of [Jesus](../cathen/08374c.htm) apparently to one corner (of the earth) was founded on good reasons, since it was necessary that He who was the subject of [prophecy](../cathen/12473a.htm) should make His appearance among those who had become acquainted with the doctrine of one [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), and who perused the writings of His [prophets](../cathen/12477a.htm), and who had come to [know](../cathen/08673a.htm) the announcement of [Christ](../cathen/08374c.htm), and that He should come to them at a time when the Word was about to be diffused from one corner over the whole world. And therefore there was no need that there should everywhere exist many bodies, and many spirits like Jesus, in order that the whole world of men might be enlightened by the [Word of God](../cathen/09328a.htm). For the one Word was enough, having arisen as the Sun of righteousness, to send forth from [Judea](../cathen/08544a.htm) His coming rays into the [soul](../cathen/14153a.htm) of all who were willing to receive Him. But if any one desires to see many bodies filled with a divine Spirit, similar to the one Christ, ministering to the [salvation](../cathen/13407a.htm) of men everywhere, let him take note of those who teach the [Gospel](../cathen/06655b.htm) of [Jesus](../cathen/08374c.htm) in all lands in soundness of doctrine and uprightness of life, and who are themselves termed christs by the [holy Scriptures](../bible/index.html), in the passage, Touch not Mine anointed, and do not My For as we have heard that [prophets](../cathen/12477a.htm) any harm. [Antichrist](../cathen/01559a.htm) comes, and yet have learned that there are many antichrists in the world, in the same way, [knowing](../cathen/08673a.htm) that Christ has come, we see that, owing to Him, there are many christs in the world, who, like Him, have loved righteousness and [hated](../cathen/07149b.htm) iniquity, and therefore [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), the [God](../cathen/06608a.htm) of [Christ](../cathen/08374c.htm), anointed them also with the oil of But inasmuch as He loved righteousness and [gladness](../cathen/07131b.htm). [hated](../cathen/07149b.htm) iniquity above those who were His partners, He also obtained the [first-fruits](../cathen/06082a.htm) of His anointing, and, if we must so term it, the entire unction of the oil of [gladness](../cathen/07131b.htm); while they who were His partners shared also in His unction, in proportion to their individual capacity. Therefore, since Christ is the Head of the [Church](../cathen/03744a.htm), so that Christ and the [Church](../cathen/03744a.htm) form one body, the ointment descended from the head to the beard of [Aaron](../cathen/01003a.htm) — the [symbols](../cathen/14373b.htm) of the perfect man — and this ointment in its descent reached to the very skirt of his garment. This is my answer to the irreverent language of Celsus when he says, He ought to have breathed (His Spirit) alike into many bodies, and have sent it forth into all the world. The comic poet, indeed, to [cause](../cathen/03459a.htm) laughter, has represented Jupiter asleep and awaking from slumber, and dispatching Mercury to the Greeks; but the Word, [knowing](../cathen/08673a.htm) that the [nature](../cathen/10715a.htm) of God is unaffected by sleep, may teach us that God administers in due season, and as right reason demands, the affairs of the world. It is not, however, a matter of surprise that, owing to the greatness and incomprehensibility of the divine judgments, [ignorant](../cathen/07648a.htm) [persons](../cathen/11726a.htm) should make mistakes, and Celsus among them. There is therefore nothing ridiculous in the [Son of God](../cathen/14142b.htm) having been sent to the [Jews](../cathen/08399a.htm), among whom the [prophets](../cathen/12477a.htm) had appeared, in order that, making a commencement among them in a bodily shape, He might arise with might and power upon a world of [souls](../cathen/14153a.htm), which no longer desired to remain deserted by [God](../cathen/06608a.htm). After this, it seemed proper to Celsus to term the Chaldeans a most divinely-inspired nation from the very earliest times, from whom the delusive system of [astrology](../cathen/02018e.htm) has spread abroad among [men](../cathen/09580c.htm). Nay, he ranks the [Magi](../cathen/09527a.htm) also in the same category, from whom the art of magic derived its name and has been transmitted to other nations, to the corruption and destruction of those who employ it. In the preceding part of this work, (we mentioned) that, in the opinion even of Celsus, the [Egyptians](../cathen/05329b.htm) also were guilty of [error](../cathen/05525a.htm), because they had indeed solemn enclosures around what they considered their temples, while within them there was nothing save apes, or crocodiles, or goats, or asps, or some other animal; but on the present occasion it pleases him to speak of the [Egyptian](../cathen/05329b.htm) people too as most divinely inspired, and that, too, from the earliest times — perhaps because they made [war](../cathen/15546c.htm) upon the [Jews](../cathen/08399a.htm) from an early date. The [Persians](../cathen/11712a.htm), moreover, who marry their own mothers, and have intercourse with their own daughters, are, in the opinion of Celsus, an inspired race; nay, even the Indians are so, some of whom, in the preceding, he mentioned as eaters of [human](../cathen/09580c.htm) flesh. To the [Jews](../cathen/08399a.htm), however, especially those of ancient times, who employ none of these practices, he did not merely refuse the name of inspired, but declared that they would immediately perish. And this prediction he uttered respecting them, as being doubtless endued with prophetic power, not observing that the whole history of the [Jews](../cathen/08399a.htm), and their ancient and venerable polity, were administered by [God](../cathen/06608a.htm); and that it is by their fall that [salvation](../cathen/13407a.htm) has come to the [Gentiles](../cathen/06422a.htm), and that their fall is the riches of the world, and the diminishing of them the riches of the until the fullness of the [Gentiles](../cathen/06422a.htm), [Gentiles](../cathen/06422a.htm) come, that after that the whole of [Israel](../cathen/08193a.htm), whom Celsus does not [know](../cathen/08673a.htm), may be saved. I do not understand, however, how he should say of [God](../cathen/06608a.htm), that although Certainly he appears, in the present instance, to have forgotten that all the sufferings which Jesus was to undergo were foreseen by the [knowing](../cathen/08673a.htm) all things, He was not aware of this, that He was sending His Son among [wicked](../cathen/05649a.htm) men, who were both to be guilty of [sin](../cathen/14004b.htm), and to inflict punishment upon Him. [Spirit of God](../cathen/07409a.htm), and foretold by His [prophets](../cathen/12477a.htm); from which it does not follow that He immediately adds, however, that [God](../cathen/06608a.htm) did not [know](../cathen/08673a.htm) that He was sending His Son among [wicked](../cathen/05649a.htm) and [sinful](../cathen/14004b.htm) men, who were also to inflict punishment upon Him. our defense on this point is that all these things were predicted. But as our sixth book has now attained sufficient dimensions, we shall stop here, and begin, God willing, the argument of the seventh, in which we shall consider the reasons which he thinks furnish an answer to our statement, that everything regarding Jesus was foretold by the [prophets](../cathen/12477a.htm); and as these are numerous, and require to be answered at length, we wished neither to cut the subject short, in consequence of the size of the present book, nor, in order to avoid doing so, to swell this sixth book beyond its proper proportions. Source. Translated by Frederick Crombie. From Ante-Nicene Fathers, Vol. 4. Edited by Alexander Roberts, James Donaldson, and A. Cleveland Coxe. (Buffalo, NY: Christian Literature Publishing Co., 1885.) Revised and edited for New Advent by Kevin Knight. <http://www.newadvent.org/fathers/04166.htm>. Contact information. The editor of New Advent is Kevin Knight. My email address is feedback732 at newadvent.org. (To help fight spam, this address might change occasionally.) Regrettably, I can't reply to every letter, but I greatly appreciate your feedback — especially notifications about typographical errors and inappropriate ads. [CONTACT US](../utility/contactus.htm) | [ADVERTISE WITH NEW ADVENT](https://cleanmedia.net/p/?psid=491-308-20180429T2217479770)

Mitraïsme

http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/mithraism

MITHRAISM, the cult of Mithra as it developed in the West, its origins, its features, and its probable connection with Mithra worship in Iran. For most of the twentieth century the major problem addressed by scholarship on both Roman Mithraism and the Iranian god Mithra was the question of continuity. Did Mithra-worship migrate from Iran to the Roman Empire in some institutional form or was Mithraism invented in the West (with a few Iranian trappings) as a new institution altogether? At the start of the twenty first century, this issue appears to be less central to the concerns of scholarship on Western Mithraism, but it remains important nevertheless, and obviously it must be the lens through which Mithraism is examined in this article. The first task, though, is to describe the Mithras cult as it did in fact develop in the West, and in so far as we can reconstruct it objectively from its material remains. Reconstruction is not easy, since no ancient literary works about Mithraism and no substantial sacred texts from Mithraism have survived. Western Mithraism described. The term "Mithraism" is of course a modern coinage. In antiquity the cult was known as "the mysteries of Mithras"; alternatively, as "the mysteries of the Persians." The latter designation is significant. The Mithraists, who were manifestly not Persians in any ethnic sense, thought of themselves as cultic "Persians." Moreover, whatever moderns might think, the ancient Roman Mithraists themselves were convinced that their cult was founded by none other than Zoroaster, who "dedicated to Mithras, the creator and father of all, a cave in the mountains bordering Persia," an idyllic setting "abounding in flowers and springs of water" (Porphyry, On the Cave of the Nymphs 6). Persia (or Parthia) in those times was Rome's great rival and frequently at war with her. Nonetheless, there is no indication that this antagonism was ever problematic for the Mithraists socially or politically. Clearly, their cultic "Persian" identity, which they made no attempt to hide, was acceptable to the authorities and their fellow citizens. The socio-political acceptability of the Mithraists, despite their Perserie, can be explained largely by their social profile. They were the most conformist of men — and men indeed they were in the limited gender sense of the word, a factor which itself would add to their respectability or at least not detract from it (compare the charge against Christianity that it subverted the family by proselytizing the womenfolk). Mithraism drew its initiates disproportionately from the military, from the Empire's petty bureaucracy, and from moderately successful freedmen (i.e. ex-slaves), in fact from theretainer classes, the very people who had a stake in the current sociopolitical dispensation. (On Mithraism's social profile see Clauss 1992, Gordon 1972, Liebeschuetz 1994; Merkelbach 1984: pp. 153-88) We noticed above that Mithraism's original, archetypal sacred space was thought to be a cave. This perception, reported by an external source (the third-century CE philosopher Porphyry), is corroborated by internal data and the archaeological evidence. The Mithraists did indeed call their meeting places "caves," whether they actually were or not. Natural caves were used where available; and where not, especially in urban settings (Rome, Ostia), a room or suite of rooms within some larger structure was used and sometimes decorated so as to resemble a natural cave. Mithraea (our modern term), like natural caves and unlike most constructed temples, had no elaborate or even recognizable exteriors. (On the structure of the mithraeum see White 1990: pp. 47-59.) That Mithraists met in "caves" which were distinctively designed and furnished has had important consequences for the archaeological record and thus for our ability to reconstruct the cult. In addition to their cave-like appearance, mithraea were designed with raised platforms on either side of a central aisle to serve as banqueting couches for the cult meal (on which see below). They were also filled with much sacred art - sculptures (mostly in relief), altars, ritual pottery vessels, frescos, etc. - often with their dedications extant in whole or in part. There is no mistaking a mithraeum when archaeology brings it to light, and the chances are good that it will also divulge something about its membership. (On the furnishings and equipment of the mithraeum see Clauss 2000: 42-59, 114-30.) The scattering of mithraea, thus identified across the Roman Empire, is perhaps more informative about the cult's spread and social composition than are the material remains of any of its peers, early Christianity included. We have already looked at Mithraism's social catchment. As for its spread, though represented virtually everywhere in the Roman empire, it was much stronger in the Latin speaking West than in the (predominantly) Greek-speaking East. It flourished in particular in the city of Rome and its port, Ostia, and along the Rhine-Danube frontier — exactly where one would expect from its social profile. (For maps, see Clauss 1992, province by province). Without doubt, an intentional concomitant of the "cave" was the small size of Mithraic groups or cells. The upper limit to the number of persons who can feast intimately on side platforms in a cave or a cave-like inner room is soon reached. Mithraism, then, was a religion of small communities. These communities, moreover, were self-sufficient. There is not a shred of evidence for any co-ordinating, let alone regulating, higher authority. There were no Mithraic bishops; the contrast with contemporaneous Christianity, or for that matter with the contemporaneous state Zoroastrianism of Kerdir, could not be more extreme. As social institutions the Mithraic communities are classed among those groups termed (by moderns) "voluntary associations." Not all voluntary associations served religious ends. Some were analogous to trade guilds; perhaps the most common form was the burial society, clubs which could assure their members funerals in a more ample and sociable style than they could individually command. In the religious sphere, it is the voluntary nature of membership that distinguishes these associations from other religious enterprises. One chose to be initiated into the Mysteries of Mithras, whereas one belonged (normally in an entirely passive way) to the public cults of city and empire simply by virtue of belonging at one level or another, from emperor to slave, to those socio-political units: to the public cults you could no more opt in than you could opt out. It follows that ancient mystery cults, Mithraism included, were non-exclusive: as a Mithraist, you would expect, and be expected, to continue your participation in the public cults (On Mithraism as a voluntary association, see Beck 1996.) The "Mysteries of Mithras," to return to their ancient name, were one of a number of ancient religious "mysteries." A "mystery," in Greek, is something into which one is initiated. Modern connotations of the "mysterious" or the "mystical" are irrelevant, and although most ancient mysteries were in fact secret, secrecy was not always a requirement. Not all mysteries were transmitted in and by voluntary associations, and not all voluntary religious associations transmitted rites of initiation as their sole or even principal business. Indeed, Mithraism appears to be the only substantial pagan cult of which it can be said that initiation into its mysteries was both the necessary and the sufficient condition of membership. (On ancient mystery cults, see Burkert 1987.) Organizationally, the Mithraic groups functioned much as other voluntary associations, but in addition there was an esoteric hierarchy of seven grades. Scholars disagree about the extent of this hierarchy. Was it universal, or normative, or a refinement limited to the relatively few mithraea where it is directly attested? Was it a priesthood? Most scholars would agree that it was not ubiquitous in the sense of being a requirement for all mithraea; also that the initiate of the highest grade, the Father, excercised leadership in all aspects of the mithraeum's sacred business, and that virtually all mithraea would have had at least one Father (two are attested in some mithraea), regardless of the presence or absence of other grades. (On the grades see Clauss 2000: pp. 131-40; contra: Gordon 1994: pp. 465-7; on their esoteric significance, see Gordon 1980a: pp. 19-99.) Into what was a Mithraist initiated? What, in other words, constituted the sacred business of a mithraeum? Scholarship is in broad agreement that the principal act was the cult meal, celebrated both as an actual feast by the initiates reclining opposite each other on the platforms which served as banqueting couches and as a ritual re-enactment of the feast of Mithras and the Sun god celebrated on the hide of a bull freshly slain by Mithras. (On the cult meal, see Kane 1975.) That there was another purpose to the Mithraic mysteries and a corresponding ritual is attested in the same passage from Porphyry (On the Cave of the Nymphs 6), already cited above, which tells us that the Mithraists called their sacred places "caves" — and why. The intent of the Mithraists was to "induct the initiate into a mystery of the descent of souls and their exit back out again." It was for this ritual purpose (which has been generally misconstrued as a didactic purpose) that the Mithraists made their sacred space cave-like, for the cave is "the symbol of the universe," into which the soul enters for mortal existence and quits for immortality. Accordingly, Porphyry continues, the mithraeum is designed and furnished with "cosmic symbols appropriately arranged" so as to be an authentic microcosm. (On this ritual and the corresponding design function of the mithraeum, see Beck 2000: pp. 154-65; this article also describes and explicates the two previously unknown rituals depicted on opposite sides of the cult vessel discussed.) For other initiatory rites we depend primarily on the fresco scenes in the mithraeum at S. Maria Capua Vetere. These depict usually a triad of figures: the initiates, small, naked, humiliated; and two initiators, one behind and the other in front of the initiates, manipulating the instruments of initiations. (For illustrations, see Vermaseren 1971: Plates 21-8.) Mithraism was an astral religion. The perceivable heavens and the celestial bodies (sun, moon, the other five planets, stars) all played a part in the mysteries — the sun necessarily a very large part, since Mithras himself was the Sun god (see below). Astral symbolism (e.g. representations of the zodiac) was liberally deployed on the sculpted and painted monuments and in the design of the mithraeum in order to render it a true likeness of the cosmos "for induction into the mystery of the descent of souls and their exit back out again" (see above). Furthermore, each of the seven grades of the hierarchy was "under the tutelage of" one of the seven planets. Finally, in the principal cult icon, the representation of Mithras as bull-killer (see below), there is a remarkable correspondence between several of the standard elements of the composition and the constellations of a particular tract of the heavens (e.g. the raven and the constellation Corvus). The astral symbolism incorporated into the mysteries stems of course from the ancient Graeco-Roman construction of the heavens and their denizens in the astronomy/astrology of the times. On the intent of the symbolism there is no scholarly consensus. Indeed, several influential scholars have treated it as superficial decoration without any profound intent at all. That is mistaken. Granted, it is difficult to prove a negative. Nevertheless, the arguments against deep intent have so far merely re-asserted their premise as conclusion: astral symbolism is without deep intent because it is superficial. Only Franz Cumont, the founder of modern Mithraic studies, avoided this petitio principii. He did so by postulating the imposition of an astrological layer by the Chaldeans and by "Hellenized Magi" during the transmission of Iranian Mithra-worship from Iran to the West (Cumont 1903: pp. 119-30). (For arguments for deep intent in the astral symbolism, see Merkelbach 1984: pp. 75-133, 193-244; Beck 1988; Beck 1994; Beck 2000: pp. 154-65; Ulansey 1989; Jacobs 1999. As superficial imagery, (e.g.) Clauss 2000: pp. 87, 89, 97.) Roman Mithras. Since the function of its mysteries was to relate the initiate to Mithras, the cult was of course centred entirely on the person of the god. His cult title was "Deus Sol Invictus Mithras": thus, he was "god," he was "the Sun," he was "unconquered," he was "Mithras." To his identity as the Sun and to his invincibility must be added his Persian-ness, a "fact" known to outsiders as well as to his initiates. Iconographically, he is depicted in exotic non-Roman, specifically oriental garb: trousers and the "Persian" cap. Gods have their personal histories. The story of Mithras survives not in written form derived from an oral narrative — if such there ever was, it has disappeared without trace — but as scenes preserved on what are collectively termed "the monuments," for the most part as relief sculpture on icons, altars, etcetera, but also as statuary and in fresco on the walls of mithraea. In the frescos and on the great complex reliefs (the latter mostly from the Rhine and Danube frontier provinces) a selection of side-scenes representing various episodes surrounds the central scene, the god's sacrificial killing of a bull. More often this "tauroctony" is a self-contained icon, and from its privileged location at the head of the central aisle we know that it was the cult's principal icon; consequently, that the bull-killing was the main event in the Mithras myth. (The fundamental illustrated catalogue of Mithraic monuments is Vermaseren 1956-60. Merkelback 1984 and Clauss 2000 are also exceptionally well illustrated. On the iconography of Mithras, see Vollkommer 1992. On the myth of Mithras as inferred from the iconography, see Cumont 1903: pp. 104-49; Vermaseren 1960: pp. 56-88; Clauss 2000: pp. 62-101.) Some of the larger reliefs could be swiveled so as to display on their reverse the scene of Sol and Mithras feasting on the hide of the bull. The gods' banquet, then, is the outcome of the sacrifice, and since it is replicated in the cult meal of the initiates (see above), it must be supposed that the mythic sacrifice performed by Mithras is the salvafic cause of whatever benefits accrue to his mortal initiates in replicating the banquet of the two gods. The side-scenes are numerous, and they represent many different episodes in the myth, e.g. the pursuit and capture of the bull, the ascent of Mithras in the Sun's chariot, as well as occasional episodes which, as far as one can tell, do not include or concern Mithras at all. Moreover, there is no standard order or canon of scenes: only the internal logic of the narrative orders the episodes (e.g., bull-killing precedes banquet, because the bull's hide serves as couch cover for the banqueters). (On the composition of complex monuments, see Gordon 1980b; Beck 1984: pp. 2075-8) In addition to the bull-killing and the banquet, the scene of Mithras' birth is manifestly important. He is shown rising upright from a rock, not as a baby but in the prime of youth, with extended arms holding torch and sword. He has, it seems, no father. It would be wrong to say that he has no mother, for the rock itself, identified explicitly as Petra Genetrix ("the rock that gives birth") is his mother. Since the bull-killing was so obviously the god's principal act, and since the icon which represents it was so clearly the cult's primary locus of meaning, the scene as regularly represented (with remarkably few variations from the norm) must be described. At the mouth of a cave, Mithras straddles the bull, plunging a dagger into its heart. A dog and a snake dart up at the blood flowing from the wound. A scorpion fastens on the bull's genitals, and a raven perches on the god's billowing mantle. Miraculously, the tail of the dying bull has metamorphosed into an ear of wheat. On either side of the scene the twin gods Cautes and Cautopates are posed, the former holding a raised torch, the latter a lowered torch. Above and to the left is the Sun god, above and to the right the Moon goddess. Frequently in tauroctonies from the Rhine and Danube areas, a lion and a two-handled cup are added to the scene. Finding the "meaning" of the scene has been, perhaps to excess, the Great Game of Roman Mithraic hermeneutics. Yet a simple narrative solution, that the bull-killing is just an episode — albeit the principal episode — in the Mithras myth lacks plausibility because of the unusual and ill-assorted assemblage of beings which surround the sacrificing god. As an event, even a supernatural event, in a story it strains one's sense of narrative realism. So while the tauroctony does indeed represent an episode in a story, it represents, it evokes, it intimates something more; and it does so by means of the elements of the composition functioning as symbols, collectively or individually. Interpretations which look eastwards to Iran will be discussed in the next section. The other important modern interpretation looks upwards to the heavens and the notable correspondence between elements of the composition and the ancient constellations (see above, on Mithraism as an astral religion). The shortcoming of interpretations of this latter type is that they have tended to treat the tauroctony rather simplistically as a star chart from which one can decipher the celestial identity of the god as this or that constellation. (For a survey of interpretations of the tauroctony, see Beck 1984: pp. 2080-3; Martin 1994. For celestial interpretations, see Insler 1978; Ulansey 1989; Beck 1994; Jakobs 1999; Weiss 1998. For an important redirection of interpretation (the tauroctony as "cult scene" and "depiction of ritual sacrifice"), see Martin 1994. On the tauroctony in the context of Roman imperial art, see Zwirn 1989. Iranizing interpretations will be referenced in the next section.) As one would expect in a relatively elaborate Roman cult, Mithras does not lack for divine company. The Graeco-Roman Sun god Helios/Sol has already been mentioned — that Mithras both is and is not the Sun, depending on context, is one of those paradoxes which religions take in their stride — as have the planetary gods. Various of the Olympian gods also play a role, though a minor and marginal one. Finally, there are three esoteric deities, two of whom are the twins Cautes and Cautopates, already mentioned as witnesses to the bull-killing. In appearance they are clones of Mithras, and they represent through their primary attributes of the raised and lowered torches paired opposites in nature and in the heavens (e.g. rising sun and setting sun, flanking Mithras as the midday sun). Within the mystery, they symbolize and, as agents, control the entry of the soul downward into mortality (Cautopates) and its exit upwards into immortality (Cautes). (On this pair of deities, see Hinnells 1976; Beck 1984: pp. 2084-6). The third esoteric deity is the enigmatic "lion-headed god." Since his identification is bound up with the question of Mithraism's eastern origins, he will be discussed in the next section. Bibliographic note: The foundational study of Roman Mithraism is Cumont 1899 and Cumont 1903. Short general studies: Vermaseren 1963; Turcan 2000; Clauss 2000. Merkelbach 1984 is a fuller comprehensive study. On Mithraism as a mystery cult among other mysteries, Bianchi 1979a; Sfameni Gasparro 1979. There are four volumes of conference papers devoted both to Iranian Mithra and to Roman Mithras and Mithraism: Hinnells 1975; Duchesne-Guillemin 1978; Bianchi 1979; Hinnells 1994. Bibliographic survey: Beck 1984; Gordon in Clauss 2000: pp. 183-90. From Iranian Mithra to Roman Mithras: Continuity versus re-invention. That Roman Mithras was a Persian god in more than just the perception and self-definition of his Roman initiates is indisputable. To say that he was "the same" god, or that he "came from" Iran is equally true, though it begs as many questions as it appears to answer. Did he emigrate together with his cult? Was institutionalized Mithra-worship transmitted from East to West? Likewise the Mithra myth(s) and the concepts of the god, his powers, and his functions? Was he "the same" god in that strong sense? Or was he re-invented in the West, perhaps by those with some knowledge of the East, as a new god for new mysteries in a new type of cult association appropriate to the different social and cultural environment of the Roman Empire? Was he "the same" merely in the weaker sense that he was re-outfitted with Iranian trappings sufficient to authenticate him as "Persian" in his new context? Two statements at least may be made with some confidence about the century-long scholarly controversy over these questions: first, that at the beginning of the third millennium there is still no consensus; secondly, that in the last three decades the balance of opinion has shifted, rightly or wrongly, in favor of re-invention over continuity. What one might call the "default" transmission scenario (at least for the first two thirds of the twentieth century) was propounded by the founder of modern Mithraic studies, Franz Cumont, in 1899 (see also Cumont 1903). For Cumont, Mithraism in the West was Romanized Mazdaism, thus still at its core a Persian religion, though one which had undergone extensive metamorphoses in its passage first through Chaldaea, where it acquired its astrological overlay and the syncretic assimilation to Mithra of the Babylonian Sun god Šamaš; and secondly through Anatolia and the culture of the Magusaeans, the Hellenized Magi of the Iranian diaspora (on whom see Bidez and Cumont 1938, Beck 1991), where it acquired a Stoic cosmology of sorts, especially in its eschatology (on which see Cumont 1931, Beck 1995). In assessing Cumont's and later scholars' arguments for transmission, one must keep in mind the two types of evidence deployed: first, common traits, i.e. similarity of the features of Mithras and Mithras-worship in the West with those of Mithra and Mithra-worship in the East to the point that coincidental re-invention in the West would cease to be a credible hypothesis; secondly, evidence of actual intermediate stages in the East-West transfer. We begin here with the latter. It is the stronger of the two types of evidence, but in volume the more meager. The evidence, and some of the inferences drawn from them, are as follows. 