Extension agents already recognize that new behaviors are adopted by some audiences more easily than others.
Target audiences could be those likely to act on the messages Extension promotes or those likely to have a large impact by changing their behavior.
There are always risks involved for agents who select specific audiences; they may choose an audience that is small or reluctant to change.
They may risk alienating other audience segments that are not the focus of their programming.
We contend that with limited resources and limited chances to make an impact in their communities, Extension agents can benefit from this social marketing tool and improve their knowledge of their constituents and stakeholders.
Agents should continue to provide educational programming to wider audiences  at the same time they use audience segmentation to encourage behavior change from targeted groups.
Many new homes built in the larger urban areas of Florida come with a yard planted primarily with St.
Augustine turfgrass with an in-ground irrigation system controlled by a timer.
When the irrigation timer is set, these systems pump large amounts of water during a single irrigation cycle, sometimes thousands of gallons, and it is often more water than is needed for healthy turf grass.
Setting the irrigation timers has been problematic for homeowners, and many prefer to leave them at one setting for long periods of time and not readjust them regardless of whether or not it has rained.
Florida's high per capita water use and rapidly urbanizing environment have contributed to the depletion of the state's groundwater resources.
A large segment of Florida households typically use 50% or more of their total water consumption outdoors on their lawn and landscape.
In response, the University of Florida has developed the Florida Friendly Landscaping program to encourage water conservation and reduce the environmental impact of landscaping practices.
The term Florida Friendly Landscaping  was trademarked by the University and has recently been recognized in legal statute :
 Florida lawmakers, municipal water managers, and citizens have all recognized the importance of changing residential landscaping behavior to reduce the impact of lawns on natural resources.
At the local level, municipalities have instituted watering restrictions and public information campaigns to encourage conservation.
Extension in Florida has also played a role by focusing education efforts on how to program the automatic irrigation timer to reduce the amount of water used.
Those households that have automatic sprinkler systems in their yard constitute a large general audience for Extension conservation programming, but within that audience we identified distinct segments.
A research team comprised of an urban horticulture Extension agent in Alachua County, Florida, a statewide Extension specialist in community-based social marketing , and a student researcher developed a 26-item survey instrument using Survey Monkey.
The survey was designed to collect information from Extension contacts about their adoption of the Florida Friendly Landscaping principles relating to water conservation behaviors.
We also gathered demographic and lifestyle characteristics and assessed homeowners' landscaping issues and priorities.
The goal of the survey was to gain insight into the impact of landscape water conservation programs in Alachua County and identify possible audience segments for future programming.
Among the demographic variables collected were age, income, education level, time in current home, and time living in Florida.
Lifestyle questions included the presence of a home owners' association  and whether the respondent did their own landscaping.
Landscaping practices included the following.
The survey also included three open-ended, qualitative questions including, "What do you like most about your landscaping design?" and, "If you could, what changes would you make to your home's landscape design and why?"
 The survey was distributed through an email list developed by the urban horticulture agent to send out her monthly electronic newsletter on landscape issues.
The participant list was generated by those who provided their email address at workshops and outreach programs produced by the county Extension office, including events where residents could purchase subsidized rain barrels and compost bins.
While the email list was periodically maintained, an unknown number of emails were not delivered successfully; it is estimated that the response rate was approximately 36%  of the approximately 1,500 email addresses on the agent's list at the time of distribution.
The email included a letter from the agent with a personal appeal to fill out the survey and was sent out in 2010 with a follow-up email sent 4 weeks later.
Our sampling methods combined criterion-based sampling  and convenience sampling , a strategy that saved time and money compared to hard copy mail surveys.
The audience that responded to the questionnaire was not randomly chosen from the county; the respondents to the survey were users of Extension services.
All had some contact with Extension initially and were assumed to have maintained some interest in landscaping issues.
While recognizing the limits of generalizing a nonrandom survey to a larger population, the reported behaviors regarding yard maintenance practices are instead useful for defining the lifestyles of a particular group of Extension clientele.
These data help agents to think differently and strategically about how to design and deliver their programs.
The data were analyzed using SPSS.
Chi Square tests of independence were run to determine whether participants' characteristics are related.
Cramer's V and Phi are measures of association that help gauge the strength of the relationship between multiple variables.
Phi  is appropriate when examining variables with only two levels, while Cramer's V is appropriate when examining variables with more than two levels.
The p-value or significance level is a measure of the probability of attaining, by chance, the level of relationship calculated.
A p-value of less than.05 means that the calculated relationship is likely to be due to chance alone less than 5% of the time.
This is a commonly accepted threshold for statistically significant relationships.
The survey results showed many ways to characterize different audience segments, providing Extension agents with different options for finding a suitable audience that will respond to their educational messages.
This is the first step to using social marketing to promote behavior change.
Some of the common approaches to defining audiences are demographic characteristics  or psychographic attributes.
These demographic and psychographic descriptions provide a better understanding of how audience "lifestyle" may contribute to behavior change and acceptance of Extension messages.
When these variables are compared with reported landscaping behaviors, we see that they show significant differences in what different audience segments are practicing.
The typical participant in the study was college educated , reported an annual income greater than $50,000 , lived in Florida for 30 years, and in their current home for 11 years.
The average age of respondents was 57.
A majority  did not live in a neighborhood governed by a homeowners association ; however, both groups were represented.
Whether a respondent lived in a neighborhood with an HOA was an important lifestyle characteristic that also helped define his or her landscaping practices.
Homeowner associations are common in new developments in Florida, and homebuyers sign a covenant and pay dues to the HOA as a condition of their home purchase.
They are bound to the deed restrictions of the HOA, and this often includes landscaping design and regular maintenance.
The homeowner-run boards of HOAs frequently maintain uniformity of landscaping aesthetics.
Demographic comparisons of respondents based on HOA status revealed that those in an HOA were different than those not in an HOA.
While respondents were generally from higher income households, membership in a neighborhood with an HOA was associated with slightly higher levels of annual income  = 41.26, p <.01; Cramer's V=.31).
In addition, while education levels among respondents were also high, HOA residence was not clearly associated with higher education levels  = 8.98, p =.06; Cramer's V=.13) it did indicate a trend.
Homes in HOA neighborhoods would tend to be more expensive and homeowners would likely be wealthier and better educated.
There was also a relationship between HOA residence, the age of respondents, and the number of years they had lived in Florida.
Those residents who lived in an HOA were older than those respondents who did not live in an HOA  = 9.65, p <.05; Cramer's V=.14).
There was also a statistically significant relationship between whether residents lived in an HOA and the number of years they lived in Florida  = 17.26, p <.05; Cramer's V=.18).
A larger proportion of HOA residents were among the newest to Florida.
The two types of respondents were very similar in all other length of residence categories but recent arrivals were more common in HOAs.
Survey responses about landscaping behaviors also revealed that membership in an HOA helped better define different audience segments.
Those households that belonged to an HOA were more likely to hire a landscape contractor to apply fertilizer, pesticides, and perform other landscaping services and thus less likely to do this work themselves.
A significant relationship was found between HOA status and use of landscape contractors for yard maintenance  = 69.03, p <.01, =.36).
Residents who belonged to an HOA were more likely to have an in-ground irrigation system providing water to their yards.
A significant relationship was found between HOA status and ownership of in-ground irrigation systems  = 118.1, p <.01, =.47).
We also investigated how respondents were using their irrigation systems to water their lawns to understand how that might affect adoption of conservation behaviors.
Households that manually turn on their sprinklers as needed are more closely following Extension BMPs and may use less water than those who set the timer and let it run every week.
Some households reported they were adjusting the timer manually, while some never adjust it.
There were also a significant number of respondents who reported they turned off their irrigation timer altogether, suggesting they had even gone beyond recommended practices in order to conserve water.
A significant relationship was found between HOA status and irrigation system scheduling  = 15.23, p <.01, Cramer's V=.26).
Based on these data, those residents in an HOA were less likely to use the methods that Extension recommended for programming the system to conserve water.
To summarize the findings of the survey, most respondents were generally well off, older, and highly educated.
While 60% of respondents were not residing in neighborhoods that had HOA oversight, the remainder did.
It is important to note that while there are many similarities between residents in HOAs and those not in HOAs, there are also distinct segments that exist with different lifestyles, needs, and constraints.
They differed markedly in terms of their reported landscaping behaviors.
Survey results among Extension clientele in central Florida have identified distinct audience segments that should be approached with different programming.
The HOA residents differed slightly from those not in an HOA in terms of demographic variables like age, income, and years having lived in Florida, but there were more important differences in terms of landscaping behaviors.
Understanding these differences can help Extension agents create more relevant programming targeted for specific groups.
For example, HOA residents were less involved with the management of their yards, preferring to hire a contractor.
This could be due to not having the time or interest in hands-on landscaping practices while possessing the disposable income to hire a contractor.
It could also be influenced by the rigorous specifications mandated by their HOA and neighborhood peer pressure.
If an HOA has strict rules about cutting the grass for example, a "do-it-yourself" household would have to be diligent about mowing.
One conclusion for Extension agents is that this audience segment would be less interested in science-based information about certain landscaping details such as mowing, fertilizing, and turf grass health.
The residents of HOAs in this sample were significantly more likely to have in-ground irrigation systems than non HOA residents, making them seem at first like a good target audience for information about scheduling irrigation systems.
The data further supports this as HOA residents were significantly more likely to schedule their irrigation systems outside of Extension recommendations.
Residents who have not adopted Extension recommendations on irrigation management and prefer to "set it and forget it" could be targeted with more information on how to program their system.
However, the "set it and forget it" households, especially those that contract their landscaping, do not seem fully engaged in managing their landscape or conserving water.
While this audience segment has a need for knowledge about irrigating, without a "teachable moment," Extension programming may not be effective for this group.
Sometimes, it may be better to focus attention on audiences who may be more likely to change their behavior rather than those who use more resources.
In contrast, a significant number of respondents had already adopted some of the irrigation BMPs promoted by Extension.
Those respondents who never use their in-ground irrigation system may be interested in learning strategies to improve their yards with xeriscaping principles or rainwater harvesting.
Extension could acknowledge their success as water savers, seek ways to maintain this behavior, and leverage their influence on their neighbors and HOA boards.
These innovators could be the ambassadors for promoting new landscaping practices in their neighborhoods.
They may look to Extension for help in making alternative landscapes more aesthetically pleasing and educating their neighbors about the environmental benefits of conserving water.
Another approach is to focus on the secondary audiences that influence these homeowner behaviors, such as their HOA management or their landscape contractors.
Since the HOA plays such a dominant role in landscape practices for these neighborhoods, perhaps the governing boards and management companies might be better partners for Extension.
This target group may help to promote new technological solutions such as automatic soil moisture sensors that reduce homeowner involvement in watering decisions.
Extension agents can also partner with utilities or water managers who are targeting homeowners with new conservation policies or incentives.
Whatever methods are used to define a segment of the public, there are important questions to consider that help determine whether an audience should be targeted for programs:
 As state and local governments tighten their budgets, Extension agents are asked to provide evidence that they are bringing about behavior change on issues of importance to local communities.
In many communities in Florida, local governments and water managers must reduce public consumption of groundwater resources and they look to Extension for help in educating the public.
Since most water waste occurs outdoors, a social marketing perspective helps Extension recognize the barriers homeowners face when adopting new landscape practices.
Turfgrass landscapes predominate because they are favored by real estate markets, HOA codes, and homeowners who adopt the cultural norm of the green manicured lawn.
A broadly defined audience of homeowners with a turfgrass landscape is actually composed of distinct and identifiable segments, some of which may be better targets for BMP programming.
Extension must recognize that adopting landscape BMPs, or any new behavior, is not easy or risk free and that some audiences may be more ready than others to adopt change.
While recognizing the barriers to change, we have identified and described an audience segment that has already begun to modify irrigation behaviors and save water.
This constitutes an audience segment that may actively be seeking information that Extension can provide.
The behavior change exhibited by these homeowners can also serve as a model for understanding how to change the behaviors of a wider audience and eventually modify the norms of a neighborhood.
Encouraging the public to adopt behaviors to meet water conservation goals is a cost-effective service that can be provided by Extension.
However Extension must begin to use approaches that go beyond knowledge transfer and deliberately motivate behavior change.
Extension agents can improve program outcomes by borrowing a tool from social marketing and identifying the audience segments that are more likely to adopt new behaviors.
We have shown how defining a target audience can be done using a variety of criteria, such as demographic characteristics  or psychographic attributes.
Our survey also revealed that reported landscape conservation behaviors were a good way to characterize audience segments for Extension programming.
By defining these segments and eventually targeting programs toward their needs and wants, Extension agents can improve the impact they have on public issues such as water conservation and sustainability.
Documenting improved environmental outcomes will in turn increase public support for Extension services.
Marketing social change: Changing behavior to promote health, social development and the environment.
Analysis of residential irrigation distribution uniformity.
Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering.
Cooperative Extension initiatives in marriage and couples education.
Family Relations, 53: 433-439.
Tapping the last oasis: Florida Friendly Landscaping and homeonwers' associations.
The Florida Bar Journal, 84.
, Residential irrigation water use in Central Florida.
Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering, 133, 427-434.
Social marketing: Improving the quality of life.
Thousand Oaks, California: Sage.
Water use in Florida, 2005 and trends 1950-2005.
Social marketing to protect the environment: What works.
Thousand Oaks, California: Sage.
The Extension Service as key mechanism for research and services delivery for prevention of mental health disorders in rural areas.
American Journal of Community Psychiatry, 25:515-544.
Using community based prevention marketing to improve farm worker safety.
Social Marketing Quarterly, 14:71-87.
The intellectual foundation and history of the Agricultural Extension Model.
Science Communication, 9: 492510.
Diffusion of innovations.
New York: Simon and Schuster.
University of Florida IFAS Extension.
Florida Yards and Neighborhoods handbook 2009: A Florida Friendly Landscaping publication.
Gainesville: University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences.
Hands-on social marketing: A step-by-step guide to designing change for good.
Los Angeles: Sage Publications, Inc.
December 2002 // Volume 40 // Number 6 // Ideas at Work // 6IAW1
 Abstract Agricultural operations are not taking advantage of the Information Technology  tools that exist today.
As the agricultural industry continues to evolve, IT utilization is critical to the continued competitiveness/survival of individual operations.
A progression path for IT adoption is defined that takes into account IT tools utilized along with impacts to operational processes.
This path can be used as a tool to ease farmers into the IT world without introducing excessive change all at once.
Application of this path in Extension educational programs could increase IT adoption and retention in agricultural operations.
Agriculture Industry has not been left out of the "information revolution" that has been taking place over the past 20 years.
For example, a cursory search of the Internet yields a long list of software companies that produce sophisticated software to assist agricultural producers in managing the farm.
Research  indicates that during the 1980s and early 1990s, farmers largely were not taking advantage of information technology.
Blezinger's  experience with cattle operations showed that many operations are not keeping good records, which suggests the operations are not utilizing IT.
Discussions at the 1999 EFITA  Conference , suggest that, while many factors impact IT adoption, it is critical, both now and in the future, that IT be utilized in agricultural operations.
One speaker at the conference used the word "dictate" to indicate the criticality of IT adoption.
While the concept of IT can represent many different functions, most agricultural operators will, arguably, maximize utility from record-keeping functionality to support strategic, tactical, and operational management of the farm.
The fact is that many agricultural operations are short on information technology.
Leaping into new technologies can have substantial impact on productivity, both positive and negative.
The right choices taken at the right time are crucial.
So a question is raised: How can we help a farmer adopt IT tools that will assist in the management of the agricultural operation?
This article proposes that a "Progression Path" framework can be defined as an evaluation tool to assist with IT adoption in agricultural operations.
This framework could be used to:
 The basic stepping stones for this path cover a wide spectrum, ranging from no IT to a networked, multi-user IT environment.
The five steps are defined as follows.
Why a Progression Path?
There are at least three reasons why this concept of a "Progression Path" can be used to assist a farmer in realizing the benefits of IT.
Given that humans resist change, especially when the level of change is significant, this progression path allows for small steps as opposed to giant leaps.
For example, it is unlikely that a Step I farmer with no PC experience will purchase a PC with herd-management software and use it to manage the herd.
It is more likely that such a farmer would begin the record-keeping journey by writing information on paper.
Each step along the path requires expenditures for equipment and tools.
Skipping steps will stack expenditures all at once.
The expenditures at the lower steps will likely focus on operational equipment and tools that will be needed to produce the data required at later steps.
For example, the Step I farmer likely does not weigh calves or yearlings because he is not keeping up with that data.
Knowing that Step IV tools can maintain such information, the farmer can purchase scales at Step II, where IT expenditures are virtually nonexistent, to allow for weighing animals and institute that process on his farm.
Expenditures at the higher steps will shift towards IT equipment and tools.
For example, Step III calls for a PC to be purchased while Step IV calls for extra software.
Most of the expenditures and operational processes adopted at a given step will not be lost with migration to the next step.
In fact, most of the operational processes adopted in a particular step are actually in preparation for the next step.
Similarly, records kept at a given step can be expanded upon in later steps.
When using the Progression Path framework to assist with IT adoption, a migration process is needed to guide the development and execution of the farmer-specific "step migration plan." As intimated above, the basic migration process would be:
 During the migration process, time spent in a given step should be long enough to ensure that both operational processes and IT tools are used consistently and effectively.
It is suggested that a farmer stay in each step for at least 2 years.
This allows a year for adoption of the current step's technology and operations, followed by a year of planning to take the next step.
That means that at least a 5-year commitment is needed to move from Step I to Step IV.
Extension professionals can use this Progression Path in at least two ways, as an evaluation tool and in program development.
Individual agents can use an understanding of this framework when working with a farmer to quickly assess the step on the path that best represents his/her IT utilization and associated operational processes.
The agent can then counsel the producer on preparing to move to the next step in the path.
The agent can also target producers for the appropriate level of step-based training or educational sessions.
The aforementioned training or educational programs can be developed based on the framework.
These programs would seek to increase both IT adoption and retention.
Alternatively, the framework could be used as supplemental information in existing programs that deal with operational processes and technologies.
It should be noted that, while this research was focused specifically on beef cattle operations, the stepping-stones of the "Path" represent a framework that could easily be applied to other agricultural operations, including crop production operations.
Obviously, the details could vary greatly between particular operations' migration paths in terms of software tools and supporting operational process but the framework would still apply.
December 2016 // Volume 54 // Number 6 // Tools of the Trade // v54-6tt7
 More Americans are keeping food gardens at home , and more chefs are beginning to cultivate restaurant gardens.
These trends indicate that there is a growing population in search of educational information on gardening practices.
Because Cooperative Extension provides communities with educational programs, having a better understanding of North Carolina chefs' needs and interests allows North Carolina Cooperative Extension to develop programs, publications, and presentations that specifically address those needs and interests.
Through a larger study that explored gardening practices and educational needs of North Carolina chefs who cultivate restaurant gardens, the desired areas of knowledge and preferences for delivery of educational material for this audience were identified.
The chefs want to know about container growing, crop rotation, drought-resistant varieties, greenhouses, growing seasons, hydroponic systems, irrigation options for various growing areas, local farming, soil testing, sustainability, and unique varieties of produce  Findings about preferences for delivery of educational material indicated that the chef gardeners tend toward being self-paced learners.
Self-paced learning occurs when a learner can go through course content at his or her own speed, without that speed being influenced by other learners.
This method provides a great deal of flexibility to learners and allows for individual access of learning materials.
The chefs want relevant information to be delivered through books, pamphlets, and other printed publications; websites and blogs; and YouTube videos.
Clearly Extension has an opportunity to become a main source of information on growing practices for these chefs.
Understanding the chefs' desired areas of knowledge about gardening practices and their learning preferences is critical to meeting the chefs' needs.
With this information in hand, Extension professionals can tap into the tools that will be most effective in creating and delivering the necessary programming.
Chef gardeners need knowledge about gardening-related topics, and Extension should provide various educational materials that allow for self-paced learning.
Here, we suggest techniques Extension might use in developing programs that engage this audience.
Because the Internet is a primary resource for these chefs, Extension must consider it an important medium for reaching them.
Extension could implement various websites to deliver an array of information via how-to articles.
For example, Extension could provide a series of online articles informing chefs about how to up-cycle objects from around the restaurant for use in container growing during different growing seasons.
These websites also could include frequently-asked-questions sections, "Ask a Farmer" functionality, and lists of links to other resources that would be helpful in meeting chef gardeners' educational needs.
Such resources could, for example, help chefs get answers to questions about specific growing areas in particular regions.
Another tool Extension can use to reach these chefs is blogs.
Blogs allow readers to find information provided by a main author, share information about their practices, leave feedback, and have conversations with others seeking information.
Blogging opens up lines of communication between main authors and audiences and provides a self-paced method of learning whereby individuals can obtain the information they need and decide how it can be applied to their particular gardens and restaurants.
It also allows for knowledge sharing by users, offering them a chance to "pay forward" their knowledge to others.
In developing YouTube channels that target this audience, Extension has the opportunity to deliver information in a visual, multimedia format to chefs seeking specific details on gardening practices.
YouTube as an educational tool for Extension makes sense because of its accessibility and ease of use.
With YouTube channels, audience members can subscribe, browse through the resources, and receive notifications when a new video is posted.
One way Extension can use YouTube to reach chefs is by making multiple-video series on specific topics.
For instance, Extension could focus on irrigation systems for different growing areas and incrementally release multiple videos on the topic, with video subject matter potentially including irrigation systems for raised beds, rooftop containers, and large plots of land to address the varied needs of this particular population.
Because chef gardeners need a large amount of information, Extension could develop multiple-video series on a variety of topics geared toward this audience.
This visual educational strategy allows chefs to observe the material while in their homes and restaurants, providing them with the information they need when they need it.
Even with today's technology and electronic resources, we found that there is still a need for educational material in the form of books and other printed materials.
In using printed materials to deliver educational programming, Extension could deliver periodical brochures, magazines, and pamphlets on an array of topics right to a chef's home or restaurant.
By mailing the materials directly to establishments, Extension reduces the number of steps audience members must take to seek out needed information.
A great way to use printed sources is to focus on an upcoming growing season, reoccurring pests, or weather trends in a particular region.
These resources could also provide chefs with tips on what to plant, how to plant, when and how to harvest, and so on for a particular region or particular space constraints.
An added incentive for creating printed resources is that doing so allows members of the targeted audience to establish their own collections of resources that they can use multiple times as needs arise.
By using the techniques described here to provide chef gardeners with educational resources, Extension can provide materials that allow chefs the flexibility and freedom to find needed information in a variety of ways.
Extension's mission of increasing knowledge and promoting behavior change  is met via these social media and mass mailing techniques yet still involves agents' reaching out to the targeted audience and providing guidance.
Applying these techniques allows the audience to collect the same information that may have been provided through face-to-face Extension seminars, but the chefs are able to gain the information at their own rates and on their own schedules, resulting in an added incentive to take advantage of all that Extension can offer.
The search for learning community in learner paced distance education: Or, "Having your cake and eating it, too!" Australasian Journal of Educational Technology, 21, 222241.
Self-paced learning in undergraduate history: From theory into practice.
The History Teacher, 10, 549573.
North Carolina chefs who cultivate restaurant gardens.
Unpublished master's thesis, North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC.
June 2017 // Volume 55 // Number 3 // Tools of the Trade // v55-3tt4
 Food insecurity is associated with diabetes and other diet-related chronic diseases.
Those who are food insecure have more emotional and financial challenges related to managing diabetes, low self-efficacy for managing diabetes, more emergency room visits for hypoglycemia , poorer glucose control, and increased risk of health complications.
People who experience food insecurity often use coping strategies to avoid hunger, potentially compromising the ability to manage blood sugars.
Coping strategies may include consuming low-cost and energy-dense foods, eating a small variety of foods, practicing food waste avoidance, and binging when food is abundant.
Extension professionals can help combat diet-related chronic diseases in food-insecure groups through education of food pantry personnel.
Food pantries were originally designed to meet emergency food needs.
However, many households rely on them to access food year round.
A majority of food pantry clients reported using a pantry at least six times per year, and one third reported using a pantry every month.
Recent interventions have focused on food pantries' providing healthful options and nutrition education as a way to address diet-sensitive chronic diseases.
Strategies that can be implemented within food pantries include providing food boxes for those with diabetes, offering screenings and referrals, and providing diabetes education.
Additionally, some food pantries have converted to the Rainbow of Colors Choice Food Pantry System; such pantries are organized according to U.S.
Department of Agriculture Myplate food groups and offer clients healthful choices and nutrition education.
Still, many pantries operate using a traditional approach by distributing preselected items.
Assessing the diabetes status of clients and addressing associated needs might be an afterthought.
The foods distributed might not be the most healthful or desirable, depending on community resources and the procurement skills of the food pantry personnel.
Furthermore, clients may not know how to use certain foods, especially in the context of a diabetic meal plan.
Interaction with volunteers may be limited, possibly hindering dialogue around needs and preferences.
Extension educators can assess readiness and provide coaching and training related to the Rainbow of Colors Choice Food Pantry System, thereby assisting food pantries in addressing diet-sensitive chronic diseases such as diabetes.
Here, I present a conversation tool Extension educators can use with food pantry directors and staff to assess a pantry's readiness to convert to the Rainbow of Colors Choice Food Pantry System and to provide strategies for addressing diabetes and other chronic diseases.
The questions were drawn from my experiences in food pantry assistance, community coaching , and community readiness.
The tool, shown in Figure 1, has been field-tested in several Ohio pantries.
Following the conversation, Extension educators can guide a food pantry's director and staff to resources or training.
Several tools and resources, such as Making the Switch: A Guide to Converting to A Choice Food Pantry by the Ohio Association of Second Harvest Foodbanks, can address perceived barriers to converting to a choice pantry.
Other tools, such as Feeding America's Healthy Foodbank Hub, can help food pantry personnel make organizational changes related to procuring and offering more healthful foods, use "behavioral nudges" to encourage healthful food choices, or implement other strategies to help clients learn how to use foods.
For assessing chronic disease, the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention offers a prediabetes screening tool.
Additionally, some researchers have offered guidance on how to help diabetic clients, such as by creating "diabetes only" selections or developing key partnerships with health care providers.
Finally, Ohio State University Extension has developed a choice pantry volunteer training that equips choice pantry volunteers and staff with cultural competency and nutrition education skills.
The training promotes motivational interviewing to facilitate dialogue between food pantry clients and volunteers around food preferences and needs.
Motivational interviewing has been shown to be effective in food pantries in terms of promoting nutrition.
A novel food pantry program.
American Journal of Public Health, 45, 569575.
A case study of promoting nutrition and long-term food security through choice pantry development.
Journal of Hunger and Environmental Nutrition, 8, 324336.
Food insecurity is associated with diabetes mellitus: Results from the National Health Examination and Nutrition Examination Survey  19992002.
Journal of General Internal Medicine, 22, 10181023.
Food insecurity and glycemic control among low-income patients with type 2 diabetes.
Diabetes Care, 35, 233238.
A pilot food bank intervention featuring diabetes-appropriate food improved glycemic control among clients in three states.
Health Affairs, 34, 19561963.
Hunger and socioeconomic disparities in chronic disease.
The New England Journal of Medicine, 363, 69.
Water quality monitoring volunteers are more likely to report changes in uses of fertilizers and other chemicals and in yard irrigation.
Water resource protection group participants are more likely to report changes in all types of yard management practices examined.
Respondents' demographics, place of residence, environmental attitudes, and news sources are also correlated with reported changes in behavior.
We employ these factors to control for systematic factors related to participation on these programs.
Introduction Broad citizen involvement in water resource management can ensure public support for water policies, provide additional data about pollution sources and abatement options, and reduce pollution loading to streams and rivers.
Extension involves the public in water resource management through volunteer programs, such as Master Naturalist, Watershed Stewards, Water Watch, and Master Gardener, which focus on water pollution sources, pollution prevention, and water conservation.
In the study reported in this article, we examined three types of volunteer programs that include water resources modules: Master Gardener, volunteer water quality monitoring, and water resource protection groups.
We also examined how effective volunteer water resource programs are in reaching the general public and whether participation in these volunteer programs induces citizens to make their daily activities more sustainable.
The main objective of the study was to analyze participation in such programs and its influence on homeowners' yard management practices in the southern United States.
Methodology The analysis is based on a public survey conducted by the authors in eight southern states: Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi, Oklahoma, Tennessee, and Texas.
The survey objectives were to document public awareness, attitudes, and actions toward water resources and to collect baseline data to evaluate current outreach programs and inform future ones.
The survey questionnaire, based on the template used in the Pacific Northwest , was administered as a mail-out survey.
Respondents' participation in volunteer activities was evaluated using the following question: 1.
Have you participated in any of the following activities?
a.
Master Gardener program b.
Volunteer water quality monitoring C.
Lake, river, bay, wetland, or watershed protection groups This survey question was formulated broadly to reflect the diverse volunteer programs in the region based on households': 1.
Socio-demographics and place of residence 2.
Preferred learning opportunities for water resource topics 3.
Sources of news To examine households' decisions related to yard management, the following question was asked: 2.
Have you or someone in your household done any of the following as part of an individual or community effort to conserve water or preserve water quality?
Changed the way your yard is landscaped Changed how often you water your yard Changed your use of pesticides, fertilizers, or other chemicals Answer choices for question B cover a broad range of actions.
For example, "changed the way your yard is landscaped" can potentially refer to vegetation types and placement, mulching, or changes in mowing practices.
Similarly, changes in the frequency of yard watering can mean installation of smart irrigation technologies, irrigation timer adjustments, or changes in handwatering practices.
Finally, changes in the use of pesticides, fertilizers, or other chemicals  can imply modification of contracts with professional landscape companies, implementation of integrated pest management techniques, changes in the fertilizer brand, or reduction in fertilizer use.
Therefore, due to the broadness of the survey question, the analysis presented in this paper can only explain general changes in households' yard management.
This can be considered a first step towards the subsequent analysis of household preferences for specific practices.
Target sample sizes for each state were based on state population, and a random sample of residential mailing addresses was purchased from Survey Sampling International.
The survey was administered in the summers of 2008 and 2009.
Initial sample sizes and survey response rates are summarized in Table 1.
Similar to the surveys implemented in other regions , more males than females returned the survey, and the survey respondents were slightly older and more educated than the average residents of the state.
To analyze the responses to the survey's questions we employed logit regression models , which is a standard way to model binary choice responses.
Public Survey in Eight Southern States Initial Number of Response Total Number of State Residential Addresses Rate  Responses Received AL 623 46.7 291 AR 425 60.5 257 FL 1154 45.5 523 LA 600 41.8 251 MS 523 54.3 284 OK 500 52.8 264 TN 712 49.7 354 TX 1275 32.9 419 Total 5189 50.9 2643 Results Participation in the Volunteer Activities Overall, 13% of survey respondents indicated participation in at least one of the three volunteer activities.
Given that the population in the eight states is 45 million people (25 years old and older, U.S.
Census Bureau, 2010), this result suggests that the programs reached approximately 6 million people.
This number can even be higher if one considers the influences on volunteers' friends and families.
Approximately 5% of respondents participated in each of the volunteer activities.
While there was a correlation among the participation in the three activities, it was small , implying that only a few respondents indicated participation in more than one activity.
Reported Participation in the Three Volunteer Activities  Master Volunteer water Participation in Volunteer-Driven Programs and Their Effects on Homeowners' Landscaping Practices Gardener quality Lake, river, bay, wetland, or State program monitoring watershed protection groups AL 5.5% 5.5% 7.6% AR 4.7% 3.9% 6.2% FL 6.1% 5.5% 6.1% LA 4.8% 4.0% 6.4% MS 7.4% 5.0% 7.0% OK 1.9% 3.0% 2.7% TN 2.0% 3.4% 4.2% TX 3.8% 4.8% 3.3% Total 4.6% 4.5% 5.4% Master Gardener Program Using logit regression analysis, we identified the factors that were correlated with participation in the Master Gardener program in a statistically significant way.
Participation in the program was especially high in Alabama, Florida, and Mississippi, and in the medium-size cities.
Respondents 65 years old or older were more likely to participate in the program.
Finally, preferences for specific learning opportunities were also important: those who preferred to learn about water issues through attending a short course or workshop, taking a course for certification or credit, or learning how to conduct water practice assessment were more likely to indicate participation in the program.
This result is not surprising given the "hands-on" learning opportunities emphasized by the Master Gardener program.
Factors That Determine Participation in the Volunteer Activities Lake, river, bay, wetland, Volunteer or Master water watershed Gardener quality protection Variable program monitoring groups Logit Model Intercept **** _*** *** Residence Characteristics AL + * * + * * AR + * * FL + * * + * * LA +** MS + * * + * * TN TX Residence in a city with population Participation in Volunteer-Driven Programs and Their Effects on Homeowners' Landscaping Practices greater than 100,000 residents Residence in a city with population + * * between 25,000 and 100,000 residents Residence outside city limits + * * Respondents living in their states for less than 10 years Socio-Demographics 45 64 years old + * * 65 years old and older +** +*** Female _** Some college or college degree **** Advanced degree + *** If you had the following kinds of learning opportunities to learn more about water issues, which would you be most likely to take advantage of?
Read printed fact sheets, bulletins, + * * or brochures Visit a web site Attend a short course or workshop + * * Look at a demonstration or display Read a newspaper article or series _** Watch TV coverage Watch a video of information Take part in a onetime volunteer + *** activity  Take a course for certification or + * * + ** credit Get trained for a regular volunteer position  Learn how to conduct a home, farm, + *** + *** + *** or workplace water practices assessment Attend a fair or festival + * * C  Likelihood Ratio Test  Statistically significant at the 95% confidence level Statistically significant at the 90% confidence level Volunteer Water Quality Monitoring Activities Similar to the results discussed above, participation in volunteer water quality monitoring activities was higher among older respondents.
In addition, those who preferred to learn about water issues via studying how to conduct a home, farm, or workplace water practices assessment or via attending a fair or festival were more likely to indicate participation in such proactive activity as volunteer monitoring groups.
In contrast, those who preferred to learn about water issues passively-by reading newspapers-were less likely indicate participation in volunteer monitoring.
Lake, River, Bay, Wetland, or Watershed Protection Groups Participation in lake, river, bay, wetland, or watershed protection groups  was especially high in five states: Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Louisiana, and Mississippi.
Respondents living outside the city limits were more likely to indicate participation in protection groups, which may reflect the direct connection between the state of water resources and human well-being in rural areas.
However, given that the population in cities is much larger compared to rural areas, the total number of participants was higher among those living inside city limits.
Participation rate was higher among respondents with at least some college education and lower among female respondents.
Finally, those who reported participation in the protection groups also preferred to learn about water resources through printed fact sheets, bulletins, or brochures; one-time volunteer activities; certification or credit courses; or by understanding how to conduct home, farm, or workplace water practice assessment.
Changes in Yard Management Practices The overwhelming majority  of respondents implemented at least one of the yard management practices to conserve water or preserve water quality.
This result implies high awareness of the public in general about water resource issues and the public's willingness to modify their own behavior to protect water resources.
The majority of respondents  indicated that their households had changed the frequency of yard watering.
Changes in yard chemical use were made by 30%, and changes in yard landscaping by 23% of respondents.
The implementation of these three practices was correlated; however, this correlation was relatively small , implying that relatively few respondents implemented two or more actions.
Reported Changes in Landscape Water Use and Management Practices  Changed the Changed how Changed the use of way the yard is often the yard is pesticides, fertilizers, or State landscaped watered other chemicals AL 20.6% 63.6% 28.2% AR 18.3% 49.8% 20.2% Participation in Volunteer-Driven Programs and Their Effects on Homeowners' Landscaping Practices FL 31.6% 70.4% 33.8% LA 17.1% 44.6% 28.3% MS 18.7% 49.3% 31.3% OK 19.3% 54.6% 28.8% TN 19.5% 54.5% 30.8% TX 26.0% 72.1% 32.9% Total 22.6% 59.5% 30.0% Participation in the three volunteer activities is positively correlated with reported changes in yard management practices and with the participants significantly more likely to report the changes.
The only exception is the participation in water resource protection groups that increased the likelihood of reporting changes in yard landscaping and yard chemical use practices but not the frequency of yard watering.
Participation in the Volunteer Programs and Changes in Landscape Water Use and Water Management Practices  * The difference is not statistically significant.
The reported changes in households' practices differed among the states: more respondents from Florida and Texas indicated changes in yard landscaping and watering frequency.
Respondents living in large cities  were more likely to indicate changes in the frequency of yard watering, while those living outside city limits were less likely to indicate so.
This result may be linked to watering restriction ordinances implemented by municipalities in the region.
Older respondents were less likely, while respondents with advanced degrees were more likely, to indicate changes in the way their yards were landscaped.
Female respondents were more likely to indicate changes in yard chemical use.
Finally, sources of news were also correlated with reported changes in yard management practices.
Those who normally get the news from radio or public television were more likely to indicate changes in yard landscaping and chemical use.
Respondents getting the news from magazines and newsletters or local television were more likely to report changes in the use of pesticides, fertilizers, or other chemicals.
Audiences of different news media outlets vary by their views.
For example, public broadcasting and magazines attract more liberals , who traditionally have pro-environmental attitudes.
Factors That Change in Yard Watering and Management Practices Changes in the Changes in Changes in use of the way how often pesticides, respondents' respondents fertilizers, or yards are water their other Variable landscaped yards chemicals Intercept * Volunteer Activities Participation in Master * + * + Gardener Program Participation in volunteer + ** + *** + *** monitoring groups Participation in water + *** + *** resource protection groups Residence Characteristics AL + AR _** FL + + LA _** MS TN TX + ** + Residence in a city with + ** population greater than 100,000 residents Residence in a city with Participation in Volunteer-Driven Programs and Their Effects on Homeowners' Landscaping Practices population between 25,000 and 100,000 residents Residence outside city _** limits Respondents living in their states for less than 10 years Socio-Demographics 45 64 years old 65 years old or older _** Female + *** Some college or college degree Advanced degree + ** Sources of News Normally get news from local newspapers Normally get news from major newspapers Normally get news from + * * radio Normally get news from internet Normally get news from + ** local television Normally get news from national television Normally get news from cable television Normally get news from + * +** public television Normally get news from +*** magazines and newsletter C  Likelihood Ratio Test 145.
19 * ** 137.02 *  ** Statistically significant at 95% confidence level Conclusion One in eight survey respondents  indicated participation in Master Gardener, volunteer monitoring, or water resource protection groups, implying the broad reach of these programs.
Not surprisingly, these structured volunteer activities are more likely to attract "active learners," those who prefer to take a course or learn how to conduct home, farm, or workplace water practice assessment.
To further increase these programs' reach, special Web-based modules can be developed for those who prefer other methods of learning.
Furthermore, given that the participants of Master Gardener and volunteer monitoring groups tend to be older, additional activities can be developed for younger audiences.
The overwhelming majority  of respondents changed the frequency of yard watering; the use of pesticide, fertilizers, and other chemicals; or the way their yard is landscaped to conserve water or preserve water quality.
This result indicates the public's awareness about water resource issues in the region and their willingness to take actions to protect water resources.
In addition to this general trend, participation in Master Gardener, volunteer monitoring, and water resource protection groups significantly increased the likelihood of respondents reporting changes in their yard management practices to protect water resources.
Among those who participated in these volunteer activities, 85% implemented at least one of the yard management practices listed in the survey.
Can these estimated impacts on yard management practice be interpreted as being caused by participation in the programs analyzed?
For this to be the case, we would need to assume that the control variables available to us  fully control for systematic factors related to participation and yard management practice.
Because this assumption may be a strong one, we refrain from taking a strong stand about the causal interpretation of the estimated impacts.
However, we believe they represent one of the best available indicators of the importance of these programs.
Thus, the significant impact of volunteer activities on citizens' behavior found in the study reported here should be considered when making decisions about alternative water management strategies.
Acknowledgments This project was funded by the United States Department of Agriculture, National Institute of Food and Agriculture under agreement 2008-51130-19537, also known as The Southern Region Water Resource Project.
The Southern Region Water Resource Project is a partnership of the Texas AgriLife Extension Service, 21 collaborating land-grant universities in the southern United States, and the USDA National Institute of Food and Agriculture.
The article presents results of a project led by Robert Mahler, Professor of Soil and Environmental Sciences at the University of Idaho, under USDA project 2004-51130-02245.
The project also was supported in part by Leeann DeMouche, New Mexico State University, Donn Rodekohr, Auburn University, Cassel Gardner, Florida A&M University, Karen Loeffelman, University of Idaho, and Alyssa Dodd, Department of Environmental Resources Management, Palm Beach County, Florida.
Ideological segregation online and offline.
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15916; Cambridge: National Bureau of Economic Research.
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Blackwell Publishing, Malden, MA.
Priority water issues in the Pacific Northwest.
[On line], 42 Article 5RIB3.
Annual estimates of the resident population by sex and age for states and for Puerto Rico: April 1, 2000 to July 1, 2009.
Census Bureau, Washington, DC.
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October 2017 // Volume 55 // Number 5 // Tools of the Trade // v55-5tt2
 In Connecticut, living shoreline techniques, such as coir logs, have long been used for erosion control along stream banks.
Living shorelines received much wider attention as a technique for controlling coastal erosion in 2012 after passage of An Act Concerning the Coastal Management Act and Shoreline Flood and Erosion Control Structures.
This act states, "Structural solutions are permissible when necessary and unavoidable.
where there is no feasible, less environmentally damaging alternative.
For the purposes of this section, 'feasible, less environmentally damaging alternative' includes, but is not limited to,.
living shorelines techniques.
So living shorelines must be considered in permit applications to control coastal erosion, but when the act was passed, little was known about this concept in Connecticut.
Numerous requests for more information on living shorelines came to Extension faculty from municipal officials, consultants, coastal engineers, and resource managers.
To address this burgeoning need, we developed a series of programs on living shorelines.
Held in 2015, the first two workshops provided information on living shorelines in a traditional workshop format.
According to evaluations and feedback from those workshops, there still existed confusion on exactly what designs or design elements would or would not be permitted by federal, state, and local authorities.
To address this more specific need, we held a 1-day living shoreline design charette in 2016 at a coastal state park.
A traditional charette is an event in which a large group works on a solution to a design problem in a collaborative fashion.
Planners, architects, and landscape architects often use the charette technique to engage stakeholders in municipal and urban planning.
Gamon  described the use of charettes in Extension as formats for assisting stakeholders in developing mission statements and as needs assessment tools.
Thering  used design charettes and other outreach techniques to engage experts and professionals with community members to raise awareness and buy-in for redevelopment and actions to improve water quality in a Pennsylvania community dealing with mine spoils.
Another application of charettes was with a long-term learning community related to sustainable agriculture for small-acreage landowners.
Our plan was to use the charette technique as an outreach tool to allow participants to gain a better understanding of what regulators are looking for in living shoreline permit applications.
Participants from past living shoreline workshops as well as other interested individuals were invited to attend the charette.
These participants were invited through the state planners LISTSERV, other email lists, and website announcements.
The diverse group of participants included federal, state, and municipal officials; landscape architects; coastal engineers; and resource managers.
At the living shoreline design charette, participants with different areas of expertise were assigned to one of nine teams.
Teams were tasked with developing a living shoreline design for one of three different coastal scenarios using the park's shoreline habitats as the site design focus.
We provided each team with a notebook of relevant materials.
The notebooks contained site-specific information, including data on topography, soils, geology, bathymetry, and rare species; historic aerial imagery; and a guide to living shoreline design criteria, which included information on wave height, tidal range, wakes, and currents.
Teams developed creative and innovative designs; presented the designs to a panel of federal, state, and municipal officials; and received feedback from the panel members.
It is critical to note that this charette was different from a traditional charette in that the purpose was not to design a living shoreline for installation at the park.
Rather, we used the charette technique as a vehicle for teams to develop designs that could be used to gain a better understanding of design elements that would or would not be permitted and why.
We collected data from three sources to evaluate the effectiveness of the workshop.
First, we gathered participant observation data throughout the workshop, taking detailed notes about group interaction, workshop structure, and the designs participants developed and presented.
Second, we randomly selected two or three individuals from each of the nine work groups and contacted them for phone interviews.
Our questions were designed to assess how effective the workshop was in improving participant understanding of living shoreline design options and the permitting process.
We were interested in learning what participants thought about the regulatory authorities' reactions to their proposals and inquired about any thoughts or advice they had for permitting authorities at different levels of government.
We wanted to assess the relational aspect of the event as well and asked for feedback about how to improve future events and build on the event with other similar programs.
Lastly, to round out our evaluation approach, we requested similar feedback from our panel of professionals and from the workshop committee, a tactic that yielded eight responses.
We identified a number of key findings as a result of our evaluation efforts.
First, we found that almost all interview respondents  learned more about living shoreline design options.
Second, we found that the feedback groups received in situ from regulatory authority representatives was reasonable and helped participants better understand the nuances of the permitting process and considerations in permitting decisions.
However, only half of the interview respondents  reported being more knowledgeable about the permitting process  as a result of the workshop.
Lastly, we found that participants enjoyed the structure of the workshop.
For many, the concept of a charette was new and unexpected.
Participants found it to be a unique type of networking opportunity and very much enjoyed designing a living shoreline based on the unique criteria they were provided.
Several participants commented about how great it was to work with their fellow group members, and all of our interview respondents  believed the event supported relationship building among colleagues.
We hope others might consider using this approach for working with stakeholders on climate resilience techniques.
The design charette proved to be an effective way to engage a variety of stakeholders in a highly interactive way around a complex topicnot to develop a site solution, but to better understand a climate adaptation concept.
The event was successful in getting participants involved in meaningful dialogue, it called on them to physically interact with the environment, and it provided a platform for gaining real-time feedback that could be used to inform real-world projects before valuable resources are expended.
We encourage others to explore the ways they can use this unique outreach technique to engage stakeholders on current issues.
An Act Concerning the Coastal Management Act and Shoreline Flood and Erosion Control Structures, CONN.GEN.STAT.
22a-92, as amended.