1) Plutarch (late first century CE), in Life of Pompey 24, states that the Cilician pirates who were vanquished by Pompey in the mid 60's BCE "celebrated certain secret rites of initiation (Greek teletas), of which those of Mithras have survived up to now" (or "as far as here," i.e. Rome: his Greek phrase mechri deuro is ambiguous). It is possible, but not certain, that these 'initiations' were a prototype of the Roman mysteries of Mithras. (For contra, see Francis 1975.). 2) Mithras — moreover, a Mithras who was identified with the Greek Sun god Helios — was one of the deities of the syncretic Graeco-Iranian royal cult founded by Antiochus I (q.v.), king of the small but prosperous buffer state of Commagene (q.v.) in the mid first century BCE. It is improbable in the extreme that this cult played no part in the transmission of Mithra-worship westwards, although nothing about it compels one to accept that it was a prototype of the Roman mysteries. So far, nothing about the recently discovered mithraeum at Doliche (see Schütte-Maischatz and Winter 2000) suggests that its cult relief is other than a product of second or third century CE Mithraism. (On the royal cult of Commagene and the role of Mithras therein, see Boyce 1991: pp. 309-51; Dörner 1975; 1978; Duchesne-Guillemin 1978a; Jacobs 2000; Merkelbach 1984: pp. 50-72; Schwertheim 1979; Wagner 1983; 2000; 2000a; Waldmann 1991. For a scenario of transmission incorporating the Commagenian royal cult and the royal family of subsequent generations, see Beck 1998.) 3) While archaeology has (as yet) unearthed no evidence in Anatolia for an intermediate form of Mithras-worship which is unambiguously the precursor of the Roman mystery cult, several atypical monuments and inscriptions from this area (as well as from Crimea to the north across the Black Sea) make it entirely plausible that such intermediate forms may well have existed, and hence that Anatolia in the larger sense, not just Commagene, played some part in Mithraism's westward transmission. Cumont's Magusaeans (see above), though real enough in their own right, are no longer regarded as the conduit for Mithraism. (The Cumontian scenario was first challenged by Wikander 1951; subsequently by Gordon 1975; Beck 1991: pp. 539-50.) There are however other plausible scenarios, some (e.g. Colpe 1975: pp. 390-9; Boyce 1991: pp. 468-90) involving the Iranian diaspora in Anatolia. (On Mithras-worship in Anatolia and its atypical remains, and for theories of transmission through Anatolia, see Beck 1984: pp. 2018-19, 2071-3; Boyce 1991: pp. 468-90; Colpe 1975: pp. 390-9; Cumont: 1939; Gordon 1978: pp. 159-64, 169-71; Gordon 1994: pp. 469-71; Schwertheim 1979; Will 1955: pp. 144-69; Will 1978: pp. 527-8.) 4) In Syria it is the absence of data on any intermediary form of Mithraism that is remarkable (a Chestertonian "dog which did not bark"). With the single exception of the recently discovered Huwarti mithraeum, the few actual mithraea and the monuments lacking known provenance which have been recovered there exemplify either the norms of western Mithraism or minor variations on those norms. The Huwarti mithraeum, moreover, dates to the final decades of the fourth century CE. Accordingly, it speaks of the local redefinition of a religion in its final years, not of "a road not taken" in its formative years. Mithraism in Syria was not a transitional phase intermediate between East and West, but a back-formation from the West in the East. Even the mithraeum at Dura Europos on the Euphrates, at the easternmost margins of the Roman empire, proved no exception. Arguably, its only significant Iranian feature is the fresco of a pair of enthroned elders in local ceremonial garb with scrolls and canes. These Cumont identified as Zoroaster and Ostanes; but they could as well be the Fathers of this particular Mithraic community at the time. (On Mithraism in Syria, see Roll 1977; Downey 1978; also the proceedings of the Colloquium "Mithra en Syrie," Lyon, November 2000, forthcoming in Topoi, which will include discussion of the Huwarti mithraeum. On the Dura mithraeum, see Cumont 1975; Beck 1984: pp. 214-17.) 5) In a description of Zoroastrian dualism which he inserted into his important essay On Isis and Isiris (46-7), Plutarch speaks of Mithras as "in the middle" (meson) between the good Horomazes and the evil Areimanius, adding "and this is why the Persians call the Mediator Mithras." This, it is generally agreed, does not ascribe moral neutrality to Mithras; rather he is the referee, arbiter, or judge between the two warring parties. However, even if the clause is more than Plutarch's own gloss, it speaks not of transitional Mithraism but of Mithra in the context of a collateral form of Zoroastrianism known to that learned Greek author. (On the passage and its interpretation, see de Jong 1997: pp. 171-7; on Mithra as judge, see Shaked 1980.) 6) The final piece of evidence which speaks directly to the question of transfer is the report of the state visit of Tiridates of Armenia to Rome to be crowned by Nero. At the coronation Tiridates declared that he had come "in order to revere you [Nero] as Mithras" (Dio Cassius 63.5.2). In the same visit, according to Pliny (Natural History 30.1.6), Tiridates "initiated him [Nero] into magical feasts" (magicis cenis). Since Tiridates had brought Magi in his retinue, it is likely that the "feasts" were "Magian" rather than "magical" in the contemporary Roman sense. In the Cumontian scenario this episode cannot mark the definitive moment of transfer, for Mithraism in that scenario was already established in Rome, albeit on a scale too small to have left any trace in the historical or archaeological record. Nevertheless, it could have been a spur to Mithraism's emergence on to the larger stage of popular appeal. Perhaps, too, it affected in some way the development of Mithraism's central rite, the cult meal (see above). (On the episode and its implications for Mithraism, see Cumont 1933; for an alternative scenario which places the cult's institution after this episode, Beck 2002.) When we turn to the much ampler dossier of similarities between Iranian Mithra-worship and the Mithras-worship of the Roman mystery cult, we must keep in mind that arguments for continuity based on these similarities all imply that the similarities are so systematic and so detailed that a non-causal relationship is untenable. Necessarily, therefore, they entail some transfer scenario, whether or not they expound one explicitly. Arguments for Mithraism's invention or re-invention in the West, on the contrary, imply that the similarities are too slight and too haphazard to warrant a causal explanation. Accordingly, no transfer scenario is required beyond a certain awareness of "oriental" wisdom among Mithraism's founders. Of the latter position there is a strong and a weak form. The strong form, having noted the undeniable similarities, then describes the cult, its origins, and its early development entirely in terms of the socio-religious culture(s) of the Roman empire. A typical proponent of this strong form is M. Clauss (2000: pp. 3-8, 21-2), who locates the cult's origins and point of departure firmly in late first-century CE Rome. Not because it is wrong, but solely because it is not germane to the mandate of Encyclopaedia Iranica, there is no need to explore this version of Mithraic origins further. Discontinuity's weaker form of argument postulates re-invention among and for the denizens of the Roman empire (or certain sections thereof), but re-invention by a person or persons of some familiarity with Iranian religion in a form current on its western margins in the first century CE. Merkelbach (1984: pp. 75-7), expanding on a suggestion of M.P. Nilsson, proposes such a founder from eastern Anatolia, working in court circles in Rome. So does Beck 1998, with special focus on the dynasty of Commagene (see above). Jakobs 1999 proposes a similar scenario. We may now turn finally to the similarities between western Mithraism and Iranian Mithra-worship and to the scholarship which has argued, in the Cumontian tradition, for significant continuity. (The scholarship up to the time of writing is surveyed in Beck 1984: pp. 2059-75). Predictably, the similarities mostly cluster around the person of Mithra/Mithras (remarkably, the second two of the three given here are not so much similarities as inversions): (1) Roman Mithras was identified with the Sun (see above); Iranian Mithra was a god of the dawn light. When and how the Iranian god became the Sun, as eventually he did, has been much debated (Lommel 1962; Gershevitch 1975, Gnoli 1979, Lincoln 1982; see above on the solar Mithras of Commagene; see below on M. Weiss's theory of the non-solarity of Mithra/Mithras both East and West). (2) Iranian Mithra was a god of cattle and pastures; Roman Mithras was a "cattle-thief" (explicitly so called, e.g. Porphyry, On the Cave of the Nymphs 40), all the more outrageous an inversion because Iranian Mithra was a god of righteousness whose very name means "contract." (3) Most importantly, Roman Mithras, as his mightiest and most beneficent deed, sacrifices a bull (see above); while Iranian Mithra was not himself a bull-killer, the act of bull-killing does figure prominently in the Zoroastrian cosmological narratives. In the first instance it was an act of evil: Ahriman slew the primal Bull of creation. However, the destructive act was turned to good, when from the bull's sperm, purified in the moon, sprang the domestic animals. The second and future event is entirely beneficial. A savior figure, Sošyant, will sacrifice a bull from whose fat, mixed with hôm, the drink of corporal immortality will be prepared. The bull-killing of Mithras can be construed as the Roman translation of either — or indeed of both — of the Iranian cosmogonic and eschatological myths. Certain of the compositional details of the tauroctony resonate with the former: the bull's tail metamorphosed into the wheat ear, the scorpion at the bull's genitals, the presence of the Moon as well as the Sun. The Pahlavi texts, notably the Bundahišn, which carry the Zoroastrian cosmological accounts are several centuries later than the Roman-era artifacts, i.e. the tauroctonies, which carry the western representation of the bull-killing. Accordingly, Iranizing interpretations of the tauroctony (for a survey of these, see Hinnells 1975a; Beck 1984: pp. 2068-9, 2080-1) imply one of two scenarios, whether or not they make the choice explicitly. Either those who constructed the western Mysteries consciously altered the Zoroastrian cosmological myths which were already current in the form later attested by the Pahlavi sources; or they took over and reproduced a collateral, non-Zoroastrian form of Iranian religion (Mazdaist or otherwise), current at the time but subsequently extinguished without trace, in which Mithra was the bull-killer. A version of the latter argues that what the western mysteries adopted was an offshoot of the Vedic tradition in which Mitra reluctantly slays the Soma (= Iranian Haoma) god (Lommel 1949). More persuasive, perhaps, than postulating a precise Iranian/Vedic genealogy for the tauroctonous Mithras is the argument that the Mithraic bull-killing, both as concept and as image, reflects a peculiarly Iranian ideology of sacrifice as a creative act undertaken by god, not man (Hinnells 1975a; Turcan 1981; Turcan 2000: pp. 102-5) — with the implication, presumably, that it is so because those who first imagined the icon in the West had at least something of that ideology in mind. (On a fascinating continuity into modern Zoroastrianism in Iran, see Boyce 1975.) There is a further problem that complicates all transmission scenarios: how to accommodate the twin deities Cautes and Cautopates and the lion-headed god (both mentioned above). Are they part of the theological baggage transferred from Iran? The names of the twins may well be of Iranian origin (see Schwartz 1975; contra: Schmeja 1975: p. 20), for Roman Mithraism did in fact occasionally borrow genuinely Iranian words (see Gray 1926: pp. 89-99; Schmeja 1975), notably nama (= "hail!") and nabarzes (precise etymology disputed, see Schwartz 1975: pp. 422-3). That, however, does not extend to their functions in the theology of the western mysteries, which can be fully accounted for in solely western terms (Beck 1984: pp. 2084-6). The lion-headed god is more problematic, partly because his eventual place in the western cult's theology is as opaque as his provenance. (On the extant exemplars and their iconography, see Hinnells 1975b; on the various interpretations and identifications, see Beck 1984: pp. 2086-9). Of the several identities proposed for the lion-headed god, two link him unambiguously with Iran. The first, propounded by Cumont (1899: p. 78; 1903: pp. 107-10), identifies him as Zurvān, the god of infinite Time and the father and arbiter between the good Ohrmazd and the evil Ahriman. This would of course make Roman Mithraism the descendant of a Zurvanite branch of Mazdaism. Around this Iranian core accumulated the personae and attributes of various Egyptian and Hellenistic Greek deities, for the most part gods of Time (Pettazzoni 1954). The second Iranian identity, first proposed by I.F. Legge (1912-15), is Ahriman — an outrageous choice were it not that the name Arimanius is attested in Mithraic epigraphy, although never in a context which makes it more than a possibility that the Mithraic lion-headed god was Ahriman (Duchesne-Guillemin 1955; idem, 1958-62; on discussions of the epigraphy and the relevant monuments, see Beck 1984: pp. 2034-5). If the Mithraic lion-headed god was indeed a descendant of the Iranian Ahriman, there is no need to assume, for that reason alone, that he retained an exclusively negative and evil nature, or that, in consequence, the Roman Mithraists were devil-worshippers on the side. It would be impractical in a work of this scope to discuss every minute similarity which has been demonstrated or claimed between western Mithraism and Iranian Mithra-worship. (For a fuller summary, see Beck 1984: pp. 2056-89; for arguments stressing dissimilarities and discontinuities, see Colpe 1975; Drijvers 1978.) The time has come to review the principal scholarship which has argued for transmission and continuity based on the postulated similarities. The Cumontian "default" scenario has already been described. Of the post-Cumontian scenarios, three argue for continuity in the strongest terms. A.D.H. Bivar (1998, and earlier studies mentioned there) argues that western Mithraism was but one of several manifestations of Mithra-worship current in antiquity across a wide swathe of Asia and Europe. L.A. Campbell (1968) argues in the Cumontian tradition that western Mithraism replicated, through a thin disguise and with certain Graeco-Roman admixtures, a sometimes extraordinarily detailed and learned form of Zoroastrian Mazdaism. A continuity as thoroughgoing, though not quite so systematic ideologically, was proposed in several studies by G. Widengren (1965: pp. 222-32; 1966; 1980). Starting from the dissimilarities between Roman Mithraism and Zoroastrian Mazdaism, the most obvious of which are of course the different supreme deities in the two systems and the different agents and intents of the bull-killing (discussed above), scholarship on Iranian Mithra-worship has also looked for and found closer analogies with Mithraism in pre-Zoroastrian and non-Zoroastrian Iranian religion — and beyond that in Vedic religion. The strength of hypotheses based on the analogies with pre-/non-Zoroastrian systems is that they do not need to postulate a deliberate adaptation of Zoroastrianism into western Mithraism; their weakness is that they have to postulate instead the persistence in western Iran of an early collateral Indo-European form of Mithra-worship, ready for easy translation into Roman Mithraism, for which there is no direct evidence. P.G. Kreyenbroek (1994), by comparing cosmogonies (Mithraic similar to non/pre-Zoroastrian; both of these dissimilar to Zoroastrian), has advanced perhaps the most persuasive transmission scenario of this type to date. M. Weiss (1996, 1998) argues that Roman Mithras continues a very early Iranian and Vedic conception of Mithra/Mitra as the Nachthimmel, the starry heavens, an hypothesis entailing the awkward conception of a Mithras who is wholly distinct from the Sun god. Lastly, there are certain works specifically on Iranian religion, in addition to those of Widengren (1960, 1965) already mentioned, which discuss aspects of western Mithras or Mithraism in terms which assert or imply a fair measure of continuity: Gray 1926: pp. 89-99; Gershevitch 1959: pp. 61-72; Zaehner 1961: pp. 97-144; Duchesne-Guillemin 1962: pp. 248-57. Bibliography: (abbreviation, JMS = Journal of Mithraic Studies). R.L. Beck, "Mithraism since Franz Cumont," Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt, II.17.4, 1984, pp. 2002-115. Idem, Planetary Gods and Planetary Orders in the Mysteries of Mithras, Leiden, 1988. Idem, "Thus Spake Not Zarathuštra: Zoroastrian Pseudepigrapha of the Greco-Roman World," in Boyce and Grenet 1991 (see below), pp. 491-565. Idem "In the Place of the Lion: Mithras in the Tauroctony," in Hinnells 1994 (see below), pp. 29-50. Idem, "Dio Cocceianus," Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. 7, 1995, p. 421. Idem, "The Mysteries of Mithras," in J.S. Kloppenborg and S.G. Wilson (eds), Voluntary Associations in the Ancient World, London, 1996, pp. 176-85. Idem, "The Mysteries of Mithras: A new account of their genesis," Journal of Roman Studies 88, 1998, pp. 115-28. Idem, "Ritual, Myth, Doctrine, and Initiation in the Mysteries of Mithras: New evidence from a cult vessel," JRS 90, 2000, pp. 145-80. Idem, "History into Fiction: The metamorphoses of the Mithras myths," Ancient Narrative 1, 2001-02, pp. 283-300. U. Bianchi ed., Mysteria Mithrae, Leiden, 1979. Bianchi 1979a "The Religio-Historical Question of the Mysteries of Mithra," in Bianchi ed. 1979, pp. 3-60. J. Bidez and F. Cumont, Les Mages hellénisés, 2 vols, Paris, 1938 (repr. 1973). A.D.H. Bivar, The Personalities of Mithra in Archaeology and Literature, New York, 1998. M. Boyce, "Mihragān among the Irani Zoroastrians," in Hinnells ed. 1975, pp. 106-18. Boyce 1991 M. Boyce and F. Grenet, A History of Zoroastrianism , Vol. 3, Leiden, 1991. W. Burkert, Ancient Mystery Cults, Cambridge MA, 1987. L.A. Campbell, Mithraic Iconography and Ideology, Leiden, 1968. M. Clauss, Cultores Mithrae: Die Anhängerschaft des Mithras-Kultes, Stuttgart, 1992. Idem, The Roman Cult of Mithras, trans. R.L. Gordon, Edinburgh and New York, 2000. C. Colpe, "Mithra-Verehrung, Mithras-Kult und die Existenz iranischer Mysterien," in Hinnells ed. 1975, pp. 378-405. F. Cumont, Textes et monuments figurés relatifs aux mystères de Mithra, Vol. 1, Brussels, 1899. Idem, The Mysteries of Mithra, trans. T.J. McCormack, London, 1903 (repr. New York, 1956). Idem, "La fin du monde selon les mages occidentaux," Revue de l'Histoire des Religions, 103, 1931, pp. 29-96. Idem, "L'iniziazione di Nerone da parte di Tiridate d'Armenia," Rivista di Filologia, NS 11, 1933, pp. 145-54. Idem, "Mithra en Asie Mineure," in Anatolian Studies in Honour of W.H. Buckler, Manchester, 1939, pp. 67-76. Idem, "The Dura Mithraeum," ed. and trans. E.D. Francis, in Hinnells ed. 1975, pp. 151-214. A. de Jong, Traditions of the Magi: Zoroastrianism in Greek and Latin Literature, Leiden, 1997. F.K. Dörner, Kommagene, Antike Welt Sondernummer 1975. Idem, "Mithras in Kommagene," in Duchesne-Guillemin, ed. 1978 (see below), pp. 123-33. S.B. Downey, "Syrian Images of Mithras Tauroctonos," in Duchesne-Guillemin ed. 1978, pp. 135-49. H.J.W. Drijvers, "Mithra at Hatra?" in Duchesne-Guillemin, ed., 1978, pp. 151-86. J. Duchesne-Guillemin, "Ahriman et le dieu suprême dans les mystères de Mithra," Numen 2, 1955, pp. 190-5. Idem, "Aion et le léontocéphalique, Mithra et Ahriman," La Nouvelle Klio 10-12, 1958-62, pp. 91-8. Idem, La religion de l'Iran ancien, Paris, 1962. J. Duchesne-Guillemin ed., Études Mithiaques, Leiden, 1978. Idem, 1978a "Iran and Greece in Commagene," in Duchesne-Guillemin ed. 1978, pp. 187-99. E.D. Francis, "Plutarch's Mithraic Pirates," in Cumont 1975, pp. 207-10. I. Gershevitch, The Avestan Hymn to Mithra, Cambridge, 1959. Idem, Die Sonne das Beste," in Hinnells ed. 1975, pp. 68-89. G. Gnoli, "Sol Persice Mithra," in Bianchi ed. 1979, pp. 725-40. R.L. Gordon, "Mithraism and Roman Society: Social factors in the explanation of religious change in the Roman empire," Religion 2, 1972, pp. 92-121. Idem, "Franz Cumont and the Doctrines of Mithraism," in Hinnells, ed., 1975, pp. 215-48. Idem, "The Date and Significance of CIMRM 593," JMS 2, 1978, pp. 148-74* (* = reprinted in Gordon 1996). Gordon 1980a, "Reality, Evocation, and Boundary in the Mysteries of Mithras," JMS 3, 1980 pp. 19-99*. Gordon 1980b, "Panelled Complications," JMS 3, 1980, pp. 200-27*. Idem, "Who worshipped Mithras?" Journal of Roman Archaeology 7, 1994, pp. 459-74. R. L. Gordon, Image and Value in the Graeco-Roman World: Studies in Mithraism and religious art, Aldershot UK, 1996. L.H. Gray, The Foundations of the Iranian Religions, Bombay, 1926. J.R. Hinnells, ed., Mithraic Studies, 2 vols (consecutive pagination), Manchester, 1975. Idem, 1975a, "Reflections on the Bull-Slaying Scene," in Hinnells, ed., 1975, pp. 290-312. Idem, 1975b, "Reflections on the Lion-Headed Figure in Mithraism," in Monumentum H.S. Nyberg, Acta Iranica, Ser. 2, Vol. 1, Leiden, pp. 333-69. Idem, "The Iconography of Cautes and Cautopates," JMS 1, 1976, pp. 36-67. J.R. Hinnells ed., Studies in Mithraism, Rome, 1994. S. Insler, "A New Interpretation of the Bull-Slaying Motif," in M.B. de Boer and T.A. Edridge eds, Hommages à Maarten J. Vermaseren, Leiden, 1978, pp. 519-38. B. Jacobs, Die Herkunft und Entstehung der römischen Mithrasmysterien: Überlegungen zur Rolle des Stifters und zu den astronomischen Hintergründen der Kultlegende, Konstanz, 1999. Idem, "Die Religionspolitik des Antiochus I. von Kommagene," in Wagner ed. 2000, pp. 45-9. J.P. Kane, "The Mithraic Cult Meal in its Greek and Roman Environment," in Hinnells ed. 1975, pp. 313-51. P.G. Kreyenbroek, "Mithra and Ahreman in Iranian Cosmogonies," in Hinnells ed. 1994, pp. 175-82. I.F. Legge, "The Lion-Headed God of the Mithraic Mysteries," Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archaeology, 34, 1912, pp. 125-42; 37, 1915, 151-62. W. Liebeschuetz, "The Expansion of Mithraism among the Religious Cults of the Second Century," in Hinnells ed. 1994, pp. 195-216. B. Lincoln, "Mithra(s) as Sun and Savior," in U. Bianchi and M.J. Vermaseren eds., La soteriologia dei culti orientali nell'Impero Romano, Leiden, 1982, pp. 505-26. H. Lommel, "Mithra und das Stieropfer," Paideuma 3, 1949, pp. 207-18. Idem, "Die Sonne das Schlechteste?" Oriens 15, 1962, pp. 360-73. L.H. Martin, "Reflections on the Mithraic Tauroctony as Cult Scene," in Hinnells ed. 1994, pp. 217-228. R. Merkelbach, Mithras, Königstein/Ts., 1984. R. Pettazzoni, "The Monstrous Figure of Time in Mithraism," in Essays in the History of Religions, trans. H.J. Rose, Leiden, 1954. I. Roll, "The Mysteries of Mithras in the Roman Orient," JMS 2, 1977, pp. 18-52. H. Schmeja, Iranisches und Griechisches in den Mithrasmysterien, Innsbruck, 1975. A. Schütte-Maischatz and E. Winter, "Kultstätten der Mithrasmysterien in Doliche," in Wagner ed. 2000, pp. 93-99. M. Schwartz, "Cautes and Cautopates, the Mithraic Torchbearers," in Hinnells ed. 1975, pp. 406-23. E. Schwertheim, Mithras: Seine Denkmäler und sein Kult, Antike Welt Sondernummer 1979. G. Sfameni Gasparro, "Il mitraismo ...," in Bianchi ed. 1979, pp. 299-384. S. Shaked, "Mihr the Judge," Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam 2, 1980, pp. 1-31. R. Turcan, "Le sacrifice mithriaque: innovations de sens et de modalités," Entretiens sur l'antiquité classique (Fondation Hardt) 27, 1981, pp. 341-80. Idem, Mithra et le mithriacisme, Paris, 2000. D. Ulansey, The Origins of the Mithraic Mysteries, New York, 1989. M. J. Vermaseren, Corpus Inscriptionum et Monumentorum Religionis Mithriacae, 2 vols, The Hague, 1956-60. Idem, Mithra, ce dieu mystérieux., trans. M. Léman and L. Gilbert, Paris, 1960 (English translation by T. and V. Megaw, Mithras, the Secret God, London, 1963). Idem, Mithriaca I: The Mithraeum at S. Maria Capua Vetere, Leiden, 1971. R. Vollkommer, "Mithras," Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae 6.1, pp. 583-626 (text), 6.2, pp. 325-68 (plates), 1992. J. Wagner, "Dynastie und Herrscherkult in Kommagene," Istanbuler Mitteilungen 33, 1983, pp. 177-224. J. Wagner ed., Gottkönige am Euphrat: Neue Ausgrabungen und Forschungen in Kommagene, Mainz, 2000. Wagner 2000a = "Die Könige von Kommagene und ihr Herrscherkult," in Wagner ed. 2000, pp. 11-25. H. Waldmann, Der Kommagenische Mazdaismus, Tübingen, 1991. M. Weiss, Als Sonne Verkant — Mithras, Osterburken, 1996. Idem, "Mithras, der Nachthimmel: Eine Dekodierung der römischen Mithras-Kultbilder nit Hilfe des Awesta," Traditio, 53, 1998, pp. 1-36. L.M. White, Building God's House in the Roman World: Architectural Adaptation among Pagans, Jews, and Christians, Baltimore, 1990. G. Widengren, Die Religionen Irans, Stuttgart, 1965. Idem, "The Mithraic Mysteries in the Greco-Roman World, with special regard to their Iranian background," Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei, Anno 363, Quad. 76, 1966, pp. 433-55. Idem, "Reflections on the Origins of the Mithraic Mysteries," in Perennitas: Studi in honore di Angelo Brelich, Rome, 1980. S. Wikander, "Études sur les mystères de Mithras," Vetenskapssocieteten i Lund, Årsbok 1951, pp. 5-56. E. Will, Le relief cultuel gréco-romain, Paris, 1955. Idem, "Origine et nature du Mithriacisme," in Duchesne-Guillemin ed. 1978, pp. 527-36. R.C. Zaehner, The Dawn and Twilight of Zoroastrianism, London, 1961. S. Zwirn, "The Intention of Biographical Narration on Mithraic Cult Images," Word and Image 5, 1989, pp. 2-18. (Roger Beck) Originally Published: July 20, 2002 Last Updated: July 20, 2002

Mitraïsme

http://www.uhu.es/ejms/

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Mitraïsme

http://www.iranicaonline.org/articles/mithraism

MITHRAISM, the cult of Mithra as it developed in the West, its origins, its features, and its probable connection with Mithra worship in Iran. For most of the twentieth century the major problem addressed by scholarship on both Roman Mithraism and the Iranian god Mithra was the question of continuity. Did Mithra-worship migrate from Iran to the Roman Empire in some institutional form or was Mithraism invented in the West (with a few Iranian trappings) as a new institution altogether? At the start of the twenty first century, this issue appears to be less central to the concerns of scholarship on Western Mithraism, but it remains important nevertheless, and obviously it must be the lens through which Mithraism is examined in this article. The first task, though, is to describe the Mithras cult as it did in fact develop in the West, and in so far as we can reconstruct it objectively from its material remains. Reconstruction is not easy, since no ancient literary works about Mithraism and no substantial sacred texts from Mithraism have survived. Western Mithraism described. The term "Mithraism" is of course a modern coinage. In antiquity the cult was known as "the mysteries of Mithras"; alternatively, as "the mysteries of the Persians." The latter designation is significant. The Mithraists, who were manifestly not Persians in any ethnic sense, thought of themselves as cultic "Persians." Moreover, whatever moderns might think, the ancient Roman Mithraists themselves were convinced that their cult was founded by none other than Zoroaster, who "dedicated to Mithras, the creator and father of all, a cave in the mountains bordering Persia," an idyllic setting "abounding in flowers and springs of water" (Porphyry, On the Cave of the Nymphs 6). Persia (or Parthia) in those times was Rome's great rival and frequently at war with her. Nonetheless, there is no indication that this antagonism was ever problematic for the Mithraists socially or politically. Clearly, their cultic "Persian" identity, which they made no attempt to hide, was acceptable to the authorities and their fellow citizens. The socio-political acceptability of the Mithraists, despite their Perserie, can be explained largely by their social profile. They were the most conformist of men — and men indeed they were in the limited gender sense of the word, a factor which itself would add to their respectability or at least not detract from it (compare the charge against Christianity that it subverted the family by proselytizing the womenfolk). Mithraism drew its initiates disproportionately from the military, from the Empire's petty bureaucracy, and from moderately successful freedmen (i.e. ex-slaves), in fact from theretainer classes, the very people who had a stake in the current sociopolitical dispensation. (On Mithraism's social profile see Clauss 1992, Gordon 1972, Liebeschuetz 1994; Merkelbach 1984: pp. 153-88) We noticed above that Mithraism's original, archetypal sacred space was thought to be a cave. This perception, reported by an external source (the third-century CE philosopher Porphyry), is corroborated by internal data and the archaeological evidence. The Mithraists did indeed call their meeting places "caves," whether they actually were or not. Natural caves were used where available; and where not, especially in urban settings (Rome, Ostia), a room or suite of rooms within some larger structure was used and sometimes decorated so as to resemble a natural cave. Mithraea (our modern term), like natural caves and unlike most constructed temples, had no elaborate or even recognizable exteriors. (On the structure of the mithraeum see White 1990: pp. 47-59.) That Mithraists met in "caves" which were distinctively designed and furnished has had important consequences for the archaeological record and thus for our ability to reconstruct the cult. In addition to their cave-like appearance, mithraea were designed with raised platforms on either side of a central aisle to serve as banqueting couches for the cult meal (on which see below). They were also filled with much sacred art - sculptures (mostly in relief), altars, ritual pottery vessels, frescos, etc. - often with their dedications extant in whole or in part. There is no mistaking a mithraeum when archaeology brings it to light, and the chances are good that it will also divulge something about its membership. (On the furnishings and equipment of the mithraeum see Clauss 2000: 42-59, 114-30.) The scattering of mithraea, thus identified across the Roman Empire, is perhaps more informative about the cult's spread and social composition than are the material remains of any of its peers, early Christianity included. We have already looked at Mithraism's social catchment. As for its spread, though represented virtually everywhere in the Roman empire, it was much stronger in the Latin speaking West than in the (predominantly) Greek-speaking East. It flourished in particular in the city of Rome and its port, Ostia, and along the Rhine-Danube frontier — exactly where one would expect from its social profile. (For maps, see Clauss 1992, province by province). Without doubt, an intentional concomitant of the "cave" was the small size of Mithraic groups or cells. The upper limit to the number of persons who can feast intimately on side platforms in a cave or a cave-like inner room is soon reached. Mithraism, then, was a religion of small communities. These communities, moreover, were self-sufficient. There is not a shred of evidence for any co-ordinating, let alone regulating, higher authority. There were no Mithraic bishops; the contrast with contemporaneous Christianity, or for that matter with the contemporaneous state Zoroastrianism of Kerdir, could not be more extreme. As social institutions the Mithraic communities are classed among those groups termed (by moderns) "voluntary associations." Not all voluntary associations served religious ends. Some were analogous to trade guilds; perhaps the most common form was the burial society, clubs which could assure their members funerals in a more ample and sociable style than they could individually command. In the religious sphere, it is the voluntary nature of membership that distinguishes these associations from other religious enterprises. One chose to be initiated into the Mysteries of Mithras, whereas one belonged (normally in an entirely passive way) to the public cults of city and empire simply by virtue of belonging at one level or another, from emperor to slave, to those socio-political units: to the public cults you could no more opt in than you could opt out. It follows that ancient mystery cults, Mithraism included, were non-exclusive: as a Mithraist, you would expect, and be expected, to continue your participation in the public cults (On Mithraism as a voluntary association, see Beck 1996.) The "Mysteries of Mithras," to return to their ancient name, were one of a number of ancient religious "mysteries." A "mystery," in Greek, is something into which one is initiated. Modern connotations of the "mysterious" or the "mystical" are irrelevant, and although most ancient mysteries were in fact secret, secrecy was not always a requirement. Not all mysteries were transmitted in and by voluntary associations, and not all voluntary religious associations transmitted rites of initiation as their sole or even principal business. Indeed, Mithraism appears to be the only substantial pagan cult of which it can be said that initiation into its mysteries was both the necessary and the sufficient condition of membership. (On ancient mystery cults, see Burkert 1987.) Organizationally, the Mithraic groups functioned much as other voluntary associations, but in addition there was an esoteric hierarchy of seven grades. Scholars disagree about the extent of this hierarchy. Was it universal, or normative, or a refinement limited to the relatively few mithraea where it is directly attested? Was it a priesthood? Most scholars would agree that it was not ubiquitous in the sense of being a requirement for all mithraea; also that the initiate of the highest grade, the Father, excercised leadership in all aspects of the mithraeum's sacred business, and that virtually all mithraea would have had at least one Father (two are attested in some mithraea), regardless of the presence or absence of other grades. (On the grades see Clauss 2000: pp. 131-40; contra: Gordon 1994: pp. 465-7; on their esoteric significance, see Gordon 1980a: pp. 19-99.) Into what was a Mithraist initiated? What, in other words, constituted the sacred business of a mithraeum? Scholarship is in broad agreement that the principal act was the cult meal, celebrated both as an actual feast by the initiates reclining opposite each other on the platforms which served as banqueting couches and as a ritual re-enactment of the feast of Mithras and the Sun god celebrated on the hide of a bull freshly slain by Mithras. (On the cult meal, see Kane 1975.) That there was another purpose to the Mithraic mysteries and a corresponding ritual is attested in the same passage from Porphyry (On the Cave of the Nymphs 6), already cited above, which tells us that the Mithraists called their sacred places "caves" — and why. The intent of the Mithraists was to "induct the initiate into a mystery of the descent of souls and their exit back out again." It was for this ritual purpose (which has been generally misconstrued as a didactic purpose) that the Mithraists made their sacred space cave-like, for the cave is "the symbol of the universe," into which the soul enters for mortal existence and quits for immortality. Accordingly, Porphyry continues, the mithraeum is designed and furnished with "cosmic symbols appropriately arranged" so as to be an authentic microcosm. (On this ritual and the corresponding design function of the mithraeum, see Beck 2000: pp. 154-65; this article also describes and explicates the two previously unknown rituals depicted on opposite sides of the cult vessel discussed.) For other initiatory rites we depend primarily on the fresco scenes in the mithraeum at S. Maria Capua Vetere. These depict usually a triad of figures: the initiates, small, naked, humiliated; and two initiators, one behind and the other in front of the initiates, manipulating the instruments of initiations. (For illustrations, see Vermaseren 1971: Plates 21-8.) Mithraism was an astral religion. The perceivable heavens and the celestial bodies (sun, moon, the other five planets, stars) all played a part in the mysteries — the sun necessarily a very large part, since Mithras himself was the Sun god (see below). Astral symbolism (e.g. representations of the zodiac) was liberally deployed on the sculpted and painted monuments and in the design of the mithraeum in order to render it a true likeness of the cosmos "for induction into the mystery of the descent of souls and their exit back out again" (see above). Furthermore, each of the seven grades of the hierarchy was "under the tutelage of" one of the seven planets. Finally, in the principal cult icon, the representation of Mithras as bull-killer (see below), there is a remarkable correspondence between several of the standard elements of the composition and the constellations of a particular tract of the heavens (e.g. the raven and the constellation Corvus). The astral symbolism incorporated into the mysteries stems of course from the ancient Graeco-Roman construction of the heavens and their denizens in the astronomy/astrology of the times. On the intent of the symbolism there is no scholarly consensus. Indeed, several influential scholars have treated it as superficial decoration without any profound intent at all. That is mistaken. Granted, it is difficult to prove a negative. Nevertheless, the arguments against deep intent have so far merely re-asserted their premise as conclusion: astral symbolism is without deep intent because it is superficial. Only Franz Cumont, the founder of modern Mithraic studies, avoided this petitio principii. He did so by postulating the imposition of an astrological layer by the Chaldeans and by "Hellenized Magi" during the transmission of Iranian Mithra-worship from Iran to the West (Cumont 1903: pp. 119-30). (For arguments for deep intent in the astral symbolism, see Merkelbach 1984: pp. 75-133, 193-244; Beck 1988; Beck 1994; Beck 2000: pp. 154-65; Ulansey 1989; Jacobs 1999. As superficial imagery, (e.g.) Clauss 2000: pp. 87, 89, 97.) Roman Mithras. Since the function of its mysteries was to relate the initiate to Mithras, the cult was of course centred entirely on the person of the god. His cult title was "Deus Sol Invictus Mithras": thus, he was "god," he was "the Sun," he was "unconquered," he was "Mithras." To his identity as the Sun and to his invincibility must be added his Persian-ness, a "fact" known to outsiders as well as to his initiates. Iconographically, he is depicted in exotic non-Roman, specifically oriental garb: trousers and the "Persian" cap. Gods have their personal histories. The story of Mithras survives not in written form derived from an oral narrative — if such there ever was, it has disappeared without trace — but as scenes preserved on what are collectively termed "the monuments," for the most part as relief sculpture on icons, altars, etcetera, but also as statuary and in fresco on the walls of mithraea. In the frescos and on the great complex reliefs (the latter mostly from the Rhine and Danube frontier provinces) a selection of side-scenes representing various episodes surrounds the central scene, the god's sacrificial killing of a bull. More often this "tauroctony" is a self-contained icon, and from its privileged location at the head of the central aisle we know that it was the cult's principal icon; consequently, that the bull-killing was the main event in the Mithras myth. (The fundamental illustrated catalogue of Mithraic monuments is Vermaseren 1956-60. Merkelback 1984 and Clauss 2000 are also exceptionally well illustrated. On the iconography of Mithras, see Vollkommer 1992. On the myth of Mithras as inferred from the iconography, see Cumont 1903: pp. 104-49; Vermaseren 1960: pp. 56-88; Clauss 2000: pp. 62-101.) Some of the larger reliefs could be swiveled so as to display on their reverse the scene of Sol and Mithras feasting on the hide of the bull. The gods' banquet, then, is the outcome of the sacrifice, and since it is replicated in the cult meal of the initiates (see above), it must be supposed that the mythic sacrifice performed by Mithras is the salvafic cause of whatever benefits accrue to his mortal initiates in replicating the banquet of the two gods. The side-scenes are numerous, and they represent many different episodes in the myth, e.g. the pursuit and capture of the bull, the ascent of Mithras in the Sun's chariot, as well as occasional episodes which, as far as one can tell, do not include or concern Mithras at all. Moreover, there is no standard order or canon of scenes: only the internal logic of the narrative orders the episodes (e.g., bull-killing precedes banquet, because the bull's hide serves as couch cover for the banqueters). (On the composition of complex monuments, see Gordon 1980b; Beck 1984: pp. 2075-8) In addition to the bull-killing and the banquet, the scene of Mithras' birth is manifestly important. He is shown rising upright from a rock, not as a baby but in the prime of youth, with extended arms holding torch and sword. He has, it seems, no father. It would be wrong to say that he has no mother, for the rock itself, identified explicitly as Petra Genetrix ("the rock that gives birth") is his mother. Since the bull-killing was so obviously the god's principal act, and since the icon which represents it was so clearly the cult's primary locus of meaning, the scene as regularly represented (with remarkably few variations from the norm) must be described. At the mouth of a cave, Mithras straddles the bull, plunging a dagger into its heart. A dog and a snake dart up at the blood flowing from the wound. A scorpion fastens on the bull's genitals, and a raven perches on the god's billowing mantle. Miraculously, the tail of the dying bull has metamorphosed into an ear of wheat. On either side of the scene the twin gods Cautes and Cautopates are posed, the former holding a raised torch, the latter a lowered torch. Above and to the left is the Sun god, above and to the right the Moon goddess. Frequently in tauroctonies from the Rhine and Danube areas, a lion and a two-handled cup are added to the scene. Finding the "meaning" of the scene has been, perhaps to excess, the Great Game of Roman Mithraic hermeneutics. Yet a simple narrative solution, that the bull-killing is just an episode — albeit the principal episode — in the Mithras myth lacks plausibility because of the unusual and ill-assorted assemblage of beings which surround the sacrificing god. As an event, even a supernatural event, in a story it strains one's sense of narrative realism. So while the tauroctony does indeed represent an episode in a story, it represents, it evokes, it intimates something more; and it does so by means of the elements of the composition functioning as symbols, collectively or individually. Interpretations which look eastwards to Iran will be discussed in the next section. The other important modern interpretation looks upwards to the heavens and the notable correspondence between elements of the composition and the ancient constellations (see above, on Mithraism as an astral religion). The shortcoming of interpretations of this latter type is that they have tended to treat the tauroctony rather simplistically as a star chart from which one can decipher the celestial identity of the god as this or that constellation. (For a survey of interpretations of the tauroctony, see Beck 1984: pp. 2080-3; Martin 1994. For celestial interpretations, see Insler 1978; Ulansey 1989; Beck 1994; Jakobs 1999; Weiss 1998. For an important redirection of interpretation (the tauroctony as "cult scene" and "depiction of ritual sacrifice"), see Martin 1994. On the tauroctony in the context of Roman imperial art, see Zwirn 1989. Iranizing interpretations will be referenced in the next section.) As one would expect in a relatively elaborate Roman cult, Mithras does not lack for divine company. The Graeco-Roman Sun god Helios/Sol has already been mentioned — that Mithras both is and is not the Sun, depending on context, is one of those paradoxes which religions take in their stride — as have the planetary gods. Various of the Olympian gods also play a role, though a minor and marginal one. Finally, there are three esoteric deities, two of whom are the twins Cautes and Cautopates, already mentioned as witnesses to the bull-killing. In appearance they are clones of Mithras, and they represent through their primary attributes of the raised and lowered torches paired opposites in nature and in the heavens (e.g. rising sun and setting sun, flanking Mithras as the midday sun). Within the mystery, they symbolize and, as agents, control the entry of the soul downward into mortality (Cautopates) and its exit upwards into immortality (Cautes). (On this pair of deities, see Hinnells 1976; Beck 1984: pp. 2084-6). The third esoteric deity is the enigmatic "lion-headed god." Since his identification is bound up with the question of Mithraism's eastern origins, he will be discussed in the next section. Bibliographic note: The foundational study of Roman Mithraism is Cumont 1899 and Cumont 1903. Short general studies: Vermaseren 1963; Turcan 2000; Clauss 2000. Merkelbach 1984 is a fuller comprehensive study. On Mithraism as a mystery cult among other mysteries, Bianchi 1979a; Sfameni Gasparro 1979. There are four volumes of conference papers devoted both to Iranian Mithra and to Roman Mithras and Mithraism: Hinnells 1975; Duchesne-Guillemin 1978; Bianchi 1979; Hinnells 1994. Bibliographic survey: Beck 1984; Gordon in Clauss 2000: pp. 183-90. From Iranian Mithra to Roman Mithras: Continuity versus re-invention. That Roman Mithras was a Persian god in more than just the perception and self-definition of his Roman initiates is indisputable. To say that he was "the same" god, or that he "came from" Iran is equally true, though it begs as many questions as it appears to answer. Did he emigrate together with his cult? Was institutionalized Mithra-worship transmitted from East to West? Likewise the Mithra myth(s) and the concepts of the god, his powers, and his functions? Was he "the same" god in that strong sense? Or was he re-invented in the West, perhaps by those with some knowledge of the East, as a new god for new mysteries in a new type of cult association appropriate to the different social and cultural environment of the Roman Empire? Was he "the same" merely in the weaker sense that he was re-outfitted with Iranian trappings sufficient to authenticate him as "Persian" in his new context? Two statements at least may be made with some confidence about the century-long scholarly controversy over these questions: first, that at the beginning of the third millennium there is still no consensus; secondly, that in the last three decades the balance of opinion has shifted, rightly or wrongly, in favor of re-invention over continuity. What one might call the "default" transmission scenario (at least for the first two thirds of the twentieth century) was propounded by the founder of modern Mithraic studies, Franz Cumont, in 1899 (see also Cumont 1903). For Cumont, Mithraism in the West was Romanized Mazdaism, thus still at its core a Persian religion, though one which had undergone extensive metamorphoses in its passage first through Chaldaea, where it acquired its astrological overlay and the syncretic assimilation to Mithra of the Babylonian Sun god Šamaš; and secondly through Anatolia and the culture of the Magusaeans, the Hellenized Magi of the Iranian diaspora (on whom see Bidez and Cumont 1938, Beck 1991), where it acquired a Stoic cosmology of sorts, especially in its eschatology (on which see Cumont 1931, Beck 1995). In assessing Cumont's and later scholars' arguments for transmission, one must keep in mind the two types of evidence deployed: first, common traits, i.e. similarity of the features of Mithras and Mithras-worship in the West with those of Mithra and Mithra-worship in the East to the point that coincidental re-invention in the West would cease to be a credible hypothesis; secondly, evidence of actual intermediate stages in the East-West transfer. We begin here with the latter. It is the stronger of the two types of evidence, but in volume the more meager. The evidence, and some of the inferences drawn from them, are as follows. 1) Plutarch (late first century CE), in Life of Pompey 24, states that the Cilician pirates who were vanquished by Pompey in the mid 60's BCE "celebrated certain secret rites of initiation (Greek teletas), of which those of Mithras have survived up to now" (or "as far as here," i.e. Rome: his Greek phrase mechri deuro is ambiguous). It is possible, but not certain, that these 'initiations' were a prototype of the Roman mysteries of Mithras. (For contra, see Francis 1975.). 2) Mithras — moreover, a Mithras who was identified with the Greek Sun god Helios — was one of the deities of the syncretic Graeco-Iranian royal cult founded by Antiochus I (q.v.), king of the small but prosperous buffer state of Commagene (q.v.) in the mid first century BCE. It is improbable in the extreme that this cult played no part in the transmission of Mithra-worship westwards, although nothing about it compels one to accept that it was a prototype of the Roman mysteries. So far, nothing about the recently discovered mithraeum at Doliche (see Schütte-Maischatz and Winter 2000) suggests that its cult relief is other than a product of second or third century CE Mithraism. (On the royal cult of Commagene and the role of Mithras therein, see Boyce 1991: pp. 309-51; Dörner 1975; 1978; Duchesne-Guillemin 1978a; Jacobs 2000; Merkelbach 1984: pp. 50-72; Schwertheim 1979; Wagner 1983; 2000; 2000a; Waldmann 1991. For a scenario of transmission incorporating the Commagenian royal cult and the royal family of subsequent generations, see Beck 1998.) 3) While archaeology has (as yet) unearthed no evidence in Anatolia for an intermediate form of Mithras-worship which is unambiguously the precursor of the Roman mystery cult, several atypical monuments and inscriptions from this area (as well as from Crimea to the north across the Black Sea) make it entirely plausible that such intermediate forms may well have existed, and hence that Anatolia in the larger sense, not just Commagene, played some part in Mithraism's westward transmission. Cumont's Magusaeans (see above), though real enough in their own right, are no longer regarded as the conduit for Mithraism. (The Cumontian scenario was first challenged by Wikander 1951; subsequently by Gordon 1975; Beck 1991: pp. 539-50.) There are however other plausible scenarios, some (e.g. Colpe 1975: pp. 390-9; Boyce 1991: pp. 468-90) involving the Iranian diaspora in Anatolia. (On Mithras-worship in Anatolia and its atypical remains, and for theories of transmission through Anatolia, see Beck 1984: pp. 2018-19, 2071-3; Boyce 1991: pp. 468-90; Colpe 1975: pp. 390-9; Cumont: 1939; Gordon 1978: pp. 159-64, 169-71; Gordon 1994: pp. 469-71; Schwertheim 1979; Will 1955: pp. 144-69; Will 1978: pp. 527-8.) 4) In Syria it is the absence of data on any intermediary form of Mithraism that is remarkable (a Chestertonian "dog which did not bark"). With the single exception of the recently discovered Huwarti mithraeum, the few actual mithraea and the monuments lacking known provenance which have been recovered there exemplify either the norms of western Mithraism or minor variations on those norms. The Huwarti mithraeum, moreover, dates to the final decades of the fourth century CE. Accordingly, it speaks of the local redefinition of a religion in its final years, not of "a road not taken" in its formative years. Mithraism in Syria was not a transitional phase intermediate between East and West, but a back-formation from the West in the East. Even the mithraeum at Dura Europos on the Euphrates, at the easternmost margins of the Roman empire, proved no exception. Arguably, its only significant Iranian feature is the fresco of a pair of enthroned elders in local ceremonial garb with scrolls and canes. These Cumont identified as Zoroaster and Ostanes; but they could as well be the Fathers of this particular Mithraic community at the time. (On Mithraism in Syria, see Roll 1977; Downey 1978; also the proceedings of the Colloquium "Mithra en Syrie," Lyon, November 2000, forthcoming in Topoi, which will include discussion of the Huwarti mithraeum. On the Dura mithraeum, see Cumont 1975; Beck 1984: pp. 214-17.) 5) In a description of Zoroastrian dualism which he inserted into his important essay On Isis and Isiris (46-7), Plutarch speaks of Mithras as "in the middle" (meson) between the good Horomazes and the evil Areimanius, adding "and this is why the Persians call the Mediator Mithras." This, it is generally agreed, does not ascribe moral neutrality to Mithras; rather he is the referee, arbiter, or judge between the two warring parties. However, even if the clause is more than Plutarch's own gloss, it speaks not of transitional Mithraism but of Mithra in the context of a collateral form of Zoroastrianism known to that learned Greek author. (On the passage and its interpretation, see de Jong 1997: pp. 171-7; on Mithra as judge, see Shaked 1980.) 6) The final piece of evidence which speaks directly to the question of transfer is the report of the state visit of Tiridates of Armenia to Rome to be crowned by Nero. At the coronation Tiridates declared that he had come "in order to revere you [Nero] as Mithras" (Dio Cassius 63.5.2). In the same visit, according to Pliny (Natural History 30.1.6), Tiridates "initiated him [Nero] into magical feasts" (magicis cenis). Since Tiridates had brought Magi in his retinue, it is likely that the "feasts" were "Magian" rather than "magical" in the contemporary Roman sense. In the Cumontian scenario this episode cannot mark the definitive moment of transfer, for Mithraism in that scenario was already established in Rome, albeit on a scale too small to have left any trace in the historical or archaeological record. Nevertheless, it could have been a spur to Mithraism's emergence on to the larger stage of popular appeal. Perhaps, too, it affected in some way the development of Mithraism's central rite, the cult meal (see above). (On the episode and its implications for Mithraism, see Cumont 1933; for an alternative scenario which places the cult's institution after this episode, Beck 2002.) When we turn to the much ampler dossier of similarities between Iranian Mithra-worship and the Mithras-worship of the Roman mystery cult, we must keep in mind that arguments for continuity based on these similarities all imply that the similarities are so systematic and so detailed that a non-causal relationship is untenable. Necessarily, therefore, they entail some transfer scenario, whether or not they expound one explicitly. Arguments for Mithraism's invention or re-invention in the West, on the contrary, imply that the similarities are too slight and too haphazard to warrant a causal explanation. Accordingly, no transfer scenario is required beyond a certain awareness of "oriental" wisdom among Mithraism's founders. Of the latter position there is a strong and a weak form. The strong form, having noted the undeniable similarities, then describes the cult, its origins, and its early development entirely in terms of the socio-religious culture(s) of the Roman empire. A typical proponent of this strong form is M. Clauss (2000: pp. 3-8, 21-2), who locates the cult's origins and point of departure firmly in late first-century CE Rome. Not because it is wrong, but solely because it is not germane to the mandate of Encyclopaedia Iranica, there is no need to explore this version of Mithraic origins further. Discontinuity's weaker form of argument postulates re-invention among and for the denizens of the Roman empire (or certain sections thereof), but re-invention by a person or persons of some familiarity with Iranian religion in a form current on its western margins in the first century CE. Merkelbach (1984: pp. 75-7), expanding on a suggestion of M.P. Nilsson, proposes such a founder from eastern Anatolia, working in court circles in Rome. So does Beck 1998, with special focus on the dynasty of Commagene (see above). Jakobs 1999 proposes a similar scenario. We may now turn finally to the similarities between western Mithraism and Iranian Mithra-worship and to the scholarship which has argued, in the Cumontian tradition, for significant continuity. (The scholarship up to the time of writing is surveyed in Beck 1984: pp. 2059-75). Predictably, the similarities mostly cluster around the person of Mithra/Mithras (remarkably, the second two of the three given here are not so much similarities as inversions): (1) Roman Mithras was identified with the Sun (see above); Iranian Mithra was a god of the dawn light. When and how the Iranian god became the Sun, as eventually he did, has been much debated (Lommel 1962; Gershevitch 1975, Gnoli 1979, Lincoln 1982; see above on the solar Mithras of Commagene; see below on M. Weiss's theory of the non-solarity of Mithra/Mithras both East and West). (2) Iranian Mithra was a god of cattle and pastures; Roman Mithras was a "cattle-thief" (explicitly so called, e.g. Porphyry, On the Cave of the Nymphs 40), all the more outrageous an inversion because Iranian Mithra was a god of righteousness whose very name means "contract." (3) Most importantly, Roman Mithras, as his mightiest and most beneficent deed, sacrifices a bull (see above); while Iranian Mithra was not himself a bull-killer, the act of bull-killing does figure prominently in the Zoroastrian cosmological narratives. In the first instance it was an act of evil: Ahriman slew the primal Bull of creation. However, the destructive act was turned to good, when from the bull's sperm, purified in the moon, sprang the domestic animals. The second and future event is entirely beneficial. A savior figure, Sošyant, will sacrifice a bull from whose fat, mixed with hôm, the drink of corporal immortality will be prepared. The bull-killing of Mithras can be construed as the Roman translation of either — or indeed of both — of the Iranian cosmogonic and eschatological myths. Certain of the compositional details of the tauroctony resonate with the former: the bull's tail metamorphosed into the wheat ear, the scorpion at the bull's genitals, the presence of the Moon as well as the Sun. The Pahlavi texts, notably the Bundahišn, which carry the Zoroastrian cosmological accounts are several centuries later than the Roman-era artifacts, i.e. the tauroctonies, which carry the western representation of the bull-killing. Accordingly, Iranizing interpretations of the tauroctony (for a survey of these, see Hinnells 1975a; Beck 1984: pp. 2068-9, 2080-1) imply one of two scenarios, whether or not they make the choice explicitly. Either those who constructed the western Mysteries consciously altered the Zoroastrian cosmological myths which were already current in the form later attested by the Pahlavi sources; or they took over and reproduced a collateral, non-Zoroastrian form of Iranian religion (Mazdaist or otherwise), current at the time but subsequently extinguished without trace, in which Mithra was the bull-killer. A version of the latter argues that what the western mysteries adopted was an offshoot of the Vedic tradition in which Mitra reluctantly slays the Soma (= Iranian Haoma) god (Lommel 1949). More persuasive, perhaps, than postulating a precise Iranian/Vedic genealogy for the tauroctonous Mithras is the argument that the Mithraic bull-killing, both as concept and as image, reflects a peculiarly Iranian ideology of sacrifice as a creative act undertaken by god, not man (Hinnells 1975a; Turcan 1981; Turcan 2000: pp. 102-5) — with the implication, presumably, that it is so because those who first imagined the icon in the West had at least something of that ideology in mind. (On a fascinating continuity into modern Zoroastrianism in Iran, see Boyce 1975.) There is a further problem that complicates all transmission scenarios: how to accommodate the twin deities Cautes and Cautopates and the lion-headed god (both mentioned above). Are they part of the theological baggage transferred from Iran? The names of the twins may well be of Iranian origin (see Schwartz 1975; contra: Schmeja 1975: p. 20), for Roman Mithraism did in fact occasionally borrow genuinely Iranian words (see Gray 1926: pp. 89-99; Schmeja 1975), notably nama (= "hail!") and nabarzes (precise etymology disputed, see Schwartz 1975: pp. 422-3). That, however, does not extend to their functions in the theology of the western mysteries, which can be fully accounted for in solely western terms (Beck 1984: pp. 2084-6). The lion-headed god is more problematic, partly because his eventual place in the western cult's theology is as opaque as his provenance. (On the extant exemplars and their iconography, see Hinnells 1975b; on the various interpretations and identifications, see Beck 1984: pp. 2086-9). Of the several identities proposed for the lion-headed god, two link him unambiguously with Iran. The first, propounded by Cumont (1899: p. 78; 1903: pp. 107-10), identifies him as Zurvān, the god of infinite Time and the father and arbiter between the good Ohrmazd and the evil Ahriman. This would of course make Roman Mithraism the descendant of a Zurvanite branch of Mazdaism. Around this Iranian core accumulated the personae and attributes of various Egyptian and Hellenistic Greek deities, for the most part gods of Time (Pettazzoni 1954). The second Iranian identity, first proposed by I.F. Legge (1912-15), is Ahriman — an outrageous choice were it not that the name Arimanius is attested in Mithraic epigraphy, although never in a context which makes it more than a possibility that the Mithraic lion-headed god was Ahriman (Duchesne-Guillemin 1955; idem, 1958-62; on discussions of the epigraphy and the relevant monuments, see Beck 1984: pp. 2034-5). If the Mithraic lion-headed god was indeed a descendant of the Iranian Ahriman, there is no need to assume, for that reason alone, that he retained an exclusively negative and evil nature, or that, in consequence, the Roman Mithraists were devil-worshippers on the side. It would be impractical in a work of this scope to discuss every minute similarity which has been demonstrated or claimed between western Mithraism and Iranian Mithra-worship. (For a fuller summary, see Beck 1984: pp. 2056-89; for arguments stressing dissimilarities and discontinuities, see Colpe 1975; Drijvers 1978.) The time has come to review the principal scholarship which has argued for transmission and continuity based on the postulated similarities. The Cumontian "default" scenario has already been described. Of the post-Cumontian scenarios, three argue for continuity in the strongest terms. A.D.H. Bivar (1998, and earlier studies mentioned there) argues that western Mithraism was but one of several manifestations of Mithra-worship current in antiquity across a wide swathe of Asia and Europe. L.A. Campbell (1968) argues in the Cumontian tradition that western Mithraism replicated, through a thin disguise and with certain Graeco-Roman admixtures, a sometimes extraordinarily detailed and learned form of Zoroastrian Mazdaism. A continuity as thoroughgoing, though not quite so systematic ideologically, was proposed in several studies by G. Widengren (1965: pp. 222-32; 1966; 1980). Starting from the dissimilarities between Roman Mithraism and Zoroastrian Mazdaism, the most obvious of which are of course the different supreme deities in the two systems and the different agents and intents of the bull-killing (discussed above), scholarship on Iranian Mithra-worship has also looked for and found closer analogies with Mithraism in pre-Zoroastrian and non-Zoroastrian Iranian religion — and beyond that in Vedic religion. The strength of hypotheses based on the analogies with pre-/non-Zoroastrian systems is that they do not need to postulate a deliberate adaptation of Zoroastrianism into western Mithraism; their weakness is that they have to postulate instead the persistence in western Iran of an early collateral Indo-European form of Mithra-worship, ready for easy translation into Roman Mithraism, for which there is no direct evidence. P.G. Kreyenbroek (1994), by comparing cosmogonies (Mithraic similar to non/pre-Zoroastrian; both of these dissimilar to Zoroastrian), has advanced perhaps the most persuasive transmission scenario of this type to date. M. Weiss (1996, 1998) argues that Roman Mithras continues a very early Iranian and Vedic conception of Mithra/Mitra as the Nachthimmel, the starry heavens, an hypothesis entailing the awkward conception of a Mithras who is wholly distinct from the Sun god. Lastly, there are certain works specifically on Iranian religion, in addition to those of Widengren (1960, 1965) already mentioned, which discuss aspects of western Mithras or Mithraism in terms which assert or imply a fair measure of continuity: Gray 1926: pp. 89-99; Gershevitch 1959: pp. 61-72; Zaehner 1961: pp. 97-144; Duchesne-Guillemin 1962: pp. 248-57. Bibliography: (abbreviation, JMS = Journal of Mithraic Studies). R.L. Beck, "Mithraism since Franz Cumont," Aufstieg und Niedergang der römischen Welt, II.17.4, 1984, pp. 2002-115. Idem, Planetary Gods and Planetary Orders in the Mysteries of Mithras, Leiden, 1988. Idem, "Thus Spake Not Zarathuštra: Zoroastrian Pseudepigrapha of the Greco-Roman World," in Boyce and Grenet 1991 (see below), pp. 491-565. Idem "In the Place of the Lion: Mithras in the Tauroctony," in Hinnells 1994 (see below), pp. 29-50. Idem, "Dio Cocceianus," Encyclopaedia Iranica, Vol. 7, 1995, p. 421. Idem, "The Mysteries of Mithras," in J.S. Kloppenborg and S.G. Wilson (eds), Voluntary Associations in the Ancient World, London, 1996, pp. 176-85. Idem, "The Mysteries of Mithras: A new account of their genesis," Journal of Roman Studies 88, 1998, pp. 115-28. Idem, "Ritual, Myth, Doctrine, and Initiation in the Mysteries of Mithras: New evidence from a cult vessel," JRS 90, 2000, pp. 145-80. Idem, "History into Fiction: The metamorphoses of the Mithras myths," Ancient Narrative 1, 2001-02, pp. 283-300. U. Bianchi ed., Mysteria Mithrae, Leiden, 1979. Bianchi 1979a "The Religio-Historical Question of the Mysteries of Mithra," in Bianchi ed. 1979, pp. 3-60. J. Bidez and F. Cumont, Les Mages hellénisés, 2 vols, Paris, 1938 (repr. 1973). A.D.H. Bivar, The Personalities of Mithra in Archaeology and Literature, New York, 1998. M. Boyce, "Mihragān among the Irani Zoroastrians," in Hinnells ed. 1975, pp. 106-18. Boyce 1991 M. Boyce and F. Grenet, A History of Zoroastrianism , Vol. 3, Leiden, 1991. W. Burkert, Ancient Mystery Cults, Cambridge MA, 1987. L.A. Campbell, Mithraic Iconography and Ideology, Leiden, 1968. M. Clauss, Cultores Mithrae: Die Anhängerschaft des Mithras-Kultes, Stuttgart, 1992. Idem, The Roman Cult of Mithras, trans. R.L. Gordon, Edinburgh and New York, 2000. C. Colpe, "Mithra-Verehrung, Mithras-Kult und die Existenz iranischer Mysterien," in Hinnells ed. 1975, pp. 378-405. F. Cumont, Textes et monuments figurés relatifs aux mystères de Mithra, Vol. 1, Brussels, 1899. Idem, The Mysteries of Mithra, trans. T.J. McCormack, London, 1903 (repr. New York, 1956). Idem, "La fin du monde selon les mages occidentaux," Revue de l'Histoire des Religions, 103, 1931, pp. 29-96. Idem, "L'iniziazione di Nerone da parte di Tiridate d'Armenia," Rivista di Filologia, NS 11, 1933, pp. 145-54. Idem, "Mithra en Asie Mineure," in Anatolian Studies in Honour of W.H. Buckler, Manchester, 1939, pp. 67-76. Idem, "The Dura Mithraeum," ed. and trans. E.D. Francis, in Hinnells ed. 1975, pp. 151-214. A. de Jong, Traditions of the Magi: Zoroastrianism in Greek and Latin Literature, Leiden, 1997. F.K. Dörner, Kommagene, Antike Welt Sondernummer 1975. Idem, "Mithras in Kommagene," in Duchesne-Guillemin, ed. 1978 (see below), pp. 123-33. S.B. Downey, "Syrian Images of Mithras Tauroctonos," in Duchesne-Guillemin ed. 1978, pp. 135-49. H.J.W. Drijvers, "Mithra at Hatra?" in Duchesne-Guillemin, ed., 1978, pp. 151-86. J. Duchesne-Guillemin, "Ahriman et le dieu suprême dans les mystères de Mithra," Numen 2, 1955, pp. 190-5. Idem, "Aion et le léontocéphalique, Mithra et Ahriman," La Nouvelle Klio 10-12, 1958-62, pp. 91-8. Idem, La religion de l'Iran ancien, Paris, 1962. J. Duchesne-Guillemin ed., Études Mithiaques, Leiden, 1978. Idem, 1978a "Iran and Greece in Commagene," in Duchesne-Guillemin ed. 1978, pp. 187-99. E.D. Francis, "Plutarch's Mithraic Pirates," in Cumont 1975, pp. 207-10. I. Gershevitch, The Avestan Hymn to Mithra, Cambridge, 1959. Idem, Die Sonne das Beste," in Hinnells ed. 1975, pp. 68-89. G. Gnoli, "Sol Persice Mithra," in Bianchi ed. 1979, pp. 725-40. R.L. Gordon, "Mithraism and Roman Society: Social factors in the explanation of religious change in the Roman empire," Religion 2, 1972, pp. 92-121. Idem, "Franz Cumont and the Doctrines of Mithraism," in Hinnells, ed., 1975, pp. 215-48. Idem, "The Date and Significance of CIMRM 593," JMS 2, 1978, pp. 148-74* (* = reprinted in Gordon 1996). Gordon 1980a, "Reality, Evocation, and Boundary in the Mysteries of Mithras," JMS 3, 1980 pp. 19-99*. Gordon 1980b, "Panelled Complications," JMS 3, 1980, pp. 200-27*. Idem, "Who worshipped Mithras?" Journal of Roman Archaeology 7, 1994, pp. 459-74. R. L. Gordon, Image and Value in the Graeco-Roman World: Studies in Mithraism and religious art, Aldershot UK, 1996. L.H. Gray, The Foundations of the Iranian Religions, Bombay, 1926. J.R. Hinnells, ed., Mithraic Studies, 2 vols (consecutive pagination), Manchester, 1975. Idem, 1975a, "Reflections on the Bull-Slaying Scene," in Hinnells, ed., 1975, pp. 290-312. Idem, 1975b, "Reflections on the Lion-Headed Figure in Mithraism," in Monumentum H.S. Nyberg, Acta Iranica, Ser. 2, Vol. 1, Leiden, pp. 333-69. Idem, "The Iconography of Cautes and Cautopates," JMS 1, 1976, pp. 36-67. J.R. Hinnells ed., Studies in Mithraism, Rome, 1994. S. Insler, "A New Interpretation of the Bull-Slaying Motif," in M.B. de Boer and T.A. Edridge eds, Hommages à Maarten J. Vermaseren, Leiden, 1978, pp. 519-38. B. Jacobs, Die Herkunft und Entstehung der römischen Mithrasmysterien: Überlegungen zur Rolle des Stifters und zu den astronomischen Hintergründen der Kultlegende, Konstanz, 1999. Idem, "Die Religionspolitik des Antiochus I. von Kommagene," in Wagner ed. 2000, pp. 45-9. J.P. Kane, "The Mithraic Cult Meal in its Greek and Roman Environment," in Hinnells ed. 1975, pp. 313-51. P.G. Kreyenbroek, "Mithra and Ahreman in Iranian Cosmogonies," in Hinnells ed. 1994, pp. 175-82. I.F. Legge, "The Lion-Headed God of the Mithraic Mysteries," Proceedings of the Society of Biblical Archaeology, 34, 1912, pp. 125-42; 37, 1915, 151-62. W. Liebeschuetz, "The Expansion of Mithraism among the Religious Cults of the Second Century," in Hinnells ed. 1994, pp. 195-216. B. Lincoln, "Mithra(s) as Sun and Savior," in U. Bianchi and M.J. Vermaseren eds., La soteriologia dei culti orientali nell'Impero Romano, Leiden, 1982, pp. 505-26. H. Lommel, "Mithra und das Stieropfer," Paideuma 3, 1949, pp. 207-18. Idem, "Die Sonne das Schlechteste?" Oriens 15, 1962, pp. 360-73. L.H. Martin, "Reflections on the Mithraic Tauroctony as Cult Scene," in Hinnells ed. 1994, pp. 217-228. R. Merkelbach, Mithras, Königstein/Ts., 1984. R. Pettazzoni, "The Monstrous Figure of Time in Mithraism," in Essays in the History of Religions, trans. H.J. Rose, Leiden, 1954. I. Roll, "The Mysteries of Mithras in the Roman Orient," JMS 2, 1977, pp. 18-52. H. Schmeja, Iranisches und Griechisches in den Mithrasmysterien, Innsbruck, 1975. A. Schütte-Maischatz and E. Winter, "Kultstätten der Mithrasmysterien in Doliche," in Wagner ed. 2000, pp. 93-99. M. Schwartz, "Cautes and Cautopates, the Mithraic Torchbearers," in Hinnells ed. 1975, pp. 406-23. E. Schwertheim, Mithras: Seine Denkmäler und sein Kult, Antike Welt Sondernummer 1979. G. Sfameni Gasparro, "Il mitraismo ...," in Bianchi ed. 1979, pp. 299-384. S. Shaked, "Mihr the Judge," Jerusalem Studies in Arabic and Islam 2, 1980, pp. 1-31. R. Turcan, "Le sacrifice mithriaque: innovations de sens et de modalités," Entretiens sur l'antiquité classique (Fondation Hardt) 27, 1981, pp. 341-80. Idem, Mithra et le mithriacisme, Paris, 2000. D. Ulansey, The Origins of the Mithraic Mysteries, New York, 1989. M. J. Vermaseren, Corpus Inscriptionum et Monumentorum Religionis Mithriacae, 2 vols, The Hague, 1956-60. Idem, Mithra, ce dieu mystérieux., trans. M. Léman and L. Gilbert, Paris, 1960 (English translation by T. and V. Megaw, Mithras, the Secret God, London, 1963). Idem, Mithriaca I: The Mithraeum at S. Maria Capua Vetere, Leiden, 1971. R. Vollkommer, "Mithras," Lexicon Iconographicum Mythologiae Classicae 6.1, pp. 583-626 (text), 6.2, pp. 325-68 (plates), 1992. J. Wagner, "Dynastie und Herrscherkult in Kommagene," Istanbuler Mitteilungen 33, 1983, pp. 177-224. J. Wagner ed., Gottkönige am Euphrat: Neue Ausgrabungen und Forschungen in Kommagene, Mainz, 2000. Wagner 2000a = "Die Könige von Kommagene und ihr Herrscherkult," in Wagner ed. 2000, pp. 11-25. H. Waldmann, Der Kommagenische Mazdaismus, Tübingen, 1991. M. Weiss, Als Sonne Verkant — Mithras, Osterburken, 1996. Idem, "Mithras, der Nachthimmel: Eine Dekodierung der römischen Mithras-Kultbilder nit Hilfe des Awesta," Traditio, 53, 1998, pp. 1-36. L.M. White, Building God's House in the Roman World: Architectural Adaptation among Pagans, Jews, and Christians, Baltimore, 1990. G. Widengren, Die Religionen Irans, Stuttgart, 1965. Idem, "The Mithraic Mysteries in the Greco-Roman World, with special regard to their Iranian background," Accademia Nazionale dei Lincei, Anno 363, Quad. 76, 1966, pp. 433-55. Idem, "Reflections on the Origins of the Mithraic Mysteries," in Perennitas: Studi in honore di Angelo Brelich, Rome, 1980. S. Wikander, "Études sur les mystères de Mithras," Vetenskapssocieteten i Lund, Årsbok 1951, pp. 5-56. E. Will, Le relief cultuel gréco-romain, Paris, 1955. Idem, "Origine et nature du Mithriacisme," in Duchesne-Guillemin ed. 1978, pp. 527-36. R.C. Zaehner, The Dawn and Twilight of Zoroastrianism, London, 1961. S. Zwirn, "The Intention of Biographical Narration on Mithraic Cult Images," Word and Image 5, 1989, pp. 2-18. (Roger Beck) Originally Published: July 20, 2002 Last Updated: July 20, 2002

Mitraïsme

http://www.novaroma.org/nr/Sodalitas_Graeciae_%28Nova_Roma%29/Religion_from_the_Papyri/Mithraism