December 2015 // Volume 53 // Number 6 // Feature // v53-6a3
 Community gardening has gained significant exposure in recent decades in the U.S.
Buoyed by a long history in American cities , community gardening is currently gaining legitimacy and interest due to its diverse range of benefits and outcomes.
Today, it is no longer just an urban activity or something found only in major metropolitan regionsour recent work has documented community gardening in all 50 states, from large cities to suburbs, small towns, and even rural areas.
Through recreation and exercise, access to fresh vegetables, and increased gardening knowledge and civic engagement, it touches people's lives in a number of ways.
Taken together, this is a way that people participate directly in food production and community developmentrelevant to Extension professionals in urban, suburban, and rural areas across the U.S.
Given the increase in community gardens, it is important to better understand the key issues that affect participation and productivity in them.
Best practices in home gardening and commercial agriculture might not work in the social dynamics and spatial contexts of community gardens.
For example, while crop rotation is a simple technique to manage pests and diseases, the arrangement of individually controlled plots within a collectively managed space makes rotation difficult in community gardens.
Micromanagement of where certain crops can be grown is often not feasible because gardeners might all grow similar crops; because gardeners develop strong connections to their plots by investing time and effort, they may resist moving to other plots.
Recent research has shed light on the ways Extension professionals can support urban agriculture.
Likewise, community gardens deserve research attention as unique social and horticultural spaces that are growing in popularity, both for the general public and for Extension.
A better understanding of day-to-day community garden management would contribute to effective Extension support.
While studies have examined how to start community gardens and the subsequent outcomes, few have evaluated community garden management.
Emerging evidence points to some components of success, including sustained gardeners' interest, community engagement, and a well-designed space.
Knowledge sharing is important for starting and sustaining community gardens , while land security is a long-recognized barrier to garden longevity.
It is important to sustain participation, but community gardens are more informal than volunteer programs like Master Gardeners and 4-H.
Our recent large-scale study identified participation as a key garden management issue.
This article extends these contributions by examining key issues in community garden management.
We do so through research on how spatial and social contexts shape the effectiveness of horticultural techniques in community gardens.
Spatially, this relates to internal characteristics, such as the juxtaposition of garden plots relative to water access, as well as external factors like the relationships between gardeners and nearby residents, or garden location in urban, suburban, or rural areas.
Socially, participation in both individual and collective work must be balanced; for example, community gardeners must tend their own individual plots and also contribute to maintaining paths, toolsheds, and other common areas.
While food production is often considered a major goal of gardening, participants are often equally or more influenced by community development concerns helping to improve the neighborhood, provide positive social activities, engage youth, etc.
Taken together, Extension support should be tailored to community gardeners' objectives and should respond to the social and spatial dynamics of community gardens.
New Jersey offers a representative case given its diversity in community garden environments.
Although it has the highest population density in the nation, there are also expanses of suburban sprawl and rural farming communities.
Zoning and government support for community gardens varies widely, as 565 local governments exercise autonomy in land use planning through "home rule.
We located 218 community gardens across these environments.
Because there was no statewide directory, we used three survey methods to identify those gardens.
We emailed questionnaires to Extension staff in each county; accessed surveys completed by attendees at the 2011 and 2012 New Jersey Community Garden Conference; and searched Internet databases.
We do not, however, assume this is an exhaustive list.
We used qualitative methodssuited for explaining complexity and nuanceto research the process of community garden management.
We sampled gardens in three geographic contextsurban, suburban, and ruralfor maximum variation and used three data collection methods to ensure triangulation.
Site observations allowed comparisons of spatial context; garden size and shape were examined relative to geographic context and land use.
Interviews revealed key issues addressed across those contexts, and questions were asked about the processes of starting and sustaining gardens along with key challenges and methods used to address them.
Participant observation provided in-depth experience of management issues and garden dynamics.
The social dynamics of community gardens are not just focused on maximizing yields because objectives often include environmental and community well being.
Furthermore, decisions are complicated by the way that gardens are simultaneously decentralized and communal.
Within the grid structure of plots, decisions are typically left to individual gardenerswithin the bounds of any existing garden rules.
However, community gardeners must also reach consensus on how to maintain the overall site.
Although rules are intended to balance the needs of the overall garden with those of individual members, interpretation can be difficult.
Community gardeners who encourage organic practices, for instance, may define those practices differently.
As one garden president remarked: "Organic to one person means just pull stuff off by hand.
To another person it means use a plant-based pesticide.
To another person it means don't use Miracle-Gro." These are not trivial issues, however; as someone from another garden said, "The problem in a community garden is that if someone sprays, and I don't, there's drift." Gardening techniques are not straightforward given this decision-making dynamic and the close proximity of gardeners.
The built environment around the garden can constrain planting decisions within it.
Urban community gardens are often bordered by tall buildings that reduce full sunlight hours.
The ideal for north-south orientation may be affected by neighboring parcels, roads, or other features.
Irregularly oriented and proportioned lots means that gardeners must carefully consider whether and how to allow tall crops such as corn or fruit trees.
Suburban gardens might not face those same constraints, but they can be limited by automobile-only access.
Garden size can affect resource provision for gardenerssmall sites may not have enough room to store sufficient compost, and large sites may be challenged by long distances to carry waste and compost.
Narrow Community Garden Parcel Bordered by Houses in New Brunswick 
 Four of the 13 Site Plans that Show the Range of Size and Orientation 
 Suburban Community Gardens Might Have Room to Expand.
Water delivery is a tangible aspect of garden management that links internal and external contexts.
Water must first reach the garden site, and once there, it must reliably reach all parts of the garden.
Urban gardens built on vacant lots or within public rights-of-way may not have water meters.
In these cases, non-profit organizations and local governments may be able to subsidize the extension of water mains from nearby structures to service the garden; fire departments also use hydrants to fill rain barrels.
Suburban or rural gardens may require digging or drilling wells.
In cases where the garden is between two residential buildings, neighbors might allow gardeners to attach rainwater catchment systems to a house's downspout.
Local regulations, though, may call for variances or other permits.
As such, consistency in watering can be difficult to attain.
Once water is available, gardeners must decide how to provide water for all of the plots.
Taps that are obstructed by sheds or other objects, or far away from plots, make this simple task of watering plants more difficult.
One garden coordinator wanted to change the location of the tap: "We want to put in a [water] line that goes into the middle, so people don't have to pull the hose out [of the corner]." In her case, gardeners would more easily water their plots through a centrally located tap than one at the corner of the garden site.
Hoses are convenient but can cause damage when dragged across other gardeners' plots.
Solutions range from installing tall stakes around each plot to keep hoses on the paths to requiring gardeners to use watering cans.
The decision on where to put taps within the site plays a big part in the daily use of the garden and can affect participationthe assumption being that if people find it easier to water their plots, they are more likely to participate regularly.
Conversely, automated irrigation is an option, but gardeners may lose incentive to visit the garden because it replaces some of their required labor, thus reducing social interaction or regular weeding.
It also means there is additional equipment to maintain, which may be beyond gardeners' abilities.
An Extension agent remarked on how irrigation in one of Atlantic City's community gardens became troublesome: "They've had so many issues here.
They've dug down and split [the line], so it flooded....
I would never do another [irrigation system]; it sounds like a great idea butwell, they use the hose itself, and fill up the watering cans, so I think it's a way better idea." This last point shows how the spatial context of a garden can influence the social relationships between community gardeners, to which we turn next.
Community garden management means not only encouraging members to take care of their own plots but also to share in the work of maintaining the overall site.
Ideally, gardeners help maintain paths, compost, toolsheds, and other shared space and materials.
When gardeners do not participate regularly, they detract from the social environment and can contribute to the spread of weeds, pests, and diseases.
"Pull" strategies encourage participation through education and social events.
Community gardens across the state host orientations each spring to explain responsibilities to new members and update returning members.
For instance, the New Brunswick Community Garden Coalition fosters camaraderie by hosting workshops and events that bring together gardeners from across the city.
Other strategies used by garden managers across the state include harvest potlucks, which often occur throughout the year so that gardeners can prepare seasonal dishes to share from food they grew in their plots.
At "seed swaps," gardeners from within the same garden, or across gardens in a city or region, share surplus seeds they have saved.
Garden managers use "push" strategies to ensure necessary work is completed.
Community gardens require participation in a variety of ways, typically by asking members to contribute to shared work at various intervals, for instance, weekly, monthly, or seasonally.
Weekly tasks are minor, like picking up trash and organizing toolsheds.
Monthly and seasonal work includes responsibilities like mowing, mulching paths, or maintaining infrastructure such as fencing or water taps.
In some gardens, members contribute a certain number of "volunteer labor" hours over the course of a season.
In these cases, there are no official group workdays, and gardeners contribute informally on their own or with other people.
Some gardens account for volunteer hours by asking members to record their time in a ledger located in the garden shed.
The purpose of recording is for garden coordinators to verify that members have put in their share of work and also to foster a sense of responsibility among gardeners who know that their participation will be recorded for others to see.
However, some garden coordinators acknowledge that such a system may lead to conservative estimates because not all gardeners take time to record their entries.
A variation of this system is to specify volunteer hours over each month of the gardening season rather than a lump sum.
In Hopatcong, New Jersey, many members of a new community garden fulfilled their yearly volunteer requirements in the first month because of the large amount of work needed to build the site.
The management committee then proposed a monthly volunteering requirement to ensure that site maintenance was performed on a regular basis throughout the season.
Other sites use rotating work schedules.
In this system, one or more gardeners assume all shared work for a given time period, and then those tasks would shift to another group.
A garden coordinator in Maplewood, New Jersey, uses group work days along with a rotating schedule: "We do two workdays a yearone at the beginning and one at the end and you have to come.
Then, I assign everyone a workweek.
In that work week you have to maintain all of the common areas." This way of using just a few people to maintain the entire site works best in small gardens.
In larger sites, such as those with upwards of 100 or 200 plots, a grounds committee or scheduled group workdays are best for shared work.
There, volunteer labor is crucial for maintaining large amounts of green waste that can accumulate, as shown in Figure 4.
Group Work Days Help to Maintain Shared Areas.
A more difficult issue comes when individuals abandon their plots.
This not only detracts from the social environment, but also contributes to weeds and diseases that can affect other plots.
Garden managers in our study use a variety of techniques to prevent and handle abandonment:
 Expulsion is seldom used because those people have stopped participating anyway; the more pressing concern is learning if the gardener intends to come back.
Indeed, there is often not the conscious decision to stop gardening, but instead gardening becomes less of a priority as the season proceeds.
In midto late-summer, family schedules get hectic as people go on vacation or juggle multiple work schedules and childcareall during the period when frequent garden maintenance is most crucial.
Heat, humidity, weeds, and insects increase the amount of time one needs to spend in the garden, but they can also discourage trips to the garden.
Each case, though, calls for individual attention, and one must not assume these absences are due to lack of interest.
A garden leader in East Brunswick suggests finding out what is going on in their lives by talking to them in person or over the telephone or by email:
 Once known, other gardeners can help out with someone's plot if they want to stay, or they can make arrangements to turn it over to someone else.
Gardeners often want to engage the community beyond the garden but are not aware of the different opportunities to do so.
In New Jersey, there are a variety of techniques used.
Members invite non-gardening neighbors for social events, and they also distribute food to other locations.
They often coordinate efforts to collect gardeners' surplus food and donate to nearby community centers or food pantries; service organizations might also obtain garden plots to grow food exclusively for their use.
The following list contains some of these techniques used to engage the community through food distribution.
As much as outreach is a way to engage the community beyond the garden, many community gardeners may also have concerns about vandalism and theft.
However, while some gardeners opt for fencing as a necessary security measure, previous research has indicated that others consider fences as divisive barriers.
We found similar patterns in the research for this article.
The community garden shown in Figure 7 resulted from a deliberate effort by a church in Atlantic City to provide fresh food for anyone living near the garden, including homeless people.
Through gardeners' intensive outreach, this garden came to be tended not only by its members but also by people from the surrounding neighborhood who were not garden members per se.
In contrast, some New Brunswick community gardens with fences suffered from theft.
Through interviews, gardeners suggested that theft may have occurred not through maliciousness but by confusion among non-members about the definition of community garden.
That is, some passersby may assume that "community" includes non-gardeners and that it is okay to pick plants.
Furthermore, theft may not only come from the outside but can also occur within gardens; building strong internal communication and relationships is thus key to mitigate internal theft.
These issues underscore the need for community gardeners and Extension professionals to conduct outreach so that such objectives and understandings are clear.
Indeed, placing food  or setting up garden beds outside the fence have proven to be effective ways to deter theft while maintaining good relations with non-members living nearby.
In suburban and rural community gardens, fencing may be necessary to deter deer and rabbits rather than people.
In sum, there is no universal answer to the issue of theft and fencing, and as a result, the decision to install fencing is highly context-dependent.
Donation Bin Near the Entrance of Morris County Parks Community Garden 
 Harvested Food Available for Passersby Outside of Cooper Sprouts Community Garden, Camden 
 No Fence Was Used so the Broader Community Can Enjoy the Garden.
Extension support should be tailored to how community gardens work in your area rather than uncritically transposing best practices from commercial agriculture or home gardening.
Bear in mind that community gardens are likely to differ from one another in motivations and outcomes, and that they function through both individual and collective decision-making.
Advice that may work for an individual gardener might conflict with broader garden rules, and advice to an overall garden may require consensus before implementation.
Ask gardeners about their motivations in order to provide a range of support options, because horticultural productivity might not be their only objective.
For example, if environmental stewardship accompanies food production goals, organic and permaculture techniques may be more appropriate than conventional pest and disease management.
Educate gardeners on the various definitions of organic so they can decide how to proceed.
Likewise, water management techniques should be considered alongside environmental and social concerns of gardeners.
Community gardens do not just require waterthey also require people to be active in them, watering, weeding, and doing much more.
Automated irrigation may improve yields but be detrimental overall if it reduces time spent in the garden.
As water conservation becomes more important it will require closer ties between Extension and gardeners to identify watering techniques that are efficient yet encourage participation.
In sum, community gardens are as diverse as their locations, but awareness of how they work can help Extension professionals provide support that works in their socio-spatial environments.
Extension agents' involvement in planning and managing community garden programs, beyond offering technical advice, can be a way to build stronger and more meaningful relationships with community gardeners.
Work with community garden associations to host gardening workshopshold them in community gardens so the spatial context is immediately apparent.
Work with community gardens on a regular basis to better understand how Extension knowledge intersects with garden dynamics.
Conduct experiments in community gardens to better understand the effectiveness of various techniques in those settings.
At a statewide scale, Extension can facilitate knowledge exchange by organizing community garden conferences.
These activities have all been done by Extension faculty and staff in New Jersey with positive results.
Seeing from community gardeners' points of view will help bridge Extension expertise and community concerns more productively.
This article contributes to Extension efforts to support community gardening by illustrating some of the key issues in community garden management.
With community gardens expanding in urban and suburban areas across the U.S., Extension professionals are likely to have opportunities to engage with these activities.
This geographical ubiquity calls for understanding the similarities and differences in the needs and functions of community gardens in these various contexts.
Although each community garden is shaped by its own local context, they all share some characteristics that distinguish them from commercial agriculture and home gardening.
Gardeners working together in close proximity on a voluntary basis present unique opportunities and challenges that require support suited for this space.
By understanding the social and spatial dynamics of community gardens, Extension staff can more effectively work with community gardeners.
This research was supported by a New Jersey Agricultural Experiment Station Hatch Grant.
The 13 site plans used in our analysis were drawn by Arianna de Vries, Chantae Moore, Maria Torres, and Frances Turner.
Fruit and vegetable intake among urban community gardeners.
Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior, 40, 94-101.
A survey of community gardens in upstate New York: Implications for health promotion and community development.
Health & Place, 6, 319-327.
Reaping on the margins: A century of community gardening in America.
Design matters in community gardens.
Introduction: The discipline and practice of qualitative research.
Lincoln , Collecting and interpreting qualitative materials (2nd ed., pp.
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Governmentality in urban food production: Following "community" from intentions to outcomes.
Urban Geography, 35, 177-196.
Results of a US and Canada community garden survey: Shared challenges in garden management amid diverse geographical and organizational contexts.
Agriculture and Human Values, 32, 241-254.
Developing "community" in community gardens.
Local Environment, 16, 555-568.
Land resource impact indicators of urban sprawl.
Applied Geography, 23, 159-175.
Differentiating multiple meanings of garden and community.
Urban Geography, 22, 656-670.
City bountiful: A century of community gardening in America.
Berkeley: University of California Press.
2012 Community gardening organization survey.
Community Greening Review, 18, 20-41.
Sowing the seeds of success: Cultivating a future for community gardens.
Landscape Journal, 29, 71-89.
Community gardening as social action.
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Factors influencing volunteering in the Master Gardener program.
Incommensurability, land use, and the right to space: Community gardens in New York City Urban Geography, 23, 323-343.
The benefits of community-managed open space: community gardening in New York City.
Wiesen , Restorative commons: Creating health and well-being through urban landscapes.
Northern Research Station: U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Forest Service.
Embodied connections: sustainability, food systems and community gardens.
Local Environment, 16 , 509-522.
December 2002 // Volume 40 // Number 6 // Ideas at Work // 6IAW4
 Abstract In 1982, only 5% of Missouri cotton farmers surveyed fields for pests and used this information when selecting pest management strategies, i.e., survey based pest management.
University of Missouri faculty initiated a program that year to instruct farmers about the benefits of SBPM.
They provided instruction from 1982 to 1999.
During 1999, 3% of Missouri cotton farmers were surveyed by phone for their use of SBPM.
That year, farmers used SBPM to protect 82% of Missouri cotton acres.
In addition to better yields, the use of SBPM ensured more efficient use of all pest management strategies.
Pests such as weeds, insects, and diseases reduced Missouri cotton production by millions of pounds of lint each year in the early 1980's.
Cotton farmers had several pest management practices to choose from, such as crop rotation, planting resistant cultivars, and pesticides, but most farmers made decisions about pest management without knowledge of the pest problems in their fields.
This resulted in lower yields because of inadequate pest management and ineffective and often unnecessary use of various pest management strategies.
In 1982, only 5% of Missouri cotton farmers surveyed their fields for pests and used this information when selecting pest management strategies, i.e., survey based pest management.
That year, the Cotton Pest Management Team in Missouri initiated a program to teach Missouri cotton farmers and other members of the agriculture community about the benefits of scouting fields for pests and using these results to select pest management strategies.
The University Cotton Pest Management Team received support for this program from the University of Missouri Delta Center Advisory Board, Cotton Incorporated, University Extension Councils in cotton-producing counties, Missouri Cotton Producers Association, and the National Cotton Foundation.
Funding was provided by Cotton Incorporated, University Extension, and the Cotton Foundation.
In 1999, 3% of the 2,200 cotton farmers in Missouri were selected at random and surveyed by phone  to determine their use of SBPM.
In 1999, Missouri cotton farmers used pest survey data when selecting cotton pest management strategies for 82% of cotton acres in the state.
The reasons some Missouri farmers did not use the results of cotton field pest surveys when selecting pest management strategies was not determined.
Cotton yields in fields where pest management decisions were made using pest surveys were conservatively estimated to be 50 pounds  per acre greater than in fields where pest management decisions were made without prior knowledge of the pest population present in the field.
The cotton yield increase in Missouri due to use of pest surveys in 1999 [  50 pounds of lint at $.65/pound] was valued at $10.0 million.
This is the first report indicating the impact of an Extension program designed to instruct farmers about the benefits of using pest survey data when selecting pest management strategies.
Scouting cotton for insects and diseases and management strategies.
Extension manual IPM 1021, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO.
Mail and telephone surveys: The total design method.
John Wiley & Sons, New York.
October 2017 // Volume 55 // Number 5 // Feature // v55-5a4
 As climate change ticks temperatures upward, intensifies extreme precipitation events, and makes weather increasingly unpredictable , the Cooperative Extension System has begun responding through programming intended to encourage adaptation and mitigation in agricultural production and natural resources management.
As with all regions across the United States, the Northeast demands tailored adaptation and mitigation strategies, particularly considering the region's diversity in landscapes, land uses, and variability in farm size (U.S.
Department of Agriculture National Agricultural Statistics Service, 2015).
Agriculture, fisheries, forests, and other ecosystems in the Northeast are already confronting more frequent extreme precipitation events and warmer temperatures, which can lead to crop damage, increases in flooding, shifts in wildlife migrations, and a decrease in resilience of ecosystems.
Despite the climate change impacts occurring in the Northeast, there has been little attention dedicated to how to best connect land use managers with relevant and appropriate information to assist them in their decision making.
Given the challenges that climate change presents to agricultural producers and natural resources managers, communication of the latest climate research to target audiences is essential.
Extension is viewed by agricultural producers and natural resources managers as a critical source of relevant and trusted information.
Although some skepticism continues to exist regarding human-caused climate change, especially among rural and conservative audiences , Extension has the potential to disseminate climate information in ways that are well received among land managers, including farmers, foresters, and other natural resources managers.
Therefore, identifying the most effective communication methods for disseminating information is imperative to ensuring that Extension engages successfully in climate change adaptation and mitigation.
To develop and deliver programming most effectively, Extension must understand the preferred delivery methods of its target audiences.
This is particularly important given that preferences often shift with demographic differences.
For example, small-scale farmers in Oklahoma prefer direct mailings , whereas young farmers in Florida would rather receive information via the Internet and social media.
found that older forest landowners in North Carolina prefer exclusively mail-based information but that younger forest landowners are open to both mail-based and web-based information.
Even as new opportunities for information dissemination emerge through web-based tools, face-to-face interactions still have value among Extension audiences.
In terms of climate change, little information exists regarding the usefulness of various delivery methods for farmers, foresters, or other natural resources managers.
Much of the existing literature explores the steps that are necessary for Extension to proactively engage in climate change issues with its target audiences.
Prokopy and Power , for example, highlighted the skepticism that exists among Extension personnel regarding anthropogenic climate change and recommended better communication between university researchers and Extension educators as well as professional incentives to encourage engagement with climate change issues.
Others have emphasized the importance of online tools, such as modeling and forecasts, and the need to train Extension educators on how to effectively use them.
Morris, Megalos, Vuola, Adams, and Monroe  suggested that Extension will be most effective in climate change communication if it adapts its delivery strategy to the specific needs and beliefs of different audiences.
At this point, delivering effective Extension programming on climate change adaptation and mitigation to agricultural and natural resources audiences is still in its early stages.
In the Northeast, efforts have accelerated following the establishment by the U.S.
Department of Agriculture  of the USDA regional climate hubs, which seek "to develop and deliver science-based, region-specific information and technologies, with USDA and partners, to agricultural and natural resource managers that enable climate-informed decision-making, and to provide access to assistance to implement those decisions" (U.S.
Department of Agriculture Climate Hubs, 2016, "Mission").
The Northeast Climate Hub, which includes the 12 states from West Virginia to Maine as well as Washington, DC, has developed partnerships between the USDA and the region's 16 land-grant universities to develop tools and community programs that assist farmers and foresters in adapting to and mitigating climate change.
The findings we report here contribute to the efforts of the Northeast Climate Hub by providing further information on which to base climate change programming for farmers, foresters, and other natural resources managers.
In particular, we explored the delivery methods university researchers and Extension personnel perceive as most effective in disseminating climate information and changing practices and behaviors.
Although documenting target audience preferences is no doubt essential, it is also crucial to understand the views of researchers, Extension specialists, and Extension educators, considering that individuals in each of these university appointments serve in a unique capacity within land-grant universities.
Such information can help specify what those individuals conducting research and developing and delivering programs on climate change consider to be effective communication strategies and can be used as important comparative data in future studies examining preferences of Extension's target audiences.
The overall purpose of our study was to identify delivery methods researchers and Extension professionals at land-grant universities perceive as useful for climate change communication to farmers, foresters, and other natural resources managers.
We had three main objectives:
 The sampling frame for the study consisted of all research faculty across the 16 land-grant universities in the Northeast with appointments in colleges of agriculture and all Extension specialists and educators working in programmatic areas related to agriculture, natural resources, or forestry at the universities or in regional or county Extension offices.
Although the organizational structures of the universities vary, care was taken to identify the colleges and programmatic areas at each university housing relevant disciplines.
Though not all individuals in these colleges and programmatic areas are engaged in research or Extension activities related to climate change, a census was nonetheless conducted so that respondents could self-identify whether and how their work intersected with climate change.
In total, 3,757 research participants were sent the survey, of which 1,211 responded, for a response rate of 32.2%.
Because not all respondents worked on climate change activities, we determined that only those respondents who had indicated that at least 1% of their time was dedicated to climate change work would be analyzed.
Of the 1,211 respondents, 554  met this criterion.
The data for the study are from a larger study on the current activities and future priorities of land-grant universities related to climate change.
An online survey was developed through the use of Qualtrics.
Respondents indicated, through semiclosed questions, their university appointment , the perceived usefulness of specific delivery methods for disseminating information , the perceived usefulness of specific delivery methods for changing practices and behaviors , and demographic information.
Respondents could select their areas of disciplinary focus from a list of 27 options, which were subsequently aggregated to eight categories for the purpose of analysis.
When respondents answered questions regarding their perceptions of usefulness of communication strategies, they were instructed to consider their target audiences.
Given the breadth of disciplinary options provided in the survey, the study assumed that respondents' target audiences would include farmers, foresters, and other natural resources managers.
The online survey was reviewed by a panel of experts that included Extension personnel and research faculty and was field tested and pilot tested.
Faculty and Extension professionals in the southeastern United States conducted the pilot test.
For the purposes of estimating overall reliability, the 13 delivery methods were grouped into three categories: traditional written and media publications , electronic dissemination , and face-to face meetings .
Table 1 presents the reliability estimates for the study.
Most of the items approach adequate reliability , although the scale for traditional written and media methods is low .
Had more items been included for each scale, internal consistency likely would have increased.
Guided by the tailored design method , we collected data over a 6-week period in April and May 2015.
Deans from each university signed a letter encouraging their faculty and Extension personnel to complete the survey, and a representative from each university in the USDA Northeast Climate Hub land-grant partnership emailed this letter to assist with recruitment.
However, the distribution of the survey and all follow-up contact was centralized at one university to streamline the process.
We used descriptive and inferential statistics to analyze the data.
Bivariate analysis addressed relationships among those in the three types of university appointments  as the independent variable and usefulness of delivery methods as the dependent variable.
Although administrator/director was a category measured for university appointment and is reported in the demographic profile, as seen in Table 2, it was excluded from bivariate analysis because of a lack of representation in the sample.
Given that analysis included only specific colleges and programmatic areas within land-grant universities in the Northeast, the findings should be interpreted carefully, for they do not represent each university in its entirety or all regions across the country.
The demographic profile of respondents is presented in Table 2.
A plurality of the respondents were research faculty , followed by Extension educators  and Extension specialists.
Percentage of time dedicated to climate change varied among the respondents, with a majority  dedicating only 1%20% of their time to climate changerelated activities.
The highest climate change focus area occurred in the natural resources disciplinary area , followed by cropping systems , social sciences , and plants.
It should be noted that the number of individuals representing disciplinary areas collectively exceeded the total number of respondents because each respondent was permitted to select up to three areas.
A majority of respondents were male.
Additionally, 453 respondents reported their ages, and the mean age was 52.4 years.
Respondents were asked to assess how they perceived the usefulness of various delivery methods for disseminating information to their target audiences and for changing practices or behaviors related to climate change.
The number of respondents who answered this series of items ranged from 494 to 527.
Usefulness of each delivery method was measured on a scale of 1 = not at all useful to 4 = very useful.
As the mean scores shown in Figure 1 indicate, respondents perceived each method as more useful for disseminating information than for changing practices or behaviors.
For disseminating information, respondents perceived field tours , videos , websites , and workshops  as the most useful delivery methods.
Field tours  and workshops  were also identified as the most useful delivery methods for changing practices or behaviors.
Figure 1.Usefulness of Delivery Methods for Disseminating Climate Change Information and Changing Climage Change Practices/Behaviors
 To determine differences in the usefulness of delivery methods for disseminating information and for changing practices and behaviors, we conducted paired t-tests.
For appropriate use of t-tests, we grouped the 13 delivery methods into three categoriestraditional written and media outreach, electronic outreach, and face-to-face outreach.
The results indicate that all methods were perceived as slightly useful, given that all mean scores were marginally above the theoretical midpoints, as shown in Table 3.
In all cases, delivery methods were perceived as significantly more useful for disseminating information than for changing practices or behaviors.
To determine differences in perceptions of the usefulness of the delivery methods among research faculty, Extension specialists, and Extension educators, we conducted analyses of variance.
We used the same three categories  for classifying delivery methods.
Table 4 shows that the analyses of variance results revealed a significant model for traditional written and media delivery methods for disseminating information , although the Scheffe post-hoc analysis indicated that no significant differences existed among the three groups.
Analysis of variance results revealed that no significant differences existed related to disseminating information through electronic outreach or face-to-face outreach.
Regarding usefulness of delivery methods for changing practices or behaviors, we found significant differences among the three groups of respondents and their preference for face-to-face delivery methods for changing behaviors.
Further examination of mean scores , as shown in Table 5, revealed that Extension educators preferred face-to-face methods significantly more than Extension specialists.
However, no significant differences were found relative to electronic outreach or traditional written and media delivery methods.
Our findings provide insight into the delivery methods that land-grant university research and Extension personnel in the Northeast perceive as most useful for disseminating information and changing practices or behaviors related to climate change.
Study respondents represented research faculty, Extension specialists, and Extension educators from the 16 land-grant universities in the northeastern United States.
For the overwhelming majority of respondents, only 1%20% of their time was dedicated to climate change, an indication that climate change is one of many issues that university researchers and Extension personnel are addressing.
Given the significant impacts of climate change on agriculture and natural resources, universities will be better positioned to respond to relevant challenges if they invest in positions that allow for dedication of more time to climate change research and communication activities.
Even though scant resources plague Extension across the country, Prokopy and Power  recommended incentivizing work on climate change through promotion and tenure.
Across all the delivery methods measured, respondents indicated that each method was more useful for disseminating information than for changing practices or behaviors.
This finding should not come as a surprise, for behavior change is a long-term and difficult outcome to achieve in programming.
In terms of specific delivery methods, the findings indicate that respondents considered field tours, videos, websites, and workshops as the best options for disseminating information and field tours and workshops as most useful for changing practices and behaviors.
Together, these findings suggest that traditional Extension delivery methods that include face-to-face interactions are perceived by research faculty and Extension personnel as useful ways to engage with audiences about climate change.
This finding is consistent with previous work that has shown continued relevance of face-to-face interactions for Extension programming.
Given the skepticism regarding climate change that often exists among farmers  and foresters , face-to-face interaction likely provides the best method for having "meaningful dialogue".
Although online decision-support tools are no doubt important in their ability to provide farmers with up-to-date data, they were not identified by study participants as among the more useful delivery methods.
Regarding differences in perceptions of usefulness of delivery methods among research faculty, Extension specialists, and Extension educators, mean scores indicated that research faculty perceived traditional written and media methods as more useful for disseminating information than the other two groups did.
This may be explained by research faculty's typical responsibilities related to producing written work.
Extension educators, however, valued electronic methods and face-to-face interactions as more useful than the other two groups did.
These valued methods may be similarly explained by the typical responsibilities of Extension educators, who generally engage directly with their audiences more than either researchers or Extension specialists.
However, significant differences did not exist related to electronic methods and face-to-face interactions, and the mean scores for all methods were only slightly above the theoretical midpoints.
In terms of changing practices or behaviors, Extension educators placed significantly more emphasis on face-to-face interactions than did Extension specialists or research faculty.
As the group responsible for delivering programs, Extension educators have more experience evaluating the kinds of interactions that foster behavior change and, therefore, likely value personal connections more than their counterparts.
Still, each delivery method was evaluated by respondents collectively as only marginally useful.
The lukewarm perceptions of the usefulness of various delivery methods suggest the need for more documentation of how these different delivery methods lead to varying outcomes.
Given that some skepticism still exists among farmers and other natural resources managers regarding human-caused climate change, Extension should carefully consider how to develop and deliver information.
Although these findings indicate the need for continued monitoring and evaluation, they also suggest that a multipronged approach to information dissemination will be essential in assisting land managers with their strategies for adaptation and mitigation.
Based on our findings, we make the following recommendations:
 Although land-grant universities in general and Extension services in particular have been facing ongoing resource constraints, the importance of climate changerelated research and communication to agricultural and natural resources audiences should not be underestimated.
With dedicated funding and careful analysis of what works with target audiences, land-grant universities and Extension services are well-positioned to provide their target audiences with the information and tools that will help them address the challenges presented by climate change.
Climate change beliefs, concerns, and attitudes toward adaptation and mitigation among farmers in the midwestern United States.
Climatic Change, 117, 943950.
Warming up to climate change: A participatory approach to engaging with agricultural stakeholders in the southeast US.
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Designing institutions to support local-level climate change adaptation: Insights from a case study of the U.S.
Weather, Climate, and Society, 7, 1838.
Internet, mail, and mixed-mode surveys: The tailored design method, New York, NY: Wiley.
North Carolina Extension agent awareness of and interest in climate information for agriculture.
Gainesville : Southeast Climate Consortium.
SECC Technical Report No.
Are traditional Extension methodologies extinct or just endangered?
Journal of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Education, 29, 135140.
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11.0 update.
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Climactic Change, 122, 313327.
The politicization of climate change and polarization in the American public's view of global warming, 20012010.
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Extension's role in disseminating information about climate change to agricultural stakeholders in the United States.
Climatic Change, 130, 261272.
Agricultural stakeholder views on climate change: Implications for conducting research and outreach.
Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society, 96, 181190.
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North Carolina Cooperative Extension Service.
Identifying Extension information delivery methods for environmental issues.
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Communication preferences of Florida Farm Bureau young farmers and ranchers.
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June 2013 // Volume 51 // Number 3 // Commentary // v51-3comm1
 Extension has provided outreach and education that has strengthened lives and communities across the country for nearly 100 years.
However, regardless of historical achievements, the long-term sustainability of the traditional Extension system is currently being challenged by continued "flat" budgets and an ever-increasing list of critical issues.
Now is the time to reconsider how we fund and focus our staffing resources to meet the needs of today's citizens and target programs that demonstrate impact and outcomes.
Now is the time to consider adding a new type of Extension professional to the system.
Now is the time for the "field specialist."
 The field specialist position can target specific critical issues, leverage talent and resources, and develop collaborative partnerships that foster non-traditional funding opportunities.
The position is also designed to complement the work of the county-based educator.
Ohio's field specialist positions are designed to be entrepreneurial in nature.
Specialists have the opportunity and expectation to be leaders and innovators in developing new or revitalizing aging programming.
According to the job description, the position "functions as a consultant with clientele to address statewide issues as expertise is needed." Field specialists, as consultants, develop vision statements and a scope of work or plan that serve as a road map.
In 2012, OSU Extension created 14 field specialist positions within Extension's four program areas to address the critical statewide issues identified in Table 1.
Bruce McPheron, new dean of Ohio State University's College of Food, Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, understands the importance of the Extension system and that change is inevitable.
What Extension brings to the table, McPheron said at the November 28, 2012 Ohio Farm Bureau Federation annual meeting, is a local presence and understanding of the context of problems and questions, something a Google search can't provide.
As field specialists, we contend there are two key drivers leading the need for change.
Composition in OSU Extension Funding Sources 
 Field specialists are addressing the change drivers above.
These new positions are meeting the challenge in the following ways.
Generating new dollars to support critical programming is an opportunity to build partnerships and support Extension programming.
As field specialists, we are required to generate revenue for professional development and travel expenses.
The need to generate revenue further motivates us to build relationships with public and private partners who have an interest in sponsoring Extension programs.
We become focused on seeking out synergistic opportunities for both the delivery of programming and leveraging of funding to support focused research and teaching efforts.
With the latitude and motivation to explore varied partnerships, we are leveraging new resources, including state and federal funds targeted for regional or state-level programs, to meet client needs.
The result is the development of funding reserves to help move research forward on critical statewide community economic development issues.
As field specialists, we have the unique opportunity to develop a critical mass of new ideas and the ability to get more done to meet broad issues or carry out major programming efforts.
We are expected to develop collaborative partnerships with key organizations to address critical statewide issues.
As a new position within Extension, a priority is to collaborate with county-based educators to conduct educational programs as a working team.
Partnering with county-based Educators builds trust and facilitates learning about programs and projects we can offer to enhance what they are already doing in their counties.
When effective teams are developed, educators can be directly involved in creating educational materials and curriculum, and accessing professional development opportunities.
There is more emphasis on goal setting and reporting of team activities , including outcomes, impacts, and documenting clientele's behavioral changes.
.
We are housed on regional campuses throughout the state, freeing us from local administrative responsibilities found at many county offices.
Because we have statewide responsibilities, there is the opportunity to strengthen existing partnerships and explore new linkages within a broader geographic area on large-scale issues that have meaningful impact.
As we tackle an expanded geographic area, we rely more on project referrals from Extension professionals and external clients, concentrating a larger portion of our efforts on outreach.
We work together to develop and deliver marketing material to potential clientele, in order to "get the word out" about what we are doing as field specialists.
Focusing collaborative efforts on critical statewide issues amasses the resources needed to effectively address these issues, which also elevates Extension's relevance.
Field specialists concentrate efforts in the targeted specialization areas previously listed in Table 1.
We develop curriculum and specific programming to meet clientele needs that demonstrate impact within our designated specialization areas.
For example, Extension educators in specialized positions have come together to address the issue of water quality in Minnesota.
In Ohio, we have targeted energy, business retention and expansion, and other programs to address community economics and growth issues.
Extension educators have a long history of collaborating to gather, share, and produce new educational materials.
As critical societal issues continue to multiply, Extension systems struggle to react due to dwindling resources.
Extension field specialists focus on critical issues that often transcend geographic boundaries, which positions them as a natural team leader to advance multi-state projects.
For example, in Ohio both energy and community development field specialists have leveraged funding to establish multi-state working relationships to address critical issues impacting rural communities across the country.
Extension has a rich history.
After nearly 100 years of effective county-based education, challenges to this system require us to re-think how we allocate staffing resources to address critical needs efficiently and effectively.
According to McNeill, Jirik, Courneya, and Rugg , Extension leadership must continue to look at the relevance of Extension programming to meet the needs of today's citizens and target programs that demonstrate impact and outcomes.
We need positions that can complement the work of the county-based educator in targeting critical issues, leveraging talent and resources, and developing collaborative partnerships that foster non-traditional funding opportunities.
Now is the time to consider the appropriate balance of traditional county-based professionals and field-based specialists.
December 2002 // Volume 40 // Number 6 // Research in Brief // 6RIB3
 Abstract This article describes the effectiveness of electronic ear tags placed in 625 sheep and 508 4-H swine projects in five Indiana counties.
Electronic ear tags worked well  in lambs when the tags were properly placed on the inside of the animal's ear.
Electronic tags were either missing or failed to respond in 33% of the 4-H hogs at the Knox county fair, and swine members had a difficult time visually reading the number on the tags.
Electronic ear tags speed up the check-in of animals at the county fair and reduce the potential for human error in transposing numbers.
In 1999, more than 24,000 Indiana 4-H members enrolled more than 48,000 animals in beef, sheep, and swine projects.
A reliable form of livestock identification is required to ensure the integrity of the program by verifying that enrolled animals are the same individuals being exhibited at county and state fairs.
Currently, beef and sheep projects are nose printed to verify animal identity.
Nose prints are good for individually identifying animals, but they require a certain skill level and proper conditions in order to ensure reliable prints are obtained at the beginning of the project.
Five-digit ear tags are currently used in 4-H beef and sheep projects for visual identification.
In swine, ear notches are used to individually identify each pig.
Swine producers have relied upon ear notches to identify hogs for many years, but their use in a verification program is limited.
Recent challenges with swine ear notches at the Indiana State Fair and various Indiana county fairs offer further proof that a more reliable verification system is needed.
Livestock shows in Oklahoma and Texas are currently using an electronic identification system for the nomination and verification of market steers and market lambs.
A tiny electronic device, called a "transponder," is injected into animals with a syringe similar to those used to deliver vaccines to animals.
The device remains with the animal for life, where it provides the animal's unique ID number any time it is scanned by a compatible electronic ID reader.
The Tulsa State Fair uses biological ID to back up its electronic identification system.
Four drops of blood are taken from each animal and stored on a card.
Using an antibody profile assay, similar to DNA fingerprinting, blood samples can be collected from animals at a later date to verify they are the same individuals enrolled in the program to start with.
The objective of the study reported here was to test the effectiveness of electronic ear tags in 4-H sheep and swine projects.
The State 4-H Department at Purdue University entered into a contractual agreement with AgInfoLink, a global company specializing in individual animal identification, data collection, and livestock information management.
AgInfoLink provided Purdue with electronic identification tags  manufactured by the Allflex Company.
These were ISO-compliant, tamper-evident tags with laser-printed numbers.
AgInfoLink also provided a software program called "FairTracks" to serve as the database to manage the individual identification of 4-H sheep and swine projects in five Indiana counties.
In early May, 508 4-H pigs in Knox County, Indiana were electronically identified with tamper-evident ear tags.
A blood sample was collected from the anterior vena cava of the hogs by licensed veterinarians, placed on a specially designed card, and mailed to a DNA lab for storage until needed for animal identity verification at the county fair.
In addition, the following information was entered into the FairTracks software program: the 4-H member's name and address, and the tag number, breed, sex and blood sample number of each animal.
This same procedure was applied to 625 4-H sheep projects in the following Indiana counties: Adams , Hendricks , Knox , Lawrence , and White.
Jugular blood samples were collected from lambs, placed on specially designed cards, and mailed to a DNA lab for storage.
Following tagging, an Excel spreadsheet was developed for each county to assist them in the management of the data collected on their 4-H animals.
Later that summer, the author attended the Adams, Hendricks, Knox, Lawrence, and White county fairs to assist with the weigh-in of the 4-H sheep and swine projects.
The author used an electronic tag reading device to scan the electronic identification tags previously placed in the 4-H sheep in each of the above-mentioned counties and the 4-H swine in Knox County.
As animals were unloaded and placed on the scale for weighing, the scanner was waived over their ear tag to pick up the animal's identification number.
A signal was then transmitted through an antenna connected to a laptop computer, where each animal's data had been stored in the FairTracks data base, since the animals were enrolled in the 4-H program in early May.
Once the ear tag was scanned, the animal's identification number signaled the computer to bring that animal's record up on the screen, so the animal's weight could be added to the record.
This system proved to be fast  and reduced the potential for human error.
Blood samples were also collected on sheep that lost their electronic tag during the summer and on the champion and reserve champion market lamb at each of the five counties in the project.
Knox county swine with missing or non-readable ear tags were re-tagged, but they were not bled for positive identification due to the large number of animals in this category.
There were no missing ear tags in the 4-H lambs in Lawrence County.
In Adams and Hendricks County, one lamb/county was found to have a split ear and was missing its ear tag.
In each case, a parent had caused the tag to split the ear as they held the animal for their child to shear the lamb.
In Knox County, two sheep tags were missing , and two tags would not produce a signal for the computer to read.
In White County, the ear tags were placed upside down so that the numbers on the tag were visible to the people working with the sheep.
This placement of the tags proved to be less successful than the tag placement in the other four counties in the study.
Ten White county sheep tags were removed when they caused swelling of the animal's ear a few days  after the original tagging.
Four tags were caught on the fence and pulled apart.
Two tags pulled out of their respective animal's ears , and two additional tags would not produce a signal for the computer to read.
These results produced a 90% success rate on tags in White County, while the other four counties had at least a 96% success rate on sheep ear tags.
# of Tags Put In
 # of Tags That Failed
 Readable Ear Tag Rate
 In Knox County, 242 of the 362 hogs that came to the county fair had "readable" tags.
One hundred five hogs were missing their ear tag, and 15 tags would not produce a signal for the computer to read.
The Knox county swine tags were placed in the animals' ear in the same manner as the White county sheep tags.
This orientation of the tags made them easier for other hogs to grab and chew on, which appears to account for part of the tag failure.
On the other hand, there is no data to substantiate tag placement as the sole reason for the low success rate.
Additional data should be collected to help explain the low retention rate of electronic ear tags in swine.
# of Hogs Tagged
 # of Hogs at County Fair
 # of Hogs with Readable Tags at County Fair
 Readable Ear Tag Rate
 The use of electronic ear tags increased the speed and efficiency of weighing and checking in animals at the county fair and reduced the potential for human error in transposing numbers.
Electronic ear tags provide a high-quality identification system, but they should not be relied upon for animal verification purposes.
Electronic ear tags worked well  in lambs when the electronic portion of the tags was placed on the inside of the animal's ear.
Placing the electronic portion of the tag on the backside of the animal's ear increased the rate of tags being pulled out.
A 33% failure of the tags placed in Knox county swine is too high to justify their use without further research.
Researchers found that Knox county 4-H swine members had a difficult time visually reading the number on the electronic tags.
Some 4-H members became frustrated trying to determine which one of their hogs was supposed to be in a certain class during the swine show.
Other brands of electronic ear tags should be tested, and further research should be conducted in swine to determine if placing the electronic portion of the ear tag on the inside of the hog's ear will improve ear tag retention.
The researchers would also recommend that tag manufacturers investigate the possibility of placing the electronic transponder in the traditional  swine tag that is rectangular in shape and displays a number on the outside of the tag that is from 1.25 -.75 inches in height.
This would create an electronic swine tag with the added feature of a visual and readable number.
Collecting blood samples for a biological ID worked well in sheep.
Researchers were able to collect jugular blood samples quickly and easily, as long as the lamb's neck had been sheared prior to collecting samples.
Collecting swine blood samples was more time consuming, but the blood was also used to test for pseudorabies, which is a required test for each of the animals to be exhibited at the county and/or state fair.
Thus, collecting the swine blood samples saved the veterinarians from going to each 4-H member's farm later in the summer and stressing hogs at heavier weights and at hotter temperatures.
The only negative issue resulting from using blood samples for biological ID in this project was that it took 2 weeks to get results back from the DNA lab, instead of the 48 hours that had been promised.