From NovaRoma A Mystery Oath This third century Oxyrhynchus papyrus was published by Bartoletti as n. 1162 in Papiri, Greci e Latini (= PSI) X. While the text is quite fragmentary, it clearly records an oath taken in the context of some astral mystery cult (l. 21, ἀστέρων). The καυτοπαυ (= Καυτοπάτου?) in l. 14 suggests that this may be a Mithraic text. Although, much better attested in other parts of the Roman empire, Roman Mithraism did have a (minimal) presence in Egypt (c.f. CIMRM 91-105). Then in 1937 Bartoletti published another papyrus fragment with substantially the same oath formula in "Frammenti di un rituale d'iniziazione ai misteri" in Annali della R. Scuoli Normale Superiore de Pisa (Pisa: 1937) 143-152. This new fragment allowed him to make some fairly certain restoration for the beginning of PSI 1162. Lines 1-6 can be restored with certainty (indicated in bold green), the others a bit more speculatively (indicated in bold light green). Lines in blue in the new fragment indicate those lines used for the restoration. Lines 14-17a in the new fragment are pluses and suggest that the new fragment is secondary to PSI 1162. Bartoletti also made some minor adjustments (in bold red) to other parts of the text. The English translation below is that of [M. Cornelius Gualterus Graecus](http://www.novaroma.org/civitas/album?id=3743). | Reconstructed PSI 1162 || New Fragment || PSI 1162 | | | [Ὀμνύω κατὰ τοῦ διχάσ]αντος γῆν ἀπ' οὐρανοῦ [καὶ σκότος ἀπὸ φωτὸς κ]αὶ ἡμέραν ἐγ νυκτὸς [καὶ ἀνατολὴν ἀπὸ δύσ]εως καὶ ζωὴν ἀπὸ θα- [νάτου καὶ γένεσιν ἀπὸ] φθορᾶς ἐπόμνυμαι [δὲ καὶ οὓς προσκυνῶ θ]οὺς συντηρήσειν [καὶ φυλάξει τὰ παραδ]εδομένα μοι μυστή- [ρια καὶ τιμήσειν ? τὸν] πατέρα Σαραπίωνα [ῷ τὸ μυεῖν ὑπάρχει, καὶ] τον ἱεροκήρυκα Κα- [....., ῷ τὸ ὁρκίζειν ὑ]ράρχει, καὶ τοὺς συν- [αὐτοῖς ὄντας λοιπο]ὺς ἀδελφούς. Εὐορκοῦ(ν)- [τι μέν μοι εὖ εἴη, ἐπιορ]κοῦν[τι δὲ τ]ὰ ἐναν- [τία, ἐάν τι τούτων ἐκλαλ]ήσω. ........................τ]ὸν π[ατέρα ?..]ι ὁμοι- ...................................]καυτοπαυ ...................................]τ̣οῖς ὀξέσιν ...................................]σ̣φραγεῖδες ...................................]σημειῶσ̣ι̣ ...................................τῷ μ]ύστῃ ὁ πα- τὴρ................................]σερ.ι ...................................] ...................................]μ' ἀστέρων ................................]λ̣ε διαστητε ................................]ν ἤμειβεν ον- ................................]η̣τε καὶ ενον ................................]τ̣ροματηρ ..................................]ηκωσιν ...................................]ητων.ν ....................................].σ̣ο̣[ .....................................].[ |[...]φ̣[.]η̣χ̣ε[ | [...]μ̣εγάλῃ φων̣[ῃ ..]...[.... ὁ πα-] [τὴρ τ]ὸ̣ν̣ μ̣έ̣στην π̣[ροσ]αγα̣γ̣έτω̣ [....] [...].α̣τ̣ω̣ντα ἐν̣ φ̣[.].μ̣ω τεσσα[....] [....]ε δ̣αῇ̣ περ̣ὶ τὸν λ̣είποντα[.....] [....] α̣ὐ̣τεῖν, καὶ στησάτω μέσ[ον ἐπὶ?] [τοῦ] δ̣ιαθέματος̣ καὶ ἐξορκούτω̣ [διὰ] [τοῦ] κήρυκος 'Ασ̣τ̣υ̣δά[μα]ντος. Ὅρκος ὑπ̣[ὸ κήρ]υ̣κος [Ὀ̣μν]ύω κατὰ τοῦ διχά̣σαντος̣ κ[αὶ κρί-] [ναν]τ̣ος τὴν γῆν ἀπ' οὐρανοῦ κα[ὶ σκότος] [ἀπὸ] φ̣ωτὸς κ̣α̣ὶ̣ ἡμέραν ἐκ νυ̣[κτὸς] [καὶ ἀ]νατολὴ̣ν ἀπὸ δύσεως κ̣α̣ὶ̣ [ζωὴν] [ἀπὸ] θ̣ανάτ̣ο̣υ̣ καὶ γένεσιν ἀπ[ὸ φθορᾶς] [καὶ μ]έλαν̣ [ἀ]π̣ὸ λευκοῦ καὶ ξηρὸ[ν ἀπὸ] [ὑγρ]ο̣ῦ καὶ ε.[..].ον̣ ἀ̣π̣ὸ̣ ....[.. καὶ] [πικ]ρὸν ἀπὸ γ̣λ̣υκέως κ̣α̣ὶ̣ σ̣άρκ̣[α ἀπὸ] [ψυχ]ῆς: ἐπόμνυμαι δὲ καὶ οὓς π̣[ροσκυνῶ] [θεο]ὺς συντηρήσειν καὶ φυλά[ξει ]α̣ντος γῆν ἀπ' οὐρανοῦ ]αι ἡμέραν ἐγ νυκτὸς ]εως καὶ ζωὴν ἀπὸ θα- ] φ̣θορᾶς ἐπόμνυμαι ]ους συντηρήσειν ]εδομένα μοι μυστή- ] πατέρα Σαραπίωνα .]τον ἱεροκήρυκα Κα- .]παρχει, καὶ τοὺς συν- .]υς ἀδελφούς. εὐορκοῦ(ν)- .]κοῦν[τι δὲ τ]ὰ ἐναν- .]ήσω. .]ον π̣[.......]ι ὁμοι- ........]καυτοπαυ ........]τ̣οῖς ὀξέσιν ........]σ̣φραγεῖδες ........]σημειῶσ̣ι̣ ........]υστηοπα ........]σερ.ι ........] ........]μ' ἀστέρων ....]λ̣ε διαστητε ....]ν ἤμειβεν ον- ....]η̣τε καὶ ενον ....]τ̣ροματηρ ....]ηκωσιν ....]ητων.ν ......].σ̣ο̣[ .......].[ | | [I swear by him who separates] earth from heaven, [and darkness from light, a]nd day from night, [and rising from set]ting life from de- [and generation from] corruption, I swear [to the gods which I beseech] to observe [and guard the] myst[eries] [transm]itted to me [and to honor the] father Sarapis [for whom there is closure (?), and] the herald of sacrifice Ka- [for whom it is to adjure, and [and the rest] of the brothers [who are with them]. [May it go well for me who is] faithful and who swe]ars in [the presence (?) if any of these things] I should divulge. ...Cautopates ...with the sharp ...seals ... ...to the initiate [the fa- er... ... ...of stars ...you separate ...he changed ...and... ... ... ... |... | ...great voice... .................may [the father] draw together... .................four... ...he teaches concerning the remaining... ..to cry out, and may he stand... [of the] prize, and may he swear [through] [the] herald Astuda(mas?). An oath under a herald I swear by him who divides a[nd separates] the earth from heaven an[d darkness] [from] light and day from ni[ght] [and r]ising from setting and [life] [from] death and generation fro[m corruption] [and b]lack [f]rom light and drynes[s] [from wet]ness and ... from ... [and] bitter[ness] from sweatness and fles[h from] sou[l]: I swear to the [god]s which I b[eseech] to observe and gua[rd ...earth from heaven, ...day from night, ...life from de(ath?) ...corruption, I swear. ...to observe ...to me myst- ...father Sarapis ...herald of sacrifice ...is the ...brothers. Faithful to one's oath ... ... ...Cautopates ...with the sharp ...seals ... ... ... ... ...of stars ...you separate ...he changed ...and... ... ... ... A Mithraic Catechism This fourth century papyrus, P.Berol. 21196, from Hermopolis, was published by William M. Brashear in 1992, A Mithraic Catechism from Egypt <P.Berol. 21196> (Wien: 1992). The word λεοντίῳ ultimately clinched it as a Mithraic text (13-16), while other words such as πατήρ and βόθρῳ had earlier suggested a Mithraic provenance. Brashear's publication is highly recommended for its extensive commentary and suggested restorations of several lines. The English translation below is that of Brashear (19). | Verso || Recto | | | .........]υ̣οημις. ἐ̣ρ̣ε̣ῖ̣· π̣ο̣[ῦ .....ἐντ]αῦθ' ἀπορεῖ; λέγε· α[ +/- 7] ......]λέγε· νύξ. ἐρεῖ· ποῦ αν.[ +/- 5] ....].σε; λέγε· π̣άντ̣α̣ τι ὑπερ̣...[..] ..]κέκλησαι; λέγε· διὰ τὴν θερινὴν̣ ..].ι γενόμενος πυρώδεις ἔχει τὰς ..]α̣βες; λέγε· ἐν̣ βόθρῳ. ἐρεῖ· ποῦ σ̣ου ..]ά̣τῳ λεοντίῳ. ἐρεῖ· ζώσεις ὁ ου ]ν̣ θάνατον. ἐρεῖ· διὰ τί ζωσάμεν̣[ος] .τ]οῦτο τ̣έσσαρα κράσπετα ε.[...] ........] traces [ | | ...................]..[ .........] ὀ̣ξύτατον καὶ το̣π[.]ρ[..............................] ..........]..σου πολύ̣ς. ἐρε̣ῖ̣·.[.......... +/- 27 ...........] ......θ[ερμοῦ καὶ ψυχρο̣ῦ. ἐρε̣ῖ̣· [..... +/- 27 ..........] [π]ορφύρᾳ λίνῳ. ἐρεῖ· διὰ τί; λέγε· [ +/- 20 ..........] π̣ορφύρα ἀκμή, τὸ δὲ λίνον απ[...... +/- 20 ..........] ἐσπαρ[ε]γανώθη̣; λ̣έγε· τὰ τοῦ σω[τῆρος ? +/- 11 ] ἐρεῖ· τίς ὁ πατήρ; λέγε· ὁ πάντα γε̣ν̣[νῶν .. +/- 13 ] ἐγένου λέων; λέγε· ταῖς τοῦ πατρ[ός .... +/- 14 ....] [..]λ̣έγε̣· ποτὸν καὶ τροφήν. ἐρε̣[ῖ· ..............]τ̣ηνη ἐν τῇ ἑπτα̣[ |"... He will say: 'Where ... ?' | '... he is/(you are?) there (then/thereupon?) at a loss?' Say: ... Say: 'Night'. He will say: 'Where ... ?' ... Say: 'All things ...' (He will say): '... you are called ... ?' Say: 'Because of the summery ...' ... having become ... he/it has the fiery ... (He will say): '... did you receive/inherit?' Say: 'In a pit'. He will say: 'Where is your ...?... (Say): '...(in the...) Leonteion.' He will say: 'Will you gird?' The (heavenly?) ...(Say): '... death'. He will say: 'Why, having girded yourself, ...?' '... this (has?) four tassels'. | | 'Very sharp and ...' '... much'. He will say: ...? (Say: '... because of/through?) hot and cold'. He will say: ...? (Say): '... red ... linen'. He will say: 'Why?' Say: '... red border; the linen, however, ...' (He will say): '... has been wrapped?' Say: 'The savior's ...' He will say: 'Who is the father?' Say: 'The one who (begets?) everything ...' (He will say): '('How ?)... did you become a Leo?' Say: 'By the ... of the father'. ... Say: 'Drink and food'. He will say '...?' '... in the seven-...'." A Lexical Entry This late second/early third century papyrus, P.Oxy. 1802, contains a glossary on the verso, among whose entries one is for Mithras on l. 64, which reads: Μίθρας ὁ Προμηθεὺς κατὰ δ' ἄλλους ὁ ἥλιος παρὰ Περσ[αις ... Mithras: Prometheus, but according to others the Sun, among Persi[ans ...

Mitraïsme

http://www.novaroma.org/nr/Sodalitas_Graeciae_%28Nova_Roma%29/Religion_from_the_Papyri/Mithraism

From NovaRoma A Mystery Oath This third century Oxyrhynchus papyrus was published by Bartoletti as n. 1162 in Papiri, Greci e Latini (= PSI) X. While the text is quite fragmentary, it clearly records an oath taken in the context of some astral mystery cult (l. 21, ἀστέρων). The καυτοπαυ (= Καυτοπάτου?) in l. 14 suggests that this may be a Mithraic text. Although, much better attested in other parts of the Roman empire, Roman Mithraism did have a (minimal) presence in Egypt (c.f. CIMRM 91-105). Then in 1937 Bartoletti published another papyrus fragment with substantially the same oath formula in "Frammenti di un rituale d'iniziazione ai misteri" in Annali della R. Scuoli Normale Superiore de Pisa (Pisa: 1937) 143-152. This new fragment allowed him to make some fairly certain restoration for the beginning of PSI 1162. Lines 1-6 can be restored with certainty (indicated in bold green), the others a bit more speculatively (indicated in bold light green). Lines in blue in the new fragment indicate those lines used for the restoration. Lines 14-17a in the new fragment are pluses and suggest that the new fragment is secondary to PSI 1162. Bartoletti also made some minor adjustments (in bold red) to other parts of the text. The English translation below is that of [M. Cornelius Gualterus Graecus](http://www.novaroma.org/civitas/album?id=3743). | Reconstructed PSI 1162 || New Fragment || PSI 1162 | | | [Ὀμνύω κατὰ τοῦ διχάσ]αντος γῆν ἀπ' οὐρανοῦ [καὶ σκότος ἀπὸ φωτὸς κ]αὶ ἡμέραν ἐγ νυκτὸς [καὶ ἀνατολὴν ἀπὸ δύσ]εως καὶ ζωὴν ἀπὸ θα- [νάτου καὶ γένεσιν ἀπὸ] φθορᾶς ἐπόμνυμαι [δὲ καὶ οὓς προσκυνῶ θ]οὺς συντηρήσειν [καὶ φυλάξει τὰ παραδ]εδομένα μοι μυστή- [ρια καὶ τιμήσειν ? τὸν] πατέρα Σαραπίωνα [ῷ τὸ μυεῖν ὑπάρχει, καὶ] τον ἱεροκήρυκα Κα- [....., ῷ τὸ ὁρκίζειν ὑ]ράρχει, καὶ τοὺς συν- [αὐτοῖς ὄντας λοιπο]ὺς ἀδελφούς. Εὐορκοῦ(ν)- [τι μέν μοι εὖ εἴη, ἐπιορ]κοῦν[τι δὲ τ]ὰ ἐναν- [τία, ἐάν τι τούτων ἐκλαλ]ήσω. ........................τ]ὸν π[ατέρα ?..]ι ὁμοι- ...................................]καυτοπαυ ...................................]τ̣οῖς ὀξέσιν ...................................]σ̣φραγεῖδες ...................................]σημειῶσ̣ι̣ ...................................τῷ μ]ύστῃ ὁ πα- τὴρ................................]σερ.ι ...................................] ...................................]μ' ἀστέρων ................................]λ̣ε διαστητε ................................]ν ἤμειβεν ον- ................................]η̣τε καὶ ενον ................................]τ̣ροματηρ ..................................]ηκωσιν ...................................]ητων.ν ....................................].σ̣ο̣[ .....................................].[ |[...]φ̣[.]η̣χ̣ε[ | [...]μ̣εγάλῃ φων̣[ῃ ..]...[.... ὁ πα-] [τὴρ τ]ὸ̣ν̣ μ̣έ̣στην π̣[ροσ]αγα̣γ̣έτω̣ [....] [...].α̣τ̣ω̣ντα ἐν̣ φ̣[.].μ̣ω τεσσα[....] [....]ε δ̣αῇ̣ περ̣ὶ τὸν λ̣είποντα[.....] [....] α̣ὐ̣τεῖν, καὶ στησάτω μέσ[ον ἐπὶ?] [τοῦ] δ̣ιαθέματος̣ καὶ ἐξορκούτω̣ [διὰ] [τοῦ] κήρυκος 'Ασ̣τ̣υ̣δά[μα]ντος. Ὅρκος ὑπ̣[ὸ κήρ]υ̣κος [Ὀ̣μν]ύω κατὰ τοῦ διχά̣σαντος̣ κ[αὶ κρί-] [ναν]τ̣ος τὴν γῆν ἀπ' οὐρανοῦ κα[ὶ σκότος] [ἀπὸ] φ̣ωτὸς κ̣α̣ὶ̣ ἡμέραν ἐκ νυ̣[κτὸς] [καὶ ἀ]νατολὴ̣ν ἀπὸ δύσεως κ̣α̣ὶ̣ [ζωὴν] [ἀπὸ] θ̣ανάτ̣ο̣υ̣ καὶ γένεσιν ἀπ[ὸ φθορᾶς] [καὶ μ]έλαν̣ [ἀ]π̣ὸ λευκοῦ καὶ ξηρὸ[ν ἀπὸ] [ὑγρ]ο̣ῦ καὶ ε.[..].ον̣ ἀ̣π̣ὸ̣ ....[.. καὶ] [πικ]ρὸν ἀπὸ γ̣λ̣υκέως κ̣α̣ὶ̣ σ̣άρκ̣[α ἀπὸ] [ψυχ]ῆς: ἐπόμνυμαι δὲ καὶ οὓς π̣[ροσκυνῶ] [θεο]ὺς συντηρήσειν καὶ φυλά[ξει ]α̣ντος γῆν ἀπ' οὐρανοῦ ]αι ἡμέραν ἐγ νυκτὸς ]εως καὶ ζωὴν ἀπὸ θα- ] φ̣θορᾶς ἐπόμνυμαι ]ους συντηρήσειν ]εδομένα μοι μυστή- ] πατέρα Σαραπίωνα .]τον ἱεροκήρυκα Κα- .]παρχει, καὶ τοὺς συν- .]υς ἀδελφούς. εὐορκοῦ(ν)- .]κοῦν[τι δὲ τ]ὰ ἐναν- .]ήσω. .]ον π̣[.......]ι ὁμοι- ........]καυτοπαυ ........]τ̣οῖς ὀξέσιν ........]σ̣φραγεῖδες ........]σημειῶσ̣ι̣ ........]υστηοπα ........]σερ.ι ........] ........]μ' ἀστέρων ....]λ̣ε διαστητε ....]ν ἤμειβεν ον- ....]η̣τε καὶ ενον ....]τ̣ροματηρ ....]ηκωσιν ....]ητων.ν ......].σ̣ο̣[ .......].[ | | [I swear by him who separates] earth from heaven, [and darkness from light, a]nd day from night, [and rising from set]ting life from de- [and generation from] corruption, I swear [to the gods which I beseech] to observe [and guard the] myst[eries] [transm]itted to me [and to honor the] father Sarapis [for whom there is closure (?), and] the herald of sacrifice Ka- [for whom it is to adjure, and [and the rest] of the brothers [who are with them]. [May it go well for me who is] faithful and who swe]ars in [the presence (?) if any of these things] I should divulge. ...Cautopates ...with the sharp ...seals ... ...to the initiate [the fa- er... ... ...of stars ...you separate ...he changed ...and... ... ... ... |... | ...great voice... .................may [the father] draw together... .................four... ...he teaches concerning the remaining... ..to cry out, and may he stand... [of the] prize, and may he swear [through] [the] herald Astuda(mas?). An oath under a herald I swear by him who divides a[nd separates] the earth from heaven an[d darkness] [from] light and day from ni[ght] [and r]ising from setting and [life] [from] death and generation fro[m corruption] [and b]lack [f]rom light and drynes[s] [from wet]ness and ... from ... [and] bitter[ness] from sweatness and fles[h from] sou[l]: I swear to the [god]s which I b[eseech] to observe and gua[rd ...earth from heaven, ...day from night, ...life from de(ath?) ...corruption, I swear. ...to observe ...to me myst- ...father Sarapis ...herald of sacrifice ...is the ...brothers. Faithful to one's oath ... ... ...Cautopates ...with the sharp ...seals ... ... ... ... ...of stars ...you separate ...he changed ...and... ... ... ... A Mithraic Catechism This fourth century papyrus, P.Berol. 21196, from Hermopolis, was published by William M. Brashear in 1992, A Mithraic Catechism from Egypt <P.Berol. 21196> (Wien: 1992). The word λεοντίῳ ultimately clinched it as a Mithraic text (13-16), while other words such as πατήρ and βόθρῳ had earlier suggested a Mithraic provenance. Brashear's publication is highly recommended for its extensive commentary and suggested restorations of several lines. The English translation below is that of Brashear (19). | Verso || Recto | | | .........]υ̣οημις. ἐ̣ρ̣ε̣ῖ̣· π̣ο̣[ῦ .....ἐντ]αῦθ' ἀπορεῖ; λέγε· α[ +/- 7] ......]λέγε· νύξ. ἐρεῖ· ποῦ αν.[ +/- 5] ....].σε; λέγε· π̣άντ̣α̣ τι ὑπερ̣...[..] ..]κέκλησαι; λέγε· διὰ τὴν θερινὴν̣ ..].ι γενόμενος πυρώδεις ἔχει τὰς ..]α̣βες; λέγε· ἐν̣ βόθρῳ. ἐρεῖ· ποῦ σ̣ου ..]ά̣τῳ λεοντίῳ. ἐρεῖ· ζώσεις ὁ ου ]ν̣ θάνατον. ἐρεῖ· διὰ τί ζωσάμεν̣[ος] .τ]οῦτο τ̣έσσαρα κράσπετα ε.[...] ........] traces [ | | ...................]..[ .........] ὀ̣ξύτατον καὶ το̣π[.]ρ[..............................] ..........]..σου πολύ̣ς. ἐρε̣ῖ̣·.[.......... +/- 27 ...........] ......θ[ερμοῦ καὶ ψυχρο̣ῦ. ἐρε̣ῖ̣· [..... +/- 27 ..........] [π]ορφύρᾳ λίνῳ. ἐρεῖ· διὰ τί; λέγε· [ +/- 20 ..........] π̣ορφύρα ἀκμή, τὸ δὲ λίνον απ[...... +/- 20 ..........] ἐσπαρ[ε]γανώθη̣; λ̣έγε· τὰ τοῦ σω[τῆρος ? +/- 11 ] ἐρεῖ· τίς ὁ πατήρ; λέγε· ὁ πάντα γε̣ν̣[νῶν .. +/- 13 ] ἐγένου λέων; λέγε· ταῖς τοῦ πατρ[ός .... +/- 14 ....] [..]λ̣έγε̣· ποτὸν καὶ τροφήν. ἐρε̣[ῖ· ..............]τ̣ηνη ἐν τῇ ἑπτα̣[ |"... He will say: 'Where ... ?' | '... he is/(you are?) there (then/thereupon?) at a loss?' Say: ... Say: 'Night'. He will say: 'Where ... ?' ... Say: 'All things ...' (He will say): '... you are called ... ?' Say: 'Because of the summery ...' ... having become ... he/it has the fiery ... (He will say): '... did you receive/inherit?' Say: 'In a pit'. He will say: 'Where is your ...?... (Say): '...(in the...) Leonteion.' He will say: 'Will you gird?' The (heavenly?) ...(Say): '... death'. He will say: 'Why, having girded yourself, ...?' '... this (has?) four tassels'. | | 'Very sharp and ...' '... much'. He will say: ...? (Say: '... because of/through?) hot and cold'. He will say: ...? (Say): '... red ... linen'. He will say: 'Why?' Say: '... red border; the linen, however, ...' (He will say): '... has been wrapped?' Say: 'The savior's ...' He will say: 'Who is the father?' Say: 'The one who (begets?) everything ...' (He will say): '('How ?)... did you become a Leo?' Say: 'By the ... of the father'. ... Say: 'Drink and food'. He will say '...?' '... in the seven-...'." A Lexical Entry This late second/early third century papyrus, P.Oxy. 1802, contains a glossary on the verso, among whose entries one is for Mithras on l. 64, which reads: Μίθρας ὁ Προμηθεὺς κατὰ δ' ἄλλους ὁ ἥλιος παρὰ Περσ[αις ... Mithras: Prometheus, but according to others the Sun, among Persi[ans ...

Mitraïsme

http://www.ccel.org/fathers/NPNF2-06/letters/lette107.htm

Contents [](https://ccel.org/ccel/schaff/npnf206/npnf206.ii.html) Table of Contents [Estimate of the Scope and Value of Jerome's Writings.](npnf206.iv.V.html) [Character and Influence of Jerome.](npnf206.iv.VI.html) [Chronological Tables of the Life and Times of St. Jerome A.D. 345-420.](npnf206.iv.VII.html) [The Letters of St. Jerome.](npnf206.v.html) [To Theodosius and the Rest of the Anchorites.](npnf206.v.II.html) [To Julian, a Deacon of Antioch.](npnf206.v.VI.html) [To Chromatius, Jovinus, and Eusebius.](npnf206.v.VII.html) [To Niceas, Sub-Deacon of Aquileia.](npnf206.v.VIII.html) [To Chrysogonus, a Monk of Aquileia.](npnf206.v.IX.html) [To Paul, an Old Man of Concordia.](npnf206.v.X.html) [To Castorina, His Maternal Aunt.](npnf206.v.XIII.html) [Paula and Eustochium to Marcella.](npnf206.v.XLVI.html) [From Epiphanius, Bishop of Salamis, in Cyprus, to John, Bishop of Jerusalem.](npnf206.v.LI.html) [To Pammachius on the Best Method of Translating.](npnf206.v.LVII.html) [To Magnus an Orator of Rome.](npnf206.v.LXX.html) [From Rufinus to Macarius.](npnf206.v.LXXX.html) [To Theophilus Bishop of Alexandria.](npnf206.v.LXXXII.html) [From Pammachius and Oceanus.](npnf206.v.LXXXIII.html) [To Pammachius and Oceanus.](npnf206.v.LXXXIV.html) [From Theophilus to Jerome.](npnf206.v.LXXXVII.html) [From Theophilus to Jerome.](npnf206.v.LXXXIX.html) [From Theophilus to Epiphanius.](npnf206.v.XC.html) [From Epiphanius to Jerome.](npnf206.v.XCI.html) [The Synodical Letter of Theophilus to the Bishops of Palestine and of Cyprus.](npnf206.v.XCII.html) [From the Bishops of Palestine to Theophilus.](npnf206.v.XCIII.html) [From Dionysius to Theophilus.](npnf206.v.XCIV.html) [From Pope Anastasius to Simplicianus.](npnf206.v.XCV.html) [To Pammachius and Marcella.](npnf206.v.XCVII.html) [From Augustine to Præsidius.](npnf206.v.CXI.html) [From Theophilus to Jerome.](npnf206.v.CXIII.html) [To a Mother and Daughter Living in Gaul.](npnf206.v.CXVII.html) [To Minervius and Alexander.](npnf206.v.CXIX.html) [To Marcellinus and Anapsychia.](npnf206.v.CXXVI.html) [From Pope Innocent to Aurelius.](npnf206.v.CXXXV.html) [From Pope Innocent to Jerome.](npnf206.v.CXXXVI.html) [From Pope Innocent to John, Bishop of Jerusalem.](npnf206.v.CXXXVII.html) [To Cyprian the Presbyter.](npnf206.v.CXL.html) [To Alypius and Augustine.](npnf206.v.CXLIII.html) [From Augustine to Optatus.](npnf206.v.CXLIV.html) [From Procopius to Jerome.](npnf206.v.CL.html) [The Life of Paulus the First Hermit.](npnf206.vi.i.html) [The Life of Malchus, the Captive Monk.](npnf206.vi.iii.html) [The Dialogue Against the Luciferians.](npnf206.vi.iv.html) [The Perpetual Virginity of Blessed Mary.](npnf206.vi.v.html) [To Pammachius against John of Jerusalem.](npnf206.vi.viii.html) [Prefaces to Jerome's Early Works.](npnf206.vii.ii.html) [Preface to the Chronicle of Eusebius.](npnf206.vii.ii.i.html) [Preface to the Translation of Origen's Two Homilies on the Song of Songs.](npnf206.vii.ii.ii.html) [Preface to the Book on Hebrew Names.](npnf206.vii.ii.iii.html) [Preface to the Book on the Sites and Names of Hebrew Places.](npnf206.vii.ii.iv.html) [Preface to the Book of Hebrew Questions.](npnf206.vii.ii.v.html) [Preface to the Commentary on Ecclesiastes.](npnf206.vii.ii.vi.html) [Prefaces to the Vulgate Version of the New Testament.](npnf206.vii.ii.vii.html) [Prefaces to the Books of the Vulgate Version of the Old Testament.](npnf206.vii.iii.html) [Joshua, Judges, and Ruth.](npnf206.vii.iii.iii.html) [The Books of Samuel and Kings.](npnf206.vii.iii.iv.html) [Proverbs, Ecclesiastes, and the Song of Songs.](npnf206.vii.iii.x.html) [The Twelve Minor Prophets.](npnf206.vii.iii.xiv.html) [Translations from the Septuagint and Chaldee.](npnf206.vii.iii.xv.html) [Prefaces to the Commentaries.](npnf206.vii.iv.html)

Mitraïsme

https://archive.org/stream/mysteriesofmythr00cumouoft

The mysteries of Mithra Bookreader Item Preview Share or Embed This Item texts The mysteries of Mithra - Topics [Mithraism](/search.php?query=subject%3A%22Mithraism%22), [Rome -- Religion](/search.php?query=subject%3A%22Rome+--+Religion%22) - Publisher - Chicago : The Open court publishing company ; London : Kegan Paul, Trench and Trübner - Contributor - [Robarts - University of Toronto](/details/university_of_toronto) xiv, 239 p. : 20 cm A translation of the "'Conclusions' qui terminent le tome premier de mes Textes et monuments figurés relatifs aux mystères de Mithra." cf. Preface of 2nd French edition Map missing Includes bibliographical references and index A translation of the "'Conclusions' qui terminent le tome premier de mes Textes et monuments figurés relatifs aux mystères de Mithra." cf. Preface of 2nd French edition Map missing Includes bibliographical references and index - Addeddate - 2006-05-24 13:23:17 - Call number - AJP-1957 - Copyright-evidence - Evidence reported by University of Toronto scanning center for item mysteriesofmythr00cumouoft on May 24, 2006; visible notice of copyright and date; stated date is 1903; not published by the US government; a copyright renewal record could not be found. - Copyright-evidence-date - 2006-05-24 13:25:17 - Copyright-evidence-operator - University of Toronto scanning center - Copyright-region - US - External-identifier - [urn:oclc:record:1049879060](/search.php?query=external-identifier%3A%22urn%3Aoclc%3Arecord%3A1049879060%22) - Foldoutcount - 0 - Identifier - mysteriesofmythr00cumouoft - Identifier-ark - ark:/13960/t0vq3z49n - Lccn - 03018293 - Ocr_converted - abbyy-to-hocr 1.1.37 - Ocr_module_version - 0.0.21 - Openlibrary_edition - [OL7029629M](https://openlibrary.org/books/OL7029629M) - Openlibrary_work - [OL5276099W](https://openlibrary.org/works/OL5276099W) - Page_number_confidence - 94 - Page_number_module_version - 1.0.3 - Pages - 278 - Pdf_module_version - 0.0.23 - Possible copyright status - NOT_IN_COPYRIGHT - Ppi - 500 - Scandate - 20060525155718 - Scanner - uoft3 - Scanningcenter - uoft comment Reviews There are no reviews yet. Be the first one to [write a review](/write-review.php?identifier=mysteriesofmythr00cumouoft). 7,419 Views 33 Favorites DOWNLOAD OPTIONS [DAISY download](/download/mysteriesofmythr00cumouoft/mysteriesofmythr00cumouoft_daisy.zip) For users with print-disabilities IN COLLECTIONS [University of Toronto - Robarts Library](/details/robarts) [Canadian Libraries](/details/toronto) Uploaded by [ University of Toronto Scanning Center ](/details/@university_of_toronto_scanning_center) on