The information learned from electronic and biological identification of animals in five Indiana counties will allow the State 4-H staff to be more efficient as they implement the program on a statewide basis and will provide valuable information to Extension personnel and livestock show managers in other states who are trying to decide whether they want to use electronic ID.
Having animals electronically identified and the demographic information of the 4-H members entered into a computer software program will save valuable time for Extension personnel and volunteer leaders during check-in at county and state fairs across the country.
Having 4-H animals electronically identified will also place 4-H families in a positive position, if the federal government implements a mandatory animal ID program in future years.
Biologically identifying beef, sheep, and swine projects, using blood or hair samples, will improve the integrity of the 4-H livestock program nationwide by deterring the swapping of animals that has occurred in several instances in past years.
The confusion from reading swine ear notches will have been eliminated, and the inconvenience of collecting beef and sheep nose prints will be a thing of the past.
Although this research found blood samples to be easily obtained from 4-H sheep and swine projects, the DNA lab reported a preference for hair samples for future DNA testing.
Using hair samples for animal verification may also be preferred by animal rights groups, as well as by the general public.
To ID, or not to ID?
USDA wants mandatory ID.
debates tagging, ranchers worry about costs, but some say advantages make traceability inevitable.
The Fort Worth Star-Telegram, pp.
October 2017 // Volume 55 // Number 5 // Feature // v55-5a2
 In an effort to reinvigorate a national discussion and move toward a more sustainable and integrated approach to urban Extension, a group of mid-level administrators working in metropolitan areas across the United States began meeting in late 2013.
This group is called the National Urban Extension Leaders.
NUEL's steering committee prepared A National Framework for Urban Extension, a report for the Extension Committee on Organization and Policy.
In October 2015, ECOP approved NUEL as a director/administrator-approved group of Extension employees who cooperate in advancing the strategic importance and long-term value of urban Extension activities by being relevant locally, responsive statewide, and recognized nationally.
Advancing urban Extension is now one of ECOP's top priorities.
Although there are many similarities in Extension's work across all geographic settings, dynamic situations in cities and large metropolitan areas present unique challenges and opportunities as Extension extends a history of innovation.
Rural and urban communities are interdependent , necessitating a synchronized flow of Extension's work along the urbanrural continuum.
To embrace effective urban Extension models and approaches, the Cooperative Extension System need not abandon its historic rural agendas.
Capitalizing on the extensive resource network of the nationwide land-grant university system, Extension must become better equipped to efficiently and effectively address complex urban priorities.
In this article, we summarize relevant national trends and their overarching implications; suggest, against a backdrop of historical context, emerging opportunities and recommendations related to urban Extension; and issue a call to action.
For the purpose of this article, the terms urban, metropolitan, and city are used interchangeably to refer to densely populated areas; no consistent parameters for population density have been established with regard to urban Extension.
Through an informal review of diverse resources from academia, industry, and government, the NUEL steering committee, of which we are part, assessed national trends and identified three primary shifts influencing Extension's work in urban communities.
These are shifts in demographic characteristics, community conditions, and urban-suburban-rural interdependencies.
In the 100 years since the passage of the Smith-Lever Act, the distribution of the U.S.
population has dramatically changed, with an overwhelming majority of the population now living in and around metropolitan centers.
Today, more than 80% of the country's population lives in urban or metropolitan areas, and projections indicate that this percentage will continue to grow (U.S.
Census, 2016a, 2016c, 2016d; U.S.
Department of Agriculture [USDA] Economic Research Service [ERS], 2015).
If Extension is to achieve a level of success in the 21st century similar to its 20th-century accomplishments, it must have an impactful presence in cities and metropolitan areas.
This shift in the physical location of the United States' population has been accompanied by a change in demographics of the population.
In 2012 the U.S.
Census Bureau announced that the national demographic projections for the coming few decades indicated that the United States will have an older and more diverse population (U.S.
Census Bureau Public Information Office, 2012).
A high degree of ethnic and racial diversity enriches and challenges metropolitan communities.
Extension can view both the benefits and difficulties of this circumstance as opportunities for engagement.
As the population of the United States moved to metropolitan areas, so did many of the most pressing national societal challenges.
Cities and metropolitan areas are a mixture of cultures, attitudes, norms, and beliefs that have woven together to create a distinctive culture for each city or metropolitan area.
Urban challenges are enormously complex with no simple solutions.
The complexities of metropolitan issues usually affect multiple entities, are multijurisdictional, and are often politically influenced.
Additionally, residents in these areas often elect the bulk of the state and federal legislators.
Metropolitan areas frequently have multiple governmental service providers and a large number of nonprofit organizations providing information and services.
These groups can act as partners with or competitors to Extension.
The complex sociopolitical landscape, intensity of issues, and competition from other service providers necessitate a more relevant Extension engagement model in metropolitan areas.
Urban and rural populations in the United States are connected and interdependent.
Complex issues do not stop at rural county lines or city boundaries.
Metropolitan and rural areas share common social issues such as poverty and hunger, housing and homelessness, migration and population shifts, and public safety and health (U.S.
Well-functioning cities and suburbs and a healthy and sustainable rural economy are needed for shared success in the United States.
A robust urban Extension presence should contribute to building strong connectivity among urban, suburban, and rural communities.
Positioning the role and value of Extension is critical for communicating at the national, state, regional, county, and city levels.
As communities have changed due to expansion and shifts in populations, so has Extension programming.
In the last half century, Extension has diversified its educational programming portfolio in many ways to respond to the needs of people living in urban areas.
Extension faculty and staff working in metropolitan areas need the same set of core competencies as Extension professionals in other geographic settings.
However, because of the unique community conditions previously described, these individuals and teams must have additional skills and attributes to effectively address the needs of metropolitan constituents.
Because neither a simple retrofitting of traditional strategies nor a one-size-fits-all approach is adequate, the processes of hiring and retaining urban personnel present challenges in the areas of human resources and professional development.
Only through regular and consistent communication with one another can urban leaders across the country develop the support networks needed to advance Extension's approach to urban talent.
Work is currently being done through NUEL to identify associated best management practices.
For urban Extension to thrive, leaders must accept that the most effective way to operate is in partnership with a well-developed group of organizations, where roles are distinct yet missions are aligned and where visibility, credit, and resources are shared.
In the age of shifting populations and political redistricting efforts, an alignment of resources must be considered within current and future funding structures.
Department of Agriculture funding is not the singular problem; additional resources must be leveraged both inside and outside the current structure to significantly enhance urban initiatives.
A national urban Extension initiative emphasizing a heightened awareness of and priority on Extension in cities requires innovation in the core areas of positioning, programs, personnel, and partnerships.
In the preceding section, we identified opportunities and provided recommendations related to such innovation.
Now is the time for Extension to more fully incorporate the needs of urban and metropolitan audiences.
To be successful in urban areas, Extension must be viewed as a credible source of applied research, culturally appropriate education, and community leadership.
Extension needs to offer community-centered programs with community co-designed solutions to address the multitude and complexity of issues facing urban communities.
Throughout its 100-year history, Extension has remained a trusted and relevant source of science-based university outreach, developing many assets that position it to effectively embrace and work in metropolitan communities.
Extension is respected for its objectivity and neutrality and ability to connect people to research-based resources.
To embrace an effective urban Extension model, Extension need not abandon its historic rural agendas.
The best way to honor and celebrate the past 100 years of Extension is to ensure its future.
Ensuring the future requires that Extension enhance its response to the demographic trend of urbanization.
It is imperative that Extension create a modified paradigm of learning innovations and a vibrant and resilient 21st-century Extension system that more fully serves urban populations.
In expanding its services to reach all U.S.
populations, Extension can continue improving the vitality of all communities.
The work that provided the basis for this article was sourced from A National Framework for Urban Extension, which was published by NUEL Steering Committee members Deno De Ciantis, Julie Fox, Brad Gaolach, Joan Jacobsen, Chris Obropta, Patrick Proden, Marie Ruemenapp, Jody Squires, Charles Vavrina, Steve Wagoner, Mary Jane Willis, and Jeff Young.
We acknowledge the significant contribution of former associate director of Rutgers Cooperative Extension Mary Jane Willis.
Mary Jane tirelessly advocated for urban Extension.
She devoted much of her professional life to serving as a champion for the establishment and development of the national urban Extension framework.
Mary Jane's legacy will live on through the Urban Extension Initiative.
Throughout the years, Extension professionals and others who influence Extension impacts have contributed to progress in urban communities.
Urban-rural relationships: An introduction and brief history.
Built Environment, 28, 269277.
What is unique about Extension personnel in the city?
Manuscript submitted for publication.
Editor's introduction to the urban Extension-themed issue of JHSE.
Manuscript submitted for publication.
Urban Extension: Aligning with the needs of urban audiences through subject-matter centers.
Manuscript submitted for publication.
Citizen use of Cooperative Extension in Pennsylvania: An analysis of statewide survey data.
Extending our reach: Surveying, analyzing, and planning outreach to Extension staff.
Journal of Agricultural & Food Information, 15, 268281.
Taking the university to the people.
Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press.
America's changing urban landscape: Positioning Extension for success.
Manuscript submitted for publication.
June 2002 // Volume 40 // Number 3 // Research in Brief // 3RIB5
 Abstract A trial on the suitability of subsurface drip irrigation  for alfalfa  was conducted on a producer's field.
The soil is sandy loam.
The treatments included drip tape spacing of 60, 40, and 30 inches, placed at 18and 12-inch depth.
A nearby center pivot sprinkler irrigated plot was seeded to alfalfa as a control.
Seedling emergence and yield was adversely affected at 60-inch spacing.
The depth of placement of drip tapes  showed no effect.
The site served for Extension education and allowed comparison between SDI tape spacing and center pivot system.
Alfalfa  acreage has been rising steadily in 13 western states of the U.S.
The states with an increase are Arizona, Colorado, Idaho, Indiana, Kansas, Montana, Nevada, New Mexico, North and South Dakota, Texas, Utah, and Wyoming.
More than a million acres have been added during the last decade.
Production agriculture in the arid western states predominantly depends on irrigation.
Alfalfa is a high water use crop.
The consumptive use can exceed 46 inches.
Most of this amount needs to be supplemented by irrigation, and an irrigation diversion of 30 to 36 inches is quite common.
These western states depend on both surface water diversions and groundwater from wells.
Agriculture is by far the biggest water user at this time.
Competition for limited water resources is increasing for other uses such as industry, municipality, recreation, aquatic and wildlife habitat maintenance, etc.
The states depending on groundwater aquifers such as the Ogallala are experiencing declines in the water table.
The cost of pumping is also going up due to rising energy costs.
Thus, the efficient use of available water is necessary to produce a high water use crop such as alfalfa.
Techniques like surge irrigation and sprinklers have improved efficiency and conserved water.
Producers are constantly looking for new technology to improve irrigation efficiency and reduce operating costs.
Drip irrigation for arid climates has reduced water loss from evaporation, run-off, and deep percolation.
Drip irrigation has proven to be most effective for high dollar cash crops like fruits and vegetables.
In Kansas, subsurface drip irrigation  has been shown to be a feasible technology for the irrigation of field crops like corn.
Economic studies for irrigated corn have shown that SDI is economically competitive to flood and center pivot irrigation systems for small fields and potentially competitive for larger fields.
Subsurface drip irrigation is a viable alternative irrigation technology that offers the potential to reduce the amount of water used to irrigate alfalfa.
Given the increased interest in alfalfa as a feed crop, research on SDI could provide needed information for irrigated alfalfa producers in the western United States.
However, little information on the use of SDI for alfalfa is available in the scientific literature.
A previous study in California has shown increased alfalfa yield due to the use of SDI when compared to furrow irrigation.
One aspect of yield improvement is that the scalding of alfalfa leaves that can happen under sprinkler irrigation is reduced.
The critical stage to meet the water needs of alfalfa is after harvest when the crop starts regrowth.
SDI allows irrigation to continue during or right after harvest to encourage quick regrowth.
There is no need to suspend irrigation for a soil dry down period before harvest or while the hay is curing, since the water is applied below the soil surface.
The lack of surface wetting eliminates evaporation loss and helps reduce the competition from annual weeds that may germinate with surface wetting from sprinkler irrigation.
The scope of losses due to deep percolation and surface evaporation is greatly reduced in SDI.
Research from Kansas State University indicates that it is possible to save 25 percent of total water diverted in a season by using SDI in corn.
The objectives of the study reported here were to:
 The SDI system was installed in the corner of a center pivot sprinkler irrigated cornfield.
The site is located south of Garden City, Kansas, south of the Arkansas River valley.
The soil belongs to the Otero-Ulysses complex and has undulating slopes.
The soil texture is sandy loam.
The field had been previously leveled for flood irrigation.
Drip tapes were plowed in using a deep shank ripper equipped with a tube guide in September 1998.
The largest expense for an SDI system is the drip tape.
The closer the spacing of the drip tapes, the more drip tapes are needed to irrigate a given area and thus the greater the cost for the system.
The treatments were spacing and the depth of placement of drip tapes as follows:
 Nelson drip tape of 7/8-inch diameter and 24-inch emitter spacing was installed.
The emitter flow rate is 0.372 gallons hr-1 per emitter at 8 psi.
A 200-mesh disk filter system provided by Rain Bird was installed to meet filtration requirements.
Fluidyne vortex flow meters operated by 12-volt DC batteries were installed along with a solar panel for continuous recharging.
Alfalfa was seeded using 6-inch row spacing in the fall of 1998.
Yield data was collected in 1999 and 2000.
Four harvest samples were collected from each of the six treatment plots to obtain dry matter yield.
An area of 11 ft2 was harvested as a sample.
The harvest samples were hand clipped during the growing season.
The harvest area was randomly selected across the block.
Gypsum block soil water sensors were installed at the midpoint between two laterals to monitor the spread of water.
The depth of placement was at 12, 24, and 36 inches below the soil surface.
The soil water readings provided insight as to the distance of water movement away from the drip tape.
The climate differed between 1999 and 2000.
The first year of study started with a cool, wet spring, whereas the second year was hot and dry.
The irrigation period was prolonged in 2000, and the numbers of harvest operations were five, compared to four in 1999.
The results on water use and yields are presented separately by year.
The total water budget from July 1 through September 29, 1999 was:
 Dry matter yields for 1999 are presented in Table 1.
The results are non-replicated samples and therefore cannot be statistically compared.
Alfalfa Yields of SDI and Sprinkler Irrigated Plots
 Date of Harvest and Dry Matter Yield, ton ac.-1
 60 inch spacing  by 18 inch depth 
 60"  by 12" 
 40"  by 18" 
 40"  by 12" 
 30"  by 18" 
 The first two harvests for center pivot are not included, because of weed pressure during the initial harvest.
Comparisons of corresponding total yields for the last two cuttings indicate a lower yield for sprinkler-irrigated alfalfa.
The 40-inch drip tape spacing treatment with 18-inch depth of placement had the highest total yield at 5.16 ton ac.-1.
The total water budget from May 10, 2000 through September 21, 2000 was:
 Dry matter yields of individual harvests within the 2000 season, including those from the sprinkler-irrigated center pivot field, are presented in Table 2.
The 40-inch spacing treatment at 12-inch depth of placement had the highest total yield for the season at a little over 9 ton ac.-1.
The center pivot sprinkler treatment yield was slightly lower than the 40-inch spacing treatments, but slightly higher than the 60-inch spacing treatments.
Drip tape spacing of 30 inches showed no yield advantage over 40-inch spacing.
Dry Matter Yield of SDI and Sprinkler Irrigated Alfalfa for 2000
 Date of Harvest and Dry Matter Yield, ton ac.-1
 60 inches spacing  by 18 inches depth 
 60"  x 12" 
 40"  x 18" 
 40"  x 12" 
 30"  x 18" 
 Dry Matter Yield as Affected by Drip Tape Spacing
 Figure 1 shows that, compared to the 60-inch spacing, the 40-inch drip tape spacing had a yield advantage of 0.44 and 1.25 tons ac.-1 for 1999 and 2000, respectively.
The difference is perhaps due to having a cool and wet spring in 1999, but a hot and dry spring and summer in 2000.
This indicates that the closer spacing would be more beneficial in dry years.
Hay quality tests were done for random samples taken from each block, and the analysis was done in an independent laboratory certified annually by the National Hay Testing Association.
The average RFV for 40-inch spacing was 164 , compared to 134  for 60-inch spacing.
The RFV value for center pivot irrigated field was also 134.
Although the samples were obtained randomly, the irrigation trial was on blocks and non-replicated, and as such the results were not statistically compared.
Dry Matter Yield as Affected by Depth of Drip Tape Placement
 The yields from two different depth of placement of the drip tapes showed similar dry matter yields for both the years.
Thus, the depth of placement had a little effect on yield.
Gypsum block meter readings for the 60-inch spacing and 18-inch depth treatment in 1999 are presented in Figure 3.
The gypsum blocks were buried at 12, 24, and 36 inches in the root-zone located at the midpoint between the drip tapes.
A reading of 99 to 95 indicates that the soil water status is between 85-100 percent of availability.
A reading of 60 indicates that available soil water has fallen below 50 percent and requires replenishment.
It is evident from the data presented that the water level at the midpoint between two drip tapes for the 60-inch spacing treatment remained below optimum growing condition.
The yield was lower, and "striping" appearance was visible.
Gypsum Block Readings at the Midpoint for Drip Tape at 60-inch Spacing
 Gypsum Block Readings at the Midpoint for Drip Tape at 40-inch Spacing
 Drip tape spacing of 40 inches placed at 12-inch depth provided a better water distribution for soils at 1and 2-feet depths from the beginning of the season, and improved for soils at a 3-feet depth within a short period.
Irrigation application amount was maintained at the same level for all treatments.
A similar pattern of water distribution was observed in 2000.
A net present value  analysis was completed to determine which SDI spacing was the best investment alternative for alfalfa, taking into account that SDI was economical to start with.
The major difference between the 40-inch and 60-inch drip tape spacing is the additional cost for closer spacing.
Compared to the 60-inch spacing, the total length of drip tape required for the 40-inch spacing is increased by 4,356 ft per acre.
The number of fittings required also increased.
Consequently, the cost of the 40-inch spacing at $1,037 per acre is about $250 per acre more than the 60-inch spacing.
However, yields were 0.44 to 1.25 ton ac-1 higher for the 40-inch spacing, and the relative feed value  was 30 points higher.
Given the higher cost of the 40-inch spacing, the NPV analysis indicates that the 40-inch spacing would need to yield about 0.75 tons ac-1 higher than 60-inch spacing in order to have an equal NPV.
This assumes a 15-year useful life and an alfalfa price of $70 ton-1.
As the length of useful life and  alfalfa price increases, the additional yield needed for the 40-inch spacing to equal the NPV of the 60-inch spacing decreases.
It is expected that an SDI system will last for 20 years under good management.
The SDI systems installed at the Kansas State University Southwest and Northwest Research-Extension Centers are 11 years old and functioning without any symptom of plugging or deterioration.
Kansas county Extension agents used the field on which the research was conducted for educational tours, and as a result producers of four counties are now using SDI for alfalfa.
This trial helped meet a need that was unavailable from traditional research.
Research on alfalfa irrigation in a replicated random design demands resources in terms of land, equipment, labor, and funding.
This trial has shown that Extension professionals may fill in with the help of innovative and cooperative producers.
Alfalfa emergence was affected adversely at the 60-inch spacing for this site with sandy loam soil.
Some uneven emergence or "striping" was observed in the first year during the establishment period.
Yields were reduced slightly for the drip tape spacing of 60 inch.
Yields for 40-inch spacing treatment remained consistently higher.
The spacing of 30 inches did not show any additional advantage over a spacing of 40 inches.
Depth of placement of drip tapes did not affect the yields; they were similar for depths of 12 inch and 18 inch.
The second year observations showed similar results, although increasing the frequency of irrigation in SDI treatment reduced the striping appearance.
We thank the landowner, Steve Stone, for providing the land on which the research was conducted and covering most of the installation cost.
Partial funding assistance was received from the Southwest Kansas Groundwater Management District No.
3, and material assistance from Gigot, Nelson, Rain Bird, and Western irrigation companies.
This paper is a contribution from the Kansas State University, Research and Extension, No.
Use of drip irrigation on alfalfa.
of Central Plains Irrigation short course and Equipment Exposition.
February 7-8, 1995, Garden City, Kansas.
Published by Central Plains Irrigation Association, Colby, Kansas.
Sub-surface drip and furrow irrigation of Alfalfa in the Imperial Valley.
22nd California/Arizona Alfalfa Symposium.
University of California and University of Arizona Cooperative Extension, December 9-10, Heltville, California.
Water requirement of subsurface drip-irrigated corn in northwest Kansas.
Transactions of the ASAE.
SDI research in Kansas after 10 years.
Irrigation Association Technical Conference Proceedings.
An economic comparison of subsurface drip and center pivot sprinkler irrigation systems.
Applied Engineering in Agriculture.14: 391-398.
June 2017 // Volume 55 // Number 3 // Research In Brief // v55-3rb5
 Florida, the nation's third most populous state, is surrounded by water on three sides and is full of lakes, streams, and rivers.
Despite access to diverse water bodies, competing needs for water resources have led to water's being recurrently identified as the top issue facing the state.
As a result, water-focused Extension programs are being developed and implemented, but such programming may not be reaching target audiences, resulting in decreased effectiveness.
According to Shepherd , clear identification of target audiences is a must for ensuring the effectiveness of educational programs.
Warner  and Mahler et al.
discussed the advantages of designing and delivering customized programs for specific Extension audiences rather than addressing audiences generally.
Research on audience needs is necessary for ensuring a better understanding of audience perceptions of specific behaviors, including an understanding of factors that may hinder or promote engagement.
Several studies have examined audience needs related to water education in nonformal settings.
For example, Terlizzi  explored how media could be used to deliver Extension education programs addressing water quality degradation issues in the Chesapeake Bay area and found that using media the audience is most familiar with is most effective.
The purpose of the research reported here was to identify Florida residents' needs related to water quality to inform the development of educational programs focused on enhancing behaviors associated with water protection.
The specific objectives of the study were as follows:
 The study presented here was part of a larger research effort designed to capture public opinion of water issues in Florida through the use of an online survey.
The survey used in the RBC Canadian Water Attitudes Study  was the foundation for the researcher-adapted survey instrument.
A panel with expertise in water quality and quantity issues, public opinion research, and Extension programming reviewed the instrument to ensure content and face validity.
Pilot testing with 50 Florida residents was conducted, and all constructs were confirmed as reliable, with Cronbach's alpha levels of.70 or higher.
Once finalized, the instrument and study protocol were approved by the University of Florida Institutional Review Board.
Three sections of the survey instrument were germane to the study reported here.
First, respondents were asked to indicate the levels of importance they associated with clean water in seven water sources using a Likert-type scale with response options ranging from 1  to 5.
Next, respondents were asked to indicate which of 14 water-related topics they would be interested in learning more about.
Respondents were allowed to indicate all that were applicable.
Respondents were then asked to indicate which of 11 modes of learning they would be interested in if they were offered the opportunity to learn more about water-related topics.
Again, they were permitted to check all that were applicable.
Last, demographic data were collected.
Nonprobability opt-in sampling techniques were used for data collection.
This sampling method is often used in public opinion research to make population estimates.
A public opinion research company implemented the survey by sending an invitation and survey link to 1,192 Florida residents aged 18 and older.
A response rate of 63% was obtained, with 749 responses.
Weighting procedures were implemented to compensate for potential exclusion, selection, and nonparticipation biases, all of which are limitations of nonprobability sampling.
Post-stratification methods  were used for weighting to ensure that the composition of the sample was representative of Florida adult residents.
For segmenting the audience into groups based on the overall levels of importance they associated with clean water resources, z scores were used.
First, an individual's responses related to the levels of importance of clean water in the seven water sources identified on the survey were averaged to create the person's overall importance-of-clean-water score.
The construct was found to be reliable, with a Cronbach's alpha coefficient of.90.
The importance-of-clean-water score for each individual was then converted to a z score, with a z score of 1 indicating an importance-of-clean-water score one standard deviation above the mean and a z score of 1 indicating an importance-of-clean-water score one standard deviation below the mean.
If a respondent had a z score greater than 0.50, he or she was characterized as associating a high level of importance with clean water.
If a respondent had a z score between 0.49 and 0.49, he or she was characterized as associating an average level of importance with clean water.
Last, if a respondent had a z score less than 0.49, he or she was characterized as associating a low level of importance with clean water.
In further analysis, chi-square tests were used for examining the relationships between respondents' associated levels of importance of clean water and their interest in water topics and between their associated levels of importance of clean water and their learning mode preferences and determining, accordingly, whether statistically significant differences existed among the three groups.
Statistical significance was established as p <.05 a priori.
A respondent was asked to indicate on a 5-point Likert-type scale the level of importance he or she assigned to clean water in each of seven sources.
Overall, respondents associated high levels of importance with clean water in all sources, with the greatest proportions indicating that clean water was either highly important or extremely important in drinking water, beaches, and groundwater.
As noted previously, respondents were categorized in three groups according to the overall levels of importance they placed on clean water.
The demographic characteristics of the three groups are shown in Table 2.
Gender and age distributions were similar across the three groups; however, those in the "high" group tended to be more educated than their counterparts in the other two groups.
Preferences for learning about water-related topics were then examined by group.
Figure 1 shows that respondents in the "low" group had relatively lower interest in learning about all water-related topics when compared to the other two groups.
Members of all three groups were most interested in learning about home and garden landscaping in Florida yards.
Members of the "high" group also were interested in learning about fish and wildlife water needs and restoring fish and aquatic habitats.
Members of all three groups were least interested in learning about watershed management and septic system management.
Water Topic Preferences by Importance-of-Clean-Water Group
 Chi-square tests were used for analyzing the relationships between respondents' importance-of-clean-water levels and preferences for learning about water-related topics to determine whether significant differences existed among the three groups.
Table 3 displays the results of the chi-square tests for these relationships.
Preferences for learning about all the water-related topics, except fertilizer and pesticide management, landscape buffers, private well protection, and septic system management, were significantly different among the three groups.
Preferred modes of learning were then examined by group.
All three groups showed similar patterns of learning mode preferences, although the "high" group showed more overall interest.
The most preferred modes of learning were visiting a website and watching TV coverage.
The least preferred modes of learning were attending a seminar or conference and getting trained for a volunteer program.
Chi-square tests were used for analyzing the relationships between respondents' importance-of-clean-water levels and learning mode preferences to determine whether significant differences existed among the three groups.
Learning mode preferences, except reading fact sheets, bulletins, or brochures and reading newspaper articles or series, were significantly different among the three groups.
Florida residents considered the presence of clean water resources important.
A majority of the respondents  had lived in Florida for more than 10 years, so it could be assumed that they were aware of the water issues the state faces.
Respondents in the "high" category expressed the most concern for water quality and, therefore, are most likely to change.
Perhaps relevant Extension programs should be focused on targeting this group initially to capitalize on limited resources.
A gender difference is clearly present in this group; there were more female respondents.
Therefore, designing specialized programs for educating women about protecting water resources could be a wise approach.
Home and garden landscaping, fish and wildlife water needs, and restoring fish and aquatic boundaries are the water-related topics of most interest to the "high" group.
Therefore, when designing Extension programs, educators should consider focusing educational programs on these highly preferred topics and incorporating relevant conversations about water quality to reach audiences with information they are most interested in obtaining.
Visiting websites and watching TV coverage were the most favored learning modes identified, followed by watching videos and reading newspaper articles.
Compared to these categories, respondents' preferences for attending seminars and conferences and getting trained for regular volunteer programs were low.
According to the findings of the study, face-to face approaches, which are the most common way Extension educates currently, seem to be less preferred by the public.
Therefore, a shift in information-disseminating practices may be needed.
Education could be improved through the use of technology because visual learning is greatly preferred by learners.
Technology, such as webinars and online workshops, could be used innovatively to educate the public.
Tests were conducted for determining whether there were differences relative to respondents' importance-of-clean-water levels and preferences for learning about water-related topics.
The results indicated that preferences for learning about fertilizer and pesticide management, landscape buffers, private well protection, and septic system management were positively correlated with respondents' associated importance-of-clean-water levels.
Respondents' preferred to learn more about other water-related topics considered in the study irrespective of their associated importance-of-clean-water levels.
Because the majority of the respondents are willing to visit a website to receive information, developing informative websites and even using social media could be effective strategies.
Differences in the associations between respondents' importance-of-clean-water levels and their preferences for learning by reading fact sheets, bulletins, or brochures or reading newspaper articles also existed.
This finding implies that individuals who assign different levels of importance to clean water have different learning preferences when it comes to reading fact sheets, bulletins, brochures, or newspapers.
For further exploration of public perceptions of water issues, the study described here should be replicated in other states, or on a national level, and the findings should be compared to those presented here.
Florida is a unique state, given the vast use and distribution of water resources combined with an ever-growing and changing population.
It would be informative for Extension educators across the United States to find out whether there are similarities or differences between Florida residents' perceptions about the importance of clean water and those of residents of the rest of the United States.
Social marketing to protect the environment: What works.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Enhancing the capacity to create behavior change: Extension key leaders' opinions about social marketing and evaluation.
Journal of Agricultural Education, 55, 176190.
February 2007 // Volume 45 // Number 1 // Ideas at Work // 1IAW6
 Abstract A workshop series for large water users in the highly populated, urban areas of Utah was developed at the request of several water agencies.
The series of full-day workshops covered irrigation maintenance and scheduling, managing plants during drought conditions, irrigation auditing, and a field exercise to determine irrigation uniformity.
A written survey and evaluation was distributed at the end of each of the workshops and collected from each participant.
Responses to the surveys in 2003 and 2005 were compared to determine program effectiveness.
In Utah, residential water use comprises approximately 67% of per capita water consumption, and two-thirds of that goes toward the irrigation of landscapes containing significant areas of turfgrass.
The rapid population growth that is now occurring in the state, and in the West, will precipitate a huge increase in water demand and economic costs for irrigated landscapes.
For this reason, programs that help landscape managers conserve irrigation water will help meet water conservation goals and supply needs in the future.
Utah State University's  Center for Water Efficient Landscaping's  mission is to promote water conservation and quality through outreach education to the public, the green industry, and water purveyors.
The Extension arm of CWEL disseminates this information to support public education efforts toward water efficient landscaping.
A workshop program was developed by USU Extension/CWEL to address the needs of landscape managers for irrigation education.
An objective of the program has been to collect survey and evaluation information from participants and to adapt the program to lead to increased adoption of the irrigation recommendations and techniques taught in the workshops.
During the summer of 2002, USU Extension/CWEL developed a series of workshops for large water users along the Wasatch Front.
The workshops, which targeted large institutions, public and government agencies, commercial businesses, and homeowner's agencies, were developed at the request of several water agencies in the state and have been offered during every subsequent summer.
The 6-hour workshops are conducted from March through September and are subsidized by supporting water agencies.
Workshop presentations focus on water conservation practices and are organized into four sections:
 Each participant receives a workbook that includes copies of the presentations, key concepts, review questions, and a glossary of terms.
At the end of the workshop, 24 irrigation system evaluation cups and a soil probe are given to each of the participants to help them implement the techniques of the program.
Participants are also asked to complete detailed survey and evaluation forms to assess the effectiveness of the program.
Following the workshop series each year, program evaluation information has been used to adjust the program for the following year.
The results of program surveys and evaluations for 2003  and 2005 program participants  are presented to illustrate response changes over the longest period of time possible.
To date, 578 landscape managers have attended the workshops.
In 2003, there were 84 participants and in 2005, there were 111 participants.
The participants have been employed by:
 The landscaped area managed by workshop participants has ranged from less than 1 acre to several hundred acres, with an overall average of 280 acres.
The total landscaped area affected by the program, therefore, has been approximately 162,000 acres.
The 2003, workshop participants were asked which parts of the program were the least useful and could be omitted.
They were also asked to suggest ways to improve the program.
Although most of the participants stated that nothing should be omitted and that nothing needed to be done to improve the program, some responses to the questions included:
 As a result of these suggestions, a second field exercise and a second exercise involving the calculation of irrigation schedules were added to the program.
Resources addressing sprinkler system maintenance and appropriate plant material choices were added to the workbook.
Additional sections on weather and soil and water interactions have also been included in the workshops.
The responses of program participants to selected questions in 2003 and 2005 are presented in Tables 1-3.
When comparing survey responses of 2003 participants to those of 2005 participants, we found that:
 These findings indicate that the educational message of the workshop series is reaching our target audience of large institutions, public and government agencies, commercial businesses, and homeowner's agencies.
The workshop participants were asked to give an overall evaluation of the program each year by strongly agreeing, agreeing, disagreeing, or strongly disagreeing with several statements.
The vast majority of respondents  in both 2003 and 2005 "strongly agreed" or "agreed" that the:
 Despite the strong positive response to the program from its inception, we have paid close attention to the survey and evaluation responses each year.
Participant suggestions have allowed us to continue making adjustments and improvements to both the instruction and educational materials.
This approach has allowed us to be responsive to participant requests and to keep the program materials current and has encouraged repeat attendance from several program participants.
February 2003 // Volume 41 // Number 1 // Research in Brief // 1RIB6
 Abstract We evaluated the effect of incorporating a sportfishing and environmental curriculum into a short-term summer camp program on participating youths' knowledge of fishing and biology/ecology, awareness of ethical behavior, and attitudes concerning fishing and saving the environment.
Using a pre-/post-survey of camp participants, we determined that the program was successful in developing youth knowledge related to fishing skills and biology/ecology, but did not affect ethical behavior awareness or attitudes of participants.
Although longer-term programs may be needed to affect youth attitudes, camp programs offer the opportunity to increase knowledge among a large number of youth with a minimal investment in staff time.
Traditionally, 4-H is based on a model of long-term club programs.
However, with fewer adults available to serve as club leaders and competing demands on children's time, it is important to consider alternative delivery modes.
Long-term programs focusing on environmental and outdoor education have resulted in increased environmental knowledge, more positive stewardship attitudes, and greater intent to continue outdoor recreation activities.
In some instances, mid-term programs  also resulted in increased environmental knowledge  and more positive environmental attitudes  and promoted personal growth.
However, Shepard and Spieelman  found that week-long camp programs had no effect on environmental attitudes and suggested that effective camp experiences must be longer than a week.
The goal of the research described here was to determine the effect of integrating a sportfishing and environmental curriculum within a 1-week camp program on participating youths' knowledge, awareness, and attitudes.
We focused on the New York State Sportfishing and Aquatic Resources Education Program , a collaborative effort between Cornell University and the NYS Department of Environmental Conservation that seeks to create a new generation of anglers who:
 The specific objective of the study was to determine the effect of a SAREP curriculum being incorporated into a week-long camp program on youth knowledge of:
 Cornell SAREP staff identified four summer camps that agreed to incorporate sportfishing in their programming, including three run by the New York State Department of Environmental Conservation  and one by the Boy Scouts of America.
SAREP then conducted a 1-2 hour training session with participating camp staff, which covered educational strategies and activities appropriate for teaching fishing skills, aquatic biology/ecology, and ethical awareness.
Site visits by SAREP staff during the initial weeks of camp assisted trained camp staff in adapting and implementing the program to meet their specific needs.
Additionally, SAREP provided camp staff with sportfishing equipment and educational materials.
The end result was youth campers ranging from 9-14 years in age being exposed to multiple  50-minute sessions focusing on fishing and aquatic resources skills and knowledge during a one-week camp.
We used a written pre-/post-survey administered to camp youth by counselors to assess knowledge gain and attitudes of participants in the camp fishing programs.
The survey included matching and multiple choice questions focusing on youth knowledge of sportfishing  and fish biology/ecology , and awareness of ethical behavior.
In addition, four questions designed to determine any change in attitude or intended behavior toward fishing and environmental conservation were presented using a five-point Likert scale.
Counselors collected completed surveys and returned them to SAREP staff.
Each survey was scored by hand, and the results were put into an Excel spreadsheet.
The information was treated as paired data and examined with a one-sample t-test on the mean of the differences using MINITAB.
Survey results were examined for total score and separately for the sections that focused on:
 The percent of correct answers provided for questions related to these three sections are referred to as "survey score." Significance was determined for the one-sided change in pre-/post-test survey scores.
The four queries linked to attitude and intended behavior are referred to as "attitude questions" and were examined in a similar manner as the survey score.
Camp assistants returned 127 completed pre-/post-surveys to SAREP staff.
The overall mean survey score improved significantly for youth participating in these summer camp programs.
Participating youth displayed the most gain in fishing and biology/ecology knowledge, and no significant change was observed in ethical behavior awareness scores.
A plot comparing a youth's overall pre-survey versus overall post-survey score demonstrated that youth entering camp with limited knowledge improved their scores the most.
A Comparison of Pre-Survey Scores and Post-Survey Scores for Participants of Mid-Term SAREP Programming
 Attitudes towards fishing and "saving the environment" displayed no significant change except for a diminished belief that fishing was fun.
However, the mean responses at the end of the camp programs on individual questions indicated the youth intended to continue to fish in the future , felt fishing was an enjoyable past-time , and felt saving the environment was important.
The belief that they would be active in saving the environment had a mean score registering between agree and neutral/not sure.
I will continue to fish
 Saving environment is important
 I will be active in saving the environment
 Although the majority  of youth participant responses to attitude questions were similar for the pre-survey and post-survey, an examination of youth who did change their attitude provided useful information about possible mechanisms involved in attitude change.
This examination indicated a relationship between youth who developed a stronger desire to continue fishing in the future and an increase of their fishing knowledge during camp.
Youth who increased their desire to continue fishing were three times as likely to have increased their knowledge at camp, whereas youth who displayed a decreased desire to continue fishing were just as likely to have gained knowledge as remained static or decreased in their scores.
There appeared to be no differences between youth who demonstrated increased knowledge and who remained static or decreased in knowledge on questions relating to a belief that fishing was enjoyable, support for saving the environment, or belief they will be active in saving the environment.
Number of Youth Whose Survey Score Increased
 Number of Youth Whose Survey Score Decreased
 Ratio of Youth Whose Score Increased vs.
Increased desire to continue fishing
 Decreased desire to continue fishing
 Increased belief that fishing is enjoyable
 Decreased belief that fishing is enjoyable
 Stronger support of efforts to save the environment
 Less support of efforts to save the environment
 Stronger belief that they would be active in saving the environment
 Less belief that they would be active in saving the environment
 Youth Knowledge, Awareness, and Attitudes
 The significant increase in fishing and biology/ecology knowledge indicates the potential effectiveness of integrating curriculum within a week-long camp program.
In particular, SAREP was able to meet program goals of youth developing knowledge that will allow them to participate in angling and understand the science associated with aquatic resources.
Such an increase in knowledge is particularly important in angling and other outdoor activities, which require youth to learn the basic information surrounding the activity and then apply that knowledge in different situations.
Survey scores associated with ethical behavior awareness did not improve during the 1-week camp.
However, this category did display the highest percentages of correct responses in both the preand post-survey.
In general, youth demonstrated a high level of ethical awareness surrounding angling rules and littering  and lower awareness concerning specific angling dilemmas related to unused baitfish  and party fishing.
Thus, it appears that situations specific to fishing that required moral reasoning were not successfully shared with campers.
Effective ethics education requires a long-term commitment involving introducing youth to critical moral reasoning development, which then allows them to improve their future ethical fitness.
Only minimal progress can be expected in ethical behavior awareness during a short-term camp program, especially without a concentrated focus on this subject.
Youth attitudes towards continuing to fish and protect the environment in the future did not improve ; over 60% of the youth responded at a similar attitude level in their preand post-surveys for all questions related to attitudes.
Although only a few youths' attitudes worsened, the extreme nature of these shifts produced a negative trend in results.
Obvious concerns arise when programming efforts appear to be counterproductive, but it is possible that factors other than camp programming  were responsible for the negative attitude changes.
Schwartz  found that catching fish was an important part of youth satisfaction.
Catch rates were not calculated for the camps in this study, but reports indicate that most youth did not catch a fish and many probably did not see a fish caught during camp.
A poor fishing experience could explain a decrease in the belief that fishing was an enjoyable past-time and could affect youths' desire to continue fishing in the future.
Relation Between Increased Knowledge and Change in Attitudes
 Summer camps place a heavy emphasis on providing an enjoyable experience, and sometimes fun may be put ahead of the educational message.
Our results indicate that increased knowledge may be related to future behavior.
Despite an overall decrease in the desire to continue fishing , an increase in knowledge was prevalent among youth who demonstrated a stronger desire to fish in the future.
Agreement with the statement that fishing is enjoyable did not appear to be associated with an increase in knowledge; rather it can more likely be linked to the immediate satisfaction of the previous fishing trip as suggested by Schwartz.
The finding that increased knowledge was not associated with changes in attitude towards saving the environment is consistent with recent literature , which recognizes that an increase in environmental knowledge is one component of developing environmental stewardship but that developing knowledge of and practice in citizen action skills is more essential.
Consequently, different strategies and curricula would be needed in order to accomplish SAREP's goal of creating future environmental stewards.
Expanding the Educational Model
 An additional factor that may have influenced our results was the inability of the curriculum to challenge youth who entered camp with higher knowledge levels.
The plot of preand post-survey scores for each participant showed that youth entering camp with limited knowledge were more likely to improve their survey scores.
This information emphasizes the need for a more flexible educational curriculum, especially at summer camps where participants enter with highly variable knowledge levels.
Future efforts involving camps might draw on Extension's experience with multi-aged groups and peer teaching for developing multi-tiered curricula.
Our evaluation of the inclusion of a SAREP curriculum into a week-long camp program can offer some useful insight for Extension educators considering alternatives to the long-term 4-H club delivery mode.
A total of 20 hours was spent training staff at four different camps and in follow-up visits.
With this minimal time investment, SAREP was able to reach over 1,000 youth and to increase their knowledge pertaining to fishing and biology/ecology.
However, we were not able to positively affect ethical behavior awareness or youths' attitudes and behavioral intentions towards fishing and saving the environment.
Extension educators may find similar or greater success when training camp staff to share other skills and activities.
One of the challenges in fishing or other wildlife programs is a limited assurance that fish will be caught or animals viewed.
Thus, programs that offer immediate and reliable successes for youth may be better able to meet their goals of increasing knowledge and enhancing positive attitudes.
On the other hand, whereas it was easy to recruit camps to participate in a fishing program, it may be more difficult to find camps willing to participate in other programs with fewer hands-on activities.
An additional concern for educators utilizing camps as a delivery method is low institutional memory.
Summer camps traditionally have a high turnover of employees, and annual training sessions would be needed to continue these programs.
However, the investment of 20 hours each year to reach over 1,000 youth may be a cost-effective use of Extension staff time.
Gender test differences during an environmental camp.
The Journal of Environmental Education, 17  8-11.
Environmental education at summer camp.
The Journal of Environmental Education, 25  35-41.
A 4-H school enrichment program.
Texas A& M Extension Publication.
documenting standard practices for aquatic resource education.
Report to the U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service Region 5.
Teaching and evaluating outdoor ethics education programs.
National Wildlife Federation publication.
An experiment to assess the various aspects of catching fish on youths' satisfaction with the fishing experience.
Unpublished doctoral dissertation, University of Maryland at College Park.
Affecting environmental attitudes through outdoor recreation.
The Journal of Environmental Education, 17 20-23.
Youth participant outcomes associated with local "Hooked on Fishing--Not on Drugs" programs.
Ithaca, NY: Cornell University, Department of Natural Resources.
October 2001 // Volume 39 // Number 5 // Research in Brief // 5RIB2
 Abstract The study reported here sought to determine the financial management training needs of agricultural producers in Nevada.
Two groups were surveyed via an investigator-designed questionnaire, participants who enrolled in a tax management program and non-participants who chose not to enroll.
The results indicate that the two groups are demographically alike.
While the non-participant group reported lower financial management knowledge, they indicate that they would not be willing to attend future Extension financial management training events.
Therefore, it is recommended that additional study determine why and if a reallocation of resources to reach this group is warranted.
Financial management and record keeping are sought-after topics by farm and ranch owners, particularly beginning farmers.
Education in the use and application of computers is a related topic of importance to these same people.
In the early 1980's, many people felt that computers would be used by more than 80% of the farm and ranch owners by the 1990's.
While this predication may not have been completely accurate, computer usage has certainly increased.
While Bowen, Miller, and Escolme  found that few farmers named Extension personnel as the primary source for microcomputer instruction, it was apparent that Extension was still playing an important role.
In the case of Nevada, financial management and computer training is often combined.
As with other Extension systems, Nevada Cooperative Extension strives to bring relevant educational programs to its clientele.
Seevers, Grahm, Gamon, and Conklin  reported that client satisfaction with Extension programs was of significant importance.
According to Warnock , Cooperative Extension should follow the example set by private businesses and ask their customers, "How are we doing?" Information relative to the beliefs, needs, and behavior of clients can provide valuable input concerning the effectiveness of the programs they attended.
If possible, input should also be sought from those not participating in current programs.
Are they getting their information from others?
Would they be willing to participate in future Extension programs?
Both groups can also provide insight concerning topics for future programming as well as the format for receiving this information.
Answers to these types of questions can improve current instructional efforts and provide insight into developing new learning situations.
Given the emphasis being placed on farm financial management and computer training by Nevada Cooperative Extension , it was necessary to determine producer perceptions related to this training.
Therefore, the study reported here was designed to determine the financial management and computer educational needs of two groups of agricultural producers in Nevada and to determine if there were differences between the two groups.
This information would allow NCE to adjust and adapt current topics, teaching methods, and delivery formats to more closely meet producer needs.
Data were collected from a total of 69 producers.
"Participants" included 33 respondents who previously participated in an Extension tax management program conducted by correspondence.
The 33 respondents represented 44% of the tax course participants.
The second group, "non-participants," consisted of 36 respondents who were randomly selected for telephone interviews.
These 36 had originally been notified about the tax program but chose not to participate.
A closed-form questionnaire consisting of 20 questions was utilized.