Mitraïsme

http://www.well.com/user/davidu/mithras.html

The following essay is adapted from my article, "Solving the Mithraic Mysteries" Biblical Archaeology Review (vol. 20, #5 [September/October 1994] pp. 40-53) This article is a summary of my book on Mithraism, The Origins of the Mithraic Mysteries (Oxford University Press, revised paperback, 1991) [To order this book click [here](http://www.amazon.com/dp/0195067886).] (Note: complete documentation for the following essay can be found in my book on Mithraism, The Origins of the Mithraic Mysteries, and in my articles listed at the bottom of this page.) The ancient Roman religion known as the Mithraic mysteries has captivated the imaginations of scholars for generations. There are two reasons for this fascination. First, like the other ancient "mystery religions," such as the Eleusinian mysteries and the mysteries of Isis, Mithraism maintained strict secrecy about its teachings and practices, revealing them only to initiates. As a result, reconstructing the beliefs of the Mithraic devotees has posed an enormously intriguing challenge to scholarly ingenuity. Second, Mithraism arose in the Mediterranean world at exactly the same time as did Christianity, and thus the study of the cult holds the promise of shedding vital light on the cultural dynamics that led to the rise of Christianity. Owing to the cult's secrecy, we possess almost no literary evidence about the beliefs of Mithraism. The few texts that do refer to the cult come not from Mithraic devotees themselves, but rather from outsiders such as early Church fathers, who mentioned Mithraism in order to attack it, and Platonic philosophers, who attempted to find support in Mithraic symbolism for their own philosophical ideas. However, although our literary sources for Mithraism are extremely sparse, an abundance of material evidence for the cult exists in the many Mithraic temples and artifacts that archaeologists have found scattered throughout the Roman empire, from England in the north and west to Palestine in the south and east. The temples, called mithraea by scholars, were usually built underground in imitation of caves. These subterranean temples were filled with an extremely elaborate iconography: carved reliefs, statues, and paintings, depicting a variety of enigmatic figures and scenes. This iconography is our primary source of knowledge about Mithraic beliefs, but because we do not have any written accounts of its meaning the ideas that it expresses have proven extraordinarily difficult to decipher. Underground Mithraic temple in Rome The typical mithraeum was a small rectangular subterranean chamber, on the order of 75 feet by 30 feet with a vaulted ceiling. An aisle usually ran lengthwise down the center of the temple, with a stone bench on either side two or three feet high on which the cult's members would recline during their meetings. On average a mithraeum could hold perhaps twenty to thirty people at a time. At the back of the mithraeum at the end of the aisle was always found a representation-- usually a carved relief but sometimes a statue or painting-- of the central icon of Mithraism: the so-called tauroctony or "bull-slaying scene" in which the god of the cult, Mithras, accompanied by a dog, a snake, a raven, and a scorpion, is shown in the act of killing a bull. Other parts of the temple were decorated with various scenes and figures. There were many hundreds-- perhaps thousands-- of Mithraic temples in the Roman empire. The greatest concentrations have been found in the city of Rome itself, and in those places in the empire (often in the most distant frontiers) where Roman soldiers-- who made up a major segment of the cult's membership-- were stationed. Mithraeum in Capua, Italy Our earliest evidence for the Mithraic mysteries places their appearance in the middle of the first century B.C.: the historian Plutarch says that in 67 B.C. a large band of pirates based in Cilicia (a province on the southeastern coast of Asia Minor) were practicing "secret rites" of Mithras. The earliest physical remains of the cult date from around the end of the first century A.D., and Mithraism reached its height of popularity in the third century. In addition to soldiers, the cult's membership included significant numbers of bureaucrats and merchants. Women were excluded. Mithraism declined with the rise to power of Christianity, until the beginning of the fifth century, when Christianity became strong enough to exterminate by force rival religions such as Mithraism. For most of the twentieth century it has been assumed that Mithraism was imported from Iran, and that Mithraic iconography must therefore represent ideas drawn from ancient Iranian mythology. The reason for this is that the name of the god worshipped in the cult, Mithras, is a Greek and Latin form of the name of an ancient Iranian god, Mithra; in addition, Roman authors themselves expressed a belief that the cult was Iranian in origin. At the end of the nineteenth century Franz Cumont, the great Belgian historian of ancient religion, published a magisterial two- volume work on the Mithraic mysteries based on the assumption of the Iranian origins of the cult. Cumont's work immediately became accepted as the definitive study of the cult, and remained virtually unchallenged for over seventy years. There were, however, a number of serious problems with Cumont's assumption that the Mithraic mysteries derived from ancient Iranian religion. Most significant among these is that there is no parallel in ancient Iran to the iconography which is the primary fact of the Roman Mithraic cult. For example, as already mentioned, by far the most important icon in the Roman cult was the tauroctony. This scene shows Mithras in the act of killing a bull, accompanied by a dog, a snake, a raven, and a scorpion; the scene is depicted as taking place inside a cave like the mithraeum itself. This icon was located in the most important place in every mithraeum, and therefore must have been an expression of the central myth of the Roman cult. Thus, if the god Mithras of the Roman religion was actually the Iranian god Mithra, we should expect to find in Iranian mythology a story in which Mithra kills a bull. However, the fact is that no such Iranian myth exists: in no known Iranian text does Mithra have anything to do with killing a bull. Mithras killing bull Franz Cumont had responded to this problem by focusing on an ancient Iranian text in which a bull is indeed killed, but in which the bull-slayer is not Mithra but rather Ahriman, the force of cosmic evil in Iranian religion. Cumont argued that there must have existed a variant of this myth-- a variant for which there was, however, no actual evidence-- in which the bull-slayer had been transformed from Ahriman to Mithra. It was this purely hypothetical variant on the myth of Ahriman's killing of a bull that according to Cumont lay behind the tauroctony icon of the Roman cult of Mithras. In the absence of any convincing alternative, Cumont's explanation satisfied scholars for more than seventy years. However, in 1971 the First International Congress of Mithraic Studies was held in Manchester England, and in the course of this Congress Cumont's theories came under concerted attack. Was it not possible, scholars at the Congress asked, that the Roman cult of Mithras was actually a new religion, and had simply borrowed the name of an Iranian god in order to give itself an exotic oriental flavor? If such a scenario seemed plausible, these scholars argued, one could no longer assume without question that the proper way to interpret Mithraism was to find parallels to its elements in ancient Iranian religion. In particular, Franz Cumont's interpretation of the tauroctony as representing an Iranian myth was now no longer unquestionable. Thus from 1971 on, the meaning of the Mithraic tauroctony suddenly became a mystery: if this bull-slaying icon did not represent an ancient Iranian myth, what did it represent? Within a few years after the 1971 Congress, a radically different approach to explaining the tauroctony began to be pursued by a number of scholars. It is not an exaggeration to say that this approach has in just the past few years succeeded in completely revolutionizing the study of the Mithraic mysteries. According to the proponents of this interpretation, the tauroctony is not, as Cumont and his followers claimed, a pictorial representation of an Iranian myth, but is rather something utterly different: namely, an astronomical star map! This remarkable explanation of the tauroctony is based on two facts. First, every figure found in the standard tauroctony has a parallel among a group of constellations located along a continuous band in the sky: the bull is paralleled by Taurus, the dog by Canis Minor, the snake by Hydra, the raven by Corvus, and the scorpion by Scorpio. Second, Mithraic iconography in general is pervaded by explicit astronomical imagery: the zodiac, planets, sun, moon, and stars are often portrayed in Mithraic art (note for example the stars around the head of Mithras in the carving of the tauroctony illustrated above); in addition, numerous ancient authors speak about astronomical subjects in connection with Mithraism. In the writings of the Neoplatonic philosopher Porphyry, for example, we find recorded a tradition that the cave which is depicted in the tauroctony and which the underground Mithraic temples were designed to imitate was intended to be "an image of the cosmos." Given the general presence of astronomical motifs in Mithraic art and ideology, the parallel noted above between the tauroctony-figures and constellations is unlikely to be coincidence. Tauroctony encircled by zodiac My own research over the past decade has been devoted to discovering why these particular constellations might have been seen as especially important, and how an icon representing them could have come to form the core of a powerful religious movement in the Roman Empire. In order to answer these questions, we must first have in mind a few facts about ancient cosmology. Today we know that the earth rotates on its axis once a day, and revolves around the sun once a year. However, Greco-Roman astronomy at the time of the Mithraic mysteries was based on a so-called "geocentric" cosmology, according to which the earth was fixed and immovable at the center of the universe and everything went around it. In this cosmology the universe itself was imagined as being bounded by a great sphere to which the stars, arranged in the various constellations, were attached. So, while we today understand that the earth rotates on its axis once every day, in antiquity it was believed instead that once a day the great sphere of the stars rotated around the earth, spinning on an axis that ran from the sphere's north pole to its south pole. As it spun, the cosmic sphere was believed to carry the sun along with it, resulting in the apparent movment of the sun around the earth once a day. This diagram shows the daily rotation of the cosmic sphere around the earth according to the "geocentric" cosmology. As shown here, the sun is carried along by the cosmic sphere around the earth once a day. However, as explained below, in the "geocentric" cosmology the sun was also believed to possess a second movement beyond its daily rotation with the cosmic sphere: namely, its yearly revolution along the circle of the "zodiac." In addition to this daily rotation of the cosmic sphere carrying the sun along with it, the ancients also attributed a second, slower motion to the sun. While today we know that the earth revolves around the sun once a year, in antiquity it was believed instead that once a year the sun-- which was understood as being closer to the earth than the sphere of the stars-- traveled around the earth, tracing a great circle in the sky against the background of the constellations. This circle traced by the sun during the course of the year was known as the "zodiac"-- a word meaning "living figures," which was a reference to the fact that as the sun moved along the circle of the zodiac it passed in front of twelve different constellations which were represented as having various animal and human forms. Zodiac (circle of 12 figures) with sun in Aries. In the "geocentric" cosmology the sun was believed to move along this circle around the earth once a year. The other cosmic circle shown here, parallel to the earth's equator, is called the "celestial equator." Because the ancients believed in the real existence of the great sphere of the stars, its various parts-- such as its axis and poles-- played a central role in the cosmology of the time. In particular, one important attribute of the sphere of the stars was much better known in antiquity than it is today: namely, its equator, known as the "celestial equator." Just as the earth's equator is defined as a circle around the earth equidistant from the north and south poles, so the celestial equator was understood as a circle around the sphere of the stars equidistant from the sphere's poles. The circle of the celestial equator was seen as having a particularly special importance because of the two points where it crosses the circle of the zodiac: for these two points are the equinoxes, that is, the places where the sun, in its movement along the zodiac, appears to be on the first day of spring and the first day of autumn. Thus the celestial equator was responsible for defining the seasons, and hence had a very concrete significance in addition to its abstract astronomical meaning. As a result, the celestial equator was often described in ancient popular literature about the stars. Plato, for example, in his dialogue Timaeus said that when the creator of the universe first formed the cosmos, he shaped its substance in the form of the letter X, representing the intersection of the two celestial circles of the zodiac and the celestial equator. This cross-shaped symbol was often depicted in ancient art to indicate the cosmic sphere. In fact, one of the most famous examples of this motif is a Mithraic stone carving showing the so-called "lion-headed god," whose image is often found in Mithraic temples, standing on a globe that is marked with the cross representing the two circles of the zodiac and the celestial equator. Lion-headed god standing on globe with crossed circles One final fact about the celestial equator is crucial: namely, that it does not remain fixed, but rather possesses a slow movement known as the "precession of the equinoxes." This movement, we know today, is caused by a wobble in the earth's rotation on its axis. As a result of this wobble, the celestial equator appears to change its position over the course of thousands of years. This movement is known as the precession of the equinoxes because its most easily observable effect is a change in the positions of the equinoxes, the places where the celestial equator crosses the zodiac. In particular, the precession results in the equinoxes moving slowly backward along the zodiac, passing through one zodiacal constellation every 2,160 years and through the entire zodiac every 25,920 years. Thus, for example, today the spring equinox is in the constellation of Pisces, but in a few hundred years it will be moving into Aquarius (the so-called "dawning of the Age of Aquarius"). More to our point here, in Greco-Roman times the spring equinox was in the constellation Aries, which it had entered around 2,000 B.C. It is this phenomenon of the precession of the equinoxes that provides the key to unlocking the secret of the astronomical symbolism of the Mithraic tauroctony. For the constellations pictured in the standard tauroctony have one thing in common: namely, they all lay on the celestial equator as it was positioned during the epoch immediately preceeding the Greco-Roman "Age of Aries." During that earlier age, which we may call the "Age of Taurus," lasting from around 4,000 to 2,000 B.C., the celestial equator passed through Taurus the Bull (the spring equinox of that epoch), Canis Minor the Dog, Hydra the Snake, Corvus the Raven, and Scorpio the Scorpion (the autumn equinox): that is, precisely the constellations represented in the Mithraic tauroctony. In the above diagram the celestial equator intersects the zodiac in Aries. This was the situation during the "Age of Aries." The sun is here pictured (in Aries) as it was located on the day of the spring equinox in that age. Here the cosmic axis has wobbled, so that the celestial equator intersects the zodiac in Taurus-- the situation during the "Age of Taurus." The sun is here pictured (in Taurus) as it was located on the day of the spring equinox in that age. In this "Age of Taurus" the celestial equator passed through Taurus, Canis Minor, Hydra, Corvus, and Scorpio: precisely the constellations pictured in the Mithraic bull-slaying icon. In fact, we may even go one step further. For during the Age of Taurus, when the equinoxes were in Taurus and Scorpio, the two solstices-- which are also shifted by the precession-- were in Leo the Lion and Aquarius the Waterbearer. (In the above diagram of the "Age of Taurus," Leo and Aquarius are the northernmost and southernmost constellations of the zodiacal circle respectively-- these were the positions of the summer and winter solstices in that age.) It is thus of great interest to note that in certain regions of the Roman empire a pair of symbols was sometimes added to the tauroctony: namely, a lion and a cup. These symbols must represent the constellations Leo and Aquarius, the locations of the solstices during the Age of Taurus. Thus all of the figures found in the tauroctony represent constellations that had a special position in the sky during the Age of Taurus. The Mithraic tauroctony, then, was apparently designed as a symbolic representation of the astronomical situation that obtained during the Age of Taurus. But what religious significance could this have had, so that the tauroctony could have come to form the central icon of a powerful cult? The answer to this question lies in the fact that the phenomenon of the precession of the equinoxes was unknown throughout most of antiquity: it was discovered for the first time around 128 B.C. by the great Greek astronomer Hipparchus. Today we know that the precession is caused by a wobble in the earth's rotation on its axis. However, for Hipparchus-- because he held to the ancient geocentric cosmology in which the earth was believed to be immovable-- what we today know to be a movement of the earth could only be understood as a movement of the entire cosmic sphere. In other words, Hipparchus's discovery amounted to the discovery that the entire universe was moving in a way that no one had ever been aware of before! At the time Hipparchus made his discovery, Mediterranean intellectual and religious life was pervaded by astrological beliefs. It was widely believed that the stars and planets were living gods, and that their movements controlled all aspects of human existence. In addition, at this time most people believed in what scholars call "astral immortality": that is, the idea that after death the human soul ascends up through the heavenly spheres to an afterlife in the pure and eternal world of the stars. In time, the celestial ascent of the soul came to be seen as a difficult voyage, requiring secret passwords to be recited at each level of the journey. In such circumstances, Hipparchus's discovery would have had profound religious implications. A new force had been detected capable of shifting the cosmic sphere: was it not likely that this new force was a sign of the activity of a new god, a god so powerful that he was capable of moving the entire universe? Hipparchus's discovery of the precession made it clear that before the Greco-Roman period, in which the spring equinox was in the constellation of Aries the Ram, the spring equinox had last been in Taurus the Bull. Thus, an obvious symbol for the phenomenon of the precession would have been the death of a bull, symbolizing the end of the "Age of Taurus" brought about by the precession. And if the precession was believed to be caused by a new god, then that god would naturally become the agent of the death of the bull: hence, the "bull-slayer." This, I propose, is the origin and nature of Mithras the cosmic bull-slayer. His killing of the bull symbolizes his supreme power: namely, the power to move the entire universe, which he had demonstrated by shifting the cosmic sphere in such a way that the spring equinox had moved out of Taurus the Bull. Given the pervasive influence in the Greco-Roman period of astrology and "astral immortality," a god possessing such a literally world-shaking power would clearly have been eminently worthy of worship: since he had control over the cosmos, he would automatically have power over the astrological forces determining life on earth, and would also possess the ability to guarantee the soul a safe journey through the celestial spheres after death. That Mithras was believed to possess precisely such a cosmic power is in fact proven by a number of Mithraic artworks depicting Mithras in various ways as having control over the universe. For example, one scene shows a youthful Mithras holding the cosmic sphere in one hand while with his other hand he rotates the circle of the zodiac. Mithras holding cosmic sphere and rotating zodiac Another image shows Mithras in the role of the god Atlas, supporting on his shoulder the great sphere of the universe, as Atlas traditionally does. Mithras as Atlas A further example is provided by a number of tauroctonies that symbolize Mithras's cosmic power by showing him with the starry sky contained beneath his flying cape (see illustration at beginning of article). If Mithras was in fact believed to be capable of moving the entire universe, then he must have been understood as in some sense residing outside of the cosmos. This idea may help us to understand another very common Mithraic iconographical motif: namely, the so-called "rock-birth" of Mithras. This scene shows Mithras emerging from the top of a roughly spherical or egg-shaped rock, which is usually depicted with a snake entwined around it. Rock-Birth of Mithras As I mentioned previously, the tauroctony depicts the bull-slaying as taking place inside a cave, and the Mithraic temples were built in imitation of caves. But caves are precisely hollows within the rocky earth, which suggests that the rock from which Mithras is born is meant to represent the Mithraic cave as seen from the outside. Now as we saw earlier, the ancient author Porphyry records the tradition that the Mithraic cave was intended to be "an image of the cosmos." Of course, the hollow cave would have to be an image of the cosmos as seen from the inside, looking out at the enclosing, cave-like sphere of the stars. But if the cave symbolizes the cosmos as seen from the inside, it follows that the rock out of which Mithras is born must ultimately be a symbol for the cosmos as seen from the outside. This idea is not as abstract as might first appear, for artistic representations of the cosmos as seen from the outside were in fact very common in antiquity. A famous example is the "Atlas Farnese" statue, showing Atlas bearing on his shoulder the cosmic globe, on which are depicted the constellations as they would appear from an imaginary vantage point outside of the universe. Atlas Farnese statue, 2nd century A.D. That the rock from which Mithras is born does indeed represent the cosmos is proven by the snake that entwines it: for this image evokes unmistakeably the famous Orphic myth of the snake-entwined "cosmic egg" out of which the universe was formed when the creator-god Phanes emerged from it at the beginning of time. Indeed, the Mithraists themselves explicitly identified Mithras with Phanes, as we know from an inscription found in Rome and from the iconography of a Mithraic monument located in England. The birth of Mithras from the rock, therefore, would appear to represent the idea that he is in some sense greater than the cosmos. Capable of moving the entire universe, he cannot be contained within the cosmic sphere, and is therefore depicted in the rock-birth as bursting out of the enclosing cave of the universe, and establishing his presence in the transcendent space beyond the cosmos. This imaginary "place beyond the universe" had been described vividly by Plato several centuries before the origins of Mithraism. In his dialogue Phaedrus (247B-C) Plato envisions a journey by a soul to the outermost boundary of the cosmos, and then gives us a glimpse of what the soul would see if for a brief moment it were able to "look upon the regions without." "Of that place beyond the heavens," says Plato, none of our earthly poets has yet sung, and none shall sing worthily. But this is the manner of it, for assuredly we must be bold to speak what is true, above all when our discourse is upon truth. It is there that true being dwells, without colour or shape, that cannot be touched; reason alone, the soul's pilot, can behold it, and all true knowledge is knowledge thereof. Beyond the heavens I would suggest that the awe-inspiring quality of Plato's vision of what is beyond the outermost boundary of the cosmos also lies behind the appeal of Mithras as a divine being whose proper domain is outside of the universe. As the text from Plato shows, the establishment by ancient astronomers of the sphere of the stars as the absolute boundary of the cosmos only encouraged the human imagination to project itself beyond that boundary in an exhilarating leap into an infinite mystery. There beyond the cosmos dwelled the ultimate divine forces, and Mithras's ability to move the entire universe made him one with those forces. Here in the end we may sense a profound kinship between Mithraism and Christianity. For early Christianity also contained at its core an ideology of cosmic transcendence. Nowhere is this better expressed than in the opening of the earliest gospel, Mark. There, at the beginning of the foundation story of Christianity, we find Jesus, at the moment of his baptism, having a vision of "the heavens torn open." Just as Mithras is revealed as a being from beyond the universe capable of altering the cosmic spheres, so here we find Jesus linked with a rupture of the heavens, an opening into the numinous realms beyond the furthest cosmic boundaries. Perhaps, then, the figures of Jesus and Mithras are to some extent both manifestations of a single deep longing in the human spirit for a sense of contact with the ultimate mystery. Excerpts from reviews of The Origins of the Mithraic Mysteries: Cosmology and Salvation in the Ancient World by David Ulansey (Oxford University Press, 1989; revised paperback, 1991) "Fascinating." --Scientific American, vol. 265, #3 (September, 1991) pp. 188-90. "Thrilling.... Bravo for Ulansey." --Religious Studies Review, vol. 17, #1 (January, 1991) p. 66. "Brilliant and fascinating... entirely convincing....The reviewer had trouble in putting it down." --The Ancient World, vol. 23, #1 (1992) pp. 112-13. "Ulansey has produced an astounding book." --Critical Review of Books in Religion, vol. 4 (1991) pp. 277-79. "Erudite, well-written, and fascinating to read.... Extremely successful." --Bulletin of the Harvard University Center for the Study of World Religions, vol. 16, #2 (1989-90) pp. 90-92. "Remarkable.... In comprehensiveness [Ulansey's] theory appears to have no rival." --Ancient Philosophy, vol. 12 (1992) p. 242- 44. "Brilliant and fascinating." --Latomus, vol. 55, #2 (April-June 1996) pp. 496-98. "Convincing.... All fits together beautifully." --Journal of Religion, vol. 72, #2 (April, 1992) pp. 301-302. "Brilliant.... an absolutely spell-binding detective story of antique lore." --Gnosis, #20 (Summer, 1991) p. 76. "A remarkable and enthralling book." --Zeitschrift für Geschichtswissenschaft, vol. 48, #7 (2000) pp. 652-53. To go to Home of David Ulansey, click [here]. To order The Origins of the Mithraic Mysteries (for $13.95), click [here]. For those of you who have read my book, I have just completed several new appendices for a German translation that will appear shortly. To read these appendices in English, click [here] For responses to a few critics of my book, click [here]. For my article The Mithraic Mysteries (from Scientific American) click [here]. For my article Mithras and the Hypercosmic Sun click [here]. For my article The Eighth Gate: The Mithraic Lion-Headed Figure and the Platonic World-Soul click [here]. For my article The Heavenly Veil Torn (from the Journal of Biblical Literature) click [here]. For my article Cultural Transition and Spiritual Transformation: From Alexander the Great to Cyberspace click [here]. If you'd like to send me your comments click [here].

Mitraïsme

https://books.google.com/books?id=0-ovhYLJkRYC&pg=PA95

| | The Oxford Handbook of Early Christian Studies Susan Ashbrook Harvey, David G. Hunter OUP Oxford, Sep 4, 2008 - The Oxford Handbook of Early Christian Studies responds to and celebrates the explosion of research in this inter-disciplinary field over recent decades. As a one-volume reference work, it provides an introduction to the academic study of early Christianity (c. 100-600 AD) and examines the vast geographical area impacted by the early church, in western and eastern late antiquity. It is thematically arranged to encompass history, literature, thought, practices, and material culture. It contains authoritative and up-to-date surveys of current thinking and research in the various sub-specialties of early Christian studies, written by leading figures in the discipline. The essays orientate readers to a given topic, as well as to the trajectory of research developments over the past 30-50 years within the scholarship itself. Guidance for future research is also given. Each essay points the reader towards relevant forms of extant evidence (texts, documents, or examples of material culture), as well as to the appropriate research tools available for the area. This volume will be useful to advanced undergraduate and post-graduate students, as well as to specialists in any area who wish to consult a brief review of the 'state of the question' in a particular area or sub-specialty of early Christian studies, especially one different from their own. Other editions - [View all](https://books.google.com/books?q=editions:ISBN0199271569&id=0-ovhYLJkRYC) Limited preview - 2008 Limited preview - 2008 No preview available - 2010

Jair Bolsonaro

https://www.theguardian.com/world/live/2018/oct/28/brazil-election-2018-second-round-of-voting-closes-as-bolsonaro-eyes-the-presidency-live

We're going to wrap up the live blog covering today's election. Thanks for your company reading along over the last eight hours. Thanks especially to my brilliant colleagues in Brazil: Tom Phillips and Dom Phillips. It's been a dramatic, though not entirely unexpected, night as Bolsonaro secured enough votes to become the next president. As for what is next for the country under his leadership, that is anyone's guess. I'll close with this assessment of the situation from our Latin America correspondent Tom Phillips, who spent a "long and deeply disturbing" day in São Paulo today. He writes: I met many generous and kind Bolsonaro voters on Avenida Paulista tonight. It'd be untrue and unfair to say otherwise. I was also profoundly disturbed by the menace and testosterone that hung in the air. Brazil has been a huge part of my life for nearly 20 years. After spending tonight on Avenida Paulista it devastates me to say this, but: Brazil is in very big trouble indeed. Jair Bolsonaro has been elected as the next president of Brazil, winning 55.1% of the vote in the second-round vote between himself and PT candidate Fernando Haddad. The far-right candidate was leading in the polls after he fell just short of achieving a majority in the first round of voting three weeks ago. His win on Sunday night has alarmed progressives, given his previous comments supporting torture and calling for political opponents to be shot. As well as comments disparaging women, minorities and LGBT people. In a televised victory speech, Bolsonaro said "We are going to change the destiny of Brazil" but also extended an olive branch, saying he was going to govern for all Brazilians regardless of orientation, opinion or colour. Bolsonaro supporters celebrated in the streets across the country. Military police and other military personnel were hailed as heroes. World leaders including Donald Trump offered their congratulations to Bolsonaro, though the leader of Venezuela, a country Bolsonaro has been highly critical of, offered very guarded praise, urging Bolsonaro to work toward having peaceful and harmonious relations with other countries. Thousands of Jair Bolsonaro supporters have packed Avenida Paulista tonight, among them babies, toddlers, teenagers and the elderly. Many of them are euphoric. "We think he can get the train back on the tracks," said Iago Bünger, a 19-year-old student. Members of Sao Paulo's police force are posing for photographs with revellers on their motorbikes and striking hard-man poses for the cameras. Crowds cheer: "Viva the military police!" as officers drive past in cars or on their bikes. Huge amounts of beer was being consumed and Jair Bolsonaro t-shirts were selling like hotcakes including some that read: "Hard to kill" – a reference to the recent attempt to assassinate him. But there is also nervousness and doubt among those celebrating about what exactly they have voted for and whether Bolsonaro will be able to make good on his promises to defeat corruption and stamp out crime. "We don't know exactly what it will mean – but he symbolizes hope," Angelo Bordin, a 30-year-old from São José do Rio Preto said. Bünger confessed he also had qualms. "Sincerely, I have my uncertainties. Bolsonaro is an unknown quantity." "It's an inflection point," his friend, Luiz, agreed. "Might it go wrong? Yes." The White House has confirmed that US president Donald Trump called Jair Bolsonaro on Sunday night to congratulate him on his election victory. White House spokeswoman Sarah Huckabee Sanders says that Trump congratulated the president-elect and that "both expressed a strong commitment to work side-by-side to improve the lives of the people of the United States and Brazil." Tom Phillips has some footage of the celebrations in São Paulo. This video features Bolsonaro supporters dancing to Tropa de Elite (Elite Squad) by Tihuana. This second video shows supporters dancing along to a song in which Bolsonaro's opponents are mocked. A sample of the lyrics include: "Maria do Rosário (PT MP) doesn't know how to wash dishes/Jandira Feghali (PCdoB MP) never lived in the favela/ Luciana Genro (ex PSOL MP) supports the landless workers But does not give away her address so nobody invades her home" Our Latin America correspondent Tom Phillips says these lyrics are not even the worst of them, but he's tied up with other reporting at the moment, so if there are any Portuguese-speaking readers of this blog who want to translate the full video for us, watch below and tweet me @mskatelyons and Tom Phillips. We're trying to unpick the reference to Churchill in Bolsonaro's victory speech, in which he said he was "inspired by great world leaders", before holding up a copy of the constitution and a biography of Winston Churchill. Valor Econômico is reporting that internet searches for Churchill went up 5,000% in the minutes after Bolsonaro's speech. Dom Phillips, who is on the ground in Rio de Janeiro, has this report: As celebrations continued outside Jair Bolsonaro's condominium, the president-elect filmed a Facebook Live broadcast. Much of what he said was broadcast on a screen to an unruly crowd of supporters who drowned out his words chanting a percussive version of the national anthem. Bolsonaro said that when he decided to run for president, he "knew all the difficulties I would have ahead of me". "But I couldn't just think about me," said Bolsonaro. Bolsonaro thanked his supporters – even those who couldn't hear him. "What I most want is to follow the teachings of God alongside the Brazilian constitution, inspired by great world leaders," he said, holding up a copy of the constitution and a biography of Winston Churchill. A few hundred metres away, in front of the hotel where his party had been based, supporters surrounded retired General Augusto Heleno who will be his new defence minister. He was asked if Bolsonaro was a threat to democracy. "Only those who were prejudiced about Bolsonaro saw a threat to democracy. There is no threat to democracy. Stamping Bolsonaro as a fascist is absurd," he said. As the supporters began chanting that corruption was ending, drowning out reporters, Heleno continued. "This is actually a show of democracy," he said. "You have to get used to it." Inside the hotel lobby, Bolsonaro's Finance Minister Paulo Guedes made a brief statement about economic policy to another scrum of reporters and said Brazil had been trapped for 30 years in a "social democratic" model of "uncontrolled, expanding public spending." "We are prisoners of low growth. We have very high taxes, we have high interest rates, we have snowballing debt," he said. "It made Brazil poor." Guedes said that Brazil needed pension reform, tax cuts and a simplified tax system, a reform of the state machine to cut privileges and waste, and more investment in infrastructure. "Private investments are the motor of economic growth," he said, "and that's what we are going to do." Gustavo Bebianno Rocha, the lawyer who became president of Bolsonaro's Social Liberal Party and a right-hand man, said Brazil would now learn to walk on both legs. "That's why it walked with such difficulty. Brazil can show it has two legs, a right leg as well," he said, saying that Brazil would now join other right-wing countries. "Generally these are governments that generate riches and jobs, with progress, with fiscal austerity, with balanced accounts, that's what we will do," he said There have been reports of military and police joining in the celebrations at Bolsonaro's victory. Our reporter Dom Phillips in Rio saw a police helicopter fly overhead with a Brazilian flag hanging from its door. There is also video of military personnel, riding on military vehicles and carrying their weapons, progressing through the streets of Niterói in Brazil's south-east through jubilant crowds celebrating the election result. When Ricardo Mengon heard Jair Bolsonaro had been elected president of Brazil he shouted. Then he cried. Finally, the 54-year-old insurance salesman grabbed a giant Brazil flag emblazoned with his country's motto – Ordem e Progresso (Order and Progress) – and hit the streets of central São Paulo to mark the victory of a far-right populist he hopes will remake the world's fourth largest democracy. "A drop of hope has arrived! Now there will be order in this country!' the father-of-three rejoiced as he hiked down Avenida Paulista, one of the city's main drags, towards an explosion of fireworks and right-wing joy. "The streets will be safe. There will be no pornography on the TV," Mengon grinned. Pointing to a group of armed police who had sealed off the avenue, he added: "This is what Bolsonaro will do." Jair Bolsonaro has had a call from Donald Trump congratulating him on his victory. Trump is yet to tweet congratulations to Bolsonaro, but the Brazilian president-elect wrote on Twitter: "We just received a call from the President of the United States, @realDonaldTrump congratulating us on this historic election!" We express the desire to bring these two great nations closer together and to advance on the path of freedom and prosperity!" A very guarded statement of congratulations from the Venezuelan leader. "The President of the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela Nicolas Maduro, extends his congratulations to the people of Brazil, for the civic celebration of the second electoral round, in which Jair Bolsonaro was favored as president-elect of our brother country," said a statement of congratulations from president Nicolás Maduro, tweeted by Venezuela's foreign minister Jorge Arreaza. "The Bolivarian government takes advantage of the occasion to exhort the new president to resume - as neighbouring countries - the road of respectful, harmonious diplomatic relations for progress and regional integration." Relations between Venezuela and Brazil have been increasingly strained under outgoing president Michel Temer, due to Brazil's criticisms of the Maduro government's human rights violations. However, as Bolsonaro and Maduro are at opposite extremes on the ideological spectrum, it's hard to see that any reconciliation is likely to be forthcoming. Our Latin America correspondent Tom Phillips writes that Jair Bolsonaro and his son, Eduardo Bolsonaro, have long been fierce critics of Venezuelan president Nicolas Maduro and have links to a group of Venezuelan dissidents called Rumbo Libertad who support the idea of an armed uprising against to remove him. Earlier today Eduardo Bolsonaro tweeted that activists from that group had been following the election "and making plans" together in São Paulo. Some think it is possible that having a Brazilian president who is hawkish towards Venezuela might reduce resistance to the idea of US military intervention in Latin America. The Bolsonaros have previously made a politically-charged prop-doc about Venezuela's economic meltdown, designed to boost their race for the presidency. In that film Bolsonaro tells one of the dissidents who was in São Paulo today: "You can count on me, I will do whatever I can for that government to be removed." There's some consternation online about the wording of a news alert from the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation about Bolsonaro's win, which they have framed in the context of its potential for Canadian investment. Given Bolsonaro has talked about loosening environmental protections and opening up the Amazon for agribusiness and mining, some are unhappy about CBC seeming to celebrate the "fresh opportunities for Canadian companies looking to invest in the resource-rich country".

Jair Bolsonaro

https://web.archive.org/web/20200427013235/https://www.theguardian.com/world/live/2018/oct/28/brazil-election-2018-second-round-of-voting-closes-as-bolsonaro-eyes-the-presidency-live

Thousands of [Jair Bolsonaro](https://web.archive.org/web/20200427013235/https://www.theguardian.com/world/jair-bolsonaro) supporters have packed Avenida Paulista tonight, among them babies, toddlers, teenagers and the elderly. Many of them are euphoric. "We think he can get the train back on the tracks," said Iago Bünger, a 19-year-old student. Members of Sao Paulo's police force are posing for photographs with revellers on their motorbikes and striking hard-man poses for the cameras. Crowds cheer: "Viva the military police!" as officers drive past in cars or on their bikes. Huge amounts of beer was being consumed and Jair Bolsonaro t-shirts were selling like hotcakes including some that read: "Hard to kill" – a reference to the recent attempt to assassinate him. But there is also nervousness and doubt among those celebrating about what exactly they have voted for and whether Bolsonaro will be able to make good on his promises to defeat corruption and stamp out crime. "We don't know exactly what it will mean – but he symbolizes hope," Angelo Bordin, a 30-year-old from São José do Rio Preto said. Bünger confessed he also had qualms. "Sincerely, I have my uncertainties. Bolsonaro is an unknown quantity." "It's an inflection point," his friend, Luiz, agreed. "Might it go wrong? Yes." When Ricardo Mengon heard [Jair Bolsonaro](https://web.archive.org/web/20200427013235/https://www.theguardian.com/world/jair-bolsonaro) had been elected president of Brazil he shouted. Then he cried. Finally, the 54-year-old insurance salesman grabbed a giant [Brazil](https://web.archive.org/web/20200427013235/https://www.theguardian.com/world/brazil) flag emblazoned with his country's motto – Ordem e Progresso (Order and Progress) – and hit the streets of central São Paulo to mark the victory of a far-right populist he hopes will remake the world's fourth largest democracy. "A drop of hope has arrived! Now there will be order in this country!' the father-of-three rejoiced as he hiked down Avenida Paulista, one of the city's main drags, towards an explosion of fireworks and right-wing joy. "The streets will be safe. There will be no pornography on the TV," Mengon grinned. Pointing to a group of armed police who had sealed off the avenue, he added: "This is what Bolsonaro will do."

Jair Bolsonaro

http://revistacrescer.globo.com/Voce-precisa-saber/noticia/2015/03/ele-era-digno-nao-era-de-falar-besteira-diz-mae-de-jair-bolsonaro.html

[Você precisa saber] Mãe de Bolsonaro: "Ele não era de falar besteira" Após afirmar que as mulheres devem receber salário menor por possibilidade de engravidar, CRESCER entrevistou dona Olinda, a mãe do polêmico deputado, agora candidato à presidência do Brasil, para saber o que ela pensa sobre as declarações do filho5 min de leitura Homossexuais, cotistas, defensores de Direitos Humanos, colegas parlamentares, muita gente já foi alvo das declarações polêmicas do deputado federal Jair Bolsonaro (PP/RJ), que concorre em 2018 à presidência da República. Até as mães entraram no seu rol de provocações. Em entrevista ao jornal gaúcho Zero Hora, o deputado disse que as mulheres deveriam ganhar salário menor porque engravidavam e prejudicavam o empresariado, devido a seu afastamento pela licença-maternidade. Por conta disso, CRESCER foi procurar a mãe de Bolsonaro, para saber o que ela própria pensava das declarações destemperadas dele. Em certa ocasião, por exemplo, o deputado disse preferir que o filho morresse em acidente do que âaparecesse com um bigodudoâ. E, a uma deputada, que não merecia ser estuprada porque era feia. Dona Olinda Bonturi Bolsonaro completa 89 anos no fim do mês. Vive com uma filha em Miracatu, no Vale do Ribeira, a 137 quilômetros de São Paulo, para onde se mudou depois de deixar Eldorado, a 249 km da capital, cidade onde a famÃlia mantém quatro lojas de comércio. Comunicativa e amável, ela conversou com CRESCER depois que o próprio Jair foi avisado. Por telefone mesmo ele disse que havia sido mal interpretado sobre o fato de as mulheres terem de ganhar menos. Reclamou âporque quem paga a licença-maternidade são os empresários, depois abatem do INSS, só que, com isso, perdem produtividadeâ. Mas autorizou a entrevista com dona Olinda. Jair é o terceiro de seis filhos, três meninos e três meninas. Nem todas as lembranças dela são mais tão vÃvidas, embora disposição não lhe falte. Confira a conversa exclusiva com CRESCER: CRESCER: Dona Olinda, como a senhora criou o Jair? Olinda Bonturi Bolsonaro: Com amor, muito amor. Não queria que fosse uma criança estúpida, bruta, falasse besteira. Dava comidinha na hora certa... C.: Ele era impetuoso? O.B.B.: Era humilde, manso, filho maravilhoso, nunca encrencou em nada comigo. Uma beleza de filho (quase chorando), estou arrepiada de falar. C.: Nunca deu trabalho, nunca foi de brigar na rua? O.B.B.: Nunca, era reservado, quieto, compreensivo (chorando), um filho mesmo maravilhoso. C.: Dava-se bem com os amigos? O.B.B.: Brincava e jogava bola na rua, era estimado pelos coleguinhas. Procuravam ele em casa, tudo estava bem para ele. Mas era digno, não era de falar besteira. C.: A senhora exigia disciplina? O.B.B.: Não maltratei nunca um filho, nunca fiquei brava nem disse: âVai apanharâ. Apanhar, não. A gente conversa com a criança. C.: Hoje seu filho fala coisas bastante duras, e acaba arranjando briga com muitas pessoas... O.B.B.: Querem que ele fale mole, não é? Esse é o modo dele de falar. Fica irritado, então, fala do jeito dele, irritado. Mas é uma boa pessoa. C.: As crÃticas que fazem a ele não a incomodam? O.B.B.: Não, eu conheço o filho que tenho. Dona Olinda não se ressente com as perguntas. Mantém o jeito afável, receptivo. Percebe o embaraço do entrevistador (afinal, vai falar de estupro a uma senhora de 89 anos). O.B.B.: Pode perguntar C.: Hoje seu filho fica brigando, agredindo com palavras. Houve o episódio com a deputada, disse que não merecia ser estuprada porque era feia... O.B.B.: à o jeito dele. Era ele mesmo, não estava imitando ninguém. à a natureza dele. Jair Bolsonaro fez carreira no Exército. Hoje, é capitão da reserva. Está no terceiro casamento, deu cinco netos à dona Olinda. âQuatro moços maravilhosos, e uma menina lindaâ, ressalta ela. O pai do deputado, Geraldo, era dentista prático, fazia todo o tratamento, mas não tinha diploma de faculdade. Quando Jair e os cinco irmãos nasceram, a famÃlia morava em Campinas. Geraldo resolveu mudar para o Vale do Ribeira, então lugar pobre, sem dentistas. Foram parar em Eldorado, caminho para o Paraná. âMeu pai pingava de cidade em cidadeâ, recorda Renato Antonio Bolsonaro, o do meio entre os filhos homens. âQuando chegava à cidade, era o salvador. Tirava dente, fazia dentadura, tratamento dentário.â Os anos correram, e dentistas formados surgiram na região. Geraldo foi levado ao Fórum por não ter diploma e, no acordo firmado com o juiz, acabou trabalhando apenas como protético. Gostava de beber. Dona Olinda diz que Jair ânão tinha muita intimidade com eleâ, mas não relaciona o fato à bebida. Renato confirma que nem sempre o deputado e o pai se deram bem. Acha isso natural para um relacionamento de pai e filho. âMeu pai tinha o estilão dele, boêmioâ, continua ele, que é capitão da reserva do Exército, como o irmão famoso. âMas nunca deixou um filho trabalhar, porque achava que filho tinha que estudarâ. Era âuma pessoa duraâ, conforme conta. âEnérgico. Não admitia que os filhos fizessem nada errado. Fumava e bebia, mas não permitia que fumássemos ou bebêssemos.â Jair também é enérgico, chega a ter uma postura agressiva. âEle tem o posicionamento dele, como polÃtico. Não tolera coisa errada.â Dá pancada nas pessoas... âNós somos de formação militar, temos a disciplina consciente. Aquela retidão de procedimentos, de coerência, de não aceitar as coisas erradas. Se vemos uma fruta na beira da estrada, não pegamos porque não é nossaâ, conta Renato. Foi assim desde a infância, âmais rude, mais nervosoâ, conta o amigo Cidenei Alves, policial militar aposentado. Naquela época, Eldorado tinha uma praça bonita, com a igreja matriz e um grande chafariz. âBrincávamos na fonteâ, recorda o colega. SaÃam para as fazendas das redondezas. âPegávamos laranja, caçávamos passarinhos. Era diferente de hoje, não tÃnhamos maldade.â Na praça, também jogavam futebol. âSe alguém desse uma pegada nele, ficava bravo.â Jogava bem? âEle era muito bom estudante, mas ruim de bola.â Adolescentes, ficavam conversando na praça até altas horas. âNão havia problema de segurança, dormia-se com as janelas abertas.â Nessa época, Jair ganhou um apelido: Palmito. âEra branco e comprido.â Não gostou nada. âFicou meio bravoâ. Nessa época, ambos decidiram tentar a carreira militar. Em 1970, tropas do Exército chegaram a Eldorado atrás de Carlos Lamarca, que havia desertado e passado a comandar ações de guerrilha no Vale do Ribeira. âFicávamos conversando com os militares, eles mostravam as armas.... Isso nos fascinava.â Jair ingressaria na Academia Militar das Agulhas Negras, no Rio. O que Cidenei acha das declarações fortes do amigo? âNão julgo ele, para não ser julgado. Vai do jeito dele.â

Jair Bolsonaro

https://politica.estadao.com.br/noticias/geral,bolsonaro-aprova-dois-projetos-em-26-anos-de-congresso,70001900653

BRASÍLIA - Potencial candidato à Presidência da República em 2018 e um dos políticos mais bem colocados em pesquisas de intenção de voto, o deputado federal Jair Bolsonaro (PSC-RJ) mudou sua atuação parlamentar ao longo de 26 anos no Congresso Nacional. Quando chegou a Brasília, no início da década de 1990, seu foco era atender aos interesses de militares, sua primeira base eleitoral. Nos últimos anos, porém, ele ampliou suas propostas para a área de segurança pública, uma das mais vulneráveis do País e de maior apelo nas urnas. Assumidamente conservador, Bolsonaro busca novas parcelas do eleitorado. Ele já se banhou no Rio Jordão, em Israel, critica discussões sobre questões de gênero, sexualidade e direitos humanos e reverbera na internet suas polêmicas em página oficial com mais de 4,4 milhões de seguidores. Pelas redes sociais, grupos se pulverizam em apoio à sua candidatura no próximo ano. Bolsonaro, que é capitão da reserva do Exército, afirmou ao Estado que foi eleito inicialmente por um "segmento basicamente militar", mas seguiu para outros campos. "Todos nós evoluímos", disse. Levantamento feito pelo Estado/Broadcast revela o perfil da atividade parlamentar do deputado que almeja chegar ao Planalto no dia 1.º de janeiro de 2019. Em quase três décadas na Câmara, Bolsonaro apresentou 171 projetos de lei, de lei complementar, de decreto de legislativo e propostas de emenda à Constituição (PECs). No primeiro mandato, entre 1991 e 1995, foram 17 projetos de interesse de militares, ante apenas dois na área de segurança pública. Na atual legislatura, iniciada em 2015 e com término previsto em 2019, já são nove propostas para a segurança e somente três para o setor militar. Entre 2011 e 2015, na legislatura passada, o deputado apresentou 13 propostas na área de segurança, ante duas militares. As duas áreas representam 56,7% (97) das propostas legislativas de Bolsonaro – são 53 projetos para militares (32%) e 44 para segurança pública (25%). Nenhum, porém, foi aprovado. Apenas três projetos foram ligados a temas econômicos – entre eles o que propõe autorizar a dedução do Imposto de Renda das despesas comprovadamente efetuadas com empregados domésticos – e dez na área de saúde – como o que determina a proibição do aborto em casos de estupro. Para educação foi somente uma proposta, apresentada no primeiro mandato, a fim de conceder desconto progressivo em taxas e mensalidades escolares para famílias de militares com mais de um filho. Aprovação. Até hoje, o deputado teve aprovados dois projetos. Viraram lei uma proposta que estendia o benefício de isenção do Imposto sobre Produto Industrializado (IPI) para bens de informática e outro que autorizava o uso da chamada "pílula do câncer" – a fosfoetanolamina sintética. Para o professor de Ciência Política da USP José Álvaro Moisés, o número de projetos apresentados por Bolsonaro revelam uma boa atividade parlamentar – média de 6,5 propostas por ano. "Não é pouco, mostra que ele é um deputado ativo. Mas a aprovação de apenas dois projetos revela que o que ele está propondo não é acolhido na instituição", disse. 'Gols'. A primeira emenda de autoria do deputado, aprovada em 2015, determina a impressão de votos das urnas eletrônicas. "Tão importante quanto você fazer um gol, é não tomar um gol. Eu trabalho muitas vezes para que certos projetos não sejam aprovados", disse o deputado. Assim, "tão importante quanto apresentar propostas, é rejeitá-las". "Uma enorme contribuição", segundo o deputado, foi o combate ao chamado "kit gay", material didático contra a homofobia vetado na gestão petista da presidente cassada Dilma Rousseff, em 2011. Voltado à disputa presidencial, Bolsonaro tem usado justamente esses temas nas redes sociais, onde sua popularidade se mostra em alta. Um exemplo foi um post seu sobre o kit, publicado em 10 de janeiro deste ano, que alcançou 38 milhões de internautas e o vídeo teve 8,3 milhões de visualizações. Questionado se a falta de diversidade em suas propostas poderia prejudicá-lo na corrida presidencial, o deputado nega. "A Dilma (Rousseff) apresentou algum projeto na vida dela? O (prefeito João) Doria apresentou algum projeto? Não tem nada a ver uma coisa com a outra", afirmou Bolsonaro. / COLABORARAM THIAGO FARIA e MARIANNA HOLANDA

Jair Bolsonaro

https://nos.nl/artikel/2249446-neergestoken-tropische-trump-zet-brazilie-op-z-n-kop.html

Neergestoken 'tropische Trump' zet Brazilië op z'n kop Noortje Deutekom redacteur Buitenland Noortje Deutekom redacteur Buitenland Over een maand mogen zo'n 150 miljoen Brazilianen naar de stembus, maar de kandidatenlijst van de verkiezingen is deze week volledig in de war geschopt. Het electoraal hof sloot de belangrijkste kanshebber, oud-president Lula da Silva, begin deze week al uit en sinds gisteravond is [na een aanslag op zijn leven](https://nos.nl/artikel/2249301-uiterst-rechtse-presidentskandidaat-brazilie-neergestoken.html) ook de deelname van de ultrarechtse kandidaat Jair Bolsonaro onzeker. Tijdens een campagnerally in de stad Juiz de Fora stak een 40-jarige linkse fanaticus hem in zijn buik. Met ernstige verwondingen belandde hij in het ziekenhuis. 'Tropische Trump' is voorlopig uitgeschakeld. Op beelden is het moment te zien waarop Bolsonaro wordt neergestoken: Dat hij de Trump van Latijns-Amerika wil worden heeft hij zelf bedacht. Internationale media maken daar dankbaar gebruik van en gaven hem de bijnaam vanwege extreme uitspraken. "Maar Bolsonaro is veel rechtser en radicaler dan Trump", zegt correspondent Marc Bessems over de man die Brazilië de afgelopen maanden op z'n kop zette. Nog nooit is een extreem-rechtse presidentskandidaat daar zo populair geweest. De voormalig militair Bolsonaro loopt al een tijdje mee in de Braziliaanse politiek, al presenteert hij zichzelf graag als nieuwkomer. De afgelopen 26 jaar hoorde hij als Congreslid bij zeven verschillende politieke partijen en dit jaar sloot hij zich aan bij Partido Social Liberal, een kleine partij met 11 van de 513 zetels in het Lagerhuis. Met die partij gaat het hem in Brazilië voor de wind. Een sterke campagne en veel woede Die populariteit heeft Bolsonaro te danken aan een scherpe socialemediacampagne (bijna 6 miljoen volgers op Een politieman die niet doodt, is geen politieman Bolsonaro belooft de problemen allemaal op te lossen. De politicus komt met een rijtje oplossingen die meer aan het handelen van [de Filipijnse president Duterte](https://nos.nl/artikel/2127159-filipijnse-president-op-dreef-duizend-dode-drugsdealers.html) doen denken, dan aan die van Trump. Hij wil bikkelhard gaan optreden tegen criminelen, bijvoorbeeld met vrijere wapenwetten en een verlaging van de leeftijd voor strafrechtelijke aansprakelijkheid naar 14 jaar. Agenten moeten ook harder zijn, vindt Bolsonaro: "Een politieman die niet doodt, is geen politieman", zei hij ooit. Het zijn dat soort uitspraken en provocaties die Bolsonaro bij een groot deel van de Brazilianen tegelijkertijd behoorlijk ongeliefd maakt. Wie een uurtje op zijn naam googelt, struikelt over de een na de andere opvallende uitspraak. "Je kunt er een uitzending mee vullen", zegt Bessems. Ik heb liever een dode zoon dan een homoseksuele. Zo prees Bolsonaro de Braziliaanse militaire dictatuur die verantwoordelijk is voor duizenden martelingen en honderden executies en vond hij dat leden van de partij van oud-president Lula zouden moeten worden neergeschoten. Tegen een vrouwelijke collega zei hij dat ze te lelijk was om te verkrachten. Ook is hij snoeihard over homoseksualiteit. "Ik heb liever een dode zoon dan een homoseksuele", zei hij. En: "Je woning kan in waarde dalen wanneer je een homoseksuele buurman hebt." Of: "Homo's zijn vroeger als kind niet hard genoeg geslagen." "Tegenstanders noemen hem een vrouwenhater, een racist en een homohater", zegt Bessems. Hij moet terechtstaan voor opjutten tot haat en verkrachting. Martelaar Op papier is Bolsonaro op dit moment de belangrijkste kanshebber in de race om het Braziliaanse presidentschap en het is mogelijk dat hij door de aanslag op zijn leven de wind extra in de zeilen krijgt. Sommigen zien hem nu al als martelaar. Het is alleen nog onduidelijk hoe intensief hij campagne kan voeren. "En ook voor de campagne van andere kandidaten heeft de aanslag invloed", zegt Marc Bessems. "Zij kunnen Bolsonaro niet zo hard aanvallen als dat ze normaal doen. Je kunt iemand die gewond in het ziekenhuis ligt niet besmeren met een haatcampagne." Zelfs als Bolsonaro op volle kracht terugkeert op het politieke toneel, is een overwinning nog uiterst onzeker. Het verkiezingssysteem van twee ronden is in zijn nadeel. Een belangrijk deel van de Brazilianen heeft al gezworen nooit op Bolsonaro te stemmen. Zij zullen in een tweede ronde kiezen voor een mildere kandidaat.

Jair Bolsonaro

https://nos.nl/artikel/2256902-rechts-populistische-bolsonaro-nieuwe-president-brazilie.html

Rechts-populistische Bolsonaro nieuwe president Brazilië De rechts-populistische Jair Bolsonaro heeft de presidentsverkiezingen in Brazilië gewonnen. Hij komt op 55 procent van de stemmen, ruim meer dan de 45 procent van zijn opponent Fernando Haddad van de linkse Arbeiderspartij. De kiescommissie heeft bevestigd dat Bolsonaro heeft gewonnen. Bolsonaro won drie weken geleden ook [de eerste ronde](https://nos.nl/artikel/2253850-omstreden-politicus-wint-eerste-ronde-presidentsverkiezingen-brazilie.html) van de verkiezingen, maar behaalde toen niet de benodigde meerderheid. Hij kreeg toen 46 procent van de stemmen, waardoor een tweede ronde nodig was. Vlaggen, blije gezichten en feestvreugde op straat, waar aanhangers van Bolsonaro zijn overwinning vierden: De verkiezingscampagne in Brazilië was fel te noemen. Zo werd Bolsonaro begin september tijdens het campagne voeren gestoken door een verwarde, linkse man. Hij herstelde van die steekpartij en zijn populariteit groeide. Omstreden uitspraken De 63-jarige Bolsonaro is een oud-militair. Hij koos na een aanvaring met de top van het leger voor een carrière in de politiek en was bijna dertig jaar lid van het Congres. Bolsonaro staat bekend om zijn omstreden uitspraken. Zo sprak hij zijn bewondering uit voor de militaire dictatuur in Brazilië (1964-1985) en deed hij racistische en homofobe uitspraken. Hij is echter populair onder veel kiezers vanwege zijn beloftes en anti-establishment-houding. Hij belooft orde op zaken te stellen in het land, dat wordt geteisterd door geweld, corruptie en economische chaos. Volgens correspondent Mark Bessems noemt Bolsonaro zichzelf een liberaal. "Hij wil privatiseringen, bezuinigingen en hervorming van het pensioenstelsel doorvoeren", vertelt Bessems. Copacabana Na het bekend worden van de uitslag verzamelden duizenden aanhangers van Bolsonaro zich op het Copacabana-strand in Rio de Janeiro om feest te vieren. Ook in Sao Paulo, de grootste stad van het land, ging zijn aanhang de straat op, maar er waren ook berichten over botsingen tussen aanhangers en tegenstanders. Niet iedereen is blij met de verkiezing van Bolsonaro. Volgens Mark Bessems maken milieuorganisaties zich bijvoorbeeld zorgen omdat de nieuwe president heeft gezegd dat de landbouw de motor is van de Braziliaanse economie en grondstoffen uit de grond gehaald moeten worden. "Dat zou wel eens slecht nieuws kunnen zijn voor de Amazone", zegt Bessems Ook mensenrechtenorganisaties vrezen de plannen van Bolsonaro. Hij wil keihard optreden tegen criminelen. Bessems: "Hij heeft wel eens gezegd dat hij het leger wil laten patrouilleren in de strijd tegen de misdaad." Bolsonaro bedankte in een toespraak bij zijn huis de Brazilianen voor de steun. Ook beloofde hij de grondwet en individuele vrijheden te respecteren. "Dat is een belofte, niet van een partij, niet het ijdele woord van een man. Het is een belofte aan God." De linkse Haddad zei in een toespraak dat hij fel oppositie zal voeren. Dat is volgens hem meer nodig dan ooit. MarcBessems @MarcBessems De 4e democratie ter wereld krijgt daarmee een zeer radicaal figuur als president. Het land is ernstig verdeeld, veel mensen moeten helemaal niets van hem weten. Polarisatie dus... en hoe 23:14 28 oktober 2018

Jair Bolsonaro

https://www.bbc.com/news/world-latin-america-46063656

Brazil's Jair Bolsonaro makes top judge Sergio Moro justice minister Brazil's far-right President-elect Jair Bolsonaro has convinced prominent anti-corruption judge Sergio Moro to lead the country's justice ministry. Mr Moro said on Thursday it was an "honour" to be asked to be the minister overseeing justice and public security. But his appointment is likely to fuel allegations that his high-profile anti-fraud probe was politically motivated. Operation Car Wash, as his inquiry was known, was accused of unfairly targeting left-wing politicians. [Its biggest scalp was leftist ex-President Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva](https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-44759692), who was a frontrunner in the election before his 12-year jail sentence last April for corruption. Mr Bolsonaro won a sweeping election victory earlier this week. He is a polarising figure, whose praise of Brazil's former dictatorship and comments on race, women and homosexuality have raised concerns. Mr Bolsonaro made it known earlier this week that he wanted Mr Moro to be justice minister, saying he was a person "of extreme importance in a government like ours". The two men met in Rio de Janeiro on Thursday. "Federal Judge Sergio Moro has accepted our invitation to be minister of justice and public security. His anti-corruption, anti-organised crime agenda and his respect for the constitution and the law will be our guiding principle!" Mr Bolsonaro tweeted. Mr Moro later confirmed in a statement that he had "accepted the invitation as an honour". Who is Sergio Moro? The federal judge was in charge of Operation Car Wash, a major investigation into claims that executives at the state oil company Petrobras accepted bribes in return for awarding contracts to construction firms. He uncovered a huge web of corruption involving top-level politicians from a broad spectrum of parties. His crusade against corruption has made him a hero to many, but others accuse him of disproportionately targeting left-wing politicians, especially those in the former ruling Workers' Party. Former President Lula has repeatedly said he is a victim of a political witch-hunt. Mr Moro, who in 2016 told newspaper O Estado de S. Paulo that he would never enter politics, has said he will now hand over his investigative work to other judges. The new 'super ministries'? The president-elect is seeking to reduce the number of government ministries by merging some departments to create "super ministries". As well as merging the justice and public security portfolios, [his administration also announced plans to merge the agriculture and environment ministries](https://www.bbc.co.uk/news/world-latin-america-46039996) - a decision that was condemned by environmentalists worried about the future of the Amazon rainforest. However, on Thursday, Mr Bolsonaro said he may have changed his mind about the environment ministry and he could keep it separate. What is Mr Bolsonaro likely to do in office? Mr Bolsonaro has pledged to loosen Brazil's gun laws. He insists that more widespread gun ownership will help to cut crime, but critics warn that such a move will only worsen violent crime in Brazil. The president-elect has also said he will: - withdraw government advertising from media outlets he judged to be "lying" - open up protected land to road and infrastructure projects - narrow the budget deficit and privatize state firms On Thursday, he reiterated his intentions to transfer the Brazilian embassy in Israel from Tel Aviv to Jerusalem, mirroring the move by US President Donald Trump. Israeli Prime Minister Benjamin Netanyahu called Mr Bolsonaro's plan a "historic, correct and exciting step". It remains unclear whether Mr Bolsonaro will be able to see all his policies pass through Congress after he takes office in January.

Jair Bolsonaro

https://www.forbes.com/sites/kenrapoza/2018/11/01/president-elect-bolsonaro-to-brazils-bureaucrats-youre-fired/

Tweet This Many things grow and flourish in Brazil. Papayas and mangoes just fall from the trees and litter the sidewalks. But one thing that does not grow on trees in Brazil is money. And so president-elect Jair Bolsonaro is about to cut the number of bureaucrats and public servant workers, sending many of them to the country's sadly stable unemployment line. Bolsonaro was elected president with 55% of the vote on October 28 as Brazil goes through its worst political crisis since the IMF was running things in the late '90s. Slow growth, high crime and incessant corruption primed voters for a shift from the left-leaning social-democratic policies that prevailed since Luiz Inacio Lula da Silva— the two-term Workers' Party president now jailed on corruption charges—took office in 2002. As is the case in many other countries from Latin America to Germany, an old political era is passing. Besides the economic and legislative challenges to come, the biggest challenge for Bolsonaro early out will be getting the big Brazilian bureaucracy to adapt to his mindset—a bureaucracy that is not used to the views his team is bringing in and have not been used to it for around 15 years. Bolsonaro heads to Brasilia next week to speak with President Michel Temer to begin the transition work. He will work with a team of about 50 people at the outset. See: [What Investors Expect From Bolsonaro's First 100 Days](https://www.forbes.com/sites/kenrapoza/2018/10/29/what-brazil-investors-expect-from-bolsonaros-first-100-days/#134fd4d6783c) — Forbes [Who Can Save Brazil's Lousy Economy? ](https://www.forbes.com/sites/kenrapoza/2018/08/15/who-can-save-brazils-lousy-economy/#57f1740343b2)— Forbes [Brazil's Lula Not So Hot Anymore](https://www.forbes.com/sites/kenrapoza/2018/08/02/in-brazil-ex-president-lula-not-so-hot-anymore/#1c3266c2414e) — Forbes His economic team is led by BTG Capital founder Paulo Guedes, a University of Chicago alumn and advocate for small government. This is going to be an apples to oranges situation in Brasilia if they can pull this off, with the Workers' Party public servants getting pink-slipped as soon as possible. Guedes is expected to lead the charge as super-minister, in which the budget, planning and foreign commerce departments will be under his purview. It seems that the Ministries of Finance, Planning, Development, and Foreign Trade will merge into one Ministry of the Economy. The Defense and Security ministries will become one unit instead of two, as will the Environment and Agriculture ministries, which has often worked at cross-purposes. They too were expected to merge, though it appears Bolsonaro has given up on this already by late afternoon Thursday. Some of the reshuffling will be orchestrated by congressman Onyx Lorenzoni. Call him "strongman No. 2" after Bolsonaro. He is expected to be the new president's Chief of Staff and will play the role of "negotiator." "I think as the government advances there will be some reshuffles. I don't think the presidency we see in January will look like the presidency we see in June," says Lucas Aragao, a political risk consultant for Arko Advice in Brasilia. "There will be trials and errors as Bolsonaro tries to reach a more efficient government design," Aragao said in his [recent podcast.](https://itunes.apple.com/us/podcast/brazilian-politics-podcast/id1435116412?mt=2&i=1000422883598) [Serious shrinkage is expected in Brasilia.](https://twitter.com/intent/tweet?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.forbes.com%2Fsites%2Fkenrapoza%2F2018%2F11%2F01%2Fpresident-elect-bolsonaro-to-brazils-bureaucrats-youre-fired%2F&text=Serious%20shrinkage%20is%20expected%20in%20Brasilia.) This isn't a right-wing thing. This is a streamline, anticorruption thing that's more about necessity than political ideology. A similar approach to government is being taken by left-of-center Mexican president-elect Andrés Manuel López Obrador. He also promised to reduce government workers and shutter bureaucracies he deemed to be both inefficient and contributing to corruption in Mexico. Obrador becomes president on December 1. Brazil's government grew under the Workers' Party, a left-of-center party that led the country from 2002 to 2014. It was a different time then. Brazil's government almost needed to grow in order to avoid social and economic disaster in the much poorer northern half of the country. The party lost power in August 2014 following the impeachment of Dilma Rousseff. Brazil is in a much different place politically. And the economy is in ruins. Bolsonaro's victory last weekend nearly relegated the party of Lula to a regional, northeast party. But candidate Fernando Haddad managed to win two Amazon states, serving as an important reminder that Bolsonaro's government austerity plan is not fully appreciated by the poor who tend to depend on the government for employment. Bolsonaro does not have a mandate, but he does have a conservative majority in both houses of Congress. Sustaining governability will depend on his relationship with the legislative, a branch which he has been a part of for nearly 20 years. Shrinking the public service labor force will put him in the same position as Mauricio Macri in Argentina. Macri's popularity has crumbled over the last year, but thanks to corruption allegations against his main opponent, Cristina Kirchner, Macri is narrowly expected to win reelection next year, even during a recession. The same can be said about Bolsonaro, who was able to beat the Workers' Party thanks to the fact that Lula was behind bars and his party is considered corrupt by the majority of Brazilians. Bolsonaro needs to have a good relationship with civil society and hopefully the press. The local press has not been as hard on him as our press has been with President Trump (or Bolsonaro, for that matter). In less than three days, the New York Times published two anti-Bolsonaro op-eds, for instance, following his election. Bolsonaro's style of shooting-from the hip is often compared to Trump's. "This is the regular season for Bolsonaro, now the playoffs," says Aragao. "He can lose a few games here and there. After March, he will be tested by the national congress." Brazil investors got a little richer when Bolsonaro won. The iShares MSCI Brazil (EWZ) saw nearly $3 billion traded that day, more than three times the average volume over the past year, according to BlackRock, the fund's manager. After being up as much as 6% in the premarket early Monday, the popular Brazil fund finished the day down 3.5%. It will continue upward. ["It seems likely that this initial optimism could extend to euphoria for a while," says Schroders economist Craig Botham.](https://twitter.com/intent/tweet?url=http%3A%2F%2Fwww.forbes.com%2Fsites%2Fkenrapoza%2F2018%2F11%2F01%2Fpresident-elect-bolsonaro-to-brazils-bureaucrats-youre-fired%2F&text=%22It%20seems%20likely%20that%20this%20initial%20optimism%20could%20extend%20to%20euphoria%20for%20a%20while%2C%22%20says%20Craig%20Botham) "Assuming no errors on the part of Bolsonaro, the first reality check is likely to come in the second quarter of 2019, when a post-Carnival legislature comes to the practicalities of passing tough bills," he says about things like pension reform. "Until that point, markets should feed largely on the signals sent by Bolsonaro."

Jair Bolsonaro

http://www.standaard.be/cnt/dmf20181101_03897379

[ ](https://www.standaard.be/app-extracurricular?utm_campaign=nieuwsapp&utm_source=standaard&utm_medium=extracurricular) Bolsonaro wil Braziliaanse ambassade in Israël naar Jeruzalem verplaatsen De nieuwe president van Brazilië, Jair Bolsonaro, wil dat de ambassade van zijn land in Israël verhuist van Tel Aviv naar Jeruzalem. De rechtse populist Bolsonaro had tijdens zijn campagne al duidelijk gemaakt dat hij voor de verhuizing van de ambassade was. In het interview met de conservatieve Israëlische krant Israel Hayom werd er teruggekomen op die aankondiging. 'Jullie moeten kunnen beslissen wat de hoofdstad van Israël is, niet de andere landen', luidt zijn redenering. Als hij woord houdt, dan volgt 'de Braziliaanse Trump' het voorbeeld van zijn Amerikaanse collega. In december 2017 had de Amerikaanse president namelijk al aangekondigd dat hij Jeruzalem als hoofdstad van Israël zou erkennen. De Amerikaanse ambassade werd op 14 mei van Tel Aviv naar Jeruzalem verhuisd. Guatemala en Paraguay hadden daarop eveneens laten weten dat ze hun ambassade zouden verplaatsen, maar intussen is Paraguay teruggekomen op die beslissing. Het statuut van de stad Jeruzalem is een gevoelig punt. Israël beschouwt heel Jeruzalem als zijn hoofdstad, maar de Palestijnen hopen van Oost-Jeruzalem ooit de hoofdstad van hun toekomstige staat te maken. De internationale gemeenschap dringt aan op een onderhandelde oplossing.