The format of the questionnaire included fivepoint Likert type scales, multiple choice selection, and two open-ended questions.
Descriptive and inferential statistics were used to describe the two groups and to determine if there were any differences between them.
The participant group received the questionnaire through the mail, and the non-participant group responded by telephone interview.
Many of the questions contained multiple sections.
Cronbach's alpha was calculated for both groups.
The coefficient for the "participants" was.78 and.82 for the "non-participants." Considering the small N of both groups, the coefficients indicated that the instrument's scales were internally consistent.
Respondents represented 13 of Nevada's 17 counties.
Multiple choice selection type questions were used to gather the data for this section.
There were no statistically significant differences between the two groups when comparing six demographic characteristics.
Combined, the two groups reported that 40% had graduated from college.
Thirty-four percent had attended college, 21% had graduated from high school, and 5% had attended high school.
Sixty-four percent of the respondents reported that farming and/or ranching was their principal occupation.
Sixty percent listed their major agricultural activity as livestock, 38% crop production, and 2% some type of agribusiness enterprise.
Thirty-two percent reported working 200 days or more off-farm, while 68% worked less than 200 days off-farm.
Gross income from farming and/or ranching activities was also reported.
Forty-four percent of the respondents reported gross earnings of less than $50,000, 22 percent between $50,000 and $100,000, and one-third had gross earnings in excess of $100,000.
Forty-four percent of the respondents had owned their farm or ranch for 4 years or less, 28% between 5 and 9 years, and 62% for 10 years or more.
Knowledge and Use of Economic and Financial Management Techniques
 This section  revealed the respondents' perceptions concerning their level of expertise in economics and financial management, and whether their level of expertise was a limiting factor when analyzing the financial performance of their operation.
Also measured were the respondents' knowledge and skill level with several financial management procedures.
The data were gathered using five-point Likert type scales.
The respondents reported that they had come to rely on financial management techniques and that they had a moderate level of expertise with these techniques.
They did not report having many problems in analyzing the business performance of their operation because they did not feel that their level of expertise was a limiting factor.
They did report relying on others for help.
The only statistically significant differences between the groups in this section was the fact that the participant group tended to rely more heavily on others for help than did the non-participant group.
Respondents were also asked to indicate their familiarity with certain financial statements.
To measure this variable, respondents were asked to indicate their level of use of the financial statements shown in Table 2.
While there were several individuals using computers with these procedures, the majority was using the statements without a computer.
There were statistically significant differences between the groups concerning their level of knowledge and skill associated with enterprise budgets and farm/ranch accounting.
Knowledge and Use of Computer Technology
 The data were gathered for this section by multiple choice type questions.
There were no statistically significant differences between the two groups concerning their knowledge and use of computer technology.
Seventy-three percent of the respondents owned a computer, and 27% did not.
The participant group had owned a computer slightly longer than the non-participant group, 7.2 years versus 5.5 years.
Only 32% of the respondents reported using spreadsheets to keep production records, and 45% used spreadsheets for financial record keeping.
While the percentage of respondents not using spreadsheets to keep production or financial management records may seem low, many respondents did report using other software packages to keep this same information.
Fifty percent had access to email and 51% to the Internet, although 49% of them reported never accessing the Internet.
However, another 11% did access the Internet two to four times per year, 2% on a monthly basis, and 38% on a weekly basis.
In addition, a majority, 60%, clearly felt that their computers had already paid for themselves.
Twenty-nine percent said that their computers had not yet paid for themselves but that they eventually would, and 11% felt they would never pay for themselves.
Program Planning for Future Extension Events
 Five-point Likert type questions were used to gather data in this section.
Respondents were asked if they would be willing to attend future training sessions aimed at improving their economic and financial management skills.
While both groups indicated yes, the participant group was much more enthusiastic in their support.
There were also several differences between the two groups when selecting future topics for instruction.
There were significant differences between the two groups on five out of seven of the topics shown in Table 3.
While both chose financial management and farm and ranch accounting for the top two topics, there was no real consensus after that other than that both groups ranked estate tax planning in 4th place.
In addition to ranking topics for future training, respondents were also asked to rank the format in which they preferred to receive future training,.
There were two statistically significant differences between the two groups, and they concerned home self-study and Internet classes as delivery methods.
The non-participant group ranked both Internet and home self-study courses lower than the participant group.
The first question asked the respondents about the major limitation that they faced in managing the financial aspects of their production operation.
Their responses included generation changes , lack of computer knowledge, low profitability, a lack of time to get everything done, and the small-scale of their operation.
The second question asked the respondents what they thought Nevada Cooperative Extension might do to help overcome these limitations.
Additional training provided by Nevada Cooperative Extension was the most common answer.
The suggested training included cash management, how to borrow money, and computer classes.
Another important suggestion was that Nevada Cooperative Extension should provide family ranch management facilitators to work with ranch families.
Demographically, the two groups were very similar.
They were also very similar when measuring their knowledge and use of computer technology.
The non-participant group chose not to participate in the tax program because they apparently do not rely on others as much as the participant group for help in planning and analyzing the financial aspects of their agricultural operation.
In addition, they were not as willing to participate in future Cooperative Extension training sessions as the participant group even if the training was aimed at improving their economic and financial management skills.
This unwillingness to participate may be due to the fact that they rate their level of economic and financial management expertise higher than did the group that participated.
However, it is interesting to note that the non-participant group rated their level of knowledge and skill with six business management tools relatively lower than did the participant group.
Neither group, however, rated their economic knowledge and use of financial management techniques as very high.
The participant group clearly wants additional financial management training and would definitely attend future Extension financial management training events.
They also rated the potential topics higher than did the non-participant group.
This is consistent with the fact that they rated their level of economic and financial management expertise relatively lower than did the non-participant group, and they also relied more heavily on others for assistance with financial management issues.
The non-participant group clearly indicated that they were not interested in home self-study and Internet classes.
There is some indication that this group has a preference for gathering information for specific questions.
Although the two groups manage similar businesses that require the same information in order to make management decisions, they apparently gather their information in different ways.
While we have considerable information on our current audience, we know very little about the non-participant group.
The implication exists that under current programming efforts, Extension is not meeting the educational needs of the non-participant group.
However, based upon this group's self-reported low usage level of several financial statements, the implication also exists that their level of knowledge on the subject is so minimal that they cannot make an informed decision.
This situation raises several interesting issues.
Extension should continue to meet the needs of the participant group concerning financial management and computer training.
However, because little is known about the non-participant group, feedback should be sought from this group in order to learn more about their educational needs.
The non-participating group apparently gets its information from a source other than Extension.
This raises several questions that should be answered:
 The development of relevant educational programming is a problem faced by all Extension personnel at one time or another.
Nevada is not unique in this situation, nor is it limited to financial management programming alone.
With the continually changing structure of agriculture and overall population demographics that are occurring in the United States, Extension personnel in all disciplines must re-examine their programming efforts in order to better meet the needs of groups that are not currently participating in Extension programs.
Learning more about potential Extension clientele, i.e., non-participants, may raise issues and concerns that were not previously considered.
While it may be uncomfortable to address these potential new issues, doing so can provide educational rewards for both Extension personnel and the once non-participating group.
What do you know about your clients?
Financial management 101 curriculum guide.
Reno: University of Nevada Cooperative Extension.
Education through Cooperative Extension.
Albany, NY: Delmar Publishers.
February 2014 // Volume 52 // Number 1 // Tools of the Trade // v52-1tt7
 Simply put, America needs new farmers.
However, support for new farmers is more complex than training up a new cohort.
The average age of farmers is 57 and rising , and reasons for farmer and farmland loss are multifaceted.
Farming continually grows more financially challenging, in part due to diminishing supplies of affordable inputs and competition with global exports.
Constraints vary, and reasons families do not stay in farming are often based around very personal, complex situations.
There is also increasing interest, from many non-farmers, in exploring farming as a new career.
This is encouraging, but constraints deter aspiring farmers from pursuit of their dreams.
These include access to land, access to capital, and farm business planning training and support.
The terminology "incubator farm" is fairly new and still somewhat variable in meaning.
An incubator farm is typically a place where people are given temporary, exclusive, and affordable access to small parcels of land and infrastructure, and often training, for the purpose of honing skills and launching farm businesses.
A 2012 database developed by New Entry Sustainable Farming Project at Tufts University catalogued 61 programs across North America that consider themselves land-based incubator farms , with three of those programs in North Carolina.
Today, we are aware of nine distinct programs in NC.
The theory of change behind incubator farm development is: By providing opportunities for new farmers to access land, develop the skill set and experience essential to run a successful farm, and help developing a business plan, these farmers have a better chance of securing capital, accessing their own land, and ultimately being successful in achieving their farm business goals.
This theory of change is based upon assumptions:
 To better understand the current design of incubator farm programs, we collected information on a sub-sample of programs from NC and around the U.S.
.
Programs selected represent outwardly successful, longer-running incubator programs as a beginning guide to possible approaches to establishing future programs.
Review of the programs included interviews with key staff members and data gathered from program websites.
Salinas and Las Lomas, CA
 Ownership: City of Burlington, Intervale Center, and private landowners.
Friends of Breeze is a 5013 that receives tax deductible contributions.
Ownership: NC State University.
Part-time farmer liaison/farm manager.
Many incubator farms are reporting strong interest and participation.
In North Carolina, educational workshops at three Extension-associated incubator farms are eliciting annual interest from 25-50 participants.
Generally, 10-15% of those participants go on to use incubator land to start their businesses.
Interest in the programs increases each year, despite lack of focused recruitment activities, highlighting the participant need for the program offerings in these particular programs:
 Some incubator farms work across the value chain, i.e.
a food systems approach to local food economic development.
For example, several incubator farms have established associated marketing programs, providing market outlets for participants and, in some cases, generating program revenue.
This value-chain approach to beginning farmer support may encourage:
 The number of incubator farms in North America is increasing.
It is evident from the distinct programs across North Carolina and the country that many communities consider incubator farms an idea ripe for exploration for beginning farmer support.
Throughout its history, Extension has:
 We believe incubator farms are worthy of continued exploration and research, and have the potential to influence food system change locally.
In order for programs to support this local change, we conclude:
 Developing programs in adult education.
Prospect Heights, IL: Waveland Press.
Planning the future of your farm: A workbook supporting farm transfer decisions.
Chapel Hill, NC: Author.
From farm to fork: A guide to building North Carolina's sustainable local food economy (p.
Taking the university to the people: Seventy-five years of Cooperative Extension.
Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press.
National incubator farm training initiative.
Symposium conducted at the Southeast Beginning Farmer Conference.
August 2011 // Volume 49 // Number 4 // Feature // v49-4a8
 Producers and industry professionals who manage or influence 1 500 000 ha cropland attend Crop Management Diagnostic Clinic  training by University of Nebraska-Lincoln  Extension.
From 2003 to 2007, 47 CMDC field days were held in which in-field problem solving exercises were used to teach a systems approach to crop management and diagnostics.
The subject matter included 141, 137, 72, and 38 sessions on crop protection, crop production, soil and water management, and nutrient management, respectively.
Most attendees were agribusiness personnel who are a major source of advice for crop producers.
Many other advisors and producers also attended.
Most were experienced and working with already fine-tuned production systems.
Thus, adoption of new practices and improvement in skills can only be modest for such people.
However, modest changes over much production area can have significant impact.
Some practices are more readily adopted than others.
Rogers  reported that relative advantage, compatibility with the farming system, complexity, trialability, and observability of practices affect their adoptability.
Cost of adoption is also important.
Adoption typically occurs in an "S-curve" because of early adoption by a few, followed by a period of rapid adoption, and then a reduced rate of adoption.
An on-line survey was conducted to address four objectives: 1) determine if respondent characteristics were related to the impact of CMDC on skill gain and change in behavior; 2) evaluate the roles of relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, cost, trialability, observability, and newness of practices in adoption or skill gain; 3) access the economic impact of CMDC; and 4) determine opportunities for improving CMDC.
In February to March 2008, requests to participate in the on-line survey were emailed to 652 attendees of one or more CMDCs held since 2003.
The response rate was 23%.
Respondents provided information about themselves and their operations, including profession, level of education, years of farming, area of row crops, and frequency of attending CMDC.
They were asked to answer questions relating to all subject matter areas addressed at the CMDC, even if they did not attend an event addressing a specific topic.
Respondents estimated the value of the CMDC training specifically for the area farmed or influenced; economic impact was calculated after halving the land area influenced by advisors, realizing that land typically is influenced by several advisors, although not all participated in CMDC.
Suggestions for improvement of CMDC were requested.
The authors subjectively characterized management practices for the importance of seven factors that may affect adoption: relative economic or yield advantage; compatibility with the cropping system and available equipment, skills, and services; complexity to understand and manage for good implementation; trialability or ease of verification that the practice is effective; observability or ease of observing the benefits of the practice; newness or novelty; and implementation cost.
In relating diagnostic skills to crop production problems, the problems were similarly characterized for: relative economic or yield advantage; observability or ease of observing the benefits of the practice; newness or novelty; and frequency of occurrence.
Means, 95% confidence limits, and Pearson correlation coefficients were calculated using Statistix 8.
Pearson correlation coefficients were considered significant at P < 0.1.
The respondents included 21 producers, 95 agribusiness sales and advisory personnel, seven independent consultants, and 25 who selected "other" for profession.
The non-producers, considered advisors in this study, reported that they influenced production practices on an average of 10 900 ha each.
Producers farmed an average of 458 ha of row crops.
Respondents were generally well educated and experienced in crop production.
Advisors were 45% more likely to have an associate or higher college degree in agriculture compared with the producers.
Use of recommendations pre-CMDC was greater if farming or advising on more acres.
Those who attended CMDC more frequently had less adoption before attending CMDC , but pre-CMDC adoption was not related to other characteristics.
In contrast, Alexander and Mellor  found that producer age was important to adoption of corn rootworm resistant hybrids with adoption peaking at 48 years of age but that farm size was not important to adoption.
Education level often is important to respondents' perception of their knowledge and use of technology prior to training.
Only years of attending CMDC was related to change caused by CMDC.
Payback on investment, such as in the use of guidance systems and yield mapping, is expected to be greater with more land farmed resulting in increased adoption , but this was not the case in the study reported here.
Responding CMDC attendees, however, may not fully represent Nebraska's producer and advisor population and may have a greater than average interest in alternative production technology.
Over a third of the respondents reported being capable in identification of crop growth stages and weeds.
Many were relatively weak in identification of problems associated with growth stages and disease injury.
Pre-CMDC, advisors were relatively unskilled in diagnosis of diseases, herbicide injuries, and nutrient deficiencies compared with other skills, and producers were weakest in diagnosis of nutrient deficiencies.
Producers expressed 22% more confidence than advisors in soil fertility management.
Most respondents reported a slight to moderate increase in all diagnostic and soil fertility management skills as a result of attending CMDC, with no significant difference by topic in gain in skill.
Most respondents expressed confidence in identifying bean leaf beetle and corn rootworm adults pre-CMDC.
Respondents reported the greatest gain  in identification skill for soybean aphid, spider mites, and soybean defoliating insects.
Both producers and advisors reported >50% adoption or recommendation of genetically modified varieties pre-CMDC.
Both advisors and producers used genetically modified  resistance more in corn borer compared with rootworm management pre-CMDC, probably because of earlier availability of the resistance for corn borer management.
Respondents had less adoption of guidance systems for spatially accurate equipment operation and yield mapping for spatially variable crop management compared with GM varieties , possibly because many seed dealers attend CMDC.
Producers did not attribute a significant increase in the use of guidance systems to CMDC but use of yield variability data increased by 35%.
Advisors reported a gain of 21% for use of guidance systems and 23% for use of yield variability in crop management as a result of CMDC.
Respondents were managing soil fertility according to UNL recommendations and practicing no-till or other conservation practices >50% of the time pre-CMDC.
Respondents reported mean increases in use of UNL recommendations for nutrient management of 8% for advisors and 16% for producers.
The mean CMDC impact on soil K management was not greater than zero for producers and small for advisors but this topic was not much addressed in CMDC; soil K availability is generally not yield limiting in Nebraska and application typically is not profitable.
Increases in adoption of reduced tillage and other conservation practices of 8% for advisors and 13% for producers were attributed to CMDC.
Advisors reported less monitoring of crop water use and soil water pre-CMDC compared with producers but adoption of monitoring crop water use and soil moisture increased by 32% for advisors and 28% for producers as a result of CMDC.
Respondents reported mean gains of 16% in adoption of weed management practices as a result of CMDC.
Advisers reported high gains in frequency of advising on the use on non-herbicide weed management strategies and producers reported a large gain in applying information on the selection of herbicides.
Respondents credited CMDC for adoption of management practices for reducing the potential of developing weed resistance to herbicides, including rotation of herbicide modes of action.
The impact of CMDC was relatively great for improved irrigation scheduling and nozzle performance and less for use of soil moisture sensors and surge valves.
All practices had significant adoption pre-CMDC, but CMDC resulted in increased skills and adoption for all but a few practices.
The significant adoption pre-CMDC may suggest that CMDC is not sufficiently at the cutting-edge and fails to introduce new practices for the early adopters.
This would probably be a misinterpretation, however, because many topics addressed in CMDC were not specifically addressed in the survey.
Also, the survey questions were generally broadly stated, encompassing numerous, and often novel, elements of a practice, such as N management.
Adoption rates indicate that priority topics for future events appear to be GM technology for pest management, yield map and other spatial information, development of weed resistance to herbicides, improvement of disease diagnostic skills, N use, and irrigation.
Producers and advisors adopted similar production practices pre-CMDC.
Compatibility of a production practice to the cropping system was important to pre-CMDC adoption by producers  and advisors.
The impact of CMDC on producer adoption was related to the relative agronomic or economic advantage of a practice.
Impact of CMDC advisors' recommendations was related to practice complexity , trialability , and compatibility with the system.
Adoption by producers resulting from CMDC was less with more pre-CMDC adoption , indicating that newness of the practice was important.
With these exceptions, changes in practices or recommendations as a result of CMDC were not related to relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, cost, trialability, observability, newness, or cost of the practice.
Other factors may affect adoption.
Changing situations may affect adoption; e.g., higher energy costs and increased concern for water and N use efficiency may have contributed to the relatively high adoption of monitoring of crop water use and soil water.
Some practices, such as surge valves to improve irrigation efficiency, become less relevant with time, while many shifted from furrow to sprinkler irrigation.
Some practices have trade-offs that affect adoption; e.g., no-till was promoted for numerous benefits, and respondents reported little use of tillage in weed management to avoid development of herbicide resistant weeds as a result of CMDC.
Observability was important to ability to diagnose crop problems  pre-CMDC for producers  and advisors.
Observability was, however, negatively correlated to gains in diagnostic ability resulting from CMDC; this was an indirect relationship because gain was negatively correlated to pre-CMDC ability, and the gains in diagnostic ability were similar for the different crop problems.
Observability was likely related to knowledge level pre-CMDC and important to impact attributed to CMDC.
For example, respondents were very familiar with bean leaf beetle, grasshoppers, and corn rootworm adults before CMDC, but CMDC most affected skills in identifying soybean defoliators, which many did not know pre-CMDC.
Common occurrence of the problem was correlated to producers' pre-CMDC diagnostic ability.
Relative importance and newness of the problem were not related to diagnostic ability.
Producers and advisors had similar strengths and weaknesses in diagnosis as indicated by a high correlation coefficient.
Observability was also important to producer ability to diagnose insect pests  pre-CMDC.
Advisors were better able to identify insect pests of greater agronomic or economic importance  and less able to identify newer pests.
The pre-CMDC skills of producers and advisors for diagnosis of insect pests were similar.
The gain in pest identification skill due to CMDC was not related to commonness, observability, agronomic or economic importance, or newness of the pest, except that advisors gained less skill for newer pests.
Compatibility with the cropping system, economic or agronomic advantage, and other characteristics of management practices were related to adoption.
These characteristics, however, failed to account for much of the variation in adoption of different practices.
These characteristics should, therefore, be considered in prioritizing practices to promote, but the balance of other characteristics is also important.
The best integrator of CMDC impact was the effect on gross annual production and income.
Producers reported that CMDC resulted in mean yield increases of 0.26 Mg ha-1 yr-1 corn and 0.17 Mg ha-1 yr-1 soybean.
The mean production increase per producer was 59 and 37 Mg yr-1 of corn and soybean, respectively, which gives a total mean gross income increase of $19 950 yr-1 assuming corn and soybean values of $150 and $300 Mg-1.
Advisors reported mean yield increases due to CMDC of 0.30 Mg ha-1 yr-1 corn and 0.12 Mg ha-1 yr-1 soybean for land that they influence, but many appeared to over-estimate their influence, and CMDC impact was capped at 0.25 Mg ha-1 yr-1 corn and 0.12 Mg ha-1 yr-1 soybean.
The value of production increases resulting from CMDC was $17 500 000 yr-1 for the 127 advisors and 21 producers who responded.
Assuming this annual impact is good for a mean of 5 years, the total impact for the respondents was about $87 000 000.
If impact was similar for the remaining 77% of attendees, total CMDC impact on production may be $76 000 000 yr-1, equivalent to 1.2% of the value of Nebraska's corn and soybean production.
The most effective learning methods were hands-on experiences and talking to agricultural professionals.
Least effective were the press and other media.
Most suggested that the CMDC format should not be changed, but some suggested having more outside speakers.
More networking time and having 2-hour in-depth presentations were least suggested.
Respondents' suggestions for improvement in CMDC
 Adoption of most management practices and skill levels were significantly increased because of attending CMDC.
Producers and agricultural advisors have similar interests, but factors affecting adoption differ.
Producer adoption was most affected by the agronomic or economic advantage of a practice.
Advisors tended to gain most from CMDC in advising on relatively complex practices, practices that were relatively difficult to verify and practices that were not highly compatible with existing cropping systems and available skills.
The impact of CMDC on production and gross income was tremendous.
The hands-on experiences of CMDC are very important, and the field day format may be improved by having more outside speakers.
We are grateful to Mark Bernards, Paul Hay, Tamra Jackson, Paul Jasa, and Lowell Sandell for their contributions to the design of this survey.
Determinants of corn rootworm resistant corn adoption in Indiana.
The development of American agriculture: A historical analysis.
University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis MN.
New York: Free Press.
High yield corn response to applied phosphorus, potassium, and sulfur in Nebraska.
October 2017 // Volume 55 // Number 5 // Tools of the Trade // v55-5tt1
 Extension professionals are tasked with taking research from the university to the public.
Increasingly, Extension's audiences are using mobile technology.
In 2013, Pew Research reported that cell phone ownership in the United States reached 91%, making it the fastest consumer technology to achieve that adoption rate in about 30 years.
Moreover, cell phone adoption is relatively high among populations that are perceived as slow adopters of new technology.
For example, those living in rural communities, those without a college education, those earning less than $30,000 per year, and those aged 5564 have adoption rates of 85% or greater.
In that same Pew survey, 56% of respondents reported owning a smartphone, which provides access to the Internet.
Among African Americans and Hispanics, smartphone use is higher  than it is among Whites .
Social media platforms and applications that can support Extension have been described , yet widespread adoption of new technologies by Extension professionals has been slower to take hold.
In this article, we describe how and when to use texting to enhance Extension programming, using two projects as illustrations.
Mobile Squared Marketing estimates that 90% of text messages are read within 3 min of delivery and that over 99% of all text messages are read by the recipient.
In our first example project, readers of the Iowa State University Extension and Outreach Science of Parenting  blog were asked to sign up to receive text notifications about new blog content.
Users could sign up to receive the text notifications by texting the keyword "sciparent" to a short code number.
This sign-up option was advertised on the blog and on applicable social media sites.
We hoped that such text notifications would encourage readers to access the blog content while they were using their phones so that locating the blog would be easy and convenient for them.
At the same time, we disseminated the same message via Twitter.
Marketing researchers have stated that effective messages should be brief, funny, and/or entertaining; relevant to the target group; and distinctive and informative.
We provided a brief message identifying the topic of the blog for the week as a teaser to induce people to immediately access the blog.
Each week when a new blog post was made, a text message with a direct link to the new post was sent, along with a tweet on Twitter.
The basic text plan we chose limited us to texting only; we could not also connect with social media sites such as Facebook and Twitter.
This meant we had to post texts and tweets separately.
Also, because of limitations on the number of characters we were allowed on the basic plan, we could not include a picture or even much of a "teaser" in a text message, both of which we could do on Twitter.
On the other hand, an advantage to texting was that texts could be created and scheduled to go out at future dates all in one sitting at the computer.
Google Analytics data indicated that we had more visitors to the blog who got there by clicking links from Twitter than visitors who signed up for the text messages and then clicked a link in a text to reach the blog.
Given the amount of extra work required to create, schedule, and deliver the texts, we came to the conclusion that this approach was not a good use of the technology.
Our second example involves the use of text-based marketing with a parent education course titled Thrive by 5.
In the course, we teach parents easy ways to use children's books and related activities to provide literacy-rich environments for their infants, toddlers, and preschoolers.
In this case, the texts were reminders and tips related to strategies the parents had learned in class , along with attendance reminders.
The content of the texts mirrored the content of the class for the week.
For example, we might text "When you are reading with your child, ask what will happen next" after a class session focusing on asking questions during reading.
Parents received two texts per week on average, in addition to completing checklists to report the activities and strategies they used at home.
At the end of the course, all parents rated the texting positively and further indicated that they would like to receive texts more often than 2 days a week.
In this example, texting was appropriate and welcomed by the target audience.
Parents reported that the texts helped them remember to practice strategies they learned in class and that a daily reading or parenting tip would be something they would appreciate and use.
After using text messaging to enhance two Extension projects, we concluded that the first method, using texts to increase readership of a blog, was not an effective use of texting.
A national blog is more of a "newsfeed" type platform that does not involve the back-and-forth dialogue that offers readers a personal trusting relationship.
Without that relationship, readers may not feel comfortable providing their cell phone numbers.
With the second approach, texting was effective.
The purpose was much more specific and tailored to the activities of a class the participants were engaged in.
Additionally, we had a relationship with the participants.
The texts we sent would not have made sense on social media because the target audience was small.
We found that texting can be a good way to reach a specific audience with a specific message and ensure that they read the message.
In other words, using a texting program may be more beneficial with a smaller group or with clientele with whom a trusted relationship has been established.
As with other tools we in Extension use, just having the tool is not enough.
Knowing how and when to use the tool is an important lesson learned.
Journal of Interactive Marketing, 16, 1424.
June 2017 // Volume 55 // Number 3 // Tools of the Trade // v55-3tt1
 One of the first on-the-job realizations new Extension educators have is that how you deliver information to your audiences is as important as the content of that information.
Extension educators often focus too much on the content of the information they provide and too little on the processes through which adults can be engaged and motivated to adopt new practices or make changes in behavior.
As well, audiences may be motivated to put into practice recommendations received during a learning activity partially because they felt individually respected and valued by the instructor.
As new educators soon learn, generating a change in behavior, practice, or belief requires a much more sophisticated science and art than simply selecting the correct information to deliver.
Eventually, most successful and experienced Extension educators develop a portfolio of methodologies that they can customize to the characteristics of their audiences and educational scenarios.
That these methodological skills are critical to their success as an educator is often recognized by both educators and their supervisors.
However, even though these skills may distinguish successful educators from their less successful peers, the skill sets are more commonly developed through individual trial and effort than through systematic professional development across the organization.
One such skill set includes facilitating learning , distinguishing facilitation from more traditional teaching, and knowing when to use each methodology.
Most degreed professionals are comfortable and familiar with the teaching methodologies most often used in high school and college classeslecture, lecture-demonstration, and out-of-class assignments.
Fewer come to their Extension careers with the facilitation skills needed to effectively engage adult learners.
Over the last decade, certain authors have pointed out the need for facilitation skills in Extension work.
Cyr  demonstrated that in-depth facilitation training and practice can effectively prepare Extension staff to help groups achieve positive change.
Rilla, Paterson, Manton, and Day  described how facilitative strategies emphasizing process, relationships, and results made a difference in meeting effectiveness and benefited community efforts.
Haskell and Prichard  reported changing meetings from inefficient to productive and enjoyable through a replicable facilitative focus on process and preparation.
Each of these discussions focused on the efficacy of facilitation to group process.
Extension professionals also have noted the need for facilitation skills in resolving conflict.
Cooley  pointed out that Extension educators across the country were being asked at the time to address conflict-laden public issues with minimal encouragement and incentive.
He argued for performance evaluation guidelines that would encourage and reward the use of nontraditional teaching paradigms such as facilitation and conflict resolution.
Later, Corp and Darnell  argued that Extension faculty should play a role in developing community capacity to resolve conflicts, noting that facilitation is a role Extension is uniquely suited to fill and recommending that Extension staff be trained in facilitation.
In addition to its use in group process and conflict resolution, facilitation has a role in individual learning.
As distinguished from traditional teaching, facilitated learning has certain advantages.
It engages the learner in his or her own learning and places responsibility for successful educational outcomes largely on the learner.
It focuses on real-life issues and practical solutions.
It identifies alternatives and connects choices to consequences and outcomes.
It essentially elevates the status of the learner relative to the teacher or trainer and synergizes the contribution of learners to the educational process.
If educators use facilitative learning techniques effectively, they can meaningfully affect the lives of learners, not only by imparting information on a specific topic but also by empowering learners to use that information to improve their well-being overall.
Although teaching and facilitating are not mutually exclusive processes, each method has a set of characteristics that distinguishes it from the other.
The paired dichotomies in Table 1 can help newcomers to educational methodology make a general distinction between traditional teaching and facilitating.
In spite of the advantages of facilitative learning, it is not the best method for every educational scenario.
For example, if the purpose of a session is to provide instructions about how to accomplish a work task or use a piece of farm or lab equipment, it is more straightforward to simply use instruction.
If the purpose is to persuade participants to take a certain action or adopt a practice, prearranged testimony about that action might be more effective than two-way discussion.
Facilitation is best done with an informal seating arrangement, so if the only space available is set up in a formal arrangement, with all the seating facing the front, the instructor may not have the option of using facilitative techniques.
The amount of time scheduled for the session also may dictate whether the instructor chooses teaching or facilitation.
If there is only a short amount of timesay 45 min or lessto deliver information, it may be better delivered quickly and efficiently through teaching.
In most cases, a certain amount of trust is required for the individual members of a group to feel comfortable sharing information or expressing opinions.
If group participants are strangers and the time available is inadequate for establishing trust through group activities or discussion, it may be preferable to deliver information using teaching techniques.
Although articles cited herein mention the use of facilitative techniques for resolving conflict, facilitative conflict resolution requires a precise set of skills and a negotiation process that can take some time.
There are times, however, when agents may need to deliver information about politically charged or controversial topics.
In cases in which opening up the topic to discussion may lead to polarization of opinions or outright conflict, or when the instructor knows that one or two participants may dominate discussion, the preferred technique may be to deliver information quickly and efficiently through teaching.
Table 2 can provide guidance as to which method is preferable under different educational scenarios.
Both teaching and facilitation are effective instructional techniques, but each is appropriate for particular educational objectives and scenarios.
Instructors who are able to apply both methods strategically and effectively can realize greater success in delivering information and empowering Extension audiences with insight and confidence in its use.
June 2013 // Volume 51 // Number 3 // Research In Brief // v51-3rb2
 Like many programs that serve a diverse age range of youth, the 4-H organization's participation levels reflect highest among elementary schooland middle school-aged youth.
Although these programs are critical in helping youth gain access to positive youth development, there has been a noticeable decline in enrollment numbers in subsequent years.
As a result, youth development professionals have expressed concern that young people enrolled in youth programs tend to drop out as they reach early adolescence.
This is occurring at a stage of life when they are in most need of the constructive opportunities that structured youth programs can provide.
There has been some discourse that suggests that the opportunities available to youth correlate with their participation within an organization.
Hence, youth development professionals are challenged with not only retaining youth in programs, but also keeping them fully engaged in activities they enjoy while promoting skill development.
Scholars have identified several factors that affect youth enrollment in 4-H.
From the relationships established through friendships that maintain participation  to the unique leadership experiences that boosts confidence and abilities as decision makers, there are clear benefits that can motivate youth to remain engaged.
No programs in 4-H have been immune to the difficulties of youth retention.
One experiencing such rapid decline in participation is the 4-H Livestock program.
The purpose of the study reported here was to gain an in-depth understanding of youth participation levels in county 4-H programs.
The primary goal was to determine if youth involved in the 4-H livestock program had higher retention rates  than those participants who were not enrolled in the livestock programs.
The authors aimed to address the following objectives:
 The approach of the study consisted of a qualitative methods design in nature, to examine retention of youth participating in county-based 4-H programs.
An evaluation tool was developed by the researchers to assess the perceptions of youth participating in 4-H programs, more specifically those in livestock and non-livestock related programs.
The study design was a static  group comparison, gathering data one point in time.
The tool used both multiple choice and open-ended questions.
Multiple-choice questions were used to compare participation levels of the youth participants.
Those items that were structured as open-ended questions allowed the participants to reveal information based on their experiences.
The evaluation tool was administered to 160 youth  across 10 Kentucky counties.
Those youth who were not enrolled in livestock programs participated in various 4-H initiatives, including SET projects, leadership development, natural resources, shooting sports, gardening, photography, public speaking, and fashion.
The participants involved in 4-H were purposefully selected as a sample of convenience.
Therefore, the generalizability of the results does not extend beyond these participants/groups.
There were more non-livestock youth in elementary grades than those participating in livestock programs.
For the middle school age range, there was a larger number of livestock participants compared to non-livestock participants.
The livestock and non-livestock programs had similar numbers for high school-aged youth.
The trend of declining populations of older youth in 4-H was revealed in the findings.
For both groups, high school-aged youth only represented 24% of the total number of those surveyed within each group.
While the livestock program had more  middle school-aged youth, the non-livestock group only had 11 youth in this age grouping.
Based on the data collected, participants in non-livestock programs reflect the trend of youth dropping out beginning in early adolescence, more specifically around 11-13 years of age.
The livestock youth in the study had an increase in participation levels within elementary and middle school, with a noticeable decline in high school-aged youth.
Table 1 indicates that 4-H youth professionals may witness moderate increases among livestock participants in elementary school, as compared to more significant decreases in participation among students in middle school and those entering high school.
The data from the study revealed that youth participating in the livestock program stay enrolled in the 4-H program longer than those in non-livestock programs.
The data shows that 43% of all the livestock youth were enrolled longer than 4 years, while only 15% of non-livestock youth were enrolled for the same period of time.
When examining those new to 4-H, 43% of participants in non-livestock programs responded that they had been enrolled less than 1ne year, while only 20% of livestock youth were new to the organization.
In regards to those participants who considered dropping out of 4-H, similar numbers of non-livestock and livestock youth were found.
Approximately 10% of the non-livestock youth and 13% of the livestock youth had thought of dropping out of 4-H at some point in time.
The most popular reason was due to time constraints.
Youth also indicated being "bored with learning the same things," as well as "disagreeing with all the rules," and "having other interests" as reasons why they considered dropping out.
Both groups were asked why they joined 4-H.
Overall, there were several meaningful reasons why youth join 4-H, many of which have been similar to reasons discovered in other related studies.
Table 3 provides information on the various reasons young people still choose 4-H as an organization of choice.
Seventy percent of the livestock youth responded that they joined 4-H because their "family was involved in 4-H".
These findings build upon previous research indicating that parents have a large influence on a young person's choice to join 4-H.
On the other hand, only 27% of the non-livestock youth indicated that family was a reason they joined 4-H.
Sixty-nine percent of livestock youth indicated that "participating in other 4-H events"  was a reason for joining 4-H, while 51% of the non-livestock youth noted this as a priority.
Table 4 illustrates the participants' responses to why they stayed involved in 4-H.
Fun/Enjoyment was the most common answer among both livestock and non-livestock youth, followed by other responses.
Data collected shows that participants in non-livestock programs follows the trend addressed by Russell and Heck , Nutt , and Harder et al.
, that young people enrolled in 4-H youth development programs tend to drop out as they approach early adolescence.
The livestock youth in the study reflect the findings of Albright , that there is a tendency for declines in high school-aged youth participation.
Within the study, the number of livestock youth decreased significantly between the number of eighth graders who participated  and the number of ninth grade participants.
The decline in older youth participation is often attributed to opportunities outside of an organization.
In the middle and high school years, youth have more opportunities of interest that are available to them , in addition to having more responsibilities.
While these activities are typically viewed as common reasons why youth drop out of 4-H, there is very little research documenting this claim.
The current study found that conflicts with other activities were indeed a major factor in the retention of older 4-H youth.
Time constraints were the most popular answer when asked if the youth had ever thought of dropping out of 4-H.
Even some programs within 4-H requires youth to commit significant time and energy towards activities and service.
For instance, youth involved in the livestock program dedicate considerable amounts of time toward the care, training, and exhibiting of their livestock, as well as adhering to the required guidelines in order to exhibit in any shows.
Between these rules and the amount of time necessary to show an animal, conflicts can arise with other activities, especially during the summer, when a young person may choose to engage in leisure activities or work to earn additional income.
Youth participate in the 4-H program for numerous reasons.
From the current study, youth from both livestock and non-livestock programs stated that the reason they joined, participated, and stayed in 4-H was because it was fun and they enjoyed the program.
Friends, leaders, and agents were also influences on both livestock and non-livestock youth enrolling, participating, and staying in 4-H.
This trend follows McClelland's Motivational Needs Theory that youth are motivated to participate within an organization to meet their need for affiliation and achievement.
The researchers examined the affiliation factor of McClelland's model through the following questions: "Why did you join 4-H?" and "Why did you stay involved?" Youth participants responded to these questions with friends, peers, volunteer leaders, and agents as the most significant factors influencing their participation.
Through 4-H programs, youth meet peers who have similar interests to their own.
In livestock clubs, the youth often spend a great deal of time with peers, their parents, and volunteers.
The relationships a young person establishes between these individuals give participants a sense of affiliation.
Based on feedback gathered using the assessment tool, a few livestock and non-livestock youth noted a sense of achievement when asked why they stayed in 4-H.
Through livestock clubs, youth exhibiting animals competitively stimulate a sense of achievement through their efforts.
The sense of achievement that livestock youth receive from their success could be a contributing factor as to why they stay involved longer within 4-H.
These youth fulfill their need for achievement through the accomplishment of goals and projects that the 4-H program offers.
The 4-H organization offers youth many opportunities for participation.
The researchers assessed youth engagement in specific 4-H programs.
Overall, livestock youth had higher participation levels in terms of variety of projects and programs.
This trend could be due to most livestock youth staying involved longer within the 4-H program and having more time to join and participate in other 4-H activities.
More efforts should be put forth to keep youth interested in the programs that 4-H can offer.
All 4-H youth development professionals who are interested in developing programs may increase the retention rates of youth by considering the following:
  Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for research.
Gage  Handbook on research in teaching.
Study of the 4-H youth and 4-H programming.
Retrieved from ERIC database.
New York, NY: Cambridge.
4-H teens as science teachers of children.
Advances in Youth Development Programming.
Enrollment trends in the California 4-H youth development program.
Applied Developmental Science, 12, 1-9.
Marketing strategies for recruiting 4-H members in West Virginia.
Journal of Agricultural Education, 41, 88-94.
August 2005 // Volume 43 // Number 4 // Ideas at Work // 4IAW5
 Abstract Calibration of a manure spreader was demonstrated at field days.
Data collected showed limited capability of farmers to estimate manure application rates just based on their experience and the importance of calibration.
Only 13% estimated at or near the actual application rate.
Some  estimated high rates, with two estimating four times the actual application rate.
Most  underestimated the rate, with 50% estimating less than one-half the actual application rate.
The tendency to underestimate manure application and therefore over-apply manure reinforces the need to calibrate spreading equipment as a part of a manure management plan.
Livestock producers are being encouraged to develop manure management plans.
Ohio law requires livestock operation of over 1,000 animal units to adopt a manure management plan.
Smaller operations were encouraged, beginning in 1991, to develop plans.
Manure management plans include testing soil and manure and match nutrients to crop needs.
Many testing labs and manure management specialist calculate the appropriate application rate for each farm and field.
Several investigators  have produced computer programs for regulators and planners to determine appropriate application rates for farm operations.
The agronomic benefits of manure applied to soil have long been recognized.
The plant nutrients and organic matter in manure improves soil tilth, increases water holding capacity, lessens erosion, improves soil aeration, and benefits soil microorganisms.
However, if not applied carefully, nutrients can be lost through volatilization, leaching or runoff.
The first step in determining manure application rates is manure nutrient testing.
A survey of 390 Minnesota farmers  showed that 20% tested manure and 37% kept records of manure application.
To apply manure at the desired rate can be problematic.
Spreading equipment is typically not calibrated to apply at the desired rate.
Schmidt, Jacobson, and Schnitt  found that 16% of Minnesota farmers calibrated application equipment.
Hoban, Clifford, Futreal, and McMillian  interviewed over 1,000 North Carolina livestock producers.
They found 38% tested manure and 36% have calibrated their spreading equipment.
Uniformity of application is also a concern.
Wright & Cross  evaluated the application uniformity of five types of spreading equipment: drag hose, center pivot irrigation, V-spreader, traveling gun irrigation, and tank spreader.
They found tank spreaders had the highest coefficient of uniformity.
The next step is to ensure that manure is applied at a rate to match the nutrient needs of a crop.
However, with surveys showing fewer than 40% of farmers calibrating equipment, what is the potential for over or under applying manure?
In the study described here, field days were used to demonstrate how to calibrate a manure spreader.
The demonstration also illustrated the limited capability of farmers to estimate manure application rates just based on their experience and the importance of calibration.
Livestock producers, growers and others were invited to six Ohio field demonstrations including a 30-minute spreader calibration demonstration.
The demonstration followed instructions presented by Woodward.
A commercially available manure spreader was loaded with solid livestock manure.
Three, 10-by-10-foot plastic sheets were weighed and laid out in a field.
The spreader applied manure, including the areas covered by the plastic sheets.
The plastic was carefully gathered and weighed to determine the amount of manure applied to each sheet.
Based on the size of the sheet and the average weight of manure, the application rate was converted from pounds of manure per square feet to tons of manure per acre using the following conversion factor:
 of manure * 21.8 = Tons of manure per acre
 Sheet size in ft2
 Table 1 shows the conversion to tons per acre for different sized plastic sheets.
As a part of the demonstration, following spreading, participants completed a survey.
They were asked if they had seen this demonstration before, their occupation and manure application estimate.
Responses were sorted for first-time participants who were livestock producers or growers.
Observational Survey for Manure Calibration Field Demonstrations
 A total of 101 livestock producers and growers responded to the survey during the demonstrations.
Actual application rates varied at the demonstrations from 4 to 18 tons/acre.
The application estimates are presented in Table 2.
Application rate  1 ton/acre
 Underestimated 
 Of the 101 respondents, 13% estimated at or near the actual application rate.
Some  estimated high rates with 2 estimating four times the actual application rate.
Most  underestimated the rate with 50% estimating less than one-half the actual application rate.
The survey, conducted as a part of the field demonstration, illustrated that experience and visual estimates of manure application, without training, will likely result in over-application of manure.
Without calibration, 50% of the livestock producers and growers surveyed would have applied twice the desired application rate.
The tendency to underestimate manure application and therefore over-apply manure reinforces the need to calibrate spreading equipment as a part of a manure management plan.
The 30-minute field demonstration showed that spreader calibration is quick, simple, and inexpensive.
Calibrating spreading equipment can increase the value of a manure management plan without placing a hardship on livestock producers or growers.
Extension offices and Soil and Water Conservation Service offices can facilitate calibration by having scales and calibration tables available for farmers.
A short demonstration at a local field day can reinforce the need for calibration and demonstrate how quickly and easily it can be done.
Support provided by OSU Extension and Ohio Agricultural Research and Development Center.
North Carolina producer' s adoption of waste management practices.
Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, 52, 332-339.
Extension programming for teaching manure management to farmers.
Review of Agricultural Economics, 18, 275-280.
Pollution implications of animal wastes--A Forward oriented review.
US Department of the Interior.
Kerr Water Research Center, Ada, OK.
Concentrated Animal Feeding Facilities.
Computer software for pig and poultry environmental management system.
Proceedings of the 8th international symposium on animal, agricultural and food, processing wastes.
A manure management survey of Minnesota swine producers: summary of responses.
Applied Engineering in Agriculture, 12, 591-594.
Manure spreader calibration worksheet.
Uniformity of manure application by traveling guns.
December 2002 // Volume 40 // Number 6 // Tools of the Trade // 6TOT1
 Abstract One of the greatest thrills for an Extension educator is being asked, "When's the next one?" at the end of a session.
To keep that question coming when teaching non-traditional audiences, these county educators share their tips for designing programs that increase the learner's comfort and create a non-threatening atmosphere.
Relationships, cultural differences, use of time and resources, and finding new ways to measure learning progress can all influence programming success.
Family and Community Education Faculty Oregon State University Extension Service
 One of the greatest thrills for an Extension educator is being asked, "When's the next one?" at the end of a session.
And, when the questioner is participating in a program targeted to a hard-to-reach or underserved audience, it is even more rewarding.
Delivering educational programs to those of different cultures can challenge us to re-think our methods, mindsets, and assumptions.
Successful educational programs start with a design that is culturally appropriate for the learner.
The design considers the current resources of the learner, including transportation, childcare, timing, duration, and even prior topical experience.
Overall, a successfully designed learning experience increases the learner's ability to participate in the world around them.
It allows for the evolution of the learners and should be at the heart of what we do.
We have found six categories that influence programming success.
They are key areas to consider when designing new programs or retooling existing programs for new audiences.
Relationships are crucial to program success.
More emphasis is placed on relationships in many other countries.
Who you know and the quality of the relationships you have will influence success.
Finding an individual who is directly connected to the audience and with whom honest and open discussion is possible can provide valuable inroads.
Strengthen that relationship by becoming a learner and really listening.
Be humble, and realize that, although you may know a lot, you don't know everything.
Make the environment comfortable.
Be sure to take note of family relationships among the participants.