Jair Bolsonaro

https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/jair-bolsonaro-who-is-quotes-brazil-president-election-run-off-latest-a8573901.html

The latest headlines from our reporters across the US sent straight to your inbox each weekday Your briefing on the latest headlines from across the US Brazilians made clear their disgust with the established political class on Sunday, almost handing outright victory to a far-right former army captain in the first round of the presidential election. Jair Bolsonaro – who won 46 per cent of the votes and now faces a run-off with the Workers' Party candidate – has been dubbed "Trump of the Tropics" by the Brazilian media for his extreme views. The outsider won support by promising to jail crooked politicians and make it easier for police to shoot drug traffickers. But many Brazilians are sickened by Mr Bolsonaro's long history of offensive remarks about women, immigrants, black people and gay men. In a speech made last year, Mr Bolsonaro spoke about a black settlement in Brazil founded by the descendants of slaves. "They do nothing. They are not even good for procreation," he said. He has also reportedly referred to black activists as "animals" who should "go back to the zoo". In 2014 Mr Bolsonaro got into a heated exchange with congresswoman Maria do Rosario in the lower house of Congress. "I wouldn't rape you because you don't deserve it," he said, in response to remarks made by Ms Rosario claiming he had encouraged rape. Mr Bolsonaro later said he was not a rapist, but if he were he would not rape do Rosario because she is "ugly" and "not his type". In an interview with Playboy magazine in 2011 Bolsonaro said that he "would be incapable of loving a homosexual son … I would prefer my son to die in an accident than show up with a moustachioed man." Bolsonaro supporters cheer his first-round victory (AFP/Getty) (AFP/Getty Images) Yet the Roman Catholic candidate, who has managed to win support from evangelicals with his anti-abortion stance, is no puritan. During an interview in January 2018, Mr Bolsonaro explained how he had previously spent the housing allowance he received as a congressman. "Since I was a bachelor at the time, I used the money to have sex with people," he said. The former army man has spoken fondly of the military dictatorship that ruled Brazil between 1964 and 1985. "The dictatorship's mistake was to torture but not kill," he told a radio interviewer in 2016. World news in pictures Show all 50 1/50 World news in pictures World news in pictures 30 September 2020 Pope Francis prays with priests at the end of a limited public audience at the San Damaso courtyard in The Vatican AFP via Getty World news in pictures 29 September 2020 A girl's silhouette is seen from behind a fabric in a tent along a beach by Beit Lahia in the northern Gaza Strip AFP via Getty World news in pictures 28 September 2020 A Chinese woman takes a photo of herself in front of a flower display dedicated to frontline health care workers during the COVID-19 pandemic in Beijing, China. China will celebrate national day marking the founding of the People's Republic of China on October 1st Getty World news in pictures 27 September 2020 The Glass Mountain Inn burns as the Glass Fire moves through the area in St. Helena, California. The fast moving Glass fire has burned over 1,000 acres and has destroyed homes Getty World news in pictures 26 September 2020 A villager along with a child offers prayers next to a carcass of a wild elephant that officials say was electrocuted in Rani Reserve Forest on the outskirts of Guwahati, India AFP via Getty World news in pictures 25 September 2020 The casket of late Supreme Court Justice Ruth Bader Ginsburg is seen in Statuary Hall in the US Capitol to lie in state in Washington, DC AFP via Getty World news in pictures 24 September 2020 An anti-government protester holds up an image of a pro-democracy commemorative plaque at a rally outside Thailand's parliament in Bangkok, as activists gathered to demand a new constitution AFP via Getty World news in pictures 23 September 2020 A whale stranded on a beach in Macquarie Harbour on the rugged west coast of Tasmania, as hundreds of pilot whales have died in a mass stranding in southern Australia despite efforts to save them, with rescuers racing to free a few dozen survivors The Mercury/AFP via Getty World news in pictures 22 September 2020 State civil employee candidates wearing face masks and shields take a test in Surabaya AFP via Getty World news in pictures 21 September 2020 A man sweeps at the Taj Mahal monument on the day of its reopening after being closed for more than six months due to the coronavirus pandemic AP World news in pictures 20 September 2020 A deer looks for food in a burnt area, caused by the Bobcat fire, in Pearblossom, California EPA World news in pictures 19 September 2020 Anti-government protesters hold their mobile phones aloft as they take part in a pro-democracy rally in Bangkok. Tens of thousands of pro-democracy protesters massed close to Thailand's royal palace, in a huge rally calling for PM Prayut Chan-O-Cha to step down and demanding reforms to the monarchy AFP via Getty World news in pictures 18 September 2020 Supporters of Iraqi Shi'ite cleric Moqtada al-Sadr maintain social distancing as they attend Friday prayers after the coronavirus disease restrictions were eased, in Kufa mosque, near Najaf, Iraq Reuters World news in pictures 17 September 2020 A protester climbs on The Triumph of the Republic at 'the Place de la Nation' as thousands of protesters take part in a demonstration during a national day strike called by labor unions asking for better salary and against jobs cut in Paris, France EPA World news in pictures 16 September 2020 A fire raging near the Lazzaretto of Ancona in Italy. The huge blaze broke out overnight at the port of Ancona. Firefighters have brought the fire under control but they expected to keep working through the day EPA World news in pictures 15 September 2020 Russian opposition leader Alexei Navalny posing for a selfie with his family at Berlin's Charite hospital. In an Instagram post he said he could now breathe independently following his suspected poisoning last month Alexei Navalny/Instagram/AFP World news in pictures 14 September 2020 Japan's Prime Minister Shinzo Abe, Chief Cabinet Secretary Yoshihide Suga, former Defense Minister Shigeru Ishiba and former Foreign Minister Fumio Kishida celebrate after Suga was elected as new head of the ruling party at the Liberal Democratic Party's leadership election in Tokyo Reuters World news in pictures 13 September 2020 A man stands behind a burning barricade during the fifth straight day of protests against police brutality in Bogota AFP via Getty World news in pictures 12 September 2020 Police officers block and detain protesters during an opposition rally to protest the official presidential election results in Minsk, Belarus. Daily protests calling for the authoritarian president's resignation are now in their second month AP World news in pictures 11 September 2020 Members of 'Omnium Cultural' celebrate the 20th 'Festa per la llibertat' ('Fiesta for the freedom') to mark the Day of Catalonia in Barcelona. Omnion Cultural fights for the independence of Catalonia EPA World news in pictures 10 September 2020 The Moria refugee camp, two days after Greece's biggest migrant camp, was destroyed by fire. Thousands of asylum seekers on the island of Lesbos are now homeless AFP via Getty World news in pictures 9 September 2020 Pope Francis takes off his face mask as he arrives by car to hold a limited public audience at the San Damaso courtyard in The Vatican AFP via Getty World news in pictures 8 September 2020 A home is engulfed in flames during the "Creek Fire" in the Tollhouse area of California AFP via Getty World news in pictures 7 September 2020 A couple take photos along a sea wall of the waves brought by Typhoon Haishen in the eastern port city of Sokcho AFP via Getty World news in pictures 6 September 2020 Novak Djokovic and a tournament official tends to a linesperson who was struck with a ball by Djokovic during his match against Pablo Carreno Busta at the US Open USA Today Sports/Reuters World news in pictures 5 September 2020 Protesters confront police at the Shrine of Remembrance in Melbourne, Australia, during an anti-lockdown rally AFP via Getty World news in pictures 4 September 2020 A woman looks on from a rooftop as rescue workers dig through the rubble of a damaged building in Beirut. A search began for possible survivors after a scanner detected a pulse one month after the mega-blast at the adjacent port AFP via Getty World news in pictures 3 September 2020 A full moon next to the Virgen del Panecillo statue in Quito, Ecuador EPA World news in pictures 2 September 2020 A Palestinian woman reacts as Israeli forces demolish her animal shed near Hebron in the Israeli-occupied West Bank Reuters World news in pictures 1 September 2020 Students protest against presidential elections results in Minsk TUT.BY/AFP via Getty World news in pictures 31 August 2020 The pack rides during the 3rd stage of the Tour de France between Nice and Sisteron AFP via Getty World news in pictures 30 August 2020 Law enforcement officers block a street during a rally of opposition supporters protesting against presidential election results in Minsk, Belarus Reuters World news in pictures 29 August 2020 A woman holding a placard reading "Stop Censorship - Yes to the Freedom of Expression" shouts in a megaphone during a protest against the mandatory wearing of face masks in Paris. Masks, which were already compulsory on public transport, in enclosed public spaces, and outdoors in Paris in certain high-congestion areas around tourist sites, were made mandatory outdoors citywide on August 28 to fight the rising coronavirus infections AFP via Getty World news in pictures 28 August 2020 Japanese Prime Minister Shinzo Abe bows to the national flag at the start of a press conference at the prime minister official residence in Tokyo. Abe announced he will resign over health problems, in a bombshell development that kicks off a leadership contest in the world's third-largest economy AFP via Getty World news in pictures 27 August 2020 Residents take cover behind a tree trunk from rubber bullets fired by South African Police Service (SAPS) in Eldorado Park, near Johannesburg, during a protest by community members after a 16-year old boy was reported dead AFP via Getty World news in pictures 26 August 2020 People scatter rose petals on a statue of Mother Teresa marking her 110th birth anniversary in Ahmedabad AFP via Getty World news in pictures 25 August 2020 An aerial view shows beach-goers standing on salt formations in the Dead Sea near Ein Bokeq, Israel Reuters World news in pictures 24 August 2020 Health workers use a fingertip pulse oximeter and check the body temperature of a fisherwoman inside the Dharavi slum during a door-to-door Covid-19 coronavirus screening in Mumbai AFP via Getty World news in pictures 23 August 2020 People carry an idol of the Hindu god Ganesh, the deity of prosperity, to immerse it off the coast of the Arabian sea during the Ganesh Chaturthi festival in Mumbai, India Reuters World news in pictures 22 August 2020 Firefighters watch as flames from the LNU Lightning Complex fires approach a home in Napa County, California AP World news in pictures 21 August 2020 Members of the Israeli security forces arrest a Palestinian demonstrator during a rally to protest against Israel's plan to annex parts of the occupied West Bank AFP via Getty World news in pictures 20 August 2020 A man pushes his bicycle through a deserted road after prohibitory orders were imposed by district officials for a week to contain the spread of the Covid-19 in Kathmandu AFP via Getty World news in pictures 19 August 2020 A car burns while parked at a residence in Vacaville, California. Dozens of fires are burning out of control throughout Northern California as fire resources are spread thin AFP via Getty World news in pictures 18 August 2020 Students use their mobile phones as flashlights at an anti-government rally at Mahidol University in Nakhon Pathom. Thailand has seen near-daily protests in recent weeks by students demanding the resignation of Prime Minister Prayut Chan-O-Cha AFP via Getty World news in pictures 17 August 2020 Members of the Kayapo tribe block the BR163 highway during a protest outside Novo Progresso in Para state, Brazil. Indigenous protesters blocked a major transamazonian highway to protest against the lack of governmental support during the COVID-19 novel coronavirus pandemic and illegal deforestation in and around their territories AFP via Getty World news in pictures 16 August 2020 Lightning forks over the San Francisco-Oakland Bay Bridge as a storm passes over Oakland AP World news in pictures 15 August 2020 Belarus opposition supporters gather near the Pushkinskaya metro station where Alexander Taraikovsky, a 34-year-old protester died on August 10, during their protest rally in central Minsk AFP via Getty World news in pictures 14 August 2020 AlphaTauri's driver Daniil Kvyat takes part in the second practice session at the Circuit de Catalunya in Montmelo near Barcelona ahead of the Spanish F1 Grand Prix AFP via Getty World news in pictures 13 August 2020 Soldiers of the Brazilian Armed Forces during a disinfection of the Christ The Redeemer statue at the Corcovado mountain prior to the opening of the touristic attraction in Rio AFP via Getty World news in pictures 12 August 2020 Young elephant bulls tussle playfully on World Elephant Day at the Amboseli National Park in Kenya AFP via Getty Mr Bolsonaro graduated from military academy in 1977. According to the BBC, he was arrested as an army captain in 1986 for signing an article criticising military salaries. He left the military to enter politics and first won a seat in Congress in 1990. The congressman made law and order a key part of his platform during this year's election campaign. In a late surge the right-winger saw his poll numbers rise by 15 per cent after he was stabbed on 6 September. Despite a three-week stay in hospital, he took his message directly to voters via Facebook and Twitter. He also enjoyed endorsement from Brazilian football stars, including Ronaldinho, Cafu and Tottenham's Lucas Moura. His son Eduardo recently tweeted a photo of himself with former White House strategist Steve Bannon, claiming to share "the same worldview" as Mr Bannon. In another parallel with the US president, Mr Bolsonaro has made unsubstantiated claims about his country's electoral system. He said on Sunday that "problems" with the Brazil's electronic voting system had stopped him winning outright, but did not specify what those problems might be.

Jair Bolsonaro

https://www.independent.co.uk/environment/brazil-cop24-jair-bolsonaro-climate-change-global-warmning-un-deforestation-amazon-a8670716.html

Brazil's new far-right president Bolsonaro risks turning environmental champions into 'climate rogues', experts say Rising levels of deforestation and climate-sceptic government among major concerns at international summit [Harry Cockburn](/author/harry-cockburn) [Comments] [Brazil](/topic/Brazil)'s heritage as one of the world's leading countries in the fight against global [climate change](/topic/climate-change) is being rapidly eroded ahead of right-wing populist [Jair Bolsonaro](/topic/jair-bolsonaro)'s inauguration as president on 1 January, 2019. According to several sources at the UN's 24th Conference on Climate Change in [Poland](/topic/Poland), the South American country's new administration is already making progress increasingly difficult on many issues, embarrassing the Brazilian negotiating team. Despite hosting the 1992 UN Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro which laid the foundations of international efforts to recognise and combat man-made climate change, Brazil announced just before the 2019 summit that it was pulling out of hosting the next one, despite its successful bid. The country's withdrawal as the host nation for the next summit has also been read as a further move away from action to tackle the causes of climate change under Mr Bolsonaro. Brazil has also seen rising levels of deforestation undermine recent progress and the incoming president plans to remove protection for the Amazon rainforest. Mr Bolsonaro repeatedly said during his campaign he wanted to follow Donald Trump's example and also pull out of the Paris Climate Agreement – he has since backtracked on the statements, but his criticism has prompted a fringe event at the climate summit to address the implications if he went ahead. "[The withdrawal of the COP nomination] is the first stone he put in the wall of the shame he promises for the environment," said Marcio Astrini, coordinator of public policies for Greenpeace in Brazil, in [an interview](https://amazonia.org.br/2018/12/astrini-do-greenpeace-bolsonaro-promete-um-muro-de-vergonha-para-o-meio-ambiente/) with Spanish newspaper El País this week. He also pointed out between 2004 and 2014, there was about an 80 per cent reduction of deforestation in the Amazon, but that Mr Bolsonaro's campaign promised to remove power from conservationists and change laws regarding land rights for indigenous populations. "It's as if [Brazil] was saying that it doesn't want to help with solution, but with the problem," he said. The NGO Climate Action Network, which is reporting on the summit, named Brazil the "fossil of the day", after pulling out of hosting the next summit, and said of the country: "A so far trusted broker of the Paris Agreement negotiations is about to become one of the world's climate rogues." This week the group published a story in [their newsletter](http://eco.climatenetwork.org/cop24-eco3-3/) titled: 3 billion reasons to freak out about Brazil, which said Mr Bolsonaro "has already embarrassed Brazilian delegates here in Katowice by backtracking on hosting COP25", and detailed the implications of rising deforestation in the country. The organisation said: "Deforestation has already increased by 32 per cent between August and November. According to Brazilian scientists, it could climb to mind-boggling 25,000 square kilometres (nearly one Belgium) a year, with resulting emissions of 3 billion tons of CO2. This would be like adding nearly 10 Polands to the atmosphere – and a sure blow to any chance of the world staying below 1.5 degrees." Extinction rebellion: Climate change protesters block London bridgesShow all 25 President-elect Mr Bolsonaro is an avowed climate sceptic who has said he will [strip power](https://www.independent.co.uk/news/world/americas/jair-bolsonaro-brazil-environment-climate-change-amazon-deforestation-a8663596.html) from government environment agencies, and build a motorway through the Amazon rainforest. His appointment of [Ernesto Araujo](https://www.independent.co.uk/topic/ernesto-ara-jo) as foreign minister, who [believes climate change is a Marxist tactic](https://www.independent.co.uk/environment/brazil-climate-change-foreign-minister-ernesto-araujo-marxist-plot-global-warming-a8637281.html) to instil fear, stifle the economic growth of western countries and benefit China, has also raised fears. Achala Abeysinghe, principal researcher on climate change at the International Institute for Environment and Development (IIED) told The Independent: "It is crucial that Brazil continues to stay committed to the Paris Agreement. "From the beginning Brazil has been a leading force in uniting countries behind this agreement and in the fight against climate change. The vast majority of governments recognise that there are many more opportunities gained from green technologies and clean development than in pursuing an outdated path dominated by fossil fuels and forest destruction." Georges Schnyder, president of environmental campaign group Slow Food Brazil, said: "If the promises made by president Jair Bolsonaro during his election campaign – reduction of environmental protection measures, the end of protected areas and of land reserved for indigenous peoples, reduction of sanctions against environmental crimes – were to come true, the consequences would be catastrophic for the world climate. It would be a disaster of global proportions." Analysts have also [suggested](https://www.desmog.co.uk/2018/12/06/polish-trade-union-and-climate-science-denial-group-issue-statement-rejecting-scientific-consensus-climate-change) climate change denial groups have been emboldened by Mr Bolsonaro and Mr Trump's outspoken scepticism.

Jair Bolsonaro

https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/oct/27/dispatch-sao-paulo-jair-bolsonaro-victory-lgbt-community-fear

It was exactly a fortnight after round one of Brazil's poison-filled presidential election that Aretha Sadick found herself sprinting for her life away from a man wielding an iron bar. "It was a hate crime. No doubt about it. Hate is the only word," recalled the 29-year-old black transgender artist and campaigner, still shaken by her run-in with death. "It was on a street I always walk down. An area where I always go. And I've never experienced such an overt act of hostility," she said. "These things don't happen by accident. There's been a validation." Sadick and fellow members of São Paulo's LGBT community are clear who they blame for legitimising such violence: a far-right firebrand who is notorious for his spiteful, homophobic remarks and looks very likely to become Brazil's next president on Sunday. In nearly three decades as a congressman, [Jair Bolsonaro](https://www.theguardian.com/world/jair-bolsonaro) has never concealed his dislike of gay people. "Yes, I'm homophobic – and very proud of it," he once proclaimed. In a [2013 interview with Stephen Fry](https://www.bbc.co.uk/mediacentre/proginfo/2013/42/stephen-fry-out-there-ep2.html) – which the British actor later called "one of the most chilling confrontations I've ever had with a human being" – the far-right populist claimed "homosexual fundamentalists" were brainwashing heterosexual children to "become gays and lesbians to satisfy them sexually in the future". Bolsonaro declared: "Brazilian society doesn't like homosexuals." The politician – whom polls give a 12-point lead over his leftist rival Fernando Haddad, down from 18% a fortnight ago – has ramped up such rhetoric during the campaign, accusing LGBT campaigners and other minorities of "self-pity", while simultaneously claiming that he will govern for all. Activists, however, say that while violence and discrimination against the LGBT community have long existed, Bolsonaro's brazen bigotry has helped launch a new era of brutality and threats. "It's as if the gates of hell have been opened – as if hunting season had been declared," said Beto de Jesus, a veteran LGBT activist and founder of São Paulo's huge annual gay pride parade. "It's barbarism." James Green, an American academic with longstanding ties to Brazil's gay movement, said Bolsonaro's "repulsive" discourse had left some gay and lesbian couples wondering if it was even still safe to hold hands in public: "He has unleashed all the demons in Brazilian society and they are out there now: unmasked and vicious and violent." Renan Quinalha, a São Paulo-based lawyer and LGBT activist, said recent weeks had seen a "frightening" spike in reports of physical or verbal abuse carried out by Bolsonaro supporters. He described a mood of fear and trepidation, both at the violence and the prospect that, as president, Bolsonaro might try to roll back hard-fought gains such as the 2011 legalisation of same-sex unions. Even if the far-right candidate suffered a shock defeat, the hatred he had fanned and sanctioned would remain, he said. "It's no longer just about Bolsonaro, but a set of values and postures that he represents and that will live on in Brazilian society." But Quinalha and other activists said there was a determination, too, to fight back: "Nobody is going back into the closet. We will resist." One place that is already happening is Casa 1, an LGBT shelter and cultural centre whose exterior has been plastered with anti-Bolsonaro posters reading: "Not him. Never. Ever". The walls inside are similarly decked with protest art. "Without struggle (and poofs) there will be no revolution!" reads one banner. Another says: "Stop killing trans!" Iran Giusti, the centre's founder, said Casa 1 had been conceived as a space that was politicised but had no party affiliations. Facing Bolsonaro's threat, however, it was throwing its weight behind his Workers' party (PT) opponent, Haddad, hosting meetings of an anti-Bolsonaro "brigade" and serving as a distribution centre for PT pamphlets that ask voters: "What kind of a Brazil do you want?" "We are here defending our very survival," said Giusti, 29. Casa 1 is also offering counselling sessions to those disturbed by Bolsonaro's rise. After a pre-election session of "drag bingo", Giusti said it would also open its doors as the results were announced: "Lots of people don't want to go through this moment alone." Giusti said he saw some bright spots amid the gloom. In a historic first, two trans politicians, Erica Malunguinho and Erika Hilton, recently secured places in São Paulo's state legislature. But the overall atmosphere was bleak: "We can feel the fear." Sadick – who escaped serious harm after a friend saw her being attacked, and intervened – said she also felt despondent. As mayor of São Paulo from 2013 to 2017, Haddad had assisted its "T community", creating an educational programme called Transcidadania (Transcitizenship), she remembered. Bolsonaro, in contrast, had helped release a deep-rooted loathing towards LGBT people previously "hidden in people's hearts and minds". Sadick said she was so troubled she was considering exit strategies. "I have been talking to my friends about the possibility of leaving Brazil, about asking for political asylum," she admitted. "I just don't know how much I want to expose myself and my body … Is it worth being a martyr?" One member of São Paulo's LGBT community will not get that chance. Two days after the attack on Sadick, Jessica Gonzaga, a 25-year-old trans woman, was murdered just a few streets away, near some of the city's most famous LGBT bars and clubs. One witness recalled hearing shouts of "Bolsonaro!" and "Faggots must die!" as Gonzaga was stabbed – although the victim's cousin, Gabriela, said police now believed it had been a crime of passion – the latest chapter in a long and brutal history of exclusion and violence to which Brazil's trans community is exposed. On Friday lunchtime, as Brazil prepared to vote, Gonzaga's body arrived at a palm-dotted cemetery in the city's south inside a black hatchback provided by the town hall. The mourners were so few in number that the Observer had to help carry her plywood coffin into an outdoor chapel with a mud-coated floor and pigeons nesting in its roof. One of the nine people who had turned up to say goodbye placed two pots of yellow and white marguerite daisies on the casket. Another wore a badge reading: "Ele Não!" ("Not Him!). Trans activist Maite Schneider said she had come "because a piece of me has died. I live one block away from where she was killed – it could have been me." "Whatever the motive – political or not – it doesn't matter. It's a life," Schneider, 47, continued. "Just this year I must have been to 15 burials. I've stopped counting … I'm just grateful that, after all this, I still have tears." Seven years ago, Schneider clashed with Bolsonaro during a chat show in which she accused him of fuelling violence against gay people, and said: "Love should be respected, whatever form it takes." On Friday, with that same man poised to become her country's leader, Schneider said she feared what came next: "Whatever happens, the damage has been done."

Jair Bolsonaro

https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/apr/19/jair-bolsonaro-brazil-presidential-candidate-trump-parallels

Jair Bolsonaro's disciples had packed the arrivals hall of this far-flung Amazonian airport, united by their contempt for the left and an unbreakable determination to score a selfie with [the man they call "the Legend"](https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/jan/14/brazil-jair-bolsonaro-energy-drink-bolsomito). "He's Brazil's hope! A light at the end of the tunnel! A new horizon!" gushed Fernando Vieira, one of hundreds of fans there to greet a far-right firebrand who [cheerleads for dictatorship](https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/apr/19/dilma-rousseff-impeachment-comments-torture-era-brazil-history) but could soon become leader of the world's fourth-largest democracy. When flight 2020 delivered the presidential hopeful to his sun-scorched destination in the northern state of Roraima, pandemonium broke out. "Legend! Legend! Legend! Legend!" the crowd chanted, hoisting their idol into the air and outside through a crush of police officers and partisans. There, Bolsonaro boarded a carnival float painted like a leopard and began an ear-splitting, hour-long procession through town. "The Legend has arrived! The Legend is in Roraima! The big democracy party has begun!" bellowed an MC as the rally crept south, pursued by a honking tide of SUVs and motorbikes. Many would question that last claim, for Bolsonaro – who [has been described](https://theintercept.com/2014/12/11/misogynistic-hateful-elected-official-democacratic-world-brazils-jair-bolsonaro/) as "the most misogynistic, hateful elected official in the democratic world" and possibly [the most repulsive politician on earth](http://www.news.com.au/lifestyle/real-life/wtf/is-this-the-worlds-most-repulsive-politician/news-story/926a4a59cf6132f770dfdbd46f610e97) – is not known as a fan of the ballot-box. Since the Pinochet-praising former paratrooper entered politics three decades ago, he has repeatedly called for a return to the kind of military rule Brazil endured until 1985. "I am in favour of a dictatorship," [he boasted](https://www.nytimes.com/1993/07/25/weekinreview/conversations-jair-bolsonaro-soldier-turned-politician-wants-give-brazil-back.html) during the first of seven terms as a congressman. Such incendiary remarks were long dismissed as the ravings of a irreverent and irrelevant extremist – as were his equally inflammatory attacks on [women](https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/sep/18/brazilian-congressman-rape-remark-compensation), [black people](https://blackwomenofbrazil.co/2017/04/10/they-dont-even-serve-for-procreating-in-jewish-club-congressman-jair-bolsonaro-the-brazilian-trump-infuriates-afro-brazilians-with-comments-on-black-quilombo-communities/), [gay people](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=o3ZBeX9uC8s), foreigners and indigenous communities, for which he was last week charged by Brazil's attorney general [with inciting hate speech](https://www.nytimes.com/2018/04/14/world/americas/brazil-president-candidate-hate.html). Now, however, Bolsonaro's ideas have taken centre stage, with the father of five leading the race to become Brazil's next president after [the jailing](https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/apr/07/crowds-in-sao-paulo-block-lula-from-handing-himself-in) of his nemesis and main rival, the former president Luiz Inácio Lula da Silva. In a sign the world is starting to take the prospect of a Bolsonaro presidency seriously, Britain's ambassador to Brazil recently held what he called an " [interesting meeting](https://twitter.com/VijayR_HMG/status/984132513504391186)" with the 63-year-old. "I think it's unlikely but very possible [he will win]," said Brian Winter, the editor-in-chief of Americas Quarterly, [who has spent time with the Bolsonaro clan](http://www.americasquarterly.org/content/system-failure-behind-rise-jair-bolsonaro). "To his supporters Bolsonaro represents law and order and that's a very compelling message in a country with 60,000 homicides a year and [the biggest corruption scandal ever detected anywhere](https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/jun/01/brazil-operation-car-wash-is-this-the-biggest-corruption-scandal-in-history)." 'Thwarting Bolsonaro is the left's most urgent task' In his bid to capitalise on Latin America's lurch to the right, Bolsonaro paints himself as a tropical Trump: a pro-gun, anti-establishment crusader set on draining the swamp into which [Brazil's futuristic capital](https://www.theguardian.com/world/2008/mar/12/brazil) has sunk. On the stump he lambasts not slimeballs and bad hombres, but vagabundos (losers), canalhas (creeps) and bandidos (crooks). He accuses critics of peddling fake news, vows to be tough on crime and repeatedly bashes China. "We will do business with the Chinese – but we will not hand our territory over to anybody!" he told supporters in Boa Vista, to loud cheers. His speeches, like Trump's, are often rambling, fact-light assaults on syntax that appear nonsensical when transcribed but are strangely captivating when watched up close. Asked by the Guardian at a press conference following his Amazon motorcade what his first act as president would be, Bolsonaro replied: "You're from the Guardian, OK? You're here because you are interested in [Brazil](https://www.theguardian.com/world/brazil) and in this area. If you were poor you wouldn't be here. If you were poor you wouldn't be here. Right? This is such a rich area and open your eyes because the Chinese are buying Brazil. OK?" After that slaloming riposte, Bolsonaro, who broadcasts his views to more than 5 million Facebook followers, vowed to downgrade the environment ministry and evict meddlesome foreigners. "This cowardly business of international NGOs like WWF and so many others from England sticking their noses into Brazil is going to end! This tomfoolery stops right here!". Finally, he waxed lyrical about Israeli agriculture. "Israel has nothing – just sand … [and yet] they raise fish in the desert!" Winter said he was convinced Bolsonaro was "openly copying aspects of the Trump strategy" and believed it could prove a winning formula. "Donald Trump got elected saying that crime in the inner-cities was out of control, that the economy was a disaster and that the entire political class was corrupt ... All three of those things are indisputably true in Brazil. So if Trump could get elected, imagine what is possible in a country like Brazil right now." Eduardo Bolsonaro, the candidate's son and fellow congressman – who was last week charged with threatening a female journalist – rejected his father's portrayal as a far-right politician, claiming he was part of a "global movement" that included [Geert Wilders](https://www.theguardian.com/world/2016/dec/10/netherlands-geert-wilders-politics-far-right) and [Marine Le Pen](https://www.theguardian.com/world/2017/apr/14/is-france-finally-ready-to-choose-marine-le-pen-as-president-front-national) as well as Trump. The Brazilian establishment was terrified, he claimed, "because they know how much we are going to change things". Bolsonaro's Boa Vista reception committee certainly hopes so. "He's the guy who says you combat violence with violence – and this is something we support," enthused Wellington Vasconcellos, 28, a security guard who was among the overwhelmingly male crowd. Bruno Queiroz, a 23-year-old student, hailed Brazil's "redemption": "We need someone who has a firm wrist to re-establish order – even if it is through force." But for millions of progressive Brazilians the prospect of a death-penalty supporting, torture-condoning, [self-confessed homophobe](https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/jan/22/brazil-lgbt-violence-deaths-all-time-high-new-research) as president is petrifying. Guilherme Boulos, who plans to run for president for the Socialism and Liberty party, said thwarting Bolsonaro's candidacy was now among the left's most urgent tasks. "Bolsonaro presents himself as someone who is going to combat criminality but he himself is a criminal," Boulos said. "He's not Trump. He is a caricature of Trump." Salvation for Bolsonaro's detractors seems likely to come in the form of Brazil's electoral system, which requires a second-round runoff if no candidate wins more than 50% of the vote in the October election. Winter said polls showed support for Bolsonaro had plateaued at about 18%, indicating many voters considered him "crazy and dangerous". For this eventuality, too, the Bolsonaros appear to be preparing a Trumpian tactic, raising the spectre of electoral fraud [just as the US president did in 2016](https://www.theguardian.com/us-news/2016/sep/30/trump-clinton-support-election-winner-debate-interview). Eduardo Bolsonaro said he was convinced his father would win in the first round - unless his fears of a rigged vote were confirmed. "As we say around here, there's a dog in that there forest," the 33-year-old said. And with that casual claim of conspiracy, the crew-cut-sporting congressman turned away to return to the campaign trail. Alongside an image of an assault rifle, an English-language message to Brazilian voters was stamped onto the back of his shirt: "Instead of gun control how about terrorist control," it said. "Defend freedom, defend America, defend yourself!"

Jair Bolsonaro

https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/oct/30/jair-bolsonaro-denies-he-is-a-fascist-brazilian-churchill

Brazil's far-right president-elect, [Jair Bolsonaro](https://www.theguardian.com/world/jair-bolsonaro), has reaffirmed his defense of his country's brutal 21-year dictatorship and rejected claims that he is a fascist, instead painting himself as a Churchillian patriot determined to lead his crisis-stricken country "out of this quagmire". In [one of his first television interviews](https://noticias.band.uol.com.br/noticias/100000937205/apos-ser-eleito-bolsonaro-concede-entrevista-exclusiva-a-band.html) since being elected on Sunday with nearly 58 million votes, the former paratrooper, who is [notorious for his inflammatory rhetoric](https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/sep/06/jair-bolsonaro-brazil-tropical-trump-who-hankers-for-days-of-dictatorship), did little to suggest he would temper his discourse after taking power on 1 January. Bolsonaro told TV Band, one of Brazil's major channels, it was his leftwing detractors who were fascists, not him. "They always accuse others of being what they are themselves," he said. "It's these leftwing people, who always put themselves above the rest, who are fascists." The veteran politician, who paints himself as a political outsider, also refused to say he regretted saying the military regime that ruled Brazil from 1964 until 1985 should have killed 30,000 people. In a now infamous 1999 television interview Bolsonaro also said: "You'll never change anything in this country through voting. Nothing. Absolutely nothing." Justifying those comments on Tuesday, he said: "If you're at a football match and you shout out a swear word you might be in the wrong but you're caught up in the atmosphere of the moment." Bolsonaro, who has expressed admiration for dictators including Chile's Augusto Pinochet, claimed many Brazilians now believed Brazil's military regime "wasn't a dictatorship as the left has always preached". He said the media had unjustly described Cuba's former leader, Fidel Castro, as a president while calling João Figueiredo, who ruled Brazil during the final years of its dictatorship, a dictator. Hundreds of regime opponents were killed or disappeared during Brazil's 21-year dictatorship while thousands more were tortured. Bolsonaro's numerous critics are appalled that a man with his track record of promoting torture and offending women, black, gay and indigenous people will soon be their leader. Leftwing opponents have vowed to resist what they call his threat to democracy and will hold their first protests since his victory on Tuesday afternoon, in the cities of São Paulo, Porto Alegre, Brasília, Recife, Rio de Janeiro and Fortaleza. In his television interview Bolsonaro – who recently [threatened](https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/oct/22/brazils-jair-bolsonaro-says-he-would-put-army-on-streets-to-fight) to exile or jail "red outlaws" – said he expected "fierce" opposition but would not seek "to crush" such dissent. "I hope to be an example," he said. "We are taking over a completely broken Brazil. We've never had such a major ethical, moral and economic crisis and we want to get out of this quagmire." Bolsonaro's harshest critics [have likened him to Adolf Hitler](https://www.haaretz.com/opinion/.premium-hitler-in-brasilia-the-u-s-evangelicals-and-nazi-political-theory-behind-bolsonaro-1.6581924), but the far-right politician told TV Band he modelled himself on Winston Churchill. In [his first televised address](https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3gZ3WfVagoo&feature=youtu.be&fbclid=IwAR2XpB1vOZlEs7mUf7VwcLLwG25YLAUCyTu-up7Iq9OiY9KtFtvxRAsq2hU) after Sunday's victory, Bolsonaro held up a Portuguese translation of Churchill's [Memoirs of the Second World War](https://archive.nytimes.com/www.nytimes.com/books/99/05/16/specials/churchill-memoirs.html) and said his government would be inspired by "great world leaders". Asked what lessons he had learned from Britain's wartime leader, Bolsonaro said: "Patriotism, love for your fatherland, respect for your flag – something that has been lost over the last few years here in Brazil … and governing through example, especially at that difficult moment of the second world war." In an interview with the channel SBT, Bolsonaro emphasized he would not clamp down on his political foes. "Those who didn't vote for me don't need to worry – they won't be persecuted," he said. However, in a third interview Brazil's president-elect said he hoped to see the activities of groups including the Landless Worker's Movement (MST) and the Homeless Workers' Movement (MTST) classified as "terrorism". In [an interview with the Guardian](https://www.theguardian.com/world/2018/oct/29/jair-bolsonaro-brazil-protests-opposition) on Monday, the MTST leader, Guilherme Boulos, vowed to confront the "real risk" he said Bolsonaro represented to Brazilian democracy. "There will be resistance, there will be opposition, there will be street mobilisations. Our voices will not be silenced."