Teaching Tip: Focus the first few program sessions on social engagement, with only a small amount of instruction.
As you get to know the group better and as they begin to know you and trust you, it will be possible to achieve more of a balance between instruction and relationship building.
Cultural considerations are key to determining the scheduling of programs, the depth and breath of subject matter content, the extent of technology use, and how impacts are measured.
Non-traditional audiences  are apt to respond better to instructors who can appreciate their values and culture.
Within many cultures, families are the center of their lives.
Failing to accommodate for this may affect the level of participation in a program.
Teaching Tip: Conduct whole family events with quiet places for children in another part of the same room.
Parents may feel less stress having children close than having children in another room out of sight.
Do not assume that your new audience does things the same way you do.
Be open to learning about cultural differences in manners, food, speaking in a group, eye contact, and other factors.
Language is the lifeblood of the culture.
"It loses in translation" is a phrase not to be taken lightly.
Materials must be appropriately designed for the target audience.
Materials designed for middle-class, Anglo, or English-speaking groups may not have the same meaning to a low-income audience or people native to Mexico, Central or South America, or Asian countries.
Teaching Tip: Learning is more effective in the learner's native language.
Put the focus on the learner by hiring appropriate staff to deliver the education in the learner's native language.
Verbal translation can be time consuming, cumbersome and inaccurate.
Time is a precious resource.
Within the culture of Extension there is the tendency to cram as much as possible into an hour, rushing through interactions, multi-tasking, throwing reports together, and eating on the run.
If you do not have time to build relationships with key individuals, however, you probably do not have time necessary to create effective programs for audiences of other cultures.
The time you take to build essential relationships and learn important aspects of the culture is time well spent.
Teaching Tip: Have realistic expectations for the first year of a program plan.
Allow the time needed to gain deeper understanding of the audience.
Work with key individuals to create a learning opportunity that will be meaningful to the learners.
Local resources will affect educational program design.
Many agencies and organizations are trying to reach people they never have before.
No single organization has what it takes to do it all.
Partnering with agencies that work with your target audience is a successful method of capitalizing on organizational strengths.
When each organization does what they do naturally, it is not seen as extra work.
Teaching Tip: Collaborate with local agencies and services that are linked to the target audience.
Many will be interested in cooperating.
When each can do what they do best, all will win.
Measuring progress the "Extension way" usually means collecting information through written surveys.
What are other, less-structured possibilities to evaluate a program's impact?
A menu of different techniques should be considered.
Personal journals and in-depth interviews of staff can reveal important information.
Focus group discussions and follow-up phone calls may uncover pertinent, reportable facts.
Teaching Tip: The way information is collected must be designed with the same integrity as the program.
If programming efforts reflect a high degree of relationship building with participants, the evaluation must honor the relationships built.
When reaching out to new audiences, we must take the time to fully understand the dynamics involved and be prepared to set aside egos and traditional ideas.
"The way we've always done it" does not mean that's the way it always should be done.
Cultural considerations in online instruction and learning.
October 2004 // Volume 42 // Number 5 // Research in Brief // 5RIB3
 Abstract We developed and conducted a region-wide survey to collect base line information documenting public awareness, attitudes, and priorities about water issues in the Pacific Northwest.
The vast majority  of survey respondents considered clean drinking water, clean groundwater, and clean rivers very or extremely important issues.
Over two-thirds of survey respondents considered having enough water for economic development, prevention of salmon extinction, wetland protection, watershed restoration, water for power generation, and water for agriculture to be high priority issues.
The results from this survey will be used to target our regional programming efforts over the next 5 years.
Water quality has been a priority issue for Extension since 1990.
At that time, then President George H.
Bush created a national Water Quality Initiative  within the United States Department of Agriculture.
This initiative stressed solving water quality problems on a watershed scale through cooperation with other federal and state agencies.
The initiative eventually resulted in formula funding passed through to land-grant institutions under the authority of the Smith-Lever Act.
In 2000, the national water quality program was refocused to emphasize regional rather than state-by-state education of our clientele.
This change at the federal level required us to assess our current water quality programs in Alaska, Idaho, , and Washington, and to find common programming themes that would be useful to clientele across the four-state region.
Consequently, the water quality coordinators of Alaska, Idaho, Oregon, and Washington developed a region-wide water issues survey for our clientele to collect base line information documenting public awareness and attitudes toward water issues.
The base line data collected in this survey could then be used to determine priorities and, in the future, gauge educational progress in all phases of our water quality programming efforts.
A 50-question survey was designed to assess public attitudes about water issues in the Pacific Northwest.
The specific questions investigated in this article dealt with  the importance of specific water issues and  water quantity.
The survey questions evaluated in this article were as follows:
 Issue: Importance of Water Issues How important are each of the following water issues to you?
Having enough water for economic development
 Prevention of salmon extinction
 Water for recreation 
 Loss of wetlands 
 Water for power generation
 Do you regard water quantity  as a water problem in the area where you live?
I don't know
 Rank the following water uses from most  to least  important to you.
___ Wildlife 
 ___ Drinking / Human use
 In addition, demographic information, including state of residence, community size, zip code, length of time residing in the region, gender, age, and educational level was also collected from survey respondents.
Based on statistical advice to obtain a representative sample, a target of 900 residents of the Pacific Northwest was chosen as the sample size population.
Surveys were sent to residents of Alaska, Idaho, Oregon, and Washington on a proportional population basis.
Surveys were actually sent to 1,888 residents; however, 114 were returned by the post office as being undeliverable.
Consequently, the actual sample population was 1,774.
The survey process was designed to receive a completed survey return rate in excess of 50%.
If more than 877 surveys were returned completed, then sampling error could be assumed to be less than 5%.
Three mailings were used to achieve this return rate.
The first mailing, which took place in January 2002, included the water issues survey form, a business reply envelope, and a cover letter that:
 Identified the survey's authors;
 Explained the purpose of the survey;
 Assured the respondent of anonymity; and
 Asked the respondents to fill out and return the survey via the business reply envelope.
The second mailing occurred 5 weeks later  and consisted of a postcard that stressed the importance of the survey and remind the respondent to fill out and return the survey sent out in the first mailing.
5 weeks later , the third mailing was sent to residents who did not respond to the first or second mailing.
This mailing included a reminder letter, another copy of the water issues survey, and a business reply envelope.
Survey answers were coded and entered into Microsoft Excel.
Missing data was assigned the number nine on the coding system and was excluded from the analysis.
The data were analyzed at two levels using SPSS.
The first level of analysis was a basic data summary.
This analysis showed both the total number and percentage of respondents that answered each question with a specific answer.
The second level of analysis involved using cross-tabulation, or contingency tables, to isolate how specific subgroups of survey respondents  related to specific questions.
Significance  was tested using a chi-square distribution.
The water issues survey achieved a return rate of 52.3%.
The individual state response ranged from 50.6 to 57.6%.
Fifty-six percent of the survey respondents were male.
Over 32% of survey respondents lived in communities of more than 100,000 people.
Conversely, 18% of respondents lived in towns with less than 7,000 people.
Thirty-five percent of respondents had lived in the Pacific Northwest all of their lives.
Ninety-one percent of survey respondents were high school graduates.
Overall, the demographics of the survey respondents  closely reflected the actual demographics of the region.
Respondents were asked to describe each of 10 water issues as not important, somewhat important, very important, extremely important, or having no opinion.
When the very important and extremely important responses were added together , the majority of respondents considered all 10 water issues as having a high priority.
Water for power generation
 Water for economic development
 Loss of wetlands 
 Prevention of salmon extinction
 Water for recreation 
 Over 90% of respondents considered clean drinking water, clean rivers, and clean groundwater as high priority.
An additional 84% of survey respondents indicated that having enough water for agriculture was high priority despite the fact that over 80% of Pacific Northwest residents live in urban areas.
Over two-thirds of Pacific Northwest residents indicated that water for power generation, water for economic development, loss of wetlands, prevention of salmon extinction, and watershed restoration were high priority.
Water for recreation  received the smallest majority from the residents.
The demographic factors of occupation and education level did not affect how people viewed water issues.
However, gender, age, length of residence in the region, community size, and state of residence did influence answers to at least one question.
State of residence had a significant impact on how respondents answered the survey regarding the prevention of salmon extinction.
Approximately 84, 71, 66, and 59% of residents of Alaska, Washington, Oregon, and Idaho said preventing salmon extinction was a high priority, respectively.
This difference is understandable because salmon are culturally important to many Alaskans.
Conversely, salmon are less important from both cultural and economic viewpoints to many residents of Idaho, largely due to dams on the Snake River system.
Community size had an impact on only one of the 10 water issues evaluated.
Respondents from larger communities  were more likely to consider having enough water for economic development a high priority issue than respondents living in small communities.
Based on this survey, a higher percentage of females than males viewed clean groundwater, prevention of salmon extinction, wetland protection, water for power generation, water for agriculture, and watershed restoration as high priority.
Even though this gender gap was not statistically significant at the 0.05 level for the other four water issues, the trend was apparent.
Prevention of salmon extinction
 Water for power generation
 Age of respondent had a significant effect on answers to two survey questions.
A higher percentage of younger respondents than older respondents viewed wetland protection as a high priority issue.
Conversely, senior citizens were more likely than younger people to view having enough water for power generation a high priority.
Water for power generation
 * Within a water issue a difference of 4.0 percent is statistically significant at the 0.05 level.
Length of residence in the Pacific Northwest affected the response to the issues of salmon extinction, wetland protection, and water for economic development.
Over 80% of respondents who have lived in the Pacific Northwest for less than 5 years considered salmon extinction and wetland protection high priority issues.
However, only about 60% of the long-time residents considered these issues high priority.
In contrast, long-time residents were more likely to consider water for economic development a higher priority than newcomers to the region.
Time in PNW 
 Prevention of salmon extinction
 Water for economic development
 A majority of survey respondents felt that water quantity issues were not a local problem  in Alaska, Idaho, Oregon, and Washington.
However, the demographic factors of gender, state of residence, length of residency in the Pacific Northwest, education, and age did affect the response to this question.
To evaluate differences due to demographics, the answers of "no" and "probably not" were pooled as "not a problem."
 No, not a problem
 Probably not a problem
 Males were more likely than females (65.1 vs.
57.8%) to conclude that water quantity issues were not a problem in their residential locality.
Residents of Alaska were more likely to conclude that water quantity was not a problem.
Conversely, Idaho residents were more likely to conclude that water quantity issues may be a local problem.
These state results are logical because, on a per capita basis, Alaska is the most water-rich state, while Idaho receives the least amount of precipitation.
Some college or more
 Long-term residents of the Pacific Northwest were more likely to conclude that water quantity issues were not commonly a local problem compared to people that had moved into the region in the last 10 years.
Residents with a high school diploma or less were also more likely to conclude that water quantity was not a local problem.
Age also affected how people viewed water quantity on a local basis.
In general, older respondents were more likely to conclude that water quantity is not a major local problem.
Survey respondents were also asked to rank power generation, wildlife, irrigation, recreation, and drinking water from most important  to least important.
The lower the overall score, the more important the use.
Overall, survey respondents ranked drinking water as the most important water quantity use.
In fact, over 78% of respondents ranked drinking water as the most important water use.
Conversely, only 6% of respondents ranked drinking water as the least important use.
Survey respondents ranked wildlife, power production, and irrigation as having similar levels of importance, although they were considered less important than drinking water.
They were considered to be of higher importance than recreation.
Recreational use of water was ranked as the lowest priority.
* Scores differing by more than 0.32 percent are statistically different at the 0.05 level of probability
 The water issues survey provided us with a wealth of information about public attitudes toward water issues in the Pacific Northwest.
Even though differences were seen among states on some issues, it is noteworthy that there is much commonality in water attitudes among states.
This commonality makes regional water educational programming logical and efficient for Alaska, Idaho, Oregon, and Washington.
The key findings of this survey included the following.
The importance that respondents placed on the 10 identified water issues provides justification for a significant amount of programming on these issues over the next 5 years.
Demographic response differences indicate that programs should be tailored for local audience interest and needs.
The vast majority  of survey respondents considered clean drinking water, clean groundwater, and clean rivers very or extremely important issues in the region.
Over two-thirds of survey respondents considered having enough water for economic development, prevention of salmon extinction, wetland protection, watershed restoration, water for power generation, and water for agriculture to be very or extremely important issues.
Most survey respondents did not consider water quantity to be a critical issue.
However, people living in drier areas of the region  did express concern.
Survey respondents felt that water for human consumption was the most important use of water.
Conversely, the recreational use of water was ranked least important.
The survey results will be used to guide our water quality programming efforts over the next 4to 5-year planning period.
Based on survey results, residents are receptive to additional educational programming about drinking water and human health, groundwater, and watershed management issues.
We dedicate this paper to J.
Ronald Miner, longtime water quality coordinator at Oregon State University, who died while this article was in the review process.
Ron was an outstanding scientist and cooperator.
His contributions to Oregon State University, the Pacific Northwest, and the national water quality program were extensive and outstanding.
He will be sorely missed.
The practice of social research.
Mail and Internet surveys.
John Wiley and Sons.
Groundwater and wellhead protection in the HUA.
University of Idaho Bulletin No.
The SPSS guide to data analysis.
How to conduct your own survey.
John Wiley and Sons, Inc.
August 2019 // Volume 57 // Number 4 // Ideas at Work // v57-4iw6
 Personal finance education for youth has long been considered important by parents, educators, economists, public decision makers, and others.
Yet many state Extension systems struggle to provide sufficient personal finance programming to meet local needs.
Research on effective financial education has indicated that opportunities for practical application, or "learning by doing," are vital  and that youths respond well to digital games in the educational process.
Financial games and simulations have been successfully implemented both in and out of schools  and offer tremendous flexibility for helping students learn at their own pace.
Additionally, incorporating digital games in experiential learning settings allows for trial and error without putting learners at risk.
Use of financial games and simulations has been shown to help students gain knowledge, experience, and confidence that transfer to real financial situations and establish a foundation for becoming financially stable adults.
Virtual game worlds can make financial topics more engaging to students, and providing the potential to cooperate or compete with friends while learning and playing is becoming a popular way to add social interaction to learning.
The vast potential of digital games for delivering cost-effective, financial experiences to highly engaged students is much too strong to ignore.
We organized a regional training on the Northwest Youth Financial Education programs that was attended by 35 Extension educators, seven advisory board members, and five representatives of the funding organizations, all of whom together represented the five northwestern states.
The results of a retrospective evaluation of the training indicated that participants experienced improved confidence for teaching financial topics  and high likelihood of using the programs.
Participants were asked whether their training and the Northwest Youth Financial Education programs might make a difference to their local youth audiences.
In response, participants shared the following comments:
 At the time of this writing, 20 educators from eight states had delivered Northwest Youth Financial Education programs in face-to-face settings, and the program had reached over 26,000 individuals through direct programming and private-play sessions.
Data for the Night of the Living Debt game serve to exemplify the success of the individual educational games under the Northwest Youth Financial Education umbrella.
In response to the success of the Credit Score Millionaire program  and growing demand for credit score education, authors Erickson and Hansen collaborated with author Chamberlin and the New Mexico State University Learning Games Lab to create this free mobile game for iPad tablets.
On the basis of the transformational learning model employed by the lab, the entire team collaborated to identify the desired change in game players, the activities necessary for creating that change, and a game design that would engage players in those activities.
The game uses cartoonlike zombies as a metaphor for financial payments, with the concept being that zombies and debt have a lot in common in that you might survive if one or two follow you but too many of either can quickly overwhelm you.
The content focuses on real-time consequences of financial decisions on credit scores, played out in a fictional game world.
Opt-in iTunes statistics collected prior to the time of this writing indicated that the Night of the Living Debt app had been downloaded 886 times and played individually 7,705 times, with downloads occurring in a variety of countries.
The program had been offered face-to-face to over 1,500 Extension program participants, and participant surveys indicated an overall rating of 9 out of 10 for enjoyment and engagement.
Data for knowledge gain and intended behavior reported by participants in the face-to-face programming are shown in Figures 2 and 3.
Night of the Living DebtParticipant Knowledge Gain
 When asked to comment on the overall experience of participating in the game, participants gave positive responses.
The following comments are some examples:
 In a retrospective evaluation, participants were asked to estimate the financial difference that the knowledge they gained from the program might have on them personally.
On average, participants reported an estimated $619 that would be saved through sound future financial decisions.
With 1,500 face-to-face participants to date at that time, that value equated to $928,500 in estimated clientele savings as a result of the program.
And if that estimated figure were applied to all play sessions, including individual downloads/plays, the estimated economic impact of the program at that time could have been about $5.6 million.
Night of the Living Debt and the other Northwest Youth Financial Education programs successfully model scalable, game-based experiential financial education that has resulted in high levels of engagement, knowledge gain, and intended behavior change.
These findings suggest that implementing video games designed to change behavior could be considered a "best practice" in Extension, particularly for personal finance education.
Financial forest: A smart phone app.
University of Central Florida, Orlando, Florida.
Teacher involvement in implementing state personal finance mandates.
Pecunia: A life simulation game for finance education.
Research & Practice in Technology Enhanced Learning, 9.
A learning game for youth financial literacy education in the teen grid of Second Life three-dimensional virtual environment.
American Journal of Business Education, 4, 118.
Financial video games: A financial literacy tool for social workers.
International Journal of Social Work, 2, 22.
April 2011 // Volume 49 // Number 2 // Ideas at Work // v49-2iw4
 The Big Wood Canal Company  was formed in 1907, following completion of Magic Dam, to serve an area lying primarily in Lincoln County, Idaho.
Irrigation water is necessary for production agriculture in this arid desert environment.
Water shortages have always been a way of life in this area, because the development company grossly oversold the amount of land to be irrigated.
The droughts of the 70's, 80's, 90's, and now the 2000's have continued to make this area a very difficult place to farm and ranch for a living.
Not only drought, but also legal issues from western water laws can back groups into a corner and limit what they can do.
The amount of water available during the irrigation season is not consistent from year to year.
Consequently, agricultural producers lack adequate information to make long-term decisions, playing a guessing game on when to implement irrigation system upgrades, when to replant alfalfa, which crops to grow based on water availability for that season, and whether or not to apply for funding to transition to center pivots or buy additional pipe to reduce ditch losses.
Banks are reluctant to provide irrigation equipment funding without consistent crop production potential.
This creates a limiting environment for BWCC shareholders to make water conservation or long-term planning decisions and reduces their potential farm profitability.
In an effort to improve the water situation, the BWCC Board appointed a committee to research options.
The BWCC Water Team  was formed, consisting of nine shareholders , the manager, the water master, a ditch rider, a consultant, an Extension educator, and an Extension irrigation specialist.
All agreed that solutions required creativity and open-minded thinking and that they be factually based with supportive data.
The Team's broad knowledge base, the willingness of each member to actively participate in research and synthesis of data, and the use of economics, initiated an innovative approach with a strong emphasis on teamworkcritical to move past age-old battles and forward into solutions that work.
To cross water management boundaries we needed a "mix of technical tools and people skills, so ranch and farm families could manage their current and future risks".
True teamwork with a "co-creation" attitude of "let's create the future we individually and collectively want"  was critical to start shifting mental paradigms to increase water conservation and potential farm profitability across the entire canal system.
Multiple recommendations for creating successful, amicable family estate transfer plans  and successful integration for farm businesses  were applied to cross water management boundaries, including common vision/goals, relationship building through open communication, mutual respect, critical listening, understanding of shared information, and rational assessment of economic feasibility/profitability through concrete data and not personal assumptions.
The Team's focus on data and use of technical tools , reduced emotional decisions that limit necessary mental paradigm shifts.
The jointly created mission was to discover and present pertinent facts/data to answer the question"Are there practices and/or improvements the BWCC can do to enhance the profitability and value of the resources for its grower/owners?" Over 40 hours of Team meetings, plus individual research, investigation, and computer modeling were conducted to address the mission.
Five focus areas were identified: 1) economic analysis; 2) how much irrigation water are we losing and where; 3) what are other canal companies doing to cope with short water supplies; 4) specific physical improvements, prioritized by cost per unit of water saved; 5) management practices at the farm and company level to increase days of water.
The Team presented the mission, executive summary, and complete report with 17 recommendations to the BWCC Board.
Recommendations included water conservation practices, soil moisture monitoring by tracts, identification/assessment of water loss, water saving improvements, plus more flexible and demand-based water delivery.
Many of the recommendations required a shift in traditional thinking.
Using an economic analysis tool developed for this area, the Team determined that the best method to increase financial returns to farms/ranches was to increase days of irrigation water available, even if it required reducing irrigated acreage.
This principle holds true regardless of the crop, size, or type of the operation.
Changes implemented in 2008 resulted in an estimated increase of $2.56 million, by extended irrigation water for the whole system by at least 16 days.
An economic analysis based on the 2008 cropping mix indicated that each day of irrigation season extension was worth $160,000.
Crop prices were high in 2008, but even at a more conservative averaged value of $79,000 per day, a 16-day water extension increased crop value to shareholders by $1.26 million.
The Team successfully combined existing individual knowledge with new analyses into a coordinated package to benefit the whole irrigation system.
Below are highlights of the Team's success.
The Team results and collaborative approach can be extended to other similar locations.
In 2009, some of the Team recommendations were used in surrounding areas.
Reshaping canals to reduce water loss and equipment design/flow measurement implementation are two examples.
None of these positive outcomes would have been achievable on an individual basis.
Extension's successful partnership with local producers in problem solving was synergistic for clientele and Extension.
The Team results agreed with Conway, Godwin, Cloughesy, and Neirenberg, 2003, in that those successful watershed-focused projects were achieved with an informed and effective group making the decisions.
Beneficial outcomes were achieved for all shareholders by planning and implementing  jointly conceived, cost-effective programs  to resolve major water issues.
Critical water management improvements recommended by the Team are continuing.
The Team is now poised to cross more boundaries, assembling data and coordinated plans of watershed management and groundwater recharge for larger geographic areas, watersheds, and organizations.
The fifth discipline fieldbook, Strategies and tools for building a learning organization, p.
Dean Yonts, Extension Irrigation Engineer Drew J.
Lyon, Extension Dryland Crops Specialist John A.
Smith, Extension Machinery Systems Engineer Robert M.
Harveson, Extension Plant Pathologist Gary W.
Hergert, Extension Soils Specialist Gary L.
Hein, Director, Doctor of Plant Health Program Dipak Santra, Alternative Crops Specialist Winter wheat can extend irrigation water supplies when used in an irrigated crop rotation.
Precipitation in the fall and winter help meet water needs as growth begins, while spring growth coincides with normally abundant precipitation patterns in Nebraska.
Winter wheat develops an extensive and efficient root system for extracting soil water and also can use less total water than other crops such as corn.
All of these factors help improve water use efficiency, reduce irrigation and energy costs, and extend aquifer life.
If water for irrigation is limited, water supplies can be more easily shared with other crops requiring water after winter wheat has matured.
Finally, when used in an irrigated crop rotation, durable and often abundant winter wheat residue can help reduce soil erosion and conserve soil water for the subsequent crop.
Much of the information for producing dryland winter wheat is pertinent to irrigated production.
Irrigation simply relieves water stress; however, minimizing water stress may lead to increased pest pressures or make nutrients the most limiting factor.
A good yield response to irrigating winter wheat is possible by addressing key crop production practices.
Tillage and Seedbed Preparation Many irrigated winter wheat fields require some form of tillage before drilling.
However, there is a steady shift in irrigated wheat production systems to use less tillage, and no tillage prior to planting.
These noor reduced-tillage systems reduce input cost, conserve surface residue to control erosion, and conserve soil water.
Any tillage used depends on the previous crop, weed species and pressure, surface residue cover, and drill capabilities.
Because wheat emerges SO quickly, weeds must be killed using tillage or herbicides before drilling.
Tillage implements that work best to kill weeds in wheat production systems include wide blade plows and field cultivators or chisel plows with wide sweep points that overlap at least 4 inches.
Tandem disks and narrow point field cultivators may allow larger weeds to escape through the implement.
By themselves, primary tillage implements such as tandem disks, blade plows, and chisel plows do not provide the best seedbed ready to drill.
Devices added to the rear of these implements, such as rolling baskets, ring rollers, and spiral rollers firm the soil, provide a better seedbed, and reduce soil water evaporation.
Although irrigated winter wheat is not influenced as much by soil compaction as some other crops, significant compaction can limit root development, water and nutrient uptake, crop yield, and water infiltration, and can increase water runoff.
Therefore, prior to any tillage, check the field for compaction in the top 14 inches of soil using a rod-type probe.
This type of probe works to detect compaction layers in the presence of good soil water conditions and may need to be used well before tillage operations.
If a significant soil compaction layer is detected, use a ripping implement with parabolic shank design to shatter the soil.
The shanks should be spaced less than 30 inches apart and operated several inches below the compacted layer.
The soil must be dry to attain effective soil shattering.
Since this is a very energy intensive operation, make sure there is a significant compaction problem, or consider doing only sections of the field where compaction is most pronounced.
Tillage in late summer or early fall is often done in dry soil conditions, creating large clods.
Adding a packing device  to the rear of the tillage implement will help reduce large clods, firm the soil, reduce soil water evaporation, and provide a more uniform seedbed for drilling.
Providing a firm seedbed without large clods will help ensure better emergence, better root development, root health and resulting overwintering condition.
To accommodate early furrow irrigation or improve drill performance, surface residue may need to be reduced.
Tandem disks and chisel plows will effectively mix surface residue into the top layer of soil.
Ridges or undulating soil surface left by tillage will not allow good drill seed depth control and may create pockets for water to pond.
Remember, excessive tillage can destroy desirable surface residue, increase soil water loss, reduce soil particle size, lead to soil crusting and erosion, and increase input costs.
Variety Selection Varieties selected must have adequate straw strength to hold the increased yield compared to rainfed wheat and reduce risk of lodging.
Short straw can help with this but is not the entire answer.
Look for varieties that have a strong to very strong straw strength rating.
Several of the more modern semi-dwarf varieties, such as Wesley, 2137, Overland, and NuDakota, have straw strength that is essential for irrigated production.
Choose varieties that are resistant to the foliar diseases most importantly, the rusts.
Leaf rust and stem rust can be serious problems in irrigated winter wheat.
Resistance is frequently broken by the emergence of new races of a rust pathogen, SO disease ratings should be consulted to ensure older varieties offer resistance.
Other foliar diseases in which resistance can be beneficial include Cephalosporium stripe, Cercospora leaf spot, and glume blotch.
These diseases can be minimized in rotations that include intensely tilled row crops and late planting dates that occur when winter wheat follows dry bean or potato.
Yield potential is certainly a factor that should be evaluated when selecting a variety.
Other factors to consider include grain protein content, test weight, maturity, tolerance to wheat streak mosaic, coleoptile length, and winter hardiness.
If growing 100 acres or more, plant varieties with at least two distinct backgrounds; i.e., two varieties should be from two different wheat variety families.
Because it is impossible to predict what problems will occur in a given year, it is important to select a group of varieties with different genetic backgrounds to minimize the risk of a potential pest.
The process of selecting different genetic backgrounds is referred to as variety complementation.
Also look for a link to the Fall Seed Guide , which provides a list of wheat variety families and varieties in each family.
Drill Selection and Operation High yields of irrigated winter wheat depend on good crop stands, making seedbed and drill selection and operation important.
Drill designs are available for a wide range of planting conditions, from no surface residue to relatively heavy surface residue, and for a range of surface soil conditions.
Know your drill capabilities and prepare the field accordingly.
Maximum wheat yield and maximum crop competition for weeds are usually obtained with row spacing of 5 to 1/2 inches.
This requires a drill with single or double disk openers.
Certain cropping conditions may require wider row spacing or other drill opener types.
For example, if wind erosion is expected before crop establishment, consider a hoe-type opener at a 10to 12-inch row spacing to create surface clods and ridges.
When irrigation is used, most winter wheat varieties selected will have a short coleoptile length.
These varieties require a consistent and relatively shallow, 1 to 1 1/2 inches, seeding depth.
Select a drill that has accurate depth control and use previous tillage operations that match the capabilities of your drill.
The drill press wheel design should provide good firming of the seed into the bottom of the furrow and firming of the soil around the seed.
The press wheels should not flatten the complete soil surface or destroy surface clods that can help minimize soil crusting and erosion.
Loose or wet soil can aggravate deep tractor tire tracks during tillage or drilling.
These tire tracks often impair correct seeding depth and cause soil compaction or water channeling.
Minimize tire track effects by creating a firm seedbed, avoid operation when soil is too wet, and use tractor tire or track configurations that allow low soil contact pressure and high flotation.
Irrigated winter wheat seeded during the optimum time period should be drilled at about 90 lb/ac.
If planting is delayed, increase seeding rate to a maximum of 180 lb/ac  to offset reduction in tillering that occurs with cooler temperatures.
Fertility Management Management practices which provide an adequate, but not excessive, supply of plant nutrients are essential for top yields of high-quality irrigated winter wheat.
Good yield increases from nitrogen  and phosphorus  fertilization are common throughout Nebraska.
Most Nebraska soils have enough potassium for maximum wheat production; however, some sandy soils may require sulfur  for higher yielding irrigated wheat.
Soil testing is the foundation of nutrient management for irrigated winter wheat.
The goal of soil testing is to characterize the amount of nutrients in the soil prior to planting.
Fertilizers can then be applied to ensure optimal nutrition for the crop.
It should be noted in reference to this information that research has not shown a greater phosphorus requirement for irrigated wheat compared to dryland wheat.
Nitrogen for irrigated wheat must be managed properly to obtain high yields and quality.
Some nitrogen should be applied in the fall to ensure good nutrition for seedlings.
Recent research comparing all preplant during fall versus one-third of the nitrogen in fall plus-two thirds at boot stage compared to one-quarter in the fall, one-half at jointing and one-quarter at the boot stage has shown both split applications were preferable to all preplant nitrogen.
There was not a significant difference in yield or protein between the three-way split versus the two-way split.
In several experiments the two-way split  produced the highest yields.
Later nitrogen applications generally have little effect on grain yield, although grain protein content may increase.
This timing effect on fertilization for optimal yield and quality should be taken into account when a major portion of nitrogen is to be applied with the irrigation water.
Much of the irrigation water will be applied after jointing.
To increase grain protein and obtain premium grain prices, 20 40 lb N/ac can be applied with the irrigation water around heading.
Late-season nitrogen applications can be beneficial to protein content in years of abundant wheat growth.
However, when available nitrogen is too high, yield losses due to lodging often result, especially with high soil water during May to early June.
This emphasizes the importance of soil tests to determine soil nitrogen availability for high yield management.
Weekly water use from planting to harvest for irrigated winter wheat.
Other Nutrients When soil zinc levels are less than 0.4 ppm  wheat may respond to zinc.
Most fine textured soils in Nebraska have adequate amounts of organic matter and/or residual sulfate sulfur deeper in the soil for maximum yield.
The exception may be irrigated sandy soils.
Irrigated wheat on sandy soils with low organic matter and low sulfate levels in the irrigation water may require 15 20 lb S/acre.
Experiments conducted in western Nebraska on dryland winter wheat showed little response to chloride even though many soils contained low chloride based on guidelines developed from South Dakota research.
At this time we are not recommending chloride for winter wheat.
Water Management To manage irrigation water, you must know the soil water holding capacity and crop rooting depth.
As an example, a medium textured soil with a water holding capacity of 2.0 in/ft and a 4.0-foot profile can hold up to 8.0 inches of water.
To avoid stress, only 60 percent  of this value should be used by the plant.
In contrast, a light textured soil with a water holding capacity of 1.5 in/ft and a 3.0 foot profile will only hold 4.5 inches of water.
In this case, only 2.7 inches of water is available for the plant to use.
Figure 1 illustrates the relationship between a specific time during the growing season and the approximate weekly water use of winter wheat.
Keep in mind this curve is average water use.
Within a given year, water use on a day-to-day basis can vary by as much as 50 percent or more.
Crop water use or evapotranspiration  is made up of evaporation from the soil surface and transpiration from the plant leaves.
Winter wheat has two peak water use periods: fall and late spring.
The spring peak water use is greater than in the fall due to having a full canopy cover and greater atmospheric demand.
In the fall, although much of the ET is a result of evaporation, water use continues as long as weather conditions are favorable.
Upon freezing, transpiration by the wheat is near zero, but evaporation from the soil continues.
Once spring green-up occurs, water use gradually increases until late May or early June.
As winter wheat reaches the boot stage of growth, water use is near its peak.
At this stage, the plant begins to turn the energy it receives into grain production.
Even though grain is being produced, water use begins to drop off at nearly the same rate as it increased.
Approximately four weeks after peak water use, the winter wheat nears maturity.
Seasonal water use values are given in Table I.
Up to 4.0 inches of water can be used from planting through plant dormancy.
Total evapotranspiration during dormancy is dependent on duration of snow cover that prevents evaporation from the soil.
Winter snow and early spring precipitation can supply or replace much of the water used during this period.
The amount of seasonal water use varies with variety and growing season.
Cumulative water use in the Central High Plains from emergence in the fall to various stages of plant development for irrigated winter wheat grown under unlimited soil moisture conditions.
Period Approximate Dates Cumulative Water Use  Emergence Sept.
5 Beginning spring growth March 15 30 4.0 Jointing stage April 25 May 5 8.5 Boot stage May 15 20 11.0 Flowering stage May 28 June 5 14.0 Milk stage of grain June 10 15 17.0 Dough stage of grain June 15 20 19.0 Complete maturity July 1 5 22.0 Total 22.0 approximately half of the water used by the crop occurs before the boot stage.
Fall Irrigation Because of the need for water during fall and winter, if fall precipitation is not adequate, irrigation is recommended.
Soil water must be present in the top 2.0 feet of the soil profile to be of use in this early stage of growth.
It could take 2 inches of water on sandy soil and 4 inches on clay soil to fill the top two feet of soil.
The goal is to provide adequate water for germination and early growth, yet leave room for precipitation.
This allows one to take full advantage of off-season precipitation, yet meet winter wheat water requirements.
Be sure soil water in the fall provides adequate water below the seed.
Water that is in the soil moves from wet areas to dry areas.
As evaporation dries the surface, soil water moves from the deeper depths to replace water evaporated near the surface.
As water migrates, it replenishes soil water around the seed during germination and emergence.
If soil conditions are extremely dry, irrigation before planting should be considered to partially fill the soil profile.
Planting into moist soil allows more consistent and uniform seeding depth.
Applying 1.0 2.0 inches of water after the seed has been planted will cause soil particles to dislodge and move from the tops of soil ridges into the seed furrow.
This results in the seed being covered with more soil.
More importantly, the soil moved by the water over the seed is composed of fine soil particles that are tightly packed, increasing crusting and making emergence more difficult.
In-Season Irrigation Use caution if irrigating during the early spring to reduce the risk of bringing the plant out of dormancy prematurely or applying water when the soil profile is full.
Remember, irrigation and precipitation during the fall and winter should have been adequate to stimulate good growth and a deep rooting pattern.
Because winter wheat is exposed to water evaporation from the soil surface throughout the winter, surface soils can become very dry.
Irrigation in the spring should only be used to avoid plant water stress and plant desiccation.
Have adequate water available as the plant reaches the boot stage of growth and the wheat starts to head.
Many irrigation systems are not designed to meet peak water needs of a crop.
Consider a 600 gpm system on 120 acres.
Assuming a 90 percent efficiency, the irrigation system supplies approximately 0.23 inches of water per day.
Water use for winter wheat exceeds this amount for approximately a three-week period during peak consumption.
Irrigation should begin early enough to start storing water in the soil profile prior to boot stage.
When peak water use occurs, the plant can draw on both stored soil water as well as water supplied by irrigation to avoid water stress.
In general, winter wheat requires 3.0 to 4.0 inches of water during the last month of growth.
Knowing the amount of water available in the soil can help determine when to irrigate.
Remember, coarse textured soils require earlier and more frequent irrigations to prevent stress.
Monitoring soil water, knowing water use rates, and knowing how much water you apply can improve overall management.
These measurements allow the irrigator to schedule irrigations based on crop needs, the capacity of the soil to hold water, and the ability to effectively use precipitation during the season.
Weed Management Irrigated winter wheat is often seeded late behind a summer crop such as dry beans and as a result is not competitive with winter annual weeds, such as tansy mustard and field pennycress.
However, crop rotations that include late spring seeded crops effectively break the life cycle of winter annual weeds.
Wheat fields should be scouted in late fall or winter for winter annual weeds.
If present, these weeds should be treated by mid-April, before weeds bolt.
Treat for blue mustard in February or March because it flowers earlier than other winter annual weeds.
Irrigated winter wheat can be more competitive with weeds by planting into a firm, moist seedbed, maintaining adequate fertility , using high-quality seed, carefully selecting a variety, and seeding at the proper rate and depth.
When properly established, irrigated winter wheat is very competitive with summer annual weeds.
If broadleaf weeds emerge, there are several herbicides that provide excellent control with minimal wheat injury.
In irrigated wheat, growers should select herbicides with minimal soil residual activity in order to maintain maximum crop rotation flexibility.
Many sulfonylurea herbicides labeled for wheat have recrop intervals exceeding four to six weeks.
A few exceptions to this include Affinity BroadSpec and Harmony Extra.
In addition to sulfonylurea herbicides, Curtail and WideMatch also have recrop restrictions exceeding a couple of months.
Many broadleaf weeds commonly found in Nebraska winter wheat fields can be controlled at a modest price and with little concern for restricting recrop options by using amine or low volatile ester formulations of 2,4-D.
Growth regulator herbicides, such as 2,4-D and Banvel / Clarity should not be applied to wheat before it is fully tillered or injury will likely occur.
This injury may not be evident until the wheat begins to head.
Growth regulator herbicides also may cause crop injury when applied after jointing.
Bronate Advanced may be applied to winter wheat up to the boot stage, but good coverage is necessary and weeds should be small.
Avoid late irrigations, which stimulate weed growth and cause harvest problems.
Disease Management Dense foliage in irrigated winter wheat may favor development of different foliar and leaf spotting diseases.
Anthracnose, Alternaria leaf spot and Aschochyta leaf spot all are more severe under conditions of high humidity and high temperatures.
In general, genetic resistance is the most economical option for control, as they seldom warrant fungicidal applications.
Alternaria leaf spot may be the exception, if fungicides are used in conjunction with methods of forecasting environmentally conducive disease conditions.
Diseases such as powdery mildew, Septoria leaf and glume blotches, and leaf rust are more severe at lower temperatures.
Growth of powdery mildew in particular is markedly retarded above 78F.
Other diseases such as stripe rust and tan spot, are favored by temperatures below 70F.
All foliar diseases require extended periods of leaf wetness in combination with favorable temperatures for disease development.
Treatment with fungicides is not economically necessary until the flag leaf becomes infected, at which point a number of fungicides, including Tilt, Headline, Quilt, Quadris, or Stratego, may be effective for all foliar diseases in susceptible varieties.
In general, leaf diseases are more severe in situations of high relative humidity and nitrogen levels.
These conditions result in thicker, denser canopies, which limit air movement to help dry leaves.
Several root diseases are also often observed in irrigated wheat and include take-all and Pythium root rot.
Both are more severe in wet, poorly drained soils.
Ensuring proper fertility, especially nitrogen and phosphorus, can reduce take-all severity.
Crop rotation also can be beneficial as continuous wheat increases take-all severity.
Avoiding seeding into wet soils, heavy with residue, and planting fungicide-treated seeds into well-drained soils can manage Pythium root rot.
Scab inoculum survives on infected corn residue, but if dry beans are grown between corn and winter wheat most inoculum is destroyed.
Certain corn cultivars are susceptible to wheat streak mosaic and can serve as a source of the virus when growing adjacent to an emerging winter wheat crop.
Resistant corn cultivars are available for use where winter wheat and corn are grown in adjacent fields.
Insect Management Insect problems in irrigated winter wheat will not likely be much different from dryland wheat.
The major difference for irrigated wheat is that because of increased yield potential, insect economic thresholds will be lower.
This is because the overall value of the crop per acre is greater, and lower insect numbers are needed to economically justify insecticide treatments.
An example of this would be the Russian wheat aphid.
For a typical 40 bu/ ac dryland yield, a likely threshold would be 15 percent Table II.
Most probable insect problems in winter wheat and times when scouting needs to be done to detect problems.
Fall:  Adjacent volunteer wheat that can host wheat curl mite and Hessian fly Adjacent corn that may host wheat curl mite Grasshoppers Fall:  Grasshoppers Russian wheat aphid Greenbugs and other cereal aphids Hessian fly Early Spring:  Army cutworms Russian wheat aphid Mid-spring:  Pale western cutworm Russian wheat aphid Hessian fly Late spring:  Cereal aphid Say's stink bug Grasshoppers infested tillers, but if the yield potential is 100 bu/ac the threshold would be 6 percent infested tillers.
Insect problems in wheat are nearly always sporadic in occurrence but can happen in any year.
No consistent insect pests occur that growers need to deal with on a yearly basis, and as a result growers seldom scout their wheat fields regularly.
The increased value of irrigated wheat should justify increased scouting.
At a minimum, fields need to be checked once in the fall and twice in the spring.
In the fall, evaluate stand and determine the presence of potential insect problems.
In the spring, check wheat early as the plants are re-growing from dormancy and at least once later in spring, one to two weeks before flag leaf emergence.
This scouting should identify most fields that will develop serious problems; however, more regular scouting is needed to identify all potential problems.
Information on management and control of these insects can be found on the University of Nebraska, Department of Entomology Web site (http://entomology.
Harvest With an increase in winter wheat yield comes an increase in the amount of straw and chaff that must pass through the combine.
The combine should be equipped with a straw spreading unit that will chop and distribute the long straw uniformly across the full width of the combine header.
With 35 foot and wider combine heads, it is equally important that the chaff and fines also be spread across the width of the header.
A separate chaff spreader may be required.
Without adequate spreading of both straw and chaff by the combine, tillage and planting for the next crop in rotation will be made more difficult because of the dense material left behind.
Windrows of chaff concentrate volunteer wheat and weeds making weed control more difficult.
Excessive straw or chaff over the planted row may reduce vigor of, or even kill, the emerging plants of the following crop.
This publication has been peer reviewed.
Disclaimer Reference to commercial products or trade names is made with the understanding that no discrimination is intended of those not mentioned and no endorsement by University of NebraskaLincoln Extension is implied for those mentioned.
October 2017 // Volume 55 // Number 5 // Feature // v55-5a5
 Water is one of the most valuable and limited resources in the United States, and population growth and climate change have intensified the pressure on water resources (Adams et al., 2013; U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, n.d.; Wolters, 2014).
In Florida, a state well known for its pleasing landscapes, residents pump thousands of gallons of water into their landscapes daily in amounts that exceed what is required by turfgrass and other landscape plants, sometimes applying more than two thirds of their total household water use toward irrigation.
More efficient residential irrigation is considered a key to saving water, and the University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences  offers statewide Cooperative Extension programs  to encourage water conservation practices among residents.
One of the highest priorities is the reduction of landscape water use.
Cooperative Extension is known for delivering educational programs based on local needs.
However, evaluating statewide impacts can be difficult.
In Florida, evaluating the statewide impacts of water conservation programs is a major challenge, due to the variability of programs around the state.
To address this challenge, we assembled a team of researchers and Extension professionals with expertise in water issues, agricultural engineering, natural resources economics, survey methodology, and program evaluation.
We collaborated to develop an evaluation approach that would allow us to use standardized metrics to demonstrate the statewide impacts of Florida's diverse water conservation programming efforts.
Minimal information is available in existing literature on evaluating similar outcomes across diverse programs , and this initiative addressed that gap.
To achieve our goal, we developed an evaluation "package" comprised of three stages :
 This evaluation package is innovative because it allows for demonstration of unified statewide impacts of diverse water conservation programming efforts in Florida.
The package includes survey tools for measuring behavior change , resources for converting behavior changes to gallons of water saved  and gallons of water saved to financial and other impacts  , and a data presentation tool.
Stages of Evaluation Package for Demonstrating Unified Statewide Impacts of Water Conservation Programming Efforts in Florida
 To test the new evaluation approach, we collected postprogram data via paper survey from 75 individuals who attended one of three Florida Cooperative Extension water conservation programs selected for the pilot test.
The pilot test instruments were designed to examine standard water conservation practices promoted by UF/IFAS Extension.
The instruments were validated by a panel of experts with expertise in agricultural and biological engineering, landscape water conservation practices, survey methodology, and Extension program development.
Out of 75 participants who completed the study's retrospective pre-/posttest survey, 49 provided their email addresses for follow-up.
Six months later, we sent the electronic follow-up survey to those 49 participants.
Out of 49 emails sent, 44 were deliverable to Extension program participants, and we received a total of 23 completed surveys, for a completion rate of 52.2%.
We first used a retrospective pre-/posttest survey to measure Extension program participants' water conservation behavioral intentions attributable to participation in the programs.
The retrospective pre-/posttest survey was administered by Extension agents in electronic or paper format.
We then used a companion follow-up survey to measure participants' water conservation behavior changes resulting from participation in the programs.
The follow-up survey was designed to be administered electronically by Extension specialists 6 months after program participation.
The survey tools were accessed by members who had been added to a water conservation evaluation group, and we designed the tools so that data could be accessed in real time and filtered by agent, county, or district.
In addition to capturing behavior change, the surveys  addressed square footage of irrigated landscape and frequency of irrigation.
The survey design was informed by the water conservation potential of various behaviors identified through Florida-based research on irrigation practices and technologies  conducted by Boyer and Dukes.
Table 1 presents the estimated quantity of water saved as a result of 11 landscape irrigation behavior changes.
To ensure a useful end product, we used an ad hoc feedback process with Extension professionals that guided multiple rounds of revision during development of the survey tools.
For example, although rain barrel installation is not a target behavior from a water savings standpoint, it is an important part of many programs, and participating agents requested associated data.
Using the results from the pilot test follow-up survey, we calculated gallons of water saved by participants using the known savings associated with each behavior change along with the average area of irrigated landscape in square feet.