Jair Bolsonaro

https://www.theguardian.com/world/2015/sep/18/brazilian-congressman-rape-remark-compensation

A Brazilian judge has ordered a conservative Brazilian congressman to pay a colleague more than $2,500 for saying she wasn't worth raping. Judge Tatiana Dias da Silva ordered Jair Bolsonaro to pay Maria do Rosario 10,000 reals ($2,560) for saying last December in a newspaper interview that she is not "worth raping; she is very ugly". One day before the interview, Bolsonaro said on the floor of congress that Rosario had called him a "rapist" in 2003, [adding that he would not rape her because she didn't "deserve it"](https://www.theguardian.com/world/2014/dec/16/brazil-lawmaker-rape-taunt). Lawmakers in Brazil enjoy parliamentary immunity, which protects their speech, opinions and votes in congress. However, Judge Silva said the immunity would not apply to Bolsonaro because he made similar remarks later in the interview.

National Trust for Scotland

https://www.nts.org.uk/what-we-do

The National Trust for Scotland is the charity that cares for, shares and speaks up for Scotland's magnificent heritage. We're Scotland's largest membership organisation and we're independent from government. Nature, beauty and heritage for everyone Since 1931, we've pioneered public access to and shared ownership of some of the most magnificent buildings, collections and landscapes in Scotland. We care for ancient houses, battlefields, castles, mills, gardens, coastlines, islands and mountain ranges, as well as the plants, animals and birds that live there. Without our involvement, many of these places and things would have been lost forever to the passage of time, development and the elements. Caring for the things that matter We believe in protecting Scotland's nature, beauty and heritage, and sharing our amazing places with everyone. A shared heritage is the cornerstone of any strong culture. Scotland is blessed with a wealth of stories, values, objects and landscapes that, over time, have been woven together to unite communities, forge traditions and nurture our unique national spirit. Simply put, our work keeps this heritage safe. Every day, our members, volunteers and staff help us to look after an astonishing variety of things. - We're the proud guardians of over 300,000 precious artefacts, so they'll still be here to inspire many generations to come. - We look after 46 Munros, helping to protect rare species like ptarmigan and golden eagles, while also providing safe and sustainable access. - We're the custodians of 38 gardens, 27 castles and houses, and 8 National Nature Reserves. - We care for miles and miles of coastline – home to over 1 million seabirds! - We conserve 76,000 hectares of countryside, from the most northerly island in Shetland to the Solway coast. Discover and have fun We're committed to sharing great days out, opening our doors and encouraging people to engage with Scotland's heritage in friendly, enriching environments. From idyllic dog walks to immersive battlefield experiences, we make sure there's something for everyone. Our work also extends beyond what you see when you visit our places. Part of our mission is to speak up for Scotland's heritage, which includes telling the story of Scotland in new and exciting ways to people of all ages. - We love to share the stories of our places – from the pioneering people who've shaped Scotland's history to the precious wildlife that's so abundant on our land – in all kinds of ways, connecting people to their heritage. [Take a look at some recently published stories](https://www.nts.org.uk/stories) - Plant Listing at the National Trust for Scotland (PLANTS) is the biggest horticultural audit project undertaken by the Trust and aims to celebrate, protect and better understand the flora and vegetation across our gardens and designed landscapes. The PLANTS project team are sharing their experiences of recording some of the most important plant collections in Scotland through [regular blog posts](https://www.nts.org.uk/what-we-do/gardens/plants-project). - We provide our latest news, inspiration for great days out and updates on our conservation work in our e-newsletters. You can sign up for these on our [Stay in Touch page](https://www.nts.org.uk/stay-in-touch)or by going to your [My Trust account](https://www.nts.org.uk/mytrust)and choosing to receive news and updates to your inbox. As we look to our centenary in 2031, we are working to fulfil our vision of nature, beauty and heritage for everyone, while continuing to care for Scotland's special places for future generations. [Read more about our ten-year strategy:](https://www.nts.org.uk/our-work/our-strategy) [Nature, Beauty & Heritage for Everyone](https://www.nts.org.uk/our-work/our-strategy)

National Trust for Scotland

https://www.nts.org.uk/our-members

Membership Benefits [ ](#) Access to all Trust places Access to all Trust places Make the most of unlimited free entry to over 100 amazing places across Scotland. Explore our great outdoors and iconic landscapes, delve into Scotland's rich cultural history, and enjoy days out that are perfect for stretching legs and expanding minds. [ ](#) Free parking Free parking Free parking in Trust-owned car parks is perfect for when you want to explore Scotland's countryside and enjoy the vast networks of paths and walks at our outdoor places. From family strolls to stunning hikes, there's something for everyone. Members receive two car parking stickers with each membership. [ ](#) Magazines and Members' Guide Magazines and Members' Guide Enjoy a subscription to our award-winning magazine, delivered straight to your door three times a year. It's packed full of inspiring ideas for days out, fascinating stories and exclusive news. You'll also receive a copy of our Members' Guide in your welcome pack, which gives details of all the places in our care. We print on FSC paper. [ ](#) Member exclusives Exclusive member emails As a member, you'll be invited to receive member-only promotions, enjoy exclusive events and hear our latest news in our e-newsletters. Plus, we'll keep you inspired with plenty of ideas for great days out and activities to keep everyone entertained. [ ](#) National Trusts worldwide Access to National Trust organisations worldwide Your membership offers you access to places cared for by National Trust organisations around the world with the International National Trusts Organisation (INTO). This includes National Trust properties in England, Wales, Northern Ireland, Ireland, Italy, Canada, Australia and more. [ ](#) Protecting Scotland Protecting Scotland When you join us, you become part of something truly special. Your support helps us to protect the places in our care and funds important conservation work, so that Scotland's irreplaceable heritage can be enjoyed by all and protected for future generations. And, our membership cards are biodegradable! Why membership matters Our work to protect the places we all love couldn't happen without you. With the support of our members, we can care for Scotland's irreplaceable heritage – our places, landscapes, stories and traditions. Here are just a few highlights. 100+ historic places to visit 100,000 plant varieties to admire 76,000 hectares of countryside to explore 8 National Nature Reserves to experience 300,000 treasured collections items to discover Membership options Individual Memberships Adult 1 adult Senior 1 adult aged 60 or over Young 1 person aged 16 to 24 Joint Memberships Joint Adult 2 adults Joint Senior 2 adults, with at least one person aged 60 or over Family Memberships Two Adult Family 2 adults + up to 6 children (aged under 18) One Adult Family 1 adult + up to 6 children (aged under 18) Life Memberships Life 1 adult + up to 6 children (aged under 16) Joint Life 2 adults + up to 6 children (aged under 16)

Oreopithecus

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/23891006

Reevaluation of the lumbosacral region of Oreopithecus bambolii - PMID: 23891006 - DOI: [10.1016/j.jhevol.2013.05.004](https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jhevol.2013.05.004) Reevaluation of the lumbosacral region of Oreopithecus bambolii Abstract Functional interpretations of the postcranium of the late Miocene ape Oreopithecus bambolii are controversial. The claim that Oreopithecus practiced habitual terrestrial bipedalism is partly based on restored postcranial remains originally recovered from Baccinello, Tuscany (Köhler and Moyà-Solà, 1997). The lower lumbar vertebrae of BA#72 were cited as evidence that Oreopithecus exhibits features indicative of a lordotic lumbar spine, including dorsal wedging of the vertebral bodies and a caudally progressive increase in postzygapophyseal interfacet distance. Here, we demonstrate why the dorsal wedging index value obtained by Köhler and Moyà-Solà (1997) for the BA#72 last lumbar vertebra is questionable due to distortion in that region, present a more reliable way to measure postzygapophyseal interfacet distance, and include an additional metric (laminar width) with which to examine changes in the transverse dimensions of the neural arches. We also quantify the external morphology of the BA#72 proximal sacrum, which, despite well-documented links between sacral morphology and bipedal locomotion, and excellent preservation of the sacral prezygapophyses, first sacral vertebral body, and right ala, was not evaluated by Köhler and Moyà-Solà (1997). Measures of postzygapophyseal interfacet distance and laminar width on the penultimate and last lumbar vertebrae of BA#72 reveal a pattern encompassed within the range of living nonhuman hominoids and unlike that of modern humans, suggesting that Oreopithecus did not possess a lordotic lumbar spine. Results further show that the BA#72 sacrum exhibits relatively small prezygapophyseal articular facet surface areas and mediolaterally narrow alae compared with modern humans, indicating that the morphology of the Oreopithecus sacrum is incompatible with the functional demands of habitual bipedal stance and locomotion. The Oreopithecus lumbosacral region does not exhibit adaptations for habitual bipedal locomotion. Keywords: Bipedalism; Lumbar vertebrae; Oreopithecus; Sacrum. Copyright © 2013 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. Similar articles - [Insights into the lower torso in late Miocene hominoid Oreopithecus bambolii.](/31871170/)Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2020 Jan 7;117(1):278-284. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1911896116. Epub 2019 Dec 23. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2020. PMID: 31871170 Free PMC article. - [Vertebral numbers and human evolution.](/26808105/)Am J Phys Anthropol. 2016 Jan;159(Suppl 61):S19-36. doi: 10.1002/ajpa.22901. Am J Phys Anthropol. 2016. PMID: 26808105 Review. - [The vertebral remains of the late Miocene great ape Hispanopithecus laietanus from Can Llobateres 2 (Vallès-Penedès Basin, NE Iberian Peninsula).](/24953667/)J Hum Evol. 2014 Aug;73:15-34. doi: 10.1016/j.jhevol.2014.05.009. Epub 2014 Jun 18. J Hum Evol. 2014. PMID: 24953667 - [The vertebral column of Australopithecus sediba.](/23580532/)Science. 2013 Apr 12;340(6129):1232996. doi: 10.1126/science.1232996. Science. 2013. PMID: 23580532 - [Acquisition of bipedalism: the Miocene hominoid record and modern analogues for bipedal protohominids.](/15198702/)J Anat. 2004 May;204(5):385-402. doi: 10.1111/j.0021-8782.2004.00290.x. J Anat. 2004. PMID: 15198702 Free PMC article. Review. Cited by - [Lufengpithecus inner ear provides evidence of a common locomotor repertoire ancestral to human bipedalism.](/38476202/)Innovation (Camb). 2024 Feb 14;5(2):100580. doi: 10.1016/j.xinn.2024.100580. eCollection 2024 Mar 4. Innovation (Camb). 2024. PMID: 38476202 Free PMC article. - [Standing up for the earliest bipedal hominins.](/36002735/)Nature. 2022 Sep;609(7925):33-35. doi: 10.1038/d41586-022-02226-5. Nature. 2022. PMID: 36002735 No abstract available. - [New fossils of Australopithecus sediba reveal a nearly complete lower back.](/34812141/)Elife. 2021 Nov 23;10:e70447. doi: 10.7554/eLife.70447. Elife. 2021. PMID: 34812141 Free PMC article. - [Insights into the lower torso in late Miocene hominoid Oreopithecus bambolii.](/31871170/)Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2020 Jan 7;117(1):278-284. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1911896116. Epub 2019 Dec 23. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2020. PMID: 31871170 Free PMC article. - [The hominid ilium is shaped by a synapomorphic growth mechanism that is unique within primates.](/31235562/)Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2019 Jul 9;116(28):13915-13920. doi: 10.1073/pnas.1905242116. Epub 2019 Jun 24. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2019. PMID: 31235562 Free PMC article. Publication types MeSH terms LinkOut - more resources Full Text Sources Other Literature Sources Research Materials Miscellaneous

Die Leonardo (Sandton)

http://www.legacyliving.co.za/properties.cfm?propid=7

Standing 55 Stories high and rising some 234 meters above Sandton and the Nelson Mandela Square - we introduce Africa's tallest building, towering over the richest square mile in Africa. 60 meters higher than the Michelangelo Towers, The Leonardo is Le Located adjacent to Nelson Mandela Square, in the heart of Sandton, DAVINCI Hotel and Suites provides the ultimate in cosmopolitan living. Michelangelo Towers has changed the Sandton skyline, and boasts the areas first luxury, mixed-use development. Overlook the hustle and bustle of the Nelson Mandela Square piazza, whilst enjoying all the decadence of luxury city living. Sandton's incredible new sky scraper, standing 55 stories high, offers you the perfect opportunity to locate your business in the heart of Africa's richest square mile. This elegant space, on the outer edges of Sandton, with easy access in and out of the city centre, provides small to medium sized companies a tranquil place to call their business home. Located in the quiet and peaceful suburb of Rivonia, this ivy-covered office block is a gem for any small to medium sized companies looking to relocate their business. A magnificent, affordable office setting in the heart of Sandton. With direct access to The Leonardo and it's facilities, 5 Protea Place is ideal for small to medium enterprises. Located alongside the pristigeous Nelson Mandela Square and Sandton City, Michelangelo Towers Mall offers rental options on luxury retail space. Legacy Corner Mall's diverse offering and modern, sophisticated feel draws in shoppers from adjacent malls and gives retailers a constant flow of high-end individuals. You will receive alerts for all properties listed above copyright© 2024 legacy hotels. all rights reserved. the legacy group brand and logo are trademarks of the legacy group.

Die Leonardo (Sandton)

http://www.co-arc.com/co-arc-international-architects-news-2015

How we think Architecture can, and should make a difference Our aim is to add value to our clients' investment in property by seeking creative cost effective solutions that enrich human life, enhance neighbourhoods protect the environment and are sensitive to culture context. We work collaboratively with clients and consultants, constantly questioning and refining to ensure that we not only realise but exceed expectations. We are architects in Gauteng South Africa but have a national footprint in South Africa. WE INCREASE INVESTMENT VALUE WE ENRICH EXPERIENCE WE ENHANCE NEIGHBOURHOODS WE AUGMENT CULTURE WE NURTURE ENVIRONMENTS The environment in which we practice is the city. The city mirrors the complexity of society in its environment and culture. This complexity demands that we do not pursue static, utopian solutions but engage meaningfully in each of the environments in which we work, constantly seeking to affirm the lives of the people impacted by our designs. [More about us ](https://www.co-arc.com/who-we-are/) WE DO THIS IN A STUDIO ENVIRONMENT WE WORK COLLABORATIVELY Co-Arc collaborates with clients, consultants, communities and everyone in between. Each project is approached on its own merits, design solutions are developed in ongoing, close communication with the client. No project is tackled with preconceived solutions, or ideas. We work with clients in an interactive process to understand every aspect of a project and distill that understanding to achieve unique and elegant solutions. We are architects as well as Interior designers. BY CONSTANTLY QUESTIONING [See our approach ](https://www.co-arc.com/how-we-work/)

Die Leonardo (Sandton)

http://www.legacyliving.co.za/properties.cfm?propid=7

Standing 55 Stories high and rising some 234 meters above Sandton and the Nelson Mandela Square - we introduce Africa's tallest building, towering over the richest square mile in Africa. 60 meters higher than the Michelangelo Towers, The Leonardo is Le Located adjacent to Nelson Mandela Square, in the heart of Sandton, DAVINCI Hotel and Suites provides the ultimate in cosmopolitan living. Michelangelo Towers has changed the Sandton skyline, and boasts the areas first luxury, mixed-use development. Overlook the hustle and bustle of the Nelson Mandela Square piazza, whilst enjoying all the decadence of luxury city living. Sandton's incredible new sky scraper, standing 55 stories high, offers you the perfect opportunity to locate your business in the heart of Africa's richest square mile. This elegant space, on the outer edges of Sandton, with easy access in and out of the city centre, provides small to medium sized companies a tranquil place to call their business home. Located in the quiet and peaceful suburb of Rivonia, this ivy-covered office block is a gem for any small to medium sized companies looking to relocate their business. A magnificent, affordable office setting in the heart of Sandton. With direct access to The Leonardo and it's facilities, 5 Protea Place is ideal for small to medium enterprises. Located alongside the pristigeous Nelson Mandela Square and Sandton City, Michelangelo Towers Mall offers rental options on luxury retail space. Legacy Corner Mall's diverse offering and modern, sophisticated feel draws in shoppers from adjacent malls and gives retailers a constant flow of high-end individuals. You will receive alerts for all properties listed above copyright© 2024 legacy hotels. all rights reserved. the legacy group brand and logo are trademarks of the legacy group.

Die Leonardo (Sandton)

http://www.theleonardo.co.za/

Rent one of our Legacy All Suites apartments, book your conference, spend the day at The Leonardo Spa, or dine out at AURUM Restaurant and experience life as it was meant to be. Contemporary elegance in the city. Designed to embody both form and functionality with impeccable finishes from every angle. Offering unapologetic lavishness, every stay has a story in the 1 Bedroom Luxury Suite. A sense of modern elegance. Thanks to the distinct design of The Leonardo, each room is unique and features floor-to-ceiling windows with stunning city views. A seamless fusion of refined materials, such as marble and silk, are blended with contemporary light wood, completing the urban cityscape. Designed to become a timeless classic and an oasis of privacy. Experience the exhilaration of city living. The 2 Bedroom Luxury Suite raises the bar on hard finishes and furniture design. Impeccable interiors with breathtaking city views. High-end technology sits comfortably alongside subtle luxury. Opulent sophistication awaits in the 2 Bedroom Grand Suite. Impeccable interiors with breathtaking city views. High-end technology sits comfortably alongside subtle luxury. Opulent sophistication awaits in the 2 Bedroom Grand Suite. Elegant and refined living. Featuring floor-to-ceiling windows with stunning city views, creating Africa's ultimate luxury living experience in the sky, a sought-after collection. Wine, dine, meet, work, relax or move in. The Leonardo is the ultimate residential, conferencing and lifestyle location on the continent, with a collection of bespoke restaurant and entertainment offerings, the elegant Isabella Conference & Event Center and a unique 50 piece art collection on display in the public areas.

Die Leonardo (Sandton)

http://skyscrapercenter.com/building/the-leonardo/22606

The Leonardo 75 on Maude Building Completed 2019 Hotel / Residential / Office All-Concrete 227.9 m / 748 ft 56 4 232 128 1121 14 5 m/s 26,880 m² / 289,334 ft² You must be a CTBUH Member to view this resource. You must be a CTBUH Member to view this resource. Proposed Construction Start Completed Other Consultant refers to other organizations which provided significant consultation services for a building project (e.g. wind consultants, environmental consultants, fire and life safety consultants, etc). You must be a CTBUH Member to view this resource. Usually involved in the front end design, with a "typical" condition being that of a leadership role through either Schematic Design or Design Development, and then a monitoring role through the CD and CA phases. The Design Engineer is usually involved in the front end design, typically taking the leadership role in the Schematic Design and Design Development, and then a monitoring role through the CD and CA phases. The Design Engineer is usually involved in the front end design, typically taking the leadership role in the Schematic Design and Design Development, and then a monitoring role through the CD and CA phases. The CTBUH lists a project manager when a specific firm has been commissioned to oversee this aspect of a tall building's design/construction. When the project management efforts are handled by the developer, main contract, or architect, this field will be omitted. The main contractor is the supervisory contractor of all construction work on a project, management of sub-contractors and vendors, etc. May be referred to as "Construction Manager," however, for consistency CTBUH uses the term "Main Contractor" exclusively. Other Consultant refers to other organizations which provided significant consultation services for a building project (e.g. wind consultants, environmental consultants, fire and life safety consultants, etc). These are firms that consult on the design of a building's façade. May often be referred to as "Cladding," "Envelope," "Exterior Wall," or "Curtain Wall" Consultant, however, for consistency CTBUH uses the term "Façade Consultant" exclusively. Material Supplier refers to organizations which supplied significant systems/materials for a building project (e.g. elevator suppliers, facade suppliers, etc). 12 December 2019 CTBUH Research The year 2019 was remarkable for the tall building industry, with 26 supertall buildings (300 meters or taller) completed, the most in any year. This... 11 November 2020 The Light Up The Leo campaign is asking Xbox players to participate in a "digital energy exchange" that will see one of South Africa's tallest... Subscribe below to receive periodic updates from CTBUH on the latest Tall Building and Urban news and CTBUH initiatives, including our monthly newsletter. Fields with a red asterisk (*) next to them are required. We are identifying potential improvements to the CTBUH Skyscraper Center database. The first step of this research is to understand the users of the database and what they are looking for. Please take a couple moments to share your feedback. * Required

Assassyne

https://books.google.co.in/books?id=cSO9zh61AGEC&pg=PA153&dq=865+alamut+justanid&hl=en&sa=X&ved=0ahUKEwiz1MeVgu_cAhUDL48KHSrFBZEQ6AEIIzAA

| | The Isma'ilis: Their History and Doctrines The Isma'ilis represent the second largest Shii Muslim community after the Twelvers, and are today scattered throughout more than twenty-five countries in Asia, the Middle East, Africa, Europe and North America. This 2007 second edition of this authoritative book traces the history and doctrinal development of the Isma'ilis from their origins in the formative period of Islam to the present day, a period of more than twelve centuries. All the major phases of Isma'ili history are covered, including the pre-Fatimid period, the Fatimid 'golden age', the Tayyibi-Mustali period and the history of the Nizari Isma'ilis of Persia and Syria before the Mongol invasions. The final part traces the history of the modern Isma'ilis, particularly the socio-economic progress of the Nizari communities. The new edition is a thorough revision and incorporates new material, an expanded bibliography and new illustrations. It will be invaluable reading for students of Islamic and Middle Eastern history.

Assassyne

https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C

| | Saladin and the Fall of the Kingdom of Jerusalem Contents |129| |147| |175| |194| |354| |377| |403| |413|Other editions - [View all](https://books.google.com/books?q=editions:UOM39015026723471&id=M7pIVpjuyw0C) Common terms and phrases [Abu-Shama](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=Abu-Shama&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Acre](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=Acre&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Aleppo](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=Aleppo&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Amalric](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=Amalric&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Arab](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=Arab&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [army](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=army&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Ascalon](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=Ascalon&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Atabeg](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=Atabeg&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Atabeg of Mosil](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=Atabeg+of+Mosil&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [attack](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=attack&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Ayyub](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=Ayyub&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Baalbekk](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=Baalbekk&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Baghdad](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=Baghdad&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Baha-ed-din](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=Baha-ed-din&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Baldwin](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=Baldwin&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Balian](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=Balian&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Balian of 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[Edessa](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=Edessa&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Egypt](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=Egypt&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Egyptian](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=Egyptian&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [el-Adil](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=el-Adil&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [emirs](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=emirs&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [empire](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=empire&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [enemy](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=enemy&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Ernoul](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=Ernoul&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [faith](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=faith&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Fatimid](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=Fatimid&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [fiefs](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=fiefs&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [fight](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=fight&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [fortress](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=fortress&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Franks](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=Franks&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Fustat](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=Fustat&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [garrison](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=garrison&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [gates](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=gates&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [gave](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=gave&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [gold](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=gold&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Hamah](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=Hamah&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [hand](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=hand&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [hills](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=hills&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Hittin](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=Hittin&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Holy](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=Holy&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [honour](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=honour&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [horse](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=horse&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Humphrey of Toron](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=Humphrey+of+Toron&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Ibn-el-Athir](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=Ibn-el-Athir&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Imad-ed-din](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=Imad-ed-din&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Islam](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=Islam&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Jaffa](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=Jaffa&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Karak](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=Karak&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Keyfa](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=Keyfa&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [King of Jerusalem](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=King+of+Jerusalem&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Kingdom](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=Kingdom&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [knights](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=knights&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Koran](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=Koran&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [land](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=land&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [lord](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=lord&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [mamluks](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=mamluks&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Maridin](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=Maridin&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [master](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=master&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Melik Shah](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=Melik+Shah&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Mesopotamia](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=Mesopotamia&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Mohammedan](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=Mohammedan&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Moslems](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=Moslems&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [mosque](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=mosque&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Nur-ed-din](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=Nur-ed-din&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [palace](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=palace&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Palestine](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=Palestine&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [peace](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=peace&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [princes](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=princes&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [prisoners](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=prisoners&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Ramla](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=Ramla&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Raymond](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=Raymond&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Reginald](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=Reginald&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Richard](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=Richard&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Saffuriya](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=Saffuriya&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Saladin](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=Saladin&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Saracens](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=Saracens&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Seljuk](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=Seljuk&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [sent](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=sent&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Seyf-ed-din](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=Seyf-ed-din&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Shawar](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=Shawar&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Shirkuh](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=Shirkuh&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [siege](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=siege&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Sinjar](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=Sinjar&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [slaves](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=slaves&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Sultan](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=Sultan&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [surrender](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=surrender&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [sword](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=sword&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Syria](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=Syria&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Tekrit](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=Tekrit&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Templars](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=Templars&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [tent](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=tent&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Tiberias](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=Tiberias&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Tigris](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=Tigris&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [took](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=took&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [treaty](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=treaty&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Tripolis](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=Tripolis&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [troops](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=troops&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [truce](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=truce&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Turkman](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=Turkman&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Turks](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=Turks&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [valley](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=valley&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [vassals](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=vassals&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [vezir](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=vezir&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [victory](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=victory&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [walls](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=walls&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [whilst](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=whilst&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [William of Tyre](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=William+of+Tyre&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Zengy](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=Zengy&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) [Zengy's](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&q=Zengy%27s&source=gbs_word_cloud_r&cad=4) Popular passages [Page 404](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&pg=PA404&vq=%22volume,+handsomely+printed+in+large+type,+provided+with+maps+and+adequately+illustrated+according+to+the+special+requirements+of+the+several%22&source=gbs_quotes_r&cad=5)- SERIES of biographical studies of the lives and work of a number of representative historical characters about whom have gathered the great traditions of the Nations to which they belonged, and who have been accepted, in many instances, as types of the several National ideals. With the life of each typical character will be presented a picture of the National conditions surrounding him during his career. The narratives are the work of writers who are recognized authorities on their several subjects,... [Page 405](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&pg=PA405&vq=%22RL+Fletcher.+PERICLES.+By+Evelyn+Abbott.+THEODORIC+THE+GOTH.+By+Thomas+Hodgkin.+SIR+PHILIP+SIDNEY.+By+HR+Fox-Bourne.+JULIUS+CESAR.%22&source=gbs_quotes_r&cad=5)- By W. Warde Fowler. WYCLIF. By Lewis Sergeant. NAPOLEON. By W. O'Connor Morris. HENRY OF NAVARRE. By P. F. Willert. CICERO. By JL StrachanDavidson. ABRAHAM LINCOLN. By Noah Brooks. PRINCE HENRY (OF PORTUGAL) THE NAVIGATOR. By CR Beazley. JULIAN THE PHILOSOPHER. By Alice Gardner. LOUIS XIV. By Arthur Hassall. CHARLES XII. By R. Nisbet Bain. LORENZO DE [Page 406](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&pg=PA406&vq=%22consecutive+epochs+or+periods,+so+that+the+set+when+completed+will+present+in+a+comprehensive+narrative+the+chief+events+in%22&source=gbs_quotes_r&cad=5)- ... wrote, and as they amused themselves. In carrying out this plan, the myths, with which the history of all lands begins, will not be overlooked, though these will be carefully distinguished from the actual history, so far as the labors of the accepted historical authorities have resulted in definite conclusions. The subjects of the different volumes have been planned to cover connecting and, as far as possible, consecutive epochs or periods, so that the set when completed will present in a comprehensive... [Page 407](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&pg=PA407&vq=%22and+CL+Kingsford.+VEDIC+INDIA.+ZA+Ragozin.+BOHEMIA.+CE+Maurice.+CANADA.+JG+Bourinot.+THE+BALKAN+STATES.+William+Miller.+BRITISH+RULE%22&source=gbs_quotes_r&cad=5)- THE CRUSADES. TS Archer and CL Kingsford. VEDIC INDIA. ZA Ragozin. BOHEMIA. CE Maurice. CANADA. JG Bourinot. THE BALKAN STATES. William Miller. BRITISH RULE IN INDIA. R. W. Frazer. MODERN FRANCE. Andre Le Bon. [Page 407](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&pg=PA407&vq=%22THE+GOTHS.+Henry+Bradley.+IRELAND.+Hon.+Emily+Lawless.+TURKEY.+Stanley+Lane-Poole.+MEDIA,+BABYLON,+AND+PERSIA.+ZA+Ragozin.+MEDIAEVAL+FRANCE.+Prof.Gustave%22&source=gbs_quotes_r&cad=5)- THE JEWS. Prof. James K. Hosmer. CHALDEA. ZA Ragozin. GERMANY. S. Baring-Gould. NORWAY. Hjalmar H. Boyesen. SPAIN. Rev. EE and Susan Hale. HUNGARY. Prof. A. Vambery. CARTHAGE. Prof. Alfred J. Church. THE SARACENS. Arthur Gilman. THE MOORS IN SPAIN. Stanley Lane-Poole. THE NORMANS. Sarah Orne Jewett. PERSIA. SGW Benjamin. ANCIENT EGYPT. Prof. Geo. Rawlinson. ALEXANDER'S EMPIRE. [Page 407](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&pg=PA407&vq=%22THE+BARBARY+CORSAIRS.+Stanley+Lane-Poole.+RUSSIA.+WR+Morfill.+THE+JEWS+UNDER+ROME.+W.+D.+Morrison.+SCOTLAND.+John+Mackintosh.+SWITZERLAND.+R.%22&source=gbs_quotes_r&cad=5)- Rawlinson. THE HANSA TOWNS. Helen Zimmern. EARLY BRITAIN. Prof. Alfred J. Church. THE BARBARY CORSAIRS Stanley Lane-Poole. RUSSIA. WR Morfill. THE JEWS UNDER ROME. WD Morrison. SCOTLAND. John Mackintosh. SWITZERLAND. R. Stead and Mrs. A. Hug. PORTUGAL. H. [Page 405](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&pg=PA405&vq=%22Benjamin+I.+Wheeler.+CHARLEMAGNE.+By+HWC+Davis.+OLIVER+CROMWELL.+By+Charles+Firth.+RICHELIEU.+By+James+B.+Perkins.+DANIEL+O%27CONNELL.+By%22&source=gbs_quotes_r&cad=5)- BISMARCK. By JW Headlam. ALEXANDER THE GREAT. By Benjamin I. Wheeler. CHARLEMAGNE. By HWC Davis. OLIVER CROMWELL. By Charles Firth. RICHELIEU. By James B. Perkins. DANIEL O'CONNELL. By Robert Dunlop. [Page 407](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&pg=PA407&vq=%22Boyesen.+SPAIN.+Rev.+EE+and+Susan+Hale.+HUNGARY.+Prof.+A.+Vambery.+CARTHAGE.+Prof.+Alfred+J.+Church.+THE+SARACENS.+Arthur+Gilman.%22&source=gbs_quotes_r&cad=5)- GREECE. Prof. JAS. A. HARRISON. ROME. ARTHUR OILMAN. THE JEWS. Prof. JAMES K. HOSMER. CHALDEA. ZA RAGOZIN. GERMANY. S. BARING-GOULD. NORWAY. HJALMAR H. BOYESEN. SPAIN. Rev. EE and SUSAN HALE. HUNGARY. Prof. A. VAMBERY. CARTHAGE. Prof. ALFRED J. CHURCH. THE SARACENS. ARTHUR OILMAN. [Page 221](https://books.google.com/books?id=M7pIVpjuyw0C&pg=PA221&vq=%22the+crown+of+justice,+and+the+glory,+Where+it+may+kill+with+right,+to+save+with+pity.+If+the+taking%22&source=gbs_quotes_r&cad=5)- The greatest attribute of Heaven is mercy; And 'tis the Crown of Justice, and the glory Where it may kill with right, to save with pity.

Assassyne

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