We then identified the statewide average utility bill cost per thousand gallons of water to estimate the savings for program participants.
We calculated the average irrigated landscape area  by identifying the mean of respondents' reported irrigated landscape square footages.
Respondents' average irrigated landscape area was much lower than the average size for residential irrigated landscapes ; this may be because these respondents had already adopted relevant water conservation practices, such as replacing irrigated landscape with nonirrigated landscape.
The annual baseline irrigation for turfgrass by Central Florida homeowners is 31,767 gal per 1,000 ft2.
We multiplied this number by the average size of the irrigated landscape to calculate the baseline annual irrigation water use among the 23 Extension participants, resulting in an average 55,179 gal of water used by each participant annually [31,767  * 1.737  = 55,179 gal].
To estimate the average monthly irrigation water use, we divided 55,179 gal per year by 12, for a result of 4,598 gal per month.
The estimated indoor water use in a 2.2-person household is 67.6 gal per day, or 4,521 gal per household per month.
We added this number to the average monthly irrigation water use , for a result of 9,119 gal of total water used per household per month.
Research has not yet explored the cumulative effects of adopting multiple landscape water conservation behaviors.
Therefore, when participants indicated that they had made multiple changes to their irrigation, we opted to calculate water saved conservatively by using only the single behavior that corresponded to the highest water savings.
To simplify calculations, we grouped behaviors that resulted in same amounts of water savings and had five different groups based on similar water savings.
For example, water savings when a participant had seasonally adjusted irrigation times was 6,988 gal per 1,000 ft2 per year , which corresponds to a monthly water savings of 582 gal per 1,000 ft2.
We multiplied this value by the average irrigated landscape area  to determine that the average water savings for a participant who adopted this practice was 1,011 gal per month.
We calculated water savings for the other four landscape water conservation behavioral groups in this manner as well.
We calculated water rates using reported water rates based on an average consumption of 4,000 and 8,000 gal per month from 187 water and wastewater service providers in Florida.
We excluded wastewater charges and possible taxes or fees collected by water utility providers.
The average statewide bill for 4,000 gal per month water consumption was $21.56, and the average statewide bill for 8,000 gal per month water consumption was $34.15.
Most of the utilities use minimum water charges and apply inclining water rates, with water price per thousand gallons increasing with water use.
To identify the average reduction in water bill per thousand gallons of water saved, we estimated the difference between the bills for 8,000 gal and 4,000 gal  and divided the difference by 4.
The average savings due to reductions in water use was $3.31 per thousand gallons of water saved.
For example, we calculated water bill savings relative to the practice of seasonally adjusting irrigation times by multiplying the monthly water savings  by the statewide average cost per thousand gallons of water.
The resulting water bill savings averaged $3.35 per person per month.
The total savings that corresponded to the reported behavior changes in the group of respondents was 52,106 gal of water per month, or 625,272 gal per year, which is valued at a monthly overall total of $172.48, or $2,069.76 per year, a savings of about $10.78 per participant per month.
Additionally, we calculated water delivery cost reductions , which corresponded to a savings of $135.48 per month for Florida water utilities, or approximately $1,625.76 per year.
To highlight the statewide impacts we identified using our innovative evaluation approach, we used the pilot test data to create an infographic showcasing the most common behavior changes, the corresponding quantities of water saved, and the resulting financial benefits to both residents and water utilities.
We then distributed the infographic to Extension professionals through various sources, such as social media platforms and personalized emails.
The informal feedback we received was positive, and we plan to modify the image annually.
Our strategy for sharing impacts was not limited to the infographic; we also generated news releases and provided a template for agents' annual report of accomplishments.
Because impact measurement is important for empowering communities, demonstrating the value of UF/IFAS Extension, and guiding Extension program planning, we presented the impacts of water savings as metrics that relate to communities.
Also, along with using various formats to present information , we used various options for information dissemination, such as social media posts, presentations, and webinars.
Infographic Presenting Pilot Test Water Conservation Outcomes and Impacts
 Considering that the pilot test data were collected from a very small sample and that over 80,000 people participate in UF/IFAS water conservation programming in Florida each year (D.
Craig, personal communication, December 7, 2015), our pilot test demonstrated the substantial impacts Extension programs can have on water resources.
Further, it points to the great need to measure and document these otherwise unreported impacts.
Efforts are under way to standardize water conservation impact reporting throughout the state.
We have conducted several in-service trainings to raise awareness of the tools, explain the process, and encourage Extension professionals to use the available resources in their program evaluation efforts.
Additional support was provided through an informal monthly webinar open to all interested Extension professionals, through which they could learn and ask questions about the project.
In 2016, 9 months after the full version of the evaluation packet was launched, 34 Extension agents had accessed the tools for their use.
Florida Extension administration is encouraging Extension professionals to engage in standardized water conservation impact reporting.
District Extension directors have been helpful in disseminating information and have encouraged Extension professionals to participate.
The approach we used for standardized water conservation impact reporting has multiple advantages.
The estimated water savings can be supported by the available literature.
Additionally, the format allows for flexible reporting at the individual, local, and state level and provides a mechanism for examining the impacts of alternative delivery methods or program designs.
The endeavor of developing a standardized evaluation process has some limitations and challenges.
Although the tools for standardization have been requested by Extension professionals  and feedback has been very positive, the tools have not been used in the manner we anticipated.
We have found that many agents have adopted and adapted the tools for use in their individual programs and reported at the local level, but not at the state level.
We have overcome this challenge by modifying our approach and focusing on helping agents report on standard indicators in their annual reports of accomplishment.
We now focus on providing support to agents as they modify the approach for use with their local programs and then collating the data from their reports.
Overall, we have seen increased accountability in water conservation programs.
Furthermore, it is very difficult for Extension program participants to estimate the square footages of their irrigated landscape areas.
We tried different ways of helping participants provide accurate responses, and our solution was to provide a reference statement that helps the participant visualize the size of the irrigated landscape.
In moving forward, we have used an average residential irrigated area, a value that is available from University of Florida research.
Although self-reported data is considered a standard for Extension evaluation, responses may be affected by factors such as social desirability bias.
Even though resources limit the extent of data that can be collected , we hope to incorporate water supply utility company data to verify self-reported and estimated water savings in future evaluations.
Although the standardized evaluation approach simplifies the evaluation process, it does not account for the potential variability in water conservation results among households or different weather conditions, and this drawback can be addressed by the analysis of data from water supply utility companies.
Finally, whereas water conservation reduces customers' water bills and utility companies' treatment and delivery costs (U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency, 2004), it also affects the companies' revenues.
We did not address the relationship between customers' water use, utility companies' revenues, and water prices in this evaluation framework.
It is important to recognize, though, that given the population growth rate in the state, water conservation allows utility companies to delay costly investments in expanding capacity and acquiring additional water sources that also can be associated with increases in water prices.
As others have found, developing tools for standardization that reflect group consensus can be highly time consuming  and resources need to be invested into training the intended users of the tools.
Additional potential challenges include establishing a mechanism to measure statewide water savings impacts while enabling Extension professionals to personalize and access their own data.
Finally, this approach focuses on water conservation only and does not capture other impacts, such as increases in social capital, water quality improvements, protection of aquatic ecosystems, and improved plant health.
Extension services across the United States face the challenge of standardizing data collection and reporting systems to demonstrate real impacts.
We recommend that program evaluators and Extension professionals collectively develop standardized evaluation tools that can centralize data collection and improve the quality of reporting.
We detailed the process we used to convert postprogram water conservation evaluation results into statewide impacts metrics so that this process can be replicated or modified by others.
We emphasize that it is possible to measure impacts across diverse programs, and we encourage Extension professionals to conduct economic evaluations of their programs in order to demonstrate impacts to funding agencies and legislators.
Although we consider the development of an approach based on standardized evaluation metrics a promising accomplishment, we have found that changing the process of statewide evaluation is time and resource intensive.
A remaining challenge is to incorporate reported impacts that are obtained through other methods, such as collection of actual water use data.
We are engaging a network of Extension professionals to encourage reporting on the statewide impacts.
On the basis of our experiences thus far, we recommend that Extension professionals establish a communication plan when they begin developing instruments for standardizing evaluations.
Extension professionals also should communicate regularly with administrators to ensure that centralized data collection and reporting will meet the needs and vision of the organization's leadership.
Future collaboration with water utility companies will facilitate the incorporation of quantitative water use data before and after Extension program attendance to measure the impact of a program.
Our intention was not to report statistical results, given the small sample size; instead our purposes were to discuss our experiences and to demonstrate that diverse programs within a state can, and should, be collectively evaluated to demonstrate impacts.
We hope to further discuss and share the approach and tools presented in this article as we work to improve our process.
It is our hope that our experiences will be helpful to Extension professionals across the United States and will support others' reporting of environmental and economic program impacts to stakeholders, funding agencies, and legislators.
Overall, we learned several lessons and experienced several challenges, which have led us to improve our evaluation approach by focusing our efforts on standardizing agent-level reporting.
Strengths of the project include the availability of experts who brought research findings to instrument developmentfocused evaluation and acceptance of the standardized evaluation concept by Extension professionals.
The cooperation of Extension professionals who were enthusiastic about the process and willing to secure participants for the pilot test was critical to our success, and the pilot test helped establish the instrument's validity and reliability.
The availability of research on water savings  and utility rates  was essential in calculating the impact of specific landscape water conservation behaviors.
In the era of complex funding and strict accountability requirements, Extension professionals are challenged to report the economic impacts of their programs.
Sharing cost-based information with stakeholders, funding agencies, and legislators will enable Extension administrators to justify investments in their programs.
Presenting unified statewide environmental and economic impacts of diverse water conservation programming is a good way to meet this requirement.
The influence of water attitudes, perceptions, and learning preferences on water-conserving actions.
Natural Sciences Education, 42, 114122.
Analysis of residential irrigation distribution uniformity.
Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering, 131, 336341.
Methodologies for successful implementation of smart irrigation controllers.
Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering, 141, 19.
The nature of complex organizations: The case of Cooperative Extension.
New Directions for Evaluation, 2008, 514.
Educating for sustainability: Competencies & practices for transformative action.
Journal of Sustainability Education, 2, 120.
Malhotra , Wiley International Encyclopedia of Marketing.
London, UK: John Wiley & Sons.
Residential irrigation water use in Central Florida.
Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering, 133, 427434.
University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences.
Enhancing and protecting water quality, quantity, and supply.
Enhancing the capacity to create behavior change: Extension key leaders' opinions about social marketing and evaluation.
Journal of Agricultural Education, 55, 176190.
Attitudebehavior consistency in household water consumption.
The Social Science Journal, 51, 455463.
Wheat Irrigation by James W.
Bauder Irrigating winter wheat and spring wheat can be profitable.
However, with higher yields and higher rates of fertilization being used, improper soil moisture management may become a limiting input influencing yields, returns, and crop quality.
Water Requirements Plant water requirements are basically a function of vegetative cover density and weather conditions.
Since both spring and winter-planted wheat are grown in the cool season, they are relatively low water-use crops.
There are no appreciable differences in seasonal water requirements of various varieties, although different varieties will yield slightly different with equal amounts of water.
Time of fall planting and spring complete cover can affect the total use by a few inches of water.
Total seasonal requirement is about 18-21" inches for these two crops, depending upon the location within the state and seasonal weather variations.
Irrigation requirements vary with stored moisture, effective rainfall, and the efficiency with which water is applied.
They vary from a maximum of about 16 acre-inches down to 0, when ideal weather conditions occur.
By spring, root systems of winter wheat are deep, plentiful, and capable of depleting soil water content to a level lower than many other crops.
Spring wheat is also efficient once the rooting system has developed.
After reaching full ground cover, water requirements for most varieties are about equal to evaporation from the standard four-foot weather bureau evaporation pan.
By the end of June, most wheat has headed and water needs diminish rapidly.
Overirrigation and Leaching When more water is applied than can be used by plants or can be stored in the rooting area, leaching will occur.
Under most conditions, a 10% overirrigation or reliance on off-season rainfall is sufficient for leaching salts which occur in the water.
Excess water will also carry plant nutrients, especially nitrogen, beyond effective rooting and feeding areas.
It is especially wasteful to overirrigate early in the season before the plant has utilized the nitrogen.
Moisture Stress In water deficient areas, much attention has been given to studies concerning moisture stress at specific growth periods.
These studies have indicated reductions in yield if stress occurs at the boot stage, bloom stage, milk stage, and even after the soft dough stage under high evaporative demand.
Since it is difficult to pin-point stage of growth versus stress, and since it is difficult to measure plant stress until visual symptoms occur, maintaining at least minimum moisture levels at all stages of growth is probably the most risk-free approach under a full irrigation regime.
Lodging Lodging of irrigated wheat is less a problem since the stiff, short straw varieties were introduced, but lodging does continue to cause losses in some cases.
Spring-planted wheat is more susceptible to lodging than winter wheat.
Planning ahead to have the soil moisture reservoir filled prior to heading should limit serious lodging.
However, shallow or sandy soils may require irrigation during or after the heading period.
With sprinkler irrigation, apply water slowly to prevent this from occurring.
If possible, avoid irrigating during windy periods.
Calculating Yield A simple way to calculate either the potential yield or seasonal water requirements is by use of models, such as the following: Estimated yield  = 5.8  bushels/acre where: SM = soil moisture  R = rainfall  I = irrigation  For instance, if plant available soil moisture is 6 inches, rainfall is 3 inches, and irrigation is 6 inches, estimated yield in bushels/acre is = 5.8  = 63 bu/acre.
Admittedly, this provides only an estimate.
More refined models are available to distinguish between winter wheat and spring wheat.
However, for practical planning purposes, models like the above provide a good approximation.
*Excerpted from "Wheat Irrigation", EM 3048, December, 1976.
Washington State University Extension Service.
June 2013 // Volume 51 // Number 3 // Ideas at Work // v51-3iw3
 The National 4-H Science, Engineering, and Technology  Initiative was announced in 2007 , renamed to 4-H Science, as the newest effort to strengthen 4-H science education.
The National 4-H Science Leadership Team developed a set of best practices titled "4-H SET Checklist" to help educators ensure their programs exemplified high-quality science education.
The checklist asks, "Are you providing youth opportunities to improve their SET Abilities?" 4-H efforts have emphasized the development of science process skills , which refer to measurable behaviors and transferable abilities reflective of processes involved with scientific reasoning.
In 1963, the report Science in 4-H Study advised 4-H programs to engage youth in science process skills.
A 2007 report, Science, Engineering, and Technology  Programming in the Context of 4-H Youth Development, reiterated this recommendation by identifying 30 4-H Science, Engineering, and Technology Abilities.
In the broader realm of science education, a myriad of lists exist defining pure process skills.
Notable lists include Revised Bloom's Taxonomy cognitive process dimension, which included remembering, understanding, applying, analyzing, evaluating, and creating ; 1990 California State Science Framework  adopted in the guide Science Guidelines for Non-Formal Education , which defined observing, communicating, comparing, ordering, categorizing, relating, inferring, and applying; and the Exploratorium Institute for Inquiry's list comprised of observing, questioning, hypothesizing, predicting, planning, interpreting, and communicating.
These lists have value in extending the scope of science education beyond content memorization.
However, in educational application, they often suffer from a shared weakness by reducing science processes to simple procedures that neglect deepening understanding of scientific reasoning and the breadth of scientific practice.
Research recognizes that science process skills cannot be taught or learned as independent, abstract processes apart from the both the content and the community in which they are inexplicably tied.
Learning science process skills in isolation is akin to memorizing content from a textbook: such learning becomes ritualized and meaningless, reducing the complex nature of scientific thinking to a set of simple procedures.
Research in education is beginning to recognize the importance of sociocultural influences on learning and development.
Learning is as much the acquisition of knowledge and development of skills, as it is the development of oneself in a broader community of practice, within which such knowledge and skills are valued and meaningful.
Recent national synthesis reports suggest that understanding science and engineering requires proficiency in multiple aspects of conceptual understanding, practices, and identification with a larger community.
Effective science and engineering education cannot be purely a memorization of facts, nor can it be only the development of abstract skills.
Becoming scientifically literate involves engaging in the practices of the scientific and engineering community.
Two participation-oriented frameworks have emerged in the past few years to guide youth science education.
In 2009, the NRC published a synthesis report on informal science education, Learning Science in Informal Environments.
The authors posited six strands of scientific practices that intertwined knowledge, skills, attitudes, and dispositions.
Their assumption is that "effective science education reflects the ways in which scientists actually work" (NRC, 2009, p.
The report outlines six strands leading to effective informal science learning when opportunities are provided for a young person to (NRC, 2009, p.
Another movement in science education is the establishment of new national standards for K-12 school-based science education.
In the report Framework for K-12 Science Education the authors recognize scientific and engineering practices "shows that theory development, reasoning, and testing are components of a larger ensemble of activities" (NRC, 2012, p.
Engaging in science and engineering practices can increase curiosity, interest, and improve motivation.
The eight practices include:
 The latest 4-H efforts by Horton et al.
recognize the need to intertwine content and abilities.
Now 4-H science education programs need to embrace not only the intertwining of content and skills, but the role of participation in authentic communities of practice.
Science and engineering are human enterprises.
To be scientifically literate, youth need to jointly understand scientific and engineering concepts, be able to engage in scientific and engineering practices, and see themselves as consumers of and contributors to the scientific community.
Intertwining science process skills, science content, and deepening participation in scientific communities may ultimately contribute to deeper levels of scientific literacy.
4-H programs offering science education, guided by the 4-H SET Checklist, should provide youth opportunities to participate in scientific and engineering practicesintertwining content, skills, and attitudesand emphasize identity and attitude development.
4-H science education also needs to emphasize programming that is relevant to youths' lives and fosters learning, growth, and science-infused participation in family, community, and social settings.
By recognizing and integrating emerging research into our work with program development, we ensure 4-H programs offer the best in high-quality informal science and engineering education.
4-H science, engineering and technology: A strategic framework for progress.
Washington, DC: United States Department of Agriculture.
A taxonomy for learning, teaching, and assessing: A revision of Bloom's taxonomy of educational objectives.
Boston, MA: Addison Wesley Longman, Inc.
California State Department of Education.
Science framework for California public schools.
Kindergarten through grade twelve.
Situated learning: Legitimate peripheral participation.
New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Scientific thinking and science literacy.
Lerner  Handbook of child psychology, 6th Edition (pp.
Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
4-H Science, Engineering, and Technology  Initiative: youth engagement, attitudes, and knowledge study.
Chevy Chase, MD: National 4-H Council.
National 4-H Club Foundation.
Science in 4-H study: A study of the possibilities of expanding the understanding and use of science through 4-H club work.
Learning science in informal environments: People, places, and pursuits.
Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
A framework for K-12 science education: Practices, crosscutting concepts, and core ideas.
Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
The cultural nature of human development.
New York, NY: Oxford University Press.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
June 2017 // Volume 55 // Number 3 // Tools of the Trade // v55-3tt6
 According to the Crisis Prevention Institute's crisis development model , anxiety is the first level of behavior manifested by a potentially acting-out individual.
Because there are many occasions in which anxiety can present itself in the 4-H program, such as competitions, public speaking, and performances, 4-H professionals should be versed in recognizing and addressing anxiety so that it does not escalate.
Conflict can be an unsettling experience, and people tend to avoid it.
However, Extension professionals are responsible for the welfare of those participating in their programs and must intercede so that a program can continue relatively disruption free after interruption by an agitated individual.
In New Jersey, I have trained 524 educators working in kindergarten through grade 12 on how to de-escalate mounting tensions in a professional manner.
The training focuses on rational detachment and effective communication as tools for de-escalating aggressive behavior.
The educators who have taken the training represent 19 school districts across three counties.
In a self-reporting survey administered after the 8-hr training, they expressed increased confidence in the ability to handle agitated individuals.
Additionally, months after the training, the educators reported overall decreases in the numbers of incidents requiring physical restraint.
Keeping a professional attitude can be a challenge, especially when a disruptive person is invested in lashing out or arguing rather than resolving a situation.
Rational detachment is the ability to keep calm and stay in control of one's behavior during an uncomfortable situation despite feelings of anger or frustration.
The Crisis Prevention Institute outlines three strategies professionals can use to rationally detach and not take an acting-out person's behavior personally: have a plan, release negative energy, and use self-talk.
Knowing beforehand how disruptions or other issues will be addressed goes a long way toward building your confidence in handling conflicts.
For example, when planning a large event, determine who will handle paperwork or registration issues the day of the event should a mistake be found.
Decide who should be called when someone is getting agitated at the event.
Identify an area where an agitated person can be escorted to, and thereby removed from other participants, so that the event can continue.
Make sure the area for addressing agitated individuals is not isolated but is instead near a security detail or outside the venue itself.
Most people participating in an event are tolerant when mistakes are made.
However, staff members' handling of mistakes after they occur can de-escalate or further escalate behavior.
Using empathic statementssuch as "I see your point; follow me and we'll resolve this"conveys that the agitated person has been understood while allowing you to remove him or her from an "audience".
Conflict can leave people with feelings of doubt, anxiety, and tension.
Professionals need to release these feelings in order to perform at their best.
Talk to colleagues to prevent replaying a scene over and over in your head, or take a walk to clear your thoughts.
These are two effective ways to calm down after an incident.
Using humor is another effective way to cope with stress from conflict.
Debriefing with colleagues after an altercation is also an important step in addressing a precipitating factor.
Remind yourself that even if you are the target of an outburst, you likely are not the cause.
Anxiety, frustration, and other precipitating factors over which you have no control are usually the culprits when someone becomes agitated.
Reminding yourself that anxiety is a precursor to defensive behaviors and is inherently present during 4-H competitions can help you build confidence.
Repeat to yourself over and over "I can do this."
 The other key aspect of maintaining professionalism during a conflict is communicating effectively.
By combining the power of body language, paraverbals, and effective words for conveying the message intended, you can build a solid, yet simple, communication foundation.
Body language includes stance, hand gestures, demonstration of awareness of personal space, and facial expressions.
Sometimes professionals add to anxiety and escalation inadvertently when their body language conflicts with what they are saying.
For example, you may unintentionally infringe on personal space while attempting to be supportive, and doing so may escalate a person's anxiety.
A study by Iachini, Ruggiero, Ruotolo, Cola, and Senese  showed that the more participants rated themselves as anxious, the more they increased their distance from confederates.
By being more aware of body language, you can reinforce your intended message.
Paraverbals are how you say what you say and include tone, volume, and cadence.
Avoid inflections of impatience and condescension that can detract from your intended message.
Paraverbals convey feelings and may be the most difficult to control because individuals have various emotional reactions to an escalating situation.
If your attitude is incongruent with the words you are using, people will pick up on your tone first.
Increased anxiety is generally associated with decreased cognitive functioning.
Therefore, when an individual is venting defensively in an agitated state of anxiety, you must use fewer words so as not to add to the person's cognitive confusion and inadvertently increase his or her agitation.
Using short empathic phrases such as "You're right," "I see," or "I'll fix this" will aid in de-escalating a situation.
It is important for Extension professionals to be aware of their own behaviors and body language and how those elements affect an agitated individual.
Additionally, finding positive outlets for the negative energy absorbed in a situation will help foster a rationally detached view of an unpleasant situation.
It is not easy, but by planning and putting a few preventative measures in place, you can add these tools to your skill set for handling agitated individuals and keeping disruptive behavior to a minimum.
The influence of anxiety and personality factors on comfort and reachability space: A correlational study.
Cognitive Processing, 16, 255258.
Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Publishing.
Relations of naturally occurring variations in state anxiety and cognitive functioning.
Personality and Individual Differences, 98859890.
Nonviolent crisis intervention: A CPI specialized offering.
Milwaukee, WI: Crisis Prevention Institute.
October 2017 // Volume 55 // Number 5 // Research In Brief // v55-5rb3
 Increases in the population are placing greater pressure on water resources for freshwater supply, food production, and health.
As a result, water conservation is an important practice, and encouraging consumers to adopt water conservation strategies is an effort that demands Extension's attention.
In 2010, the United States consumed approximately 355 billion gal of water per day for freshwater supply.
Nationally, outdoor water accounts for approximately 9 billion gal of water per day, and one third of this water is used for landscape irrigation by residential water users.
Although 3 billion gal may seem negligible in overall water consumption, it is enough to supply over 34,000 homes in the United States for 1 year , and reducing some of this amount is one of the largest contributions households can make to water conservation.
Additionally, in some states, such as California and Florida, residential and commercial landscaping irrigation accounts for more than half of urban water usage.
Therefore, best water management practices for landscapes can significantly contribute to water conservation.
Because a large percentage of water is consumed by home irrigation users and encouraging people to change existing behaviors can be challenging , it is important to understand the characteristics of this group so that targeted programs can be developed to help reduce water usage for home irrigation purposes.
According to Jorgensen, Graymore, and O'Toole , successful water conservation programs are dependent on the public's perception of water and its various uses.
Because literature on the characteristics of home irrigation users is relatively sparse , information regarding their characteristics, perceptions of water, and water conservation behaviors is needed.
Additionally, an understanding of home irrigation users can aid in successful Extension program development targeted toward water conservation practices.
The purpose of the research reported here was to identify and describe the characteristics of home irrigation users, a group that has a key role in engaging in water conservation practices.
The objectives of the study were to describe
 The study was conducted on a nationwide basis with a sample of 1,620 respondents who were engaged in home irrigation practices.
The responses were not weighted by state population as irrigation users are different from the general public and not reflective of the census.
Data were collected via a researcher-developed online survey as part of a larger study that captured various characteristics of the target group.
The survey was distributed via an online survey company.
Nonprobability, opt-in sampling was used because it was considered most appropriate for reaching this population on a national scale in the absence of the possibility of random sampling.
Because purposive sampling was used, the reader should take caution in generalizing the results, as this population is different from the general population.
Screening questions were used to ensure that respondents were part of the target audience by confirming that they were 18 years or older, had lawn or landscaping adjacent to their residence, and had irrigation systems over which they had decision-making power.
Attention filters were used to ensure that respondents answered items accurately.
Respondents were asked about the frequency with which they interacted with the local Cooperative Extension service and about their interest in various water topics, preferred sources for water information, preferred methods for learning about water, perceptions of relevant organizations, and use of water-saving practices.
According to the Environmental Protection Agency , water use varies by geographic location and climate; thus, geographic locations of the target audience are important and have implications for Extension's development of tailored water conservation programs.
The states most represented by the study respondents were California , Florida , and Texas .
More than half of the respondents  reported that they never interact with their local Extension office; however, approximately 28.0% said that they do so at least once every month.
It should be noted that although the study addressed frequencies of interactions with local Extension offices, it did not address durations of those interactions.
Respondents were most interested in learning about irrigation technologies that save water  and landscaping ideas.
Respondents were least interested in forest management and water issues , water management and restoration , and private well protection .
Home Irrigation Users' Interest in Learning About Water Topics
 Respondents were most interested in obtaining information about water conservation from organizations that encourage water conservation  and universities that research water conservation.
Respondents were least interested in obtaining information from colleagues  and Cooperative Extension .
Home Irrigation Users' Preferred Sources of Information About Water Topics
 Most respondents preferred to learn about water conservation by visiting a website , watching TV coverage , and reading certain printed materials .
Home Irrigation Users' Preferred Methods of Learning About Water Conservation
 Most respondents either agreed or strongly agreed that nonprofit organizations and universities were doing their parts to protect water resources.
The largest percentage of "neither agree nor disagree" responses was for Cooperative Extension .
When asked about the importance of water, the majority of respondents  indicated perceiving water as extremely important.
Additionally, approximately 35% thought water was highly important.
Home Irrigation Users' Perceptions of the Importance of Water
 Most respondents engaged in following water restrictions , seasonally adjusting irrigation times , using high-efficiency sprinklers , and using low-water-consuming plants in their yards .
Respondents were least engaged in installing smart irrigation controls , using recycled wastewater to irrigate their landscapes , and using rain barrels to collect water to use in their gardens .
Home Irrigation Users' Engagement in Water Saving Practices
 Interestingly, most home irrigation users who participated in the study reported here resided in California, Florida, New York, and Texas, four states that continue to bear substantial water conservation issues and have the highest levels of residential irrigation use, as indicated in the 2010 Geological Survey.
Most respondents did not interact with their local Extension offices and identified their preferred sources of information about water conservation as organizations that encourage water conservation and universities that research water conservation.
The latter finding suggests that irrigation users seem to prefer information from sources they perceive as specialists in water conservation over more general sources.
Further, home irrigation users may not be aware that the water information they require is available at Extension offices or that Extension services are available in their areas.
Required information for home irrigation users includes information on irrigation technologies that save water, home and gardening landscaping ideas, irrigation practices that conserve water, and irrigation management.
These topics are of interest to home irrigation users, indicating their overall interest in adopting water conservation practices.
Overall, the study respondents perceived water to be an extremely important issue, and they tended to engage in the water-saving practices of following watering restrictions, seasonally adjusting irrigation times, and using high-efficiency sprinklers and low-water-consuming plants.
Most home irrigation users who participated in the study reported here never interact with Extension offices, yet they desire information on water topics, and their preferred methods for learning about water include using websites and reading printed media.
These findings suggest that a gap exists between actual availability of water information from Extension and home irrigation users' perceptions of water information available from Extension.
Accordingly, there are opportunities for Extension to better promote and expand on its existing resources on water topics and, ultimately, to become more engaged with home irrigation users, an audience with the potential to conserve substantial amounts of water.
One way in which Extension can help promote water conservation practices among home irrigation users is by addressing topics of interest to them, such as irrigation technologies that save water.
The results of the study also highlight topics home irrigation users need to know more about, such as using rain barrels, drip irrigation, and recycled wastewater for irrigation.
A well-designed Extension water conservation program should focus on promoting awareness of these and other water conservation practices, ultimately resulting in home irrigation users' adoption of best management practices.
Furthermore, Extension should provide water conservation information through methods home irrigation users prefer and ensure that home irrigation users know how to access the information they seek.
Because most respondents indicated a preference for obtaining information by visiting websites, Extension could create additional websites addressing water-related topics of interest to irrigation users.
For example, consumers' willingness to adopt conservation practices could be enhanced by Extension's provision of information on websites covering home and gardening techniques and irrigation technologies that conserve water.
Additionally, existing websites should be better promoted so that home irrigation users are aware of their existence.
Other channels of information dissemination could involve printed media, such as fact sheets and brochures, as home irrigation users preferred these learning resources over workshops and conferences.
Also, such printed media could be made available at Extension offices, thereby encouraging more frequent interactions between Extension personnel and home irrigation users.
There also exists an opportunity to improve home irrigation users' perceptions of Extension.
Most respondents agreed that universities protect water resources; however, about 45% neither agreed nor disagreed that Cooperative Extension is doing its part to protect water resources.
This finding suggests that home irrigation users may perceive universities and Cooperative Extension in their states as separate organizations rather than affiliated ones, and it highlights an opportunity for Cooperative Extension to better promote its role in encouraging water conservation.
For example, any websites created by Extension should be properly branded for ease of identification.
Moreover, future research might address the use of social media by home irrigation users and whether social media campaigns could be effective in improving both awareness of Extension's water conservation efforts and the impacts of those efforts.
Because home irrigation users strongly perceive national agencies and nonprofit organizations as doing their parts to conserve water resources, there is the potential for collaborative efforts between Cooperative Extension and such entities.
As well, respondents' interest in learning about conservation practices from organizations that encourage water conservation suggests further opportunities for partnerships with national agencies and nonprofit organizations.
Aligning with organizations known for water conservation efforts and those that are home irrigation users' preferred sources of information could prove impactful in promoting water conservation practices and increasing awareness of Extension services.
Clearly, Extension has an opportunity to improve its engagement with home irrigation users.
Extension professionals are encouraged to use the findings reported here to develop tailored programs that meet the needs of this target audience.
Residential end users of water version 2: Executive report.
Denver, CO: Water Research Foundation.
Residential irrigation water use in Central Florida.
Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Engineering, 133, 427434.
Household water use behavior: An integrated model.
Journal of Environmental Management, 91, 227236.
Water resources: Agricultural and environmental issues.
Conserving water while washing hands: The immediate and durable impacts of descriptive norms.
Environment and Behaviour, 122.
Extension users and non-users differ in water conservation normative beliefs, intentions, and behaviors.
Classifying residents who use landscape irrigation: Implications for encouraging water conservation behavior.
Environmental Management, 58, 238253.
The effect of strategic message selection on residents' intent to conserve water in the landscape.
Journal of Agricultural Education, 56, 5974.
April 2010 // Volume 48 // Number 2 // Research In Brief // v48-2rb4
 As the population continues to increase in urban and peri-urban residential areas, the extent and intensity of lawn care and associated use of consumables, including fertilizers and pesticides, is expected to increase.
In the United States, 74% of households use some form of manufactured fertilizers or pesticides.
Rates of application vary, but nitrogen application rates for lawns have been found to be comparable to rates for crop production and golf courses, and these rates are increasing in urban watersheds.
Inappropriate use of lawn chemicals may have adverse effects on water quality, such as eutrophication  and hypoxia .
Lawn care professionals may feel limited in their flexibility to recommend lower-input management approaches, in part because of customers' attitudes.
Sandpit lakes in Nebraska, many adjacent to the Platte River with surface areas of 0.2 ha  to 80 ha , were originally excavations for construction sand.
There are over 800 publicly and privately owned sandpit lakes in Nebraska.
Many of these lakes have been developed for recreational uses such as boating and fishing, and for either weekend or full-time residences.
However, in recent years the waters of many sandpit lakes have been degraded due to nutrient loading leading to eutrophication and the development of toxic algae blooms.
One possible source of excess nutrients, particularly phosphorus , may be residential lawns bordering the lakes.
Other possible P sources are single home septic systems, fertilizer use from agricultural land, and water fowl.
Since the soils bordering these lakes are coarse-textured and the lakes themselves are relatively shallow, the risk of nutrient loading is increased.
Many of the lawns on homesites surrounding these lakes are routinely watered and fertilized, possibly to excess.
It is important to understand the attitudes and perceptions of homeowners when attempting to interpret the link between lawn care and water quality, and then to plan effective educational programming.
The objective of the study reported here was to assess homeowner lawn management practices, and perceptions and attitudes toward environmental and public health issues by conducting a survey of residents of sandpit lake communities in eastern Nebraska.
This information can be used by various agencies, managers, and Extension personnel to develop programs to enable residential landowners to implement more effective and environmental friendly lawn care practices.
Location of Surveys Distributed to Residents of Sandpit Lake Communities in Eastern Nebraska.
Dots Indicate Communities with Survey Respondents
 For the purpose of the survey, "lawn" was defined as an area of land that is generally covered with grass and other plants that are maintained at an even, low height.
The survey consisted of 32 questions separated into three different sections:
 Surveys were distributed to 130 residents of 14 sandpit lake communities.
Surveys were sent in groups of 10 to a lake association contact, who then distributed the surveys to other residents.
Additional surveys were sent out upon request.
A cover letter explaining the study and return pre-paid envelopes were sent along with the survey.
Survey distribution was not random.
First, not all homeowners had lawns as defined in the survey.
Many lots were covered with sand from the house to the lakeshore.
Consequently, surveys were distributed only to those residents who had lawn areas covered with grass.
Second, additional surveys were distributed door to door while performing site evaluations.
In order to analyze survey data, word responses from the survey were coded 1 to 4, where "1" corresponded to a low-impact practice.
For analysis, questions and responses were arranged into four categories: management, environmental impact, aesthetics, and environmental attitude.
Differences within each category by lake community were analyzed using the General Linear Model Procedure of SAS Version 9.1.
Of the surveys distributed to the survey population, 68 households responded, giving a response rate of 52%.
The mean size of the lawns surveyed was approximately 1010 m2  or less.
Of those surveyed, 67% had a lawn comprised of either Kentucky bluegrass  or turf-type tall fescue.
Kentucky bluegrass is a common turfgrass in eastern Nebraska because it has exceptional reproductive capacity and recovery.
Turf type fescues are also commonly found in this region because of their tolerance to shade and their range of adaptability from temperate humid to temperate arid regions.
Nationally, homeowners spend a total of approximately $27 billion per year to maintain their lawns either themselves or by hiring outside help.
In Nebraska, over $300 million is spent per year on turfgrass maintenance.
Over half of the homeowners surveyed spent more than $100 each year maintaining their lawns.
This amount is consistent with that reported by Fech & Gaussoin.
The survey found that in a typical summer, 91% of the residents apply fertilizers to their lawn; however, only 3% of those surveyed have ever had their soil tested.
This is lower than the 20% rate reported by Osmond and Hardy.
Nearly 50% of residents surveyed applied fertilizers one to two times per year, and 32% applied three to four times per year, with spring and fall being the most common seasons for fertilization.
For those who fertilized, 66% apply the fertilizer themselves; of that group, 52% follow the directions given on the container.
Homeowners' Response to, "If you apply the fertilizer yourself, how do you determine the amount to be applied?"
 Intensity of irrigation practices is directly related to the intensity of cultural, nutrient, and pest management on turfgrass systems and has been associated with nutrient leaching from lawns.
Overall, 85% of the survey respondents watered their lawns one to four times a week, with mean application rates of approximately 1.3 cm  per application.
By combining survey results describing irrigation frequency and irrigation amount, we estimate that respondents may be watering at a minimum of 0.5 cm per week to a maximum of 10 cm per week.
The survey reported that 82% of homeowners mowed their lawns at least once per week in a typical summer.
Overall, 57% of those surveyed left the clippings on the lawn after mowing.
Leaving clippings will help meet nutrient requirements through mineralization of plant material.
The second part of the survey focused on lawn care attitudes and perceptions of the homeowners.
This section consisted of 11 questions that could be divided into two subtopics: 1) personal preference and 2) environmental attitude.
The personal preference section consisted of statements addressing how homeowners felt about their lawns.
We found that 85% of respondents felt that a well-kept lawn increased property values.
Ninety percent of the homeowners took pride in the appearance of their lawns, and 69% were generally satisfied with appearance of their lawns.
When asked if a weed-free lawn was important to them, 91% agreed or strongly agreed.
It may be inferred that some homeowners use herbicides for weed control under circumstances in which the control measures may be ineffective or inadvisable.
Homeowners' Responses to Multiple Questions Addressing Personal Preference and Environmental Attitude
 The environmental attitude portion of the survey addressed statements pertaining to the environment and public health.
Homeowners provided no clear sentiment when asked if they agreed with the statement "As long as my lawn is green, it is healthy".
Of those surveyed, 57% disagreed or strongly disagreed that a green lawn means a healthy lawn, compared to the 43% who agreed or strongly agreed with the statement.
When asked about lawn pesticides, 77% of homeowners agreed that pesticides are harmful to the environment, and 64% felt that pesticides are harmful to public health.
These responses suggest a dichotomy between the broad environmental attitudes of the survey population and the potential for herbicide use to maintain a weed-free lawn noted earlier.
A lower percentage of homeowners  felt that lawn fertilizers are harmful to the environment, and 56% agreed that lawn fertilizers were harmful to public health.
Improperly maintained septic systems are a potential source of lake water contaminants.
Homes at seven of the 14 lake communities surveyed are served by single-dwelling septic systems, corresponding to 25% of the total survey respondents.
Most septic systems were 6 or more years old.
Seventy-seven percent of the respondents agreed that inspection and routine clean-out of septic tanks is necessary to protect water quality.
Thirty-five percent of respondents reported that their system was checked every 3 years or more frequently, but 41% did not know how often the septic system was inspected and emptied.
Each grouped response category  was analyzed to determine if responses differed among residents of the different lake communities.
It might be suspected that responses would vary among lakes due to social factors.
For example, homeowners may feel compelled to maintain a certain aesthetic value of their lawns in one lake community, but feel less pressure at another.
Also, some lake organizations might have specific rules and regulations towards the upkeep of the properties on the lakes.
Despite this, there was no significant difference among residents grouped by lake community for any group of survey responses: Management , Environmental Impact , Aesthetics , and Environmental Attitude.
The residential lawn care survey reported here is one of few studies that attempted to assess homeowner lawn management practices and attitudes, and the only study found focusing on Great Plains communities and sandpit lakes.
Eighty-five percent of those surveyed felt that a well-kept lawn increases property values, and 90% take pride in the appearance of their lawn.
This may lead some homeowners to over apply turfgrass chemicals in pursuit of a high-quality lawn.
The survey results suggest that attitudes are ambiguous toward the environment and public health.
A majority of respondents fertilize their lawn at least once each year.
This is a potential cause for concern if residents apply fertilizer regardless of whether additional nutrients, particularly P, are needed.
This concern was also noted by Osmond and Hardy.
Related to this is that only 3% of respondents have ever had their soil tested.
As a partial remedy, some lake associations are recommending the use of N-only fertilizers.
This is an appropriate recommendation because the average Bray and Kurtz 1 P analysis for a subset of lawn soils in the study was 97.3 mg P/kg soil  in the 0-11 cm  depth and 72.4 mg P/kg soil  in the 12-22 cm  depth.
These values are in contrast to a Bray and Kurtz 1 P analysis of 24 to 30 mg P/kg soil  in excess of which plants generally do not respond.
In order to better accomplish the dual goals of high-quality home turf and maintenance of water quality in these sensitive sandpit lake communities, current effective education and outreach programs should be strengthened.
The intent should be to inform residents of these communities about lawn management practices having low potential for negative environmental impact, emphasizing nutrient management.
These educational efforts could be targeted and designed for direct delivery to homeowners or magnified and enhanced through delivery to Master Gardeners, lawn care operators, and county Extension personnel.
lawn and garden consumables demand to exceed $9 billion in 2010.
Background and overview of environmental issues.
Golf course management and construction: Environmental issues.
Role and conservation of water resources.
Golf course management and construction: Environmental issues.
Center for Watershed Protection.
Center for Watershed Protection.
Toward a low input lawn.
Fundamentals of turfgrass management.
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.
Selecting a lawn care company.
University of Nebraska-Lincoln Extension, Institute of Agriculture and Natural Resources.
Nitrate-Nitrogen losses to groundwater from rural and suburban land uses.
Impact of a turfgrass system on nutrient loadings to surface water.
Nitrogen input from residential lawn care practices in suburban watersheds in Baltimore County, MD.
Characterization of turf practices in five North Carolina communities.
Lawns and Toxins: An Ecology of the City.
SAS Institute, Cary, NC
 Nitrate leaching potential from lawns and turfgrass.
December 2002 // Volume 40 // Number 6 // Ideas at Work // 6IAW3
 Abstract Community Supported Agriculture  is based on the principle that the future success of our farms is dependent upon the relationships between farmers and an expanding non-agricultural population.
And, in many ways, the future success of our communities can be cultivated by strengthening our connection with our agricultural roots.
Building on this concept, Rutgers Cooperative Extension created a nutrition and agriculture education initiative for children ages 3 to 8 called "From Our Farms." From Our Farms promotes improved nutrition and consumption of locally grown foods through a series of family-based activities that are offered through local libraries.
Community Supported Agriculture  is based on the principle that the future success of our farms is dependent upon the relationships between farmers and an expanding non-agricultural population.
And, in many ways, the future success of our communities can be cultivated by strengthening our connection with our agricultural roots.
Building on this concept of community , Rutgers Cooperative Extension  created a nutrition and agriculture education initiative for children ages 3 to 8 called "From Our Farms." From Our Farms promotes improved nutrition and consumption of locally grown foods  through a series of family-based activities that are offered through local libraries.
CSA farming has been gaining momentum since its introduction in the United States in the mid-1980s.
The CSA concept originated in the 1960s in Switzerland and Japan, where consumers interested in safe food and farmers seeking stable markets for crops joined together in economic partnerships.
Today, CSA farms in the U.S.
number more than 400.
Most are located near urban centers in New England, the Mid-Atlantic states, and the Great Lakes region, with growing numbers in other areas, including the West Coast.
A CSA farm is made up of a community of individuals who pledge support to a farm operation so that the farmland becomes, either legally or spiritually, the community's farm.
Both growers and consumers provide mutual support and share the risks and benefits of food production.
Typically, members or "share-holders" of the farm pledge in advance to cover the anticipated costs of the farm operation and farmer's salary.
In return, they receive shares in the farm's bounty throughout the growing season, as well as satisfaction from reconnecting to the land and participating directly in food production.
Helping people understand where their food comes from is one way to help them explore food options and incorporate more fresh foods into their diets.
This approach to nutrition education can be a savvy, appealing, and marketable way to interest consumers in nutrition and nutrition education programs.
From Our Farms does not serve as a CSA farm or farm market.
Instead, it applies the principles of CSA to teach consumers about food, nutrition and the farm.
It involves the community in agriculture ; introduces consumers to locally grown foods and farms; and teaches them why those foods are good for us.
The program has four key objectives:
 From Our Farms operates through nine local libraries.
It offers parents and children a series of inter-related activities to teach nutrition and agriculture.
There are two key components.
From Our Farms Learning Boxes
 Children  learn about food, nutrition, and the farm with From Our Farms learning boxes, available through libraries.
Learning boxes are themed learning kits.
They include instructional materials that serve a variety of learning styles, including games, puppets, audio and/or videotapes, puzzles, and farmand food-focused storybooks.
Boxes also include family fun pages and activity sheets, developed by Rutgers Cooperative Extension.
Fun pages  and activity sheets  contain a series of lessons and activities for parents and children to work on at home, in conjunction with the storybooks and other materials in the boxes.
Parents use the boxes with children at home, where they read stories and play games that teach about food, nutrition, and agriculture.
Then, they complete a series of lessons and hands-on activities outlined in the fun pages and activity sheets.
There are three different learning boxes, vegetables, fruits, and dairy cows.
Educational messages for each box emphasize how foods are grown or produced, local farms that grow/raise the commodity, the nutritional value of the commodity and the role it plays in a healthful diet, where to find the commodity, and how to select and prepare the commodity.
All messages are kid-focused, with "FYI" tidbits on agriculture and nutrition included for parents.
From Our Farms Family Activity Days
 Multiple educational workshops are offered each year to complement the learning boxes.
Activity days incorporate hands-on activities to teach children and parents what foods are produced locally; how vegetables, fruit and animal products are grown; and how to select, use, and prepare agricultural products.
In an era when consumers are becoming farther and farther removed from the basics of where their food comes from, From Our Farms' agrarian and back-to-nature appeal has attracted the interest of parents, children, community groups, farmers, and government officials, alike.
An in-depth applied research intervention will be initiated in 2003.
An initial follow-up telephone survey of 250 From Our Farms participants revealed that participation in the program resulted in the following behavior changes, based on a response rate of 18%.
For more information on the From Our Farms project, including ordering information, contact the author at the e-mail address above or call 856/307-6450, extension 2.
Environmental influences on children's eating.
Journal of Nutrition Education, 27, 235-249.
The healing dimensions of people-plant relations: A research symposium.
Center for Design Research, Landscape Architecture Program, University of California, Davis.
Growing a healthy food system: Rebuilding connections between farmers and consumers.
Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 97, 949-950.
Changing the diet of America's children: What works and why?
Journal of Nutrition Education, 27, 250-260.
Setting up a library book box: A how-to for dietetics professionals.
Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 30, 289.
October 2001 // Volume 39 // Number 5 // Feature Articles // 5FEA3
 Abstract A local, grass roots effort resulted in the creation of a National Heritage Corridor in northeastern Connecticut and southeastern Massachusetts.
The Corridor's mission overlapped with that of the University of Connecticut Cooperative Extension System.
By thinking and acting creatively, these two organizations partnered in a way that enhanced the effectiveness of both.
The result was a new local Extension education program addressing critical and previously neglected issues and audiences.
A needs assessment survey provided crucial information to guide the development of the new education program.
The survey results have been and continue to be used to develop the Extension education curriculum and prioritize program offerings.
In 1988, Connecticut Congressman Sam Gejdenson  found that Connecticut ranked last among all 50 states in its amount of federally protected open space.
Connecticut was also a distant last among northeastern states in public land available for recreation.
.
That same year, a small grassroots organization in northeastern Connecticut called the "Quinebaug Rivers Association"  began discussing ways to preserve and enhance the natural, cultural, and historic resources in the region.
The Quinebaug and Shetucket River watersheds encompass most of the land area of northeastern Connecticut, a traditionally rural region that by the late 1980's was facing development pressure from all directions.
The QRA formed a subcommittee called the "Quinebaug-Shetucket Corridor Committee," which began working with state and local agencies on ways to simultaneously promote and protect the unique character of the region.
Soon, events such as "Walking Weekend," a 3-day weekend offering dozens of guided walks and hikes, were showcasing the area's history, environment, agriculture, and other unique features.
Figure 1 Original Quinebaug-Shetucket Heritage Corridor Source: QSHC In 1988, the National Park Service conducted a study of a 25-town region in northeastern Connecticut bordering the Massachusetts border to the north and Rhode Island to the east.
The purpose of the study was to assess the national significance of the region's historic, natural, and cultural resources and their potential for interpretation.
Using the information gathered by the National Park Service, the Quinebaug-Shetucket Corridor Committee published three brochures: A Guide to Waterways, A Greenways Vision, and A Driving Tour of Historic Textile Industry Sites.
Then, in 1991, as the Quinebaug-Shetucket Corridor Committee continued to partner with state agencies, non-profits, and citizens groups, Congressman Gejdenson drafted legislation to designate the 25-town region as a National Heritage Corridor.
In 1994, the legislation was passed by Congress and signed by the President, making the Quinebaug and Shetucket Rivers Valley National Heritage Corridor the fourth such corridor in the country.
In 1995, the Quinebaug-Shetucket Corridor Committee was incorporated into a non-profit organization, the Quinebaug-Shetucket Heritage Corridor, Inc.
In 1996, the QSHC was designated by the Governor Rowland of Connecticut as the official body to manage projects and federal funds.
In 1999, additional legislation sponsored by Congressmen Gejdenson and Richard Neal  expanded the Heritage Corridor to include 35 towns, 9 of which are in Massachusetts.
Figure 2 Expanded Quinebaug-Shetucket Heritage Corridor Source: QSHC What Are National Heritage Corridors?
National Heritage Corridors are innovative entities designed to encourage grassroots efforts to protect and enhance a region's unique natural resources while simultaneously promoting appropriate economic development and redevelopment.
Heritage Corridor designation is federal, but the federal government's role is limited to providing technical assistance and interpretation.
It does not own or manage any land within the designated corridor.
There are currently 18 nationally designated heritage corridors in the country.
These corridors coordinate activities and share ideas among themselves through a non-profit organization, the National Alliance of Heritage Areas.
The QSHC has no regulatory authority.
The primary role of the Corridor is to "assist in the development and implementation of integrated cultural, historical and recreation land management programs that will retain, enhance, and interpret the significant features of the Corridor".
To fulfill that mission, a long-range management plan was developed that serves as the guiding document for the QSHC.
The plan is a synthesis of the goals of the original Heritage Corridor Committee and the federal enabling legislation.
A Unique Educational Partnership From the outset, Extension educators from the University of Connecticut Cooperative Extension System followed the progress of National Heritage Corridor development closely.
Early meetings of the QRA and/or its subcommittee were sometimes held in the county Extension Center, with Extension staff providing periodic limited assistance.
Once the Corridor Management Plan was complete, it became clear that the Cooperative Extension System and the QSHC had formal missions that overlapped in several areas, most notably land use and natural resources.
Discussions between the two organizations on the best ways to cooperate began in earnest.
By late in 1996, the idea of a jointly funded "Corridor Circuit Rider" position was hatched.
The Corridor Circuit Rider  would be a full-time Extension educator, housed at the local Extension office and jointly funded by the University of Connecticut Cooperative Extension System  and the Quinebaug-Shetucket Heritage Corridor.
The CCR would design and implement educational programs in these overlapping mission areas for the 26 Connecticut Corridor towns.
Principal target audiences would include municipal CEOs; planning, zoning, conservation and economic development commissions; and local land trusts.
Principal program areas would be land use planning, natural resource conservation, community design, and land protection tools and techniques.
In August 1998, the CCR was hired and the partnership was officially underway.
Building a New Program: Target Audience Needs Assessment The arrival of the CCR marked the first time a local Extension educator was available to address these audiences and program areas since the retirement of the county Community Resource Development  Agent 15 years earlier.
This was, for all practical purposes, a new Extension program in the Corridor region.
A diverse group of state and local resource specialists and community leaders was assembled into a Program Advisory Committee, which reached quick agreement that some form of needs assessment was necessary to focus the educational efforts of the new partnership.
In late 1999, the CCR took the lead in drafting a four-page needs assessment survey instrument, which was reviewed for content by the Program Advisory Committee and the QSHC's Natural Resources and Agriculture committee.
The revised draft was then pre-tested for clarity by 12 members of the target audience of municipal and land trust leaders.
The final survey listed 53 potential continuing education program topics under a number of broad headings.
Respondents were asked to rank their interest in each topic on a 1  to 5  scale.
Ample space for additional write-in topics was provided.
Figure 3 Survey Program Topics 1.
Open Space Protection Open space planning: who, how, and funding options Creative development techniques that conserve natural resources Economics of open space Farmland protection tools and techniques Conservation easements/gifting/estate planning 2.
Natural Resource/Land Management Stewardship planning: inventorying and planning for town or land trust forests Enhancing wildlife habitats Growing and harvesting wood products Impacts of logging on water quality and other natural resources Managing for recreational use Protecting and managing aquatic habitats 3.
Forest Resources  Tree, shrub, plant identification  Forest fragmentation issues B.
Wildlife Resources  Basic habitat concepts: where things live and why  Wildlife corridors: what they are and why they matter C.
Water Resources  Basic river/stream ecology  Basic pond/lake ecology  What wetlands do: basic functions and values  Water supply planning and resource preservation D.
Conserving Biodiversity  Identifying unique plant communities and habitats  Sustaining natural habitat diversity 4.
Legal and Administrative Issues Relating to Natural Resource Conservation Roles and responsibilities of municipal land use commissions Managing conservation easements: monitoring, re-recording issues, costs, etc.
Farming and forestry under the Inland Wetlands Act Basic property and tax law Working productively and efficiently with other commissions in town Regional interaction with surrounding towns and commissions 5.
Resource Inventories and Conservation Planning Conducting and updating natural resource inventories Riparian buffer zones/guidelines Incorporating natural resource data into Plans of Conservation and Development and month-to-month site plan reviews 6.
Land Use and Community Design Online/Internet planning resources Signage/billboard management Plans of Conservation and Development Community Design  Historic/village districts Transportation planning/road design Traffic management and controls Parking lot design Subdivision and zoning regulations Alternatives to strip commercial development Urban and community forestry programs Community visioning processes/workshops Growth management/sprawl Main Street revitalization Watershed planning and management Reducing impervious surfaces Impacts of development on water resources 7.
Computers and Natural Resources Geographic Information Systems : what it is and how it can be used Hands-on training in ArcView GIS Publicly available computer mapping data: what's there, how to get it, how it can be used Internet-based GIS & access to maps: what's there, how to get it, how it can be used How to use remote sensing from satellites, aerial photos and Global Positioning Systems  to improve GIS capabilities Affordable GIS: how to get started at little cost The survey was mailed in January 1999 to 811 members of municipal planning commissions, zoning commissions, conservation commissions, economic development commissions, inland wetland commissions, historical commissions, Boards of Selectmen, and local land trust boards in the 26 Connecticut Corridor towns.
Two hundred eighty-four completed surveys were returned.
The results were compiled using Microsoft Access software with assistance from a student of the University of Connecticut Department of Natural Resources Management and Engineering, who received independent study credit for her role in the assessment.
Needs Assessment Results and Discussion Simple means were calculated for each response topic and category.
While differences between means of one or two tenths of a point are unlikely to be statistically significant, considerable insight and guidance may be gained by reviewing the overall response trends.
This includes the most and least popular topics and the kinds of topics that consistently appear near the top or bottom of the demand ratings.
A more complete reporting and discussion of the results is available elsewhere.
Table 1 Major Topic Headings with Mean Scores Table 2 Ten Most In-Demand Specific Topics Table 3 Ten Least Demanded Specific Topics The survey clearly revealed a strong, across-the-board demand for continuing education in natural resources and land use.
On a scale of 1  to 5 , only 3 of the 53 potential topics  received an average score below the scale midpoint of 3.
Importantly, topics relating to water and wetland resources dominated the program demand list.
"Water Resources" was the top-rated general category, and five of the top ten specific program categories were water-related.
Following closely behind were open space protection and the planning techniques that accomplish that protection, both at the town and the subdivision levels.
"Creative development techniques that conserve open space" was the top-rated topic overall and the only one to average above a 4 on the 1 to 5 scale.
"Wildlife Resources" was the third most popular general topic, followed by "Legal and Administrative Issues Related to Natural Resources".
"Computers and Natural Resources" and "Natural Resources/Land Management" tied for the fifth slot.
Overall, the results provided strong evidence to the partnership that quality educational programs and/or materials in the following topic areas would find a large and interested audience: Virtually anything related to the functions, values, and protection of wetlands, streams, ponds, and groundwater drinking supplies; Alternative development strategies that protect water resources, conserve open space, and/or minimize strip development; Tools for protecting open space and farmland, including municipal level planning and creative development techniques; Understanding, identifying, protecting, and managing important wildlife habitats and wildlife corridors; The roles, responsibilities and optimum interactions among municipal commissions.
At the same time, the results raised at least one significant question: are there cases where a low score is more reflective of ignorance about the topic than a true lack of interest?
A few respondents who gave GIS topics a low score, for example, actually wrote in the comments section that they didn't know what it was.
Several apparent inconsistencies in the results also provided fodder for this discussion.
For example: Open space planning and protection was at or near the top of every list.
Yet "Conducting and Updating Natural Resource Inventories," an essential prerequisite to a successful municipal open space program, was one of the least popular topics.
Protection of water quality came through as a clear priority.
Yet riparian buffer zone guidelines made the bottom-ten list, and reducing impervious surfaces barely avoided the bottom-ten list.
Wildlife resources was a top-three general topic.
Yet respondents were remarkably uninterested in forest fragmentation, an issue that local wildlife biologists would rank at the top of their issues requiring attention.
Such results suggest that many respondents know what they want, but not what they need.
In fact, it is true that most respondents are lay volunteers and likely do not have the background required to understand which specific topics  are required to address their general concerns.
On the other hand, some respondents may feel they already know enough about open space inventories or may have attended enough impervious surface reduction and/or riparian buffer workshops and so do not need any more information in these areas.
Understanding which of these explanations is more prevalent has become an important topic-by-topic investigation issue for CES and the Corridor as program planning proceeds.
Developing the Program Using the needs assessment results, the partnership began developing and offering a carefully constructed sequence of programs to municipal and land trust volunteer leaders.
In May, 2000, the first annual weekend-long retreat, A New Introduction to the Natural World, was held at an overnight camp facility in Woodstock, Connecticut.
Its purpose was to provide new lay-volunteers in natural resources a basic background in ecological systems and functions, and the impact of disturbance on those systems.
More than 70 local leaders applied for the 30 available program slots.
Through alternating indoor and outdoor sessions and hands-on exercises led by natural resource professionals, attendees learned how bedrock, soils, water, flora, and fauna interact to create the living world.
The weekend concluded with a discussion on the roles, responsibilities, and optimum interactions among municipal commissions, and a planning session on how attendees could best put their newly acquired knowledge to work as community volunteers.
A 6-month follow-up meeting has been scheduled  to assess their progress in implementing those plans.
In July 2000, a 4-day computer laboratory course, Geospatial Technologies at Work: A G.I.S.
Training Course for Land Use Decision Makers, was offered at the University of Connecticut's College of Agriculture and Natural Resources.
Interestingly, this topic had received a mid-range overall score on the needs assessment, but was at the top of the list of the four largest corridor towns where development pressure is greatest.
Through a series of graphic presentations followed by hands-on exercises, attendees were taught the basic functions of ArcView software and how to access and work with publicly available digital data such as roads, soils, surficial geology, watercourses, and satellite-derived land cover.
The course was marketed more heavily in the larger communities and filled to capacity both times it was offered.
Future programs designed to address high demand topics include: A creative development workshop with land use planner, site designer, award winning author, and nationally acclaimed lecturer Randall Arendt; A scenic highway design manual and growth management workshop series; A historic village district design workshop; and A multi-faceted program on land protection tools and techniques.
Summary and Conclusion A local, grass roots effort to protect the things that made a region special resulted in the creation of a National Heritage Corridor in northeastern Connecticut and southeastern Massachusetts.
The Corridor's mission overlapped with that of the University of Connecticut Cooperative Extension System.
By thinking and acting creatively, these two organizations were able to partner in a way that enhanced the effectiveness of both.
The result was a new local Extension education program addressing critical and previously neglected issues and audiences.
At this writing, the formal partnership including the CCR has been in place for just over 2 years and is becoming a model for other heritage corridors across the country.
The Clemson Cooperative Extension System and the South Carolina National Heritage Corridor partnered this year to create a position based on the Connecticut Corridor Circuit Rider concept.
A needs assessment survey, sent to members of the partnership's priority target audiences, provided crucial information to guide the development of the new education program.
The survey results have been and continue to be used to develop the Extension education curriculum and prioritize program offerings.
Program evaluations  clearly show that this formula for program development, implemented by the new partnership, is getting results.
The high turnover rate within the target audiences, and the continual emergence of new natural resource issues and concerns, will make periodic reassessment of these education preferences an important cog in the partnership's long-term efforts.
Continuing education needs in natural resources, land use and community design.
University of Connecticut Cooperative Extension System.
Quinebaug and Shetucket Rivers Valley National Heritage Corridor Advisory Council.
Vision to a reality: A Management plan.
Connecticut: Quinebaug-Shetucket Heritage Corridor.
Source: QSHC In 1988, the National Park Service conducted a study of a 25-town region in northeastern Connecticut bordering the Massachusetts border to the north and Rhode Island to the east.
The purpose of the study was to assess the national significance of the region's historic, natural, and cultural resources and their potential for interpretation.
Using the information gathered by the National Park Service, the Quinebaug-Shetucket Corridor Committee published three brochures: A Guide to Waterways, A Greenways Vision, and A Driving Tour of Historic Textile Industry Sites.
Then, in 1991, as the Quinebaug-Shetucket Corridor Committee continued to partner with state agencies, non-profits, and citizens groups, Congressman Gejdenson drafted legislation to designate the 25-town region as a National Heritage Corridor.
In 1994, the legislation was passed by Congress and signed by the President, making the Quinebaug and Shetucket Rivers Valley National Heritage Corridor the fourth such corridor in the country.
In 1995, the Quinebaug-Shetucket Corridor Committee was incorporated into a non-profit organization, the Quinebaug-Shetucket Heritage Corridor, Inc.
In 1996, the QSHC was designated by the Governor Rowland of Connecticut as the official body to manage projects and federal funds.
In 1999, additional legislation sponsored by Congressmen Gejdenson and Richard Neal  expanded the Heritage Corridor to include 35 towns, 9 of which are in Massachusetts.
Figure 2 Expanded Quinebaug-Shetucket Heritage Corridor Source: QSHC What Are National Heritage Corridors?
National Heritage Corridors are innovative entities designed to encourage grassroots efforts to protect and enhance a region's unique natural resources while simultaneously promoting appropriate economic development and redevelopment.
Heritage Corridor designation is federal, but the federal government's role is limited to providing technical assistance and interpretation.
It does not own or manage any land within the designated corridor.
There are currently 18 nationally designated heritage corridors in the country.
These corridors coordinate activities and share ideas among themselves through a non-profit organization, the National Alliance of Heritage Areas.
The QSHC has no regulatory authority.
The primary role of the Corridor is to "assist in the development and implementation of integrated cultural, historical and recreation land management programs that will retain, enhance, and interpret the significant features of the Corridor".
To fulfill that mission, a long-range management plan was developed that serves as the guiding document for the QSHC.
The plan is a synthesis of the goals of the original Heritage Corridor Committee and the federal enabling legislation.
A Unique Educational Partnership From the outset, Extension educators from the University of Connecticut Cooperative Extension System followed the progress of National Heritage Corridor development closely.
Early meetings of the QRA and/or its subcommittee were sometimes held in the county Extension Center, with Extension staff providing periodic limited assistance.
Once the Corridor Management Plan was complete, it became clear that the Cooperative Extension System and the QSHC had formal missions that overlapped in several areas, most notably land use and natural resources.
Discussions between the two organizations on the best ways to cooperate began in earnest.
By late in 1996, the idea of a jointly funded "Corridor Circuit Rider" position was hatched.
The Corridor Circuit Rider  would be a full-time Extension educator, housed at the local Extension office and jointly funded by the University of Connecticut Cooperative Extension System  and the Quinebaug-Shetucket Heritage Corridor.
The CCR would design and implement educational programs in these overlapping mission areas for the 26 Connecticut Corridor towns.
Principal target audiences would include municipal CEOs; planning, zoning, conservation and economic development commissions; and local land trusts.
Principal program areas would be land use planning, natural resource conservation, community design, and land protection tools and techniques.
In August 1998, the CCR was hired and the partnership was officially underway.
Building a New Program: Target Audience Needs Assessment The arrival of the CCR marked the first time a local Extension educator was available to address these audiences and program areas since the retirement of the county Community Resource Development  Agent 15 years earlier.
This was, for all practical purposes, a new Extension program in the Corridor region.
A diverse group of state and local resource specialists and community leaders was assembled into a Program Advisory Committee, which reached quick agreement that some form of needs assessment was necessary to focus the educational efforts of the new partnership.
In late 1999, the CCR took the lead in drafting a four-page needs assessment survey instrument, which was reviewed for content by the Program Advisory Committee and the QSHC's Natural Resources and Agriculture committee.
The revised draft was then pre-tested for clarity by 12 members of the target audience of municipal and land trust leaders.
The final survey listed 53 potential continuing education program topics under a number of broad headings.
Respondents were asked to rank their interest in each topic on a 1  to 5  scale.
Ample space for additional write-in topics was provided.
Figure 3 Survey Program Topics 1.
Open Space Protection Open space planning: who, how, and funding options Creative development techniques that conserve natural resources Economics of open space Farmland protection tools and techniques Conservation easements/gifting/estate planning 2.
Natural Resource/Land Management Stewardship planning: inventorying and planning for town or land trust forests Enhancing wildlife habitats Growing and harvesting wood products Impacts of logging on water quality and other natural resources Managing for recreational use Protecting and managing aquatic habitats 3.
Forest Resources  Tree, shrub, plant identification  Forest fragmentation issues B.
Wildlife Resources  Basic habitat concepts: where things live and why  Wildlife corridors: what they are and why they matter C.
Water Resources  Basic river/stream ecology  Basic pond/lake ecology  What wetlands do: basic functions and values  Water supply planning and resource preservation D.
Conserving Biodiversity  Identifying unique plant communities and habitats  Sustaining natural habitat diversity 4.
Legal and Administrative Issues Relating to Natural Resource Conservation Roles and responsibilities of municipal land use commissions Managing conservation easements: monitoring, re-recording issues, costs, etc.
Farming and forestry under the Inland Wetlands Act Basic property and tax law Working productively and efficiently with other commissions in town Regional interaction with surrounding towns and commissions 5.
Resource Inventories and Conservation Planning Conducting and updating natural resource inventories Riparian buffer zones/guidelines Incorporating natural resource data into Plans of Conservation and Development and month-to-month site plan reviews 6.
Land Use and Community Design Online/Internet planning resources Signage/billboard management Plans of Conservation and Development Community Design  Historic/village districts Transportation planning/road design Traffic management and controls Parking lot design Subdivision and zoning regulations Alternatives to strip commercial development Urban and community forestry programs Community visioning processes/workshops Growth management/sprawl Main Street revitalization Watershed planning and management Reducing impervious surfaces Impacts of development on water resources 7.
Computers and Natural Resources Geographic Information Systems : what it is and how it can be used Hands-on training in ArcView GIS Publicly available computer mapping data: what's there, how to get it, how it can be used Internet-based GIS & access to maps: what's there, how to get it, how it can be used How to use remote sensing from satellites, aerial photos and Global Positioning Systems  to improve GIS capabilities Affordable GIS: how to get started at little cost The survey was mailed in January 1999 to 811 members of municipal planning commissions, zoning commissions, conservation commissions, economic development commissions, inland wetland commissions, historical commissions, Boards of Selectmen, and local land trust boards in the 26 Connecticut Corridor towns.
Two hundred eighty-four completed surveys were returned.
The results were compiled using Microsoft Access software with assistance from a student of the University of Connecticut Department of Natural Resources Management and Engineering, who received independent study credit for her role in the assessment.
Needs Assessment Results and Discussion Simple means were calculated for each response topic and category.
While differences between means of one or two tenths of a point are unlikely to be statistically significant, considerable insight and guidance may be gained by reviewing the overall response trends.
This includes the most and least popular topics and the kinds of topics that consistently appear near the top or bottom of the demand ratings.
A more complete reporting and discussion of the results is available elsewhere.
Table 1 Major Topic Headings with Mean Scores Table 2 Ten Most In-Demand Specific Topics Table 3 Ten Least Demanded Specific Topics The survey clearly revealed a strong, across-the-board demand for continuing education in natural resources and land use.
On a scale of 1  to 5 , only 3 of the 53 potential topics  received an average score below the scale midpoint of 3.
Importantly, topics relating to water and wetland resources dominated the program demand list.
"Water Resources" was the top-rated general category, and five of the top ten specific program categories were water-related.
Following closely behind were open space protection and the planning techniques that accomplish that protection, both at the town and the subdivision levels.
"Creative development techniques that conserve open space" was the top-rated topic overall and the only one to average above a 4 on the 1 to 5 scale.
"Wildlife Resources" was the third most popular general topic, followed by "Legal and Administrative Issues Related to Natural Resources".
"Computers and Natural Resources" and "Natural Resources/Land Management" tied for the fifth slot.
Overall, the results provided strong evidence to the partnership that quality educational programs and/or materials in the following topic areas would find a large and interested audience: Virtually anything related to the functions, values, and protection of wetlands, streams, ponds, and groundwater drinking supplies; Alternative development strategies that protect water resources, conserve open space, and/or minimize strip development; Tools for protecting open space and farmland, including municipal level planning and creative development techniques; Understanding, identifying, protecting, and managing important wildlife habitats and wildlife corridors; The roles, responsibilities and optimum interactions among municipal commissions.
At the same time, the results raised at least one significant question: are there cases where a low score is more reflective of ignorance about the topic than a true lack of interest?
A few respondents who gave GIS topics a low score, for example, actually wrote in the comments section that they didn't know what it was.
Several apparent inconsistencies in the results also provided fodder for this discussion.
For example: Open space planning and protection was at or near the top of every list.
Yet "Conducting and Updating Natural Resource Inventories," an essential prerequisite to a successful municipal open space program, was one of the least popular topics.
Protection of water quality came through as a clear priority.
Yet riparian buffer zone guidelines made the bottom-ten list, and reducing impervious surfaces barely avoided the bottom-ten list.
Wildlife resources was a top-three general topic.
Yet respondents were remarkably uninterested in forest fragmentation, an issue that local wildlife biologists would rank at the top of their issues requiring attention.
Such results suggest that many respondents know what they want, but not what they need.
In fact, it is true that most respondents are lay volunteers and likely do not have the background required to understand which specific topics  are required to address their general concerns.
On the other hand, some respondents may feel they already know enough about open space inventories or may have attended enough impervious surface reduction and/or riparian buffer workshops and so do not need any more information in these areas.
Understanding which of these explanations is more prevalent has become an important topic-by-topic investigation issue for CES and the Corridor as program planning proceeds.
Developing the Program Using the needs assessment results, the partnership began developing and offering a carefully constructed sequence of programs to municipal and land trust volunteer leaders.
In May, 2000, the first annual weekend-long retreat, A New Introduction to the Natural World, was held at an overnight camp facility in Woodstock, Connecticut.
Its purpose was to provide new lay-volunteers in natural resources a basic background in ecological systems and functions, and the impact of disturbance on those systems.
More than 70 local leaders applied for the 30 available program slots.
Through alternating indoor and outdoor sessions and hands-on exercises led by natural resource professionals, attendees learned how bedrock, soils, water, flora, and fauna interact to create the living world.
The weekend concluded with a discussion on the roles, responsibilities, and optimum interactions among municipal commissions, and a planning session on how attendees could best put their newly acquired knowledge to work as community volunteers.
A 6-month follow-up meeting has been scheduled  to assess their progress in implementing those plans.
In July 2000, a 4-day computer laboratory course, Geospatial Technologies at Work: A G.I.S.
Training Course for Land Use Decision Makers, was offered at the University of Connecticut's College of Agriculture and Natural Resources.
Interestingly, this topic had received a mid-range overall score on the needs assessment, but was at the top of the list of the four largest corridor towns where development pressure is greatest.
Through a series of graphic presentations followed by hands-on exercises, attendees were taught the basic functions of ArcView software and how to access and work with publicly available digital data such as roads, soils, surficial geology, watercourses, and satellite-derived land cover.
The course was marketed more heavily in the larger communities and filled to capacity both times it was offered.
Future programs designed to address high demand topics include: A creative development workshop with land use planner, site designer, award winning author, and nationally acclaimed lecturer Randall Arendt; A scenic highway design manual and growth management workshop series; A historic village district design workshop; and A multi-faceted program on land protection tools and techniques.
Summary and Conclusion A local, grass roots effort to protect the things that made a region special resulted in the creation of a National Heritage Corridor in northeastern Connecticut and southeastern Massachusetts.
The Corridor's mission overlapped with that of the University of Connecticut Cooperative Extension System.
By thinking and acting creatively, these two organizations were able to partner in a way that enhanced the effectiveness of both.
The result was a new local Extension education program addressing critical and previously neglected issues and audiences.
At this writing, the formal partnership including the CCR has been in place for just over 2 years and is becoming a model for other heritage corridors across the country.
The Clemson Cooperative Extension System and the South Carolina National Heritage Corridor partnered this year to create a position based on the Connecticut Corridor Circuit Rider concept.
A needs assessment survey, sent to members of the partnership's priority target audiences, provided crucial information to guide the development of the new education program.
The survey results have been and continue to be used to develop the Extension education curriculum and prioritize program offerings.
Program evaluations  clearly show that this formula for program development, implemented by the new partnership, is getting results.
The high turnover rate within the target audiences, and the continual emergence of new natural resource issues and concerns, will make periodic reassessment of these education preferences an important cog in the partnership's long-term efforts.
Continuing education needs in natural resources, land use and community design.
University of Connecticut Cooperative Extension System.
Quinebaug and Shetucket Rivers Valley National Heritage Corridor Advisory Council.
Vision to a reality: A Management plan.
Connecticut: Quinebaug-Shetucket Heritage Corridor.
In 1988, the National Park Service conducted a study of a 25-town region in northeastern Connecticut bordering the Massachusetts border to the north and Rhode Island to the east.
The purpose of the study was to assess the national significance of the region's historic, natural, and cultural resources and their potential for interpretation.
Using the information gathered by the National Park Service, the Quinebaug-Shetucket Corridor Committee published three brochures: A Guide to Waterways, A Greenways Vision, and A Driving Tour of Historic Textile Industry Sites.
Then, in 1991, as the Quinebaug-Shetucket Corridor Committee continued to partner with state agencies, non-profits, and citizens groups, Congressman Gejdenson drafted legislation to designate the 25-town region as a National Heritage Corridor.
In 1994, the legislation was passed by Congress and signed by the President, making the Quinebaug and Shetucket Rivers Valley National Heritage Corridor the fourth such corridor in the country.
In 1995, the Quinebaug-Shetucket Corridor Committee was incorporated into a non-profit organization, the Quinebaug-Shetucket Heritage Corridor, Inc.
In 1996, the QSHC was designated by the Governor Rowland of Connecticut as the official body to manage projects and federal funds.
In 1999, additional legislation sponsored by Congressmen Gejdenson and Richard Neal  expanded the Heritage Corridor to include 35 towns, 9 of which are in Massachusetts.
Figure 2 Expanded Quinebaug-Shetucket Heritage Corridor Source: QSHC What Are National Heritage Corridors?
National Heritage Corridors are innovative entities designed to encourage grassroots efforts to protect and enhance a region's unique natural resources while simultaneously promoting appropriate economic development and redevelopment.
Heritage Corridor designation is federal, but the federal government's role is limited to providing technical assistance and interpretation.
It does not own or manage any land within the designated corridor.
There are currently 18 nationally designated heritage corridors in the country.
These corridors coordinate activities and share ideas among themselves through a non-profit organization, the National Alliance of Heritage Areas.
The QSHC has no regulatory authority.
The primary role of the Corridor is to "assist in the development and implementation of integrated cultural, historical and recreation land management programs that will retain, enhance, and interpret the significant features of the Corridor".
To fulfill that mission, a long-range management plan was developed that serves as the guiding document for the QSHC.
The plan is a synthesis of the goals of the original Heritage Corridor Committee and the federal enabling legislation.
A Unique Educational Partnership From the outset, Extension educators from the University of Connecticut Cooperative Extension System followed the progress of National Heritage Corridor development closely.
Early meetings of the QRA and/or its subcommittee were sometimes held in the county Extension Center, with Extension staff providing periodic limited assistance.
Once the Corridor Management Plan was complete, it became clear that the Cooperative Extension System and the QSHC had formal missions that overlapped in several areas, most notably land use and natural resources.
Discussions between the two organizations on the best ways to cooperate began in earnest.
By late in 1996, the idea of a jointly funded "Corridor Circuit Rider" position was hatched.
The Corridor Circuit Rider  would be a full-time Extension educator, housed at the local Extension office and jointly funded by the University of Connecticut Cooperative Extension System  and the Quinebaug-Shetucket Heritage Corridor.
The CCR would design and implement educational programs in these overlapping mission areas for the 26 Connecticut Corridor towns.
Principal target audiences would include municipal CEOs; planning, zoning, conservation and economic development commissions; and local land trusts.
Principal program areas would be land use planning, natural resource conservation, community design, and land protection tools and techniques.
In August 1998, the CCR was hired and the partnership was officially underway.
Building a New Program: Target Audience Needs Assessment The arrival of the CCR marked the first time a local Extension educator was available to address these audiences and program areas since the retirement of the county Community Resource Development  Agent 15 years earlier.
This was, for all practical purposes, a new Extension program in the Corridor region.
A diverse group of state and local resource specialists and community leaders was assembled into a Program Advisory Committee, which reached quick agreement that some form of needs assessment was necessary to focus the educational efforts of the new partnership.
In late 1999, the CCR took the lead in drafting a four-page needs assessment survey instrument, which was reviewed for content by the Program Advisory Committee and the QSHC's Natural Resources and Agriculture committee.
The revised draft was then pre-tested for clarity by 12 members of the target audience of municipal and land trust leaders.
The final survey listed 53 potential continuing education program topics under a number of broad headings.
Respondents were asked to rank their interest in each topic on a 1  to 5  scale.
Ample space for additional write-in topics was provided.
Figure 3 Survey Program Topics 1.
Open Space Protection Open space planning: who, how, and funding options Creative development techniques that conserve natural resources Economics of open space Farmland protection tools and techniques Conservation easements/gifting/estate planning 2.
Natural Resource/Land Management Stewardship planning: inventorying and planning for town or land trust forests Enhancing wildlife habitats Growing and harvesting wood products Impacts of logging on water quality and other natural resources Managing for recreational use Protecting and managing aquatic habitats 3.
Forest Resources  Tree, shrub, plant identification  Forest fragmentation issues B.
Wildlife Resources  Basic habitat concepts: where things live and why  Wildlife corridors: what they are and why they matter C.
Water Resources  Basic river/stream ecology  Basic pond/lake ecology  What wetlands do: basic functions and values  Water supply planning and resource preservation D.
Conserving Biodiversity  Identifying unique plant communities and habitats  Sustaining natural habitat diversity 4.
Legal and Administrative Issues Relating to Natural Resource Conservation Roles and responsibilities of municipal land use commissions Managing conservation easements: monitoring, re-recording issues, costs, etc.
Farming and forestry under the Inland Wetlands Act Basic property and tax law Working productively and efficiently with other commissions in town Regional interaction with surrounding towns and commissions 5.
Resource Inventories and Conservation Planning Conducting and updating natural resource inventories Riparian buffer zones/guidelines Incorporating natural resource data into Plans of Conservation and Development and month-to-month site plan reviews 6.
Land Use and Community Design Online/Internet planning resources Signage/billboard management Plans of Conservation and Development Community Design  Historic/village districts Transportation planning/road design Traffic management and controls Parking lot design Subdivision and zoning regulations Alternatives to strip commercial development Urban and community forestry programs Community visioning processes/workshops Growth management/sprawl Main Street revitalization Watershed planning and management Reducing impervious surfaces Impacts of development on water resources 7.
Computers and Natural Resources Geographic Information Systems : what it is and how it can be used Hands-on training in ArcView GIS Publicly available computer mapping data: what's there, how to get it, how it can be used Internet-based GIS & access to maps: what's there, how to get it, how it can be used How to use remote sensing from satellites, aerial photos and Global Positioning Systems  to improve GIS capabilities Affordable GIS: how to get started at little cost The survey was mailed in January 1999 to 811 members of municipal planning commissions, zoning commissions, conservation commissions, economic development commissions, inland wetland commissions, historical commissions, Boards of Selectmen, and local land trust boards in the 26 Connecticut Corridor towns.
Two hundred eighty-four completed surveys were returned.
The results were compiled using Microsoft Access software with assistance from a student of the University of Connecticut Department of Natural Resources Management and Engineering, who received independent study credit for her role in the assessment.
Needs Assessment Results and Discussion Simple means were calculated for each response topic and category.
While differences between means of one or two tenths of a point are unlikely to be statistically significant, considerable insight and guidance may be gained by reviewing the overall response trends.
This includes the most and least popular topics and the kinds of topics that consistently appear near the top or bottom of the demand ratings.
A more complete reporting and discussion of the results is available elsewhere.
Table 1 Major Topic Headings with Mean Scores Table 2 Ten Most In-Demand Specific Topics Table 3 Ten Least Demanded Specific Topics The survey clearly revealed a strong, across-the-board demand for continuing education in natural resources and land use.
On a scale of 1  to 5 , only 3 of the 53 potential topics  received an average score below the scale midpoint of 3.
Importantly, topics relating to water and wetland resources dominated the program demand list.
"Water Resources" was the top-rated general category, and five of the top ten specific program categories were water-related.
Following closely behind were open space protection and the planning techniques that accomplish that protection, both at the town and the subdivision levels.
"Creative development techniques that conserve open space" was the top-rated topic overall and the only one to average above a 4 on the 1 to 5 scale.
"Wildlife Resources" was the third most popular general topic, followed by "Legal and Administrative Issues Related to Natural Resources".
"Computers and Natural Resources" and "Natural Resources/Land Management" tied for the fifth slot.
Overall, the results provided strong evidence to the partnership that quality educational programs and/or materials in the following topic areas would find a large and interested audience: Virtually anything related to the functions, values, and protection of wetlands, streams, ponds, and groundwater drinking supplies; Alternative development strategies that protect water resources, conserve open space, and/or minimize strip development; Tools for protecting open space and farmland, including municipal level planning and creative development techniques; Understanding, identifying, protecting, and managing important wildlife habitats and wildlife corridors; The roles, responsibilities and optimum interactions among municipal commissions.
At the same time, the results raised at least one significant question: are there cases where a low score is more reflective of ignorance about the topic than a true lack of interest?
A few respondents who gave GIS topics a low score, for example, actually wrote in the comments section that they didn't know what it was.
Several apparent inconsistencies in the results also provided fodder for this discussion.
For example: Open space planning and protection was at or near the top of every list.
Yet "Conducting and Updating Natural Resource Inventories," an essential prerequisite to a successful municipal open space program, was one of the least popular topics.
Protection of water quality came through as a clear priority.
Yet riparian buffer zone guidelines made the bottom-ten list, and reducing impervious surfaces barely avoided the bottom-ten list.
Wildlife resources was a top-three general topic.
Yet respondents were remarkably uninterested in forest fragmentation, an issue that local wildlife biologists would rank at the top of their issues requiring attention.
Such results suggest that many respondents know what they want, but not what they need.
In fact, it is true that most respondents are lay volunteers and likely do not have the background required to understand which specific topics  are required to address their general concerns.
On the other hand, some respondents may feel they already know enough about open space inventories or may have attended enough impervious surface reduction and/or riparian buffer workshops and so do not need any more information in these areas.
Understanding which of these explanations is more prevalent has become an important topic-by-topic investigation issue for CES and the Corridor as program planning proceeds.
Developing the Program Using the needs assessment results, the partnership began developing and offering a carefully constructed sequence of programs to municipal and land trust volunteer leaders.
In May, 2000, the first annual weekend-long retreat, A New Introduction to the Natural World, was held at an overnight camp facility in Woodstock, Connecticut.
Its purpose was to provide new lay-volunteers in natural resources a basic background in ecological systems and functions, and the impact of disturbance on those systems.
More than 70 local leaders applied for the 30 available program slots.
Through alternating indoor and outdoor sessions and hands-on exercises led by natural resource professionals, attendees learned how bedrock, soils, water, flora, and fauna interact to create the living world.
The weekend concluded with a discussion on the roles, responsibilities, and optimum interactions among municipal commissions, and a planning session on how attendees could best put their newly acquired knowledge to work as community volunteers.
A 6-month follow-up meeting has been scheduled  to assess their progress in implementing those plans.
In July 2000, a 4-day computer laboratory course, Geospatial Technologies at Work: A G.I.S.
Training Course for Land Use Decision Makers, was offered at the University of Connecticut's College of Agriculture and Natural Resources.
Interestingly, this topic had received a mid-range overall score on the needs assessment, but was at the top of the list of the four largest corridor towns where development pressure is greatest.
Through a series of graphic presentations followed by hands-on exercises, attendees were taught the basic functions of ArcView software and how to access and work with publicly available digital data such as roads, soils, surficial geology, watercourses, and satellite-derived land cover.
The course was marketed more heavily in the larger communities and filled to capacity both times it was offered.
Future programs designed to address high demand topics include: A creative development workshop with land use planner, site designer, award winning author, and nationally acclaimed lecturer Randall Arendt; A scenic highway design manual and growth management workshop series; A historic village district design workshop; and A multi-faceted program on land protection tools and techniques.
Summary and Conclusion A local, grass roots effort to protect the things that made a region special resulted in the creation of a National Heritage Corridor in northeastern Connecticut and southeastern Massachusetts.
The Corridor's mission overlapped with that of the University of Connecticut Cooperative Extension System.
By thinking and acting creatively, these two organizations were able to partner in a way that enhanced the effectiveness of both.
The result was a new local Extension education program addressing critical and previously neglected issues and audiences.
At this writing, the formal partnership including the CCR has been in place for just over 2 years and is becoming a model for other heritage corridors across the country.
The Clemson Cooperative Extension System and the South Carolina National Heritage Corridor partnered this year to create a position based on the Connecticut Corridor Circuit Rider concept.
A needs assessment survey, sent to members of the partnership's priority target audiences, provided crucial information to guide the development of the new education program.
The survey results have been and continue to be used to develop the Extension education curriculum and prioritize program offerings.
Program evaluations  clearly show that this formula for program development, implemented by the new partnership, is getting results.
The high turnover rate within the target audiences, and the continual emergence of new natural resource issues and concerns, will make periodic reassessment of these education preferences an important cog in the partnership's long-term efforts.
Continuing education needs in natural resources, land use and community design.
University of Connecticut Cooperative Extension System.
Quinebaug and Shetucket Rivers Valley National Heritage Corridor Advisory Council.
Vision to a reality: A Management plan.
Connecticut: Quinebaug-Shetucket Heritage Corridor.
Source: QSHC What Are National Heritage Corridors?
National Heritage Corridors are innovative entities designed to encourage grassroots efforts to protect and enhance a region's unique natural resources while simultaneously promoting appropriate economic development and redevelopment.
Heritage Corridor designation is federal, but the federal government's role is limited to providing technical assistance and interpretation.
It does not own or manage any land within the designated corridor.
There are currently 18 nationally designated heritage corridors in the country.
These corridors coordinate activities and share ideas among themselves through a non-profit organization, the National Alliance of Heritage Areas.
The QSHC has no regulatory authority.
The primary role of the Corridor is to "assist in the development and implementation of integrated cultural, historical and recreation land management programs that will retain, enhance, and interpret the significant features of the Corridor".
To fulfill that mission, a long-range management plan was developed that serves as the guiding document for the QSHC.
The plan is a synthesis of the goals of the original Heritage Corridor Committee and the federal enabling legislation.
A Unique Educational Partnership From the outset, Extension educators from the University of Connecticut Cooperative Extension System followed the progress of National Heritage Corridor development closely.
Early meetings of the QRA and/or its subcommittee were sometimes held in the county Extension Center, with Extension staff providing periodic limited assistance.
Once the Corridor Management Plan was complete, it became clear that the Cooperative Extension System and the QSHC had formal missions that overlapped in several areas, most notably land use and natural resources.
Discussions between the two organizations on the best ways to cooperate began in earnest.
By late in 1996, the idea of a jointly funded "Corridor Circuit Rider" position was hatched.
The Corridor Circuit Rider  would be a full-time Extension educator, housed at the local Extension office and jointly funded by the University of Connecticut Cooperative Extension System  and the Quinebaug-Shetucket Heritage Corridor.
The CCR would design and implement educational programs in these overlapping mission areas for the 26 Connecticut Corridor towns.
Principal target audiences would include municipal CEOs; planning, zoning, conservation and economic development commissions; and local land trusts.
Principal program areas would be land use planning, natural resource conservation, community design, and land protection tools and techniques.
In August 1998, the CCR was hired and the partnership was officially underway.
Building a New Program: Target Audience Needs Assessment The arrival of the CCR marked the first time a local Extension educator was available to address these audiences and program areas since the retirement of the county Community Resource Development  Agent 15 years earlier.
This was, for all practical purposes, a new Extension program in the Corridor region.
A diverse group of state and local resource specialists and community leaders was assembled into a Program Advisory Committee, which reached quick agreement that some form of needs assessment was necessary to focus the educational efforts of the new partnership.
In late 1999, the CCR took the lead in drafting a four-page needs assessment survey instrument, which was reviewed for content by the Program Advisory Committee and the QSHC's Natural Resources and Agriculture committee.
The revised draft was then pre-tested for clarity by 12 members of the target audience of municipal and land trust leaders.
The final survey listed 53 potential continuing education program topics under a number of broad headings.
Respondents were asked to rank their interest in each topic on a 1  to 5  scale.
Ample space for additional write-in topics was provided.
Figure 3 Survey Program Topics 1.
Open Space Protection Open space planning: who, how, and funding options Creative development techniques that conserve natural resources Economics of open space Farmland protection tools and techniques Conservation easements/gifting/estate planning 2.
Natural Resource/Land Management Stewardship planning: inventorying and planning for town or land trust forests Enhancing wildlife habitats Growing and harvesting wood products Impacts of logging on water quality and other natural resources Managing for recreational use Protecting and managing aquatic habitats 3.
Forest Resources  Tree, shrub, plant identification  Forest fragmentation issues B.
Wildlife Resources  Basic habitat concepts: where things live and why  Wildlife corridors: what they are and why they matter C.
Water Resources  Basic river/stream ecology  Basic pond/lake ecology  What wetlands do: basic functions and values  Water supply planning and resource preservation D.
Conserving Biodiversity  Identifying unique plant communities and habitats  Sustaining natural habitat diversity 4.
Legal and Administrative Issues Relating to Natural Resource Conservation Roles and responsibilities of municipal land use commissions Managing conservation easements: monitoring, re-recording issues, costs, etc.
Farming and forestry under the Inland Wetlands Act Basic property and tax law Working productively and efficiently with other commissions in town Regional interaction with surrounding towns and commissions 5.
Resource Inventories and Conservation Planning Conducting and updating natural resource inventories Riparian buffer zones/guidelines Incorporating natural resource data into Plans of Conservation and Development and month-to-month site plan reviews 6.
Land Use and Community Design Online/Internet planning resources Signage/billboard management Plans of Conservation and Development Community Design  Historic/village districts Transportation planning/road design Traffic management and controls Parking lot design Subdivision and zoning regulations Alternatives to strip commercial development Urban and community forestry programs Community visioning processes/workshops Growth management/sprawl Main Street revitalization Watershed planning and management Reducing impervious surfaces Impacts of development on water resources 7.
Computers and Natural Resources Geographic Information Systems : what it is and how it can be used Hands-on training in ArcView GIS Publicly available computer mapping data: what's there, how to get it, how it can be used Internet-based GIS & access to maps: what's there, how to get it, how it can be used How to use remote sensing from satellites, aerial photos and Global Positioning Systems  to improve GIS capabilities Affordable GIS: how to get started at little cost The survey was mailed in January 1999 to 811 members of municipal planning commissions, zoning commissions, conservation commissions, economic development commissions, inland wetland commissions, historical commissions, Boards of Selectmen, and local land trust boards in the 26 Connecticut Corridor towns.
Two hundred eighty-four completed surveys were returned.
The results were compiled using Microsoft Access software with assistance from a student of the University of Connecticut Department of Natural Resources Management and Engineering, who received independent study credit for her role in the assessment.
Needs Assessment Results and Discussion Simple means were calculated for each response topic and category.
While differences between means of one or two tenths of a point are unlikely to be statistically significant, considerable insight and guidance may be gained by reviewing the overall response trends.
This includes the most and least popular topics and the kinds of topics that consistently appear near the top or bottom of the demand ratings.
A more complete reporting and discussion of the results is available elsewhere.
Table 1 Major Topic Headings with Mean Scores Table 2 Ten Most In-Demand Specific Topics Table 3 Ten Least Demanded Specific Topics The survey clearly revealed a strong, across-the-board demand for continuing education in natural resources and land use.
On a scale of 1  to 5 , only 3 of the 53 potential topics  received an average score below the scale midpoint of 3.
Importantly, topics relating to water and wetland resources dominated the program demand list.
"Water Resources" was the top-rated general category, and five of the top ten specific program categories were water-related.
Following closely behind were open space protection and the planning techniques that accomplish that protection, both at the town and the subdivision levels.
"Creative development techniques that conserve open space" was the top-rated topic overall and the only one to average above a 4 on the 1 to 5 scale.
"Wildlife Resources" was the third most popular general topic, followed by "Legal and Administrative Issues Related to Natural Resources".
"Computers and Natural Resources" and "Natural Resources/Land Management" tied for the fifth slot.
Overall, the results provided strong evidence to the partnership that quality educational programs and/or materials in the following topic areas would find a large and interested audience: Virtually anything related to the functions, values, and protection of wetlands, streams, ponds, and groundwater drinking supplies; Alternative development strategies that protect water resources, conserve open space, and/or minimize strip development; Tools for protecting open space and farmland, including municipal level planning and creative development techniques; Understanding, identifying, protecting, and managing important wildlife habitats and wildlife corridors; The roles, responsibilities and optimum interactions among municipal commissions.
At the same time, the results raised at least one significant question: are there cases where a low score is more reflective of ignorance about the topic than a true lack of interest?
A few respondents who gave GIS topics a low score, for example, actually wrote in the comments section that they didn't know what it was.
Several apparent inconsistencies in the results also provided fodder for this discussion.
For example: Open space planning and protection was at or near the top of every list.
Yet "Conducting and Updating Natural Resource Inventories," an essential prerequisite to a successful municipal open space program, was one of the least popular topics.
Protection of water quality came through as a clear priority.
Yet riparian buffer zone guidelines made the bottom-ten list, and reducing impervious surfaces barely avoided the bottom-ten list.
Wildlife resources was a top-three general topic.
Yet respondents were remarkably uninterested in forest fragmentation, an issue that local wildlife biologists would rank at the top of their issues requiring attention.
Such results suggest that many respondents know what they want, but not what they need.
In fact, it is true that most respondents are lay volunteers and likely do not have the background required to understand which specific topics  are required to address their general concerns.
On the other hand, some respondents may feel they already know enough about open space inventories or may have attended enough impervious surface reduction and/or riparian buffer workshops and so do not need any more information in these areas.
Understanding which of these explanations is more prevalent has become an important topic-by-topic investigation issue for CES and the Corridor as program planning proceeds.
Developing the Program Using the needs assessment results, the partnership began developing and offering a carefully constructed sequence of programs to municipal and land trust volunteer leaders.
In May, 2000, the first annual weekend-long retreat, A New Introduction to the Natural World, was held at an overnight camp facility in Woodstock, Connecticut.
Its purpose was to provide new lay-volunteers in natural resources a basic background in ecological systems and functions, and the impact of disturbance on those systems.
More than 70 local leaders applied for the 30 available program slots.
Through alternating indoor and outdoor sessions and hands-on exercises led by natural resource professionals, attendees learned how bedrock, soils, water, flora, and fauna interact to create the living world.
The weekend concluded with a discussion on the roles, responsibilities, and optimum interactions among municipal commissions, and a planning session on how attendees could best put their newly acquired knowledge to work as community volunteers.
A 6-month follow-up meeting has been scheduled  to assess their progress in implementing those plans.
In July 2000, a 4-day computer laboratory course, Geospatial Technologies at Work: A G.I.S.
Training Course for Land Use Decision Makers, was offered at the University of Connecticut's College of Agriculture and Natural Resources.
Interestingly, this topic had received a mid-range overall score on the needs assessment, but was at the top of the list of the four largest corridor towns where development pressure is greatest.
Through a series of graphic presentations followed by hands-on exercises, attendees were taught the basic functions of ArcView software and how to access and work with publicly available digital data such as roads, soils, surficial geology, watercourses, and satellite-derived land cover.
The course was marketed more heavily in the larger communities and filled to capacity both times it was offered.
Future programs designed to address high demand topics include: A creative development workshop with land use planner, site designer, award winning author, and nationally acclaimed lecturer Randall Arendt; A scenic highway design manual and growth management workshop series; A historic village district design workshop; and A multi-faceted program on land protection tools and techniques.
Summary and Conclusion A local, grass roots effort to protect the things that made a region special resulted in the creation of a National Heritage Corridor in northeastern Connecticut and southeastern Massachusetts.
The Corridor's mission overlapped with that of the University of Connecticut Cooperative Extension System.
By thinking and acting creatively, these two organizations were able to partner in a way that enhanced the effectiveness of both.
The result was a new local Extension education program addressing critical and previously neglected issues and audiences.
At this writing, the formal partnership including the CCR has been in place for just over 2 years and is becoming a model for other heritage corridors across the country.
The Clemson Cooperative Extension System and the South Carolina National Heritage Corridor partnered this year to create a position based on the Connecticut Corridor Circuit Rider concept.
A needs assessment survey, sent to members of the partnership's priority target audiences, provided crucial information to guide the development of the new education program.
The survey results have been and continue to be used to develop the Extension education curriculum and prioritize program offerings.
Program evaluations  clearly show that this formula for program development, implemented by the new partnership, is getting results.
The high turnover rate within the target audiences, and the continual emergence of new natural resource issues and concerns, will make periodic reassessment of these education preferences an important cog in the partnership's long-term efforts.
Continuing education needs in natural resources, land use and community design.
University of Connecticut Cooperative Extension System.
Quinebaug and Shetucket Rivers Valley National Heritage Corridor Advisory Council.
Vision to a reality: A Management plan.
Connecticut: Quinebaug-Shetucket Heritage Corridor.
National Heritage Corridors are innovative entities designed to encourage grassroots efforts to protect and enhance a region's unique natural resources while simultaneously promoting appropriate economic development and redevelopment.
Heritage Corridor designation is federal, but the federal government's role is limited to providing technical assistance and interpretation.
It does not own or manage any land within the designated corridor.
There are currently 18 nationally designated heritage corridors in the country.
These corridors coordinate activities and share ideas among themselves through a non-profit organization, the National Alliance of Heritage Areas.
The QSHC has no regulatory authority.
The primary role of the Corridor is to "assist in the development and implementation of integrated cultural, historical and recreation land management programs that will retain, enhance, and interpret the significant features of the Corridor".
To fulfill that mission, a long-range management plan was developed that serves as the guiding document for the QSHC.
The plan is a synthesis of the goals of the original Heritage Corridor Committee and the federal enabling legislation.
From the outset, Extension educators from the University of Connecticut Cooperative Extension System followed the progress of National Heritage Corridor development closely.
Early meetings of the QRA and/or its subcommittee were sometimes held in the county Extension Center, with Extension staff providing periodic limited assistance.
Once the Corridor Management Plan was complete, it became clear that the Cooperative Extension System and the QSHC had formal missions that overlapped in several areas, most notably land use and natural resources.
Discussions between the two organizations on the best ways to cooperate began in earnest.
By late in 1996, the idea of a jointly funded "Corridor Circuit Rider" position was hatched.
The Corridor Circuit Rider  would be a full-time Extension educator, housed at the local Extension office and jointly funded by the University of Connecticut Cooperative Extension System  and the Quinebaug-Shetucket Heritage Corridor.
The CCR would design and implement educational programs in these overlapping mission areas for the 26 Connecticut Corridor towns.
Principal target audiences would include municipal CEOs; planning, zoning, conservation and economic development commissions; and local land trusts.
Principal program areas would be land use planning, natural resource conservation, community design, and land protection tools and techniques.
In August 1998, the CCR was hired and the partnership was officially underway.
The arrival of the CCR marked the first time a local Extension educator was available to address these audiences and program areas since the retirement of the county Community Resource Development  Agent 15 years earlier.
This was, for all practical purposes, a new Extension program in the Corridor region.
A diverse group of state and local resource specialists and community leaders was assembled into a Program Advisory Committee, which reached quick agreement that some form of needs assessment was necessary to focus the educational efforts of the new partnership.
In late 1999, the CCR took the lead in drafting a four-page needs assessment survey instrument, which was reviewed for content by the Program Advisory Committee and the QSHC's Natural Resources and Agriculture committee.
The revised draft was then pre-tested for clarity by 12 members of the target audience of municipal and land trust leaders.
The final survey listed 53 potential continuing education program topics under a number of broad headings.
Respondents were asked to rank their interest in each topic on a 1  to 5  scale.
Ample space for additional write-in topics was provided.
Figure 3 Survey Program Topics 1.
Open Space Protection Open space planning: who, how, and funding options Creative development techniques that conserve natural resources Economics of open space Farmland protection tools and techniques Conservation easements/gifting/estate planning 2.
Natural Resource/Land Management Stewardship planning: inventorying and planning for town or land trust forests Enhancing wildlife habitats Growing and harvesting wood products Impacts of logging on water quality and other natural resources Managing for recreational use Protecting and managing aquatic habitats 3.
Forest Resources  Tree, shrub, plant identification  Forest fragmentation issues B.
Wildlife Resources  Basic habitat concepts: where things live and why  Wildlife corridors: what they are and why they matter C.
Water Resources  Basic river/stream ecology  Basic pond/lake ecology  What wetlands do: basic functions and values  Water supply planning and resource preservation D.
Conserving Biodiversity  Identifying unique plant communities and habitats  Sustaining natural habitat diversity 4.
Legal and Administrative Issues Relating to Natural Resource Conservation Roles and responsibilities of municipal land use commissions Managing conservation easements: monitoring, re-recording issues, costs, etc.
Farming and forestry under the Inland Wetlands Act Basic property and tax law Working productively and efficiently with other commissions in town Regional interaction with surrounding towns and commissions 5.
Resource Inventories and Conservation Planning Conducting and updating natural resource inventories Riparian buffer zones/guidelines Incorporating natural resource data into Plans of Conservation and Development and month-to-month site plan reviews 6.
Land Use and Community Design Online/Internet planning resources Signage/billboard management Plans of Conservation and Development Community Design  Historic/village districts Transportation planning/road design Traffic management and controls Parking lot design Subdivision and zoning regulations Alternatives to strip commercial development Urban and community forestry programs Community visioning processes/workshops Growth management/sprawl Main Street revitalization Watershed planning and management Reducing impervious surfaces Impacts of development on water resources 7.
Computers and Natural Resources Geographic Information Systems : what it is and how it can be used Hands-on training in ArcView GIS Publicly available computer mapping data: what's there, how to get it, how it can be used Internet-based GIS & access to maps: what's there, how to get it, how it can be used How to use remote sensing from satellites, aerial photos and Global Positioning Systems  to improve GIS capabilities Affordable GIS: how to get started at little cost The survey was mailed in January 1999 to 811 members of municipal planning commissions, zoning commissions, conservation commissions, economic development commissions, inland wetland commissions, historical commissions, Boards of Selectmen, and local land trust boards in the 26 Connecticut Corridor towns.
Two hundred eighty-four completed surveys were returned.
The results were compiled using Microsoft Access software with assistance from a student of the University of Connecticut Department of Natural Resources Management and Engineering, who received independent study credit for her role in the assessment.
Needs Assessment Results and Discussion Simple means were calculated for each response topic and category.
While differences between means of one or two tenths of a point are unlikely to be statistically significant, considerable insight and guidance may be gained by reviewing the overall response trends.
This includes the most and least popular topics and the kinds of topics that consistently appear near the top or bottom of the demand ratings.
A more complete reporting and discussion of the results is available elsewhere.
Table 1 Major Topic Headings with Mean Scores Table 2 Ten Most In-Demand Specific Topics Table 3 Ten Least Demanded Specific Topics The survey clearly revealed a strong, across-the-board demand for continuing education in natural resources and land use.
On a scale of 1  to 5 , only 3 of the 53 potential topics  received an average score below the scale midpoint of 3.
Importantly, topics relating to water and wetland resources dominated the program demand list.
"Water Resources" was the top-rated general category, and five of the top ten specific program categories were water-related.
Following closely behind were open space protection and the planning techniques that accomplish that protection, both at the town and the subdivision levels.
"Creative development techniques that conserve open space" was the top-rated topic overall and the only one to average above a 4 on the 1 to 5 scale.
"Wildlife Resources" was the third most popular general topic, followed by "Legal and Administrative Issues Related to Natural Resources".
"Computers and Natural Resources" and "Natural Resources/Land Management" tied for the fifth slot.
Overall, the results provided strong evidence to the partnership that quality educational programs and/or materials in the following topic areas would find a large and interested audience: Virtually anything related to the functions, values, and protection of wetlands, streams, ponds, and groundwater drinking supplies; Alternative development strategies that protect water resources, conserve open space, and/or minimize strip development; Tools for protecting open space and farmland, including municipal level planning and creative development techniques; Understanding, identifying, protecting, and managing important wildlife habitats and wildlife corridors; The roles, responsibilities and optimum interactions among municipal commissions.
At the same time, the results raised at least one significant question: are there cases where a low score is more reflective of ignorance about the topic than a true lack of interest?
A few respondents who gave GIS topics a low score, for example, actually wrote in the comments section that they didn't know what it was.
Several apparent inconsistencies in the results also provided fodder for this discussion.
For example: Open space planning and protection was at or near the top of every list.
Yet "Conducting and Updating Natural Resource Inventories," an essential prerequisite to a successful municipal open space program, was one of the least popular topics.
Protection of water quality came through as a clear priority.
Yet riparian buffer zone guidelines made the bottom-ten list, and reducing impervious surfaces barely avoided the bottom-ten list.
Wildlife resources was a top-three general topic.
Yet respondents were remarkably uninterested in forest fragmentation, an issue that local wildlife biologists would rank at the top of their issues requiring attention.
Such results suggest that many respondents know what they want, but not what they need.
In fact, it is true that most respondents are lay volunteers and likely do not have the background required to understand which specific topics  are required to address their general concerns.
On the other hand, some respondents may feel they already know enough about open space inventories or may have attended enough impervious surface reduction and/or riparian buffer workshops and so do not need any more information in these areas.
Understanding which of these explanations is more prevalent has become an important topic-by-topic investigation issue for CES and the Corridor as program planning proceeds.
Developing the Program Using the needs assessment results, the partnership began developing and offering a carefully constructed sequence of programs to municipal and land trust volunteer leaders.
In May, 2000, the first annual weekend-long retreat, A New Introduction to the Natural World, was held at an overnight camp facility in Woodstock, Connecticut.
Its purpose was to provide new lay-volunteers in natural resources a basic background in ecological systems and functions, and the impact of disturbance on those systems.
More than 70 local leaders applied for the 30 available program slots.
Through alternating indoor and outdoor sessions and hands-on exercises led by natural resource professionals, attendees learned how bedrock, soils, water, flora, and fauna interact to create the living world.
The weekend concluded with a discussion on the roles, responsibilities, and optimum interactions among municipal commissions, and a planning session on how attendees could best put their newly acquired knowledge to work as community volunteers.
A 6-month follow-up meeting has been scheduled  to assess their progress in implementing those plans.
In July 2000, a 4-day computer laboratory course, Geospatial Technologies at Work: A G.I.S.
Training Course for Land Use Decision Makers, was offered at the University of Connecticut's College of Agriculture and Natural Resources.
Interestingly, this topic had received a mid-range overall score on the needs assessment, but was at the top of the list of the four largest corridor towns where development pressure is greatest.
Through a series of graphic presentations followed by hands-on exercises, attendees were taught the basic functions of ArcView software and how to access and work with publicly available digital data such as roads, soils, surficial geology, watercourses, and satellite-derived land cover.
The course was marketed more heavily in the larger communities and filled to capacity both times it was offered.
Future programs designed to address high demand topics include: A creative development workshop with land use planner, site designer, award winning author, and nationally acclaimed lecturer Randall Arendt; A scenic highway design manual and growth management workshop series; A historic village district design workshop; and A multi-faceted program on land protection tools and techniques.
Summary and Conclusion A local, grass roots effort to protect the things that made a region special resulted in the creation of a National Heritage Corridor in northeastern Connecticut and southeastern Massachusetts.
The Corridor's mission overlapped with that of the University of Connecticut Cooperative Extension System.
By thinking and acting creatively, these two organizations were able to partner in a way that enhanced the effectiveness of both.
The result was a new local Extension education program addressing critical and previously neglected issues and audiences.
At this writing, the formal partnership including the CCR has been in place for just over 2 years and is becoming a model for other heritage corridors across the country.
The Clemson Cooperative Extension System and the South Carolina National Heritage Corridor partnered this year to create a position based on the Connecticut Corridor Circuit Rider concept.
A needs assessment survey, sent to members of the partnership's priority target audiences, provided crucial information to guide the development of the new education program.
The survey results have been and continue to be used to develop the Extension education curriculum and prioritize program offerings.
Program evaluations  clearly show that this formula for program development, implemented by the new partnership, is getting results.
The high turnover rate within the target audiences, and the continual emergence of new natural resource issues and concerns, will make periodic reassessment of these education preferences an important cog in the partnership's long-term efforts.
Continuing education needs in natural resources, land use and community design.
University of Connecticut Cooperative Extension System.
Quinebaug and Shetucket Rivers Valley National Heritage Corridor Advisory Council.
Vision to a reality: A Management plan.
Connecticut: Quinebaug-Shetucket Heritage Corridor.
The survey was mailed in January 1999 to 811 members of municipal planning commissions, zoning commissions, conservation commissions, economic development commissions, inland wetland commissions, historical commissions, Boards of Selectmen, and local land trust boards in the 26 Connecticut Corridor towns.
Two hundred eighty-four completed surveys were returned.
The results were compiled using Microsoft Access software with assistance from a student of the University of Connecticut Department of Natural Resources Management and Engineering, who received independent study credit for her role in the assessment.
Simple means were calculated for each response topic and category.
While differences between means of one or two tenths of a point are unlikely to be statistically significant, considerable insight and guidance may be gained by reviewing the overall response trends.
This includes the most and least popular topics and the kinds of topics that consistently appear near the top or bottom of the demand ratings.
A more complete reporting and discussion of the results is available elsewhere.
Table 1 Major Topic Headings with Mean Scores Table 2 Ten Most In-Demand Specific Topics Table 3 Ten Least Demanded Specific Topics The survey clearly revealed a strong, across-the-board demand for continuing education in natural resources and land use.
On a scale of 1  to 5 , only 3 of the 53 potential topics  received an average score below the scale midpoint of 3.
Importantly, topics relating to water and wetland resources dominated the program demand list.
"Water Resources" was the top-rated general category, and five of the top ten specific program categories were water-related.
Following closely behind were open space protection and the planning techniques that accomplish that protection, both at the town and the subdivision levels.
"Creative development techniques that conserve open space" was the top-rated topic overall and the only one to average above a 4 on the 1 to 5 scale.
"Wildlife Resources" was the third most popular general topic, followed by "Legal and Administrative Issues Related to Natural Resources".
"Computers and Natural Resources" and "Natural Resources/Land Management" tied for the fifth slot.
Overall, the results provided strong evidence to the partnership that quality educational programs and/or materials in the following topic areas would find a large and interested audience: Virtually anything related to the functions, values, and protection of wetlands, streams, ponds, and groundwater drinking supplies; Alternative development strategies that protect water resources, conserve open space, and/or minimize strip development; Tools for protecting open space and farmland, including municipal level planning and creative development techniques; Understanding, identifying, protecting, and managing important wildlife habitats and wildlife corridors; The roles, responsibilities and optimum interactions among municipal commissions.
At the same time, the results raised at least one significant question: are there cases where a low score is more reflective of ignorance about the topic than a true lack of interest?
A few respondents who gave GIS topics a low score, for example, actually wrote in the comments section that they didn't know what it was.
Several apparent inconsistencies in the results also provided fodder for this discussion.
For example: Open space planning and protection was at or near the top of every list.
Yet "Conducting and Updating Natural Resource Inventories," an essential prerequisite to a successful municipal open space program, was one of the least popular topics.
Protection of water quality came through as a clear priority.
Yet riparian buffer zone guidelines made the bottom-ten list, and reducing impervious surfaces barely avoided the bottom-ten list.
Wildlife resources was a top-three general topic.
Yet respondents were remarkably uninterested in forest fragmentation, an issue that local wildlife biologists would rank at the top of their issues requiring attention.
Such results suggest that many respondents know what they want, but not what they need.
In fact, it is true that most respondents are lay volunteers and likely do not have the background required to understand which specific topics  are required to address their general concerns.
On the other hand, some respondents may feel they already know enough about open space inventories or may have attended enough impervious surface reduction and/or riparian buffer workshops and so do not need any more information in these areas.
Understanding which of these explanations is more prevalent has become an important topic-by-topic investigation issue for CES and the Corridor as program planning proceeds.
Developing the Program Using the needs assessment results, the partnership began developing and offering a carefully constructed sequence of programs to municipal and land trust volunteer leaders.
In May, 2000, the first annual weekend-long retreat, A New Introduction to the Natural World, was held at an overnight camp facility in Woodstock, Connecticut.
Its purpose was to provide new lay-volunteers in natural resources a basic background in ecological systems and functions, and the impact of disturbance on those systems.
More than 70 local leaders applied for the 30 available program slots.
Through alternating indoor and outdoor sessions and hands-on exercises led by natural resource professionals, attendees learned how bedrock, soils, water, flora, and fauna interact to create the living world.
The weekend concluded with a discussion on the roles, responsibilities, and optimum interactions among municipal commissions, and a planning session on how attendees could best put their newly acquired knowledge to work as community volunteers.
A 6-month follow-up meeting has been scheduled  to assess their progress in implementing those plans.
In July 2000, a 4-day computer laboratory course, Geospatial Technologies at Work: A G.I.S.
Training Course for Land Use Decision Makers, was offered at the University of Connecticut's College of Agriculture and Natural Resources.
Interestingly, this topic had received a mid-range overall score on the needs assessment, but was at the top of the list of the four largest corridor towns where development pressure is greatest.
Through a series of graphic presentations followed by hands-on exercises, attendees were taught the basic functions of ArcView software and how to access and work with publicly available digital data such as roads, soils, surficial geology, watercourses, and satellite-derived land cover.
The course was marketed more heavily in the larger communities and filled to capacity both times it was offered.
Future programs designed to address high demand topics include: A creative development workshop with land use planner, site designer, award winning author, and nationally acclaimed lecturer Randall Arendt; A scenic highway design manual and growth management workshop series; A historic village district design workshop; and A multi-faceted program on land protection tools and techniques.
Summary and Conclusion A local, grass roots effort to protect the things that made a region special resulted in the creation of a National Heritage Corridor in northeastern Connecticut and southeastern Massachusetts.
The Corridor's mission overlapped with that of the University of Connecticut Cooperative Extension System.
By thinking and acting creatively, these two organizations were able to partner in a way that enhanced the effectiveness of both.
The result was a new local Extension education program addressing critical and previously neglected issues and audiences.
At this writing, the formal partnership including the CCR has been in place for just over 2 years and is becoming a model for other heritage corridors across the country.
The Clemson Cooperative Extension System and the South Carolina National Heritage Corridor partnered this year to create a position based on the Connecticut Corridor Circuit Rider concept.
A needs assessment survey, sent to members of the partnership's priority target audiences, provided crucial information to guide the development of the new education program.
The survey results have been and continue to be used to develop the Extension education curriculum and prioritize program offerings.
Program evaluations  clearly show that this formula for program development, implemented by the new partnership, is getting results.
The high turnover rate within the target audiences, and the continual emergence of new natural resource issues and concerns, will make periodic reassessment of these education preferences an important cog in the partnership's long-term efforts.
Continuing education needs in natural resources, land use and community design.
University of Connecticut Cooperative Extension System.
Quinebaug and Shetucket Rivers Valley National Heritage Corridor Advisory Council.
Vision to a reality: A Management plan.
Connecticut: Quinebaug-Shetucket Heritage Corridor.
Table 2 Ten Most In-Demand Specific Topics Table 3 Ten Least Demanded Specific Topics The survey clearly revealed a strong, across-the-board demand for continuing education in natural resources and land use.
On a scale of 1  to 5 , only 3 of the 53 potential topics  received an average score below the scale midpoint of 3.
Importantly, topics relating to water and wetland resources dominated the program demand list.
"Water Resources" was the top-rated general category, and five of the top ten specific program categories were water-related.
Following closely behind were open space protection and the planning techniques that accomplish that protection, both at the town and the subdivision levels.
"Creative development techniques that conserve open space" was the top-rated topic overall and the only one to average above a 4 on the 1 to 5 scale.
"Wildlife Resources" was the third most popular general topic, followed by "Legal and Administrative Issues Related to Natural Resources".
"Computers and Natural Resources" and "Natural Resources/Land Management" tied for the fifth slot.
Overall, the results provided strong evidence to the partnership that quality educational programs and/or materials in the following topic areas would find a large and interested audience: Virtually anything related to the functions, values, and protection of wetlands, streams, ponds, and groundwater drinking supplies; Alternative development strategies that protect water resources, conserve open space, and/or minimize strip development; Tools for protecting open space and farmland, including municipal level planning and creative development techniques; Understanding, identifying, protecting, and managing important wildlife habitats and wildlife corridors; The roles, responsibilities and optimum interactions among municipal commissions.
At the same time, the results raised at least one significant question: are there cases where a low score is more reflective of ignorance about the topic than a true lack of interest?
A few respondents who gave GIS topics a low score, for example, actually wrote in the comments section that they didn't know what it was.
Several apparent inconsistencies in the results also provided fodder for this discussion.
For example: Open space planning and protection was at or near the top of every list.
Yet "Conducting and Updating Natural Resource Inventories," an essential prerequisite to a successful municipal open space program, was one of the least popular topics.
Protection of water quality came through as a clear priority.
Yet riparian buffer zone guidelines made the bottom-ten list, and reducing impervious surfaces barely avoided the bottom-ten list.
Wildlife resources was a top-three general topic.
Yet respondents were remarkably uninterested in forest fragmentation, an issue that local wildlife biologists would rank at the top of their issues requiring attention.
Such results suggest that many respondents know what they want, but not what they need.
In fact, it is true that most respondents are lay volunteers and likely do not have the background required to understand which specific topics  are required to address their general concerns.
On the other hand, some respondents may feel they already know enough about open space inventories or may have attended enough impervious surface reduction and/or riparian buffer workshops and so do not need any more information in these areas.
Understanding which of these explanations is more prevalent has become an important topic-by-topic investigation issue for CES and the Corridor as program planning proceeds.
Developing the Program Using the needs assessment results, the partnership began developing and offering a carefully constructed sequence of programs to municipal and land trust volunteer leaders.
In May, 2000, the first annual weekend-long retreat, A New Introduction to the Natural World, was held at an overnight camp facility in Woodstock, Connecticut.
Its purpose was to provide new lay-volunteers in natural resources a basic background in ecological systems and functions, and the impact of disturbance on those systems.
More than 70 local leaders applied for the 30 available program slots.
Through alternating indoor and outdoor sessions and hands-on exercises led by natural resource professionals, attendees learned how bedrock, soils, water, flora, and fauna interact to create the living world.
The weekend concluded with a discussion on the roles, responsibilities, and optimum interactions among municipal commissions, and a planning session on how attendees could best put their newly acquired knowledge to work as community volunteers.
A 6-month follow-up meeting has been scheduled  to assess their progress in implementing those plans.
In July 2000, a 4-day computer laboratory course, Geospatial Technologies at Work: A G.I.S.
Training Course for Land Use Decision Makers, was offered at the University of Connecticut's College of Agriculture and Natural Resources.
Interestingly, this topic had received a mid-range overall score on the needs assessment, but was at the top of the list of the four largest corridor towns where development pressure is greatest.
Through a series of graphic presentations followed by hands-on exercises, attendees were taught the basic functions of ArcView software and how to access and work with publicly available digital data such as roads, soils, surficial geology, watercourses, and satellite-derived land cover.
The course was marketed more heavily in the larger communities and filled to capacity both times it was offered.
Future programs designed to address high demand topics include: A creative development workshop with land use planner, site designer, award winning author, and nationally acclaimed lecturer Randall Arendt; A scenic highway design manual and growth management workshop series; A historic village district design workshop; and A multi-faceted program on land protection tools and techniques.
Summary and Conclusion A local, grass roots effort to protect the things that made a region special resulted in the creation of a National Heritage Corridor in northeastern Connecticut and southeastern Massachusetts.
The Corridor's mission overlapped with that of the University of Connecticut Cooperative Extension System.
By thinking and acting creatively, these two organizations were able to partner in a way that enhanced the effectiveness of both.
The result was a new local Extension education program addressing critical and previously neglected issues and audiences.
At this writing, the formal partnership including the CCR has been in place for just over 2 years and is becoming a model for other heritage corridors across the country.
The Clemson Cooperative Extension System and the South Carolina National Heritage Corridor partnered this year to create a position based on the Connecticut Corridor Circuit Rider concept.
A needs assessment survey, sent to members of the partnership's priority target audiences, provided crucial information to guide the development of the new education program.
The survey results have been and continue to be used to develop the Extension education curriculum and prioritize program offerings.
Program evaluations  clearly show that this formula for program development, implemented by the new partnership, is getting results.
The high turnover rate within the target audiences, and the continual emergence of new natural resource issues and concerns, will make periodic reassessment of these education preferences an important cog in the partnership's long-term efforts.
Continuing education needs in natural resources, land use and community design.
University of Connecticut Cooperative Extension System.
Quinebaug and Shetucket Rivers Valley National Heritage Corridor Advisory Council.
Vision to a reality: A Management plan.
Connecticut: Quinebaug-Shetucket Heritage Corridor.
Table 2 Ten Most In-Demand Specific Topics Table 3 Ten Least Demanded Specific Topics The survey clearly revealed a strong, across-the-board demand for continuing education in natural resources and land use.
On a scale of 1  to 5 , only 3 of the 53 potential topics  received an average score below the scale midpoint of 3.
Importantly, topics relating to water and wetland resources dominated the program demand list.
"Water Resources" was the top-rated general category, and five of the top ten specific program categories were water-related.
Following closely behind were open space protection and the planning techniques that accomplish that protection, both at the town and the subdivision levels.
"Creative development techniques that conserve open space" was the top-rated topic overall and the only one to average above a 4 on the 1 to 5 scale.
"Wildlife Resources" was the third most popular general topic, followed by "Legal and Administrative Issues Related to Natural Resources".
"Computers and Natural Resources" and "Natural Resources/Land Management" tied for the fifth slot.
Overall, the results provided strong evidence to the partnership that quality educational programs and/or materials in the following topic areas would find a large and interested audience: Virtually anything related to the functions, values, and protection of wetlands, streams, ponds, and groundwater drinking supplies; Alternative development strategies that protect water resources, conserve open space, and/or minimize strip development; Tools for protecting open space and farmland, including municipal level planning and creative development techniques; Understanding, identifying, protecting, and managing important wildlife habitats and wildlife corridors; The roles, responsibilities and optimum interactions among municipal commissions.
At the same time, the results raised at least one significant question: are there cases where a low score is more reflective of ignorance about the topic than a true lack of interest?
A few respondents who gave GIS topics a low score, for example, actually wrote in the comments section that they didn't know what it was.
Several apparent inconsistencies in the results also provided fodder for this discussion.
For example: Open space planning and protection was at or near the top of every list.
Yet "Conducting and Updating Natural Resource Inventories," an essential prerequisite to a successful municipal open space program, was one of the least popular topics.
Protection of water quality came through as a clear priority.
Yet riparian buffer zone guidelines made the bottom-ten list, and reducing impervious surfaces barely avoided the bottom-ten list.
Wildlife resources was a top-three general topic.
Yet respondents were remarkably uninterested in forest fragmentation, an issue that local wildlife biologists would rank at the top of their issues requiring attention.
Such results suggest that many respondents know what they want, but not what they need.
In fact, it is true that most respondents are lay volunteers and likely do not have the background required to understand which specific topics  are required to address their general concerns.
On the other hand, some respondents may feel they already know enough about open space inventories or may have attended enough impervious surface reduction and/or riparian buffer workshops and so do not need any more information in these areas.
Understanding which of these explanations is more prevalent has become an important topic-by-topic investigation issue for CES and the Corridor as program planning proceeds.
Developing the Program Using the needs assessment results, the partnership began developing and offering a carefully constructed sequence of programs to municipal and land trust volunteer leaders.
In May, 2000, the first annual weekend-long retreat, A New Introduction to the Natural World, was held at an overnight camp facility in Woodstock, Connecticut.
Its purpose was to provide new lay-volunteers in natural resources a basic background in ecological systems and functions, and the impact of disturbance on those systems.
More than 70 local leaders applied for the 30 available program slots.
Through alternating indoor and outdoor sessions and hands-on exercises led by natural resource professionals, attendees learned how bedrock, soils, water, flora, and fauna interact to create the living world.
The weekend concluded with a discussion on the roles, responsibilities, and optimum interactions among municipal commissions, and a planning session on how attendees could best put their newly acquired knowledge to work as community volunteers.
A 6-month follow-up meeting has been scheduled  to assess their progress in implementing those plans.
In July 2000, a 4-day computer laboratory course, Geospatial Technologies at Work: A G.I.S.
Training Course for Land Use Decision Makers, was offered at the University of Connecticut's College of Agriculture and Natural Resources.
Interestingly, this topic had received a mid-range overall score on the needs assessment, but was at the top of the list of the four largest corridor towns where development pressure is greatest.
Through a series of graphic presentations followed by hands-on exercises, attendees were taught the basic functions of ArcView software and how to access and work with publicly available digital data such as roads, soils, surficial geology, watercourses, and satellite-derived land cover.
The course was marketed more heavily in the larger communities and filled to capacity both times it was offered.
Future programs designed to address high demand topics include: A creative development workshop with land use planner, site designer, award winning author, and nationally acclaimed lecturer Randall Arendt; A scenic highway design manual and growth management workshop series; A historic village district design workshop; and A multi-faceted program on land protection tools and techniques.
Summary and Conclusion A local, grass roots effort to protect the things that made a region special resulted in the creation of a National Heritage Corridor in northeastern Connecticut and southeastern Massachusetts.
The Corridor's mission overlapped with that of the University of Connecticut Cooperative Extension System.
By thinking and acting creatively, these two organizations were able to partner in a way that enhanced the effectiveness of both.
The result was a new local Extension education program addressing critical and previously neglected issues and audiences.
At this writing, the formal partnership including the CCR has been in place for just over 2 years and is becoming a model for other heritage corridors across the country.
The Clemson Cooperative Extension System and the South Carolina National Heritage Corridor partnered this year to create a position based on the Connecticut Corridor Circuit Rider concept.
A needs assessment survey, sent to members of the partnership's priority target audiences, provided crucial information to guide the development of the new education program.
The survey results have been and continue to be used to develop the Extension education curriculum and prioritize program offerings.
Program evaluations  clearly show that this formula for program development, implemented by the new partnership, is getting results.
The high turnover rate within the target audiences, and the continual emergence of new natural resource issues and concerns, will make periodic reassessment of these education preferences an important cog in the partnership's long-term efforts.
Continuing education needs in natural resources, land use and community design.
University of Connecticut Cooperative Extension System.
Quinebaug and Shetucket Rivers Valley National Heritage Corridor Advisory Council.
Vision to a reality: A Management plan.
Connecticut: Quinebaug-Shetucket Heritage Corridor.
Table 3 Ten Least Demanded Specific Topics The survey clearly revealed a strong, across-the-board demand for continuing education in natural resources and land use.
On a scale of 1  to 5 , only 3 of the 53 potential topics  received an average score below the scale midpoint of 3.
Importantly, topics relating to water and wetland resources dominated the program demand list.
"Water Resources" was the top-rated general category, and five of the top ten specific program categories were water-related.
Following closely behind were open space protection and the planning techniques that accomplish that protection, both at the town and the subdivision levels.
"Creative development techniques that conserve open space" was the top-rated topic overall and the only one to average above a 4 on the 1 to 5 scale.
"Wildlife Resources" was the third most popular general topic, followed by "Legal and Administrative Issues Related to Natural Resources".
"Computers and Natural Resources" and "Natural Resources/Land Management" tied for the fifth slot.
Overall, the results provided strong evidence to the partnership that quality educational programs and/or materials in the following topic areas would find a large and interested audience: Virtually anything related to the functions, values, and protection of wetlands, streams, ponds, and groundwater drinking supplies; Alternative development strategies that protect water resources, conserve open space, and/or minimize strip development; Tools for protecting open space and farmland, including municipal level planning and creative development techniques; Understanding, identifying, protecting, and managing important wildlife habitats and wildlife corridors; The roles, responsibilities and optimum interactions among municipal commissions.
At the same time, the results raised at least one significant question: are there cases where a low score is more reflective of ignorance about the topic than a true lack of interest?
A few respondents who gave GIS topics a low score, for example, actually wrote in the comments section that they didn't know what it was.
Several apparent inconsistencies in the results also provided fodder for this discussion.
For example: Open space planning and protection was at or near the top of every list.
Yet "Conducting and Updating Natural Resource Inventories," an essential prerequisite to a successful municipal open space program, was one of the least popular topics.
Protection of water quality came through as a clear priority.
Yet riparian buffer zone guidelines made the bottom-ten list, and reducing impervious surfaces barely avoided the bottom-ten list.
Wildlife resources was a top-three general topic.
Yet respondents were remarkably uninterested in forest fragmentation, an issue that local wildlife biologists would rank at the top of their issues requiring attention.
Such results suggest that many respondents know what they want, but not what they need.
In fact, it is true that most respondents are lay volunteers and likely do not have the background required to understand which specific topics  are required to address their general concerns.
On the other hand, some respondents may feel they already know enough about open space inventories or may have attended enough impervious surface reduction and/or riparian buffer workshops and so do not need any more information in these areas.
Understanding which of these explanations is more prevalent has become an important topic-by-topic investigation issue for CES and the Corridor as program planning proceeds.
Developing the Program Using the needs assessment results, the partnership began developing and offering a carefully constructed sequence of programs to municipal and land trust volunteer leaders.
In May, 2000, the first annual weekend-long retreat, A New Introduction to the Natural World, was held at an overnight camp facility in Woodstock, Connecticut.
Its purpose was to provide new lay-volunteers in natural resources a basic background in ecological systems and functions, and the impact of disturbance on those systems.
More than 70 local leaders applied for the 30 available program slots.
Through alternating indoor and outdoor sessions and hands-on exercises led by natural resource professionals, attendees learned how bedrock, soils, water, flora, and fauna interact to create the living world.
The weekend concluded with a discussion on the roles, responsibilities, and optimum interactions among municipal commissions, and a planning session on how attendees could best put their newly acquired knowledge to work as community volunteers.
A 6-month follow-up meeting has been scheduled  to assess their progress in implementing those plans.
In July 2000, a 4-day computer laboratory course, Geospatial Technologies at Work: A G.I.S.
Training Course for Land Use Decision Makers, was offered at the University of Connecticut's College of Agriculture and Natural Resources.
Interestingly, this topic had received a mid-range overall score on the needs assessment, but was at the top of the list of the four largest corridor towns where development pressure is greatest.
Through a series of graphic presentations followed by hands-on exercises, attendees were taught the basic functions of ArcView software and how to access and work with publicly available digital data such as roads, soils, surficial geology, watercourses, and satellite-derived land cover.
The course was marketed more heavily in the larger communities and filled to capacity both times it was offered.
Future programs designed to address high demand topics include: A creative development workshop with land use planner, site designer, award winning author, and nationally acclaimed lecturer Randall Arendt; A scenic highway design manual and growth management workshop series; A historic village district design workshop; and A multi-faceted program on land protection tools and techniques.
Summary and Conclusion A local, grass roots effort to protect the things that made a region special resulted in the creation of a National Heritage Corridor in northeastern Connecticut and southeastern Massachusetts.
The Corridor's mission overlapped with that of the University of Connecticut Cooperative Extension System.
By thinking and acting creatively, these two organizations were able to partner in a way that enhanced the effectiveness of both.
The result was a new local Extension education program addressing critical and previously neglected issues and audiences.
At this writing, the formal partnership including the CCR has been in place for just over 2 years and is becoming a model for other heritage corridors across the country.
The Clemson Cooperative Extension System and the South Carolina National Heritage Corridor partnered this year to create a position based on the Connecticut Corridor Circuit Rider concept.
A needs assessment survey, sent to members of the partnership's priority target audiences, provided crucial information to guide the development of the new education program.
The survey results have been and continue to be used to develop the Extension education curriculum and prioritize program offerings.
Program evaluations  clearly show that this formula for program development, implemented by the new partnership, is getting results.
The high turnover rate within the target audiences, and the continual emergence of new natural resource issues and concerns, will make periodic reassessment of these education preferences an important cog in the partnership's long-term efforts.
Continuing education needs in natural resources, land use and community design.
University of Connecticut Cooperative Extension System.
Quinebaug and Shetucket Rivers Valley National Heritage Corridor Advisory Council.
Vision to a reality: A Management plan.
Connecticut: Quinebaug-Shetucket Heritage Corridor.
Table 3 Ten Least Demanded Specific Topics The survey clearly revealed a strong, across-the-board demand for continuing education in natural resources and land use.
On a scale of 1  to 5 , only 3 of the 53 potential topics  received an average score below the scale midpoint of 3.
Importantly, topics relating to water and wetland resources dominated the program demand list.
"Water Resources" was the top-rated general category, and five of the top ten specific program categories were water-related.
Following closely behind were open space protection and the planning techniques that accomplish that protection, both at the town and the subdivision levels.
"Creative development techniques that conserve open space" was the top-rated topic overall and the only one to average above a 4 on the 1 to 5 scale.
"Wildlife Resources" was the third most popular general topic, followed by "Legal and Administrative Issues Related to Natural Resources".
"Computers and Natural Resources" and "Natural Resources/Land Management" tied for the fifth slot.
Overall, the results provided strong evidence to the partnership that quality educational programs and/or materials in the following topic areas would find a large and interested audience: Virtually anything related to the functions, values, and protection of wetlands, streams, ponds, and groundwater drinking supplies; Alternative development strategies that protect water resources, conserve open space, and/or minimize strip development; Tools for protecting open space and farmland, including municipal level planning and creative development techniques; Understanding, identifying, protecting, and managing important wildlife habitats and wildlife corridors; The roles, responsibilities and optimum interactions among municipal commissions.
At the same time, the results raised at least one significant question: are there cases where a low score is more reflective of ignorance about the topic than a true lack of interest?
A few respondents who gave GIS topics a low score, for example, actually wrote in the comments section that they didn't know what it was.
Several apparent inconsistencies in the results also provided fodder for this discussion.
For example: Open space planning and protection was at or near the top of every list.
Yet "Conducting and Updating Natural Resource Inventories," an essential prerequisite to a successful municipal open space program, was one of the least popular topics.
Protection of water quality came through as a clear priority.
Yet riparian buffer zone guidelines made the bottom-ten list, and reducing impervious surfaces barely avoided the bottom-ten list.
Wildlife resources was a top-three general topic.
Yet respondents were remarkably uninterested in forest fragmentation, an issue that local wildlife biologists would rank at the top of their issues requiring attention.
Such results suggest that many respondents know what they want, but not what they need.
In fact, it is true that most respondents are lay volunteers and likely do not have the background required to understand which specific topics  are required to address their general concerns.
On the other hand, some respondents may feel they already know enough about open space inventories or may have attended enough impervious surface reduction and/or riparian buffer workshops and so do not need any more information in these areas.
Understanding which of these explanations is more prevalent has become an important topic-by-topic investigation issue for CES and the Corridor as program planning proceeds.
Developing the Program Using the needs assessment results, the partnership began developing and offering a carefully constructed sequence of programs to municipal and land trust volunteer leaders.
In May, 2000, the first annual weekend-long retreat, A New Introduction to the Natural World, was held at an overnight camp facility in Woodstock, Connecticut.
Its purpose was to provide new lay-volunteers in natural resources a basic background in ecological systems and functions, and the impact of disturbance on those systems.
More than 70 local leaders applied for the 30 available program slots.
Through alternating indoor and outdoor sessions and hands-on exercises led by natural resource professionals, attendees learned how bedrock, soils, water, flora, and fauna interact to create the living world.
The weekend concluded with a discussion on the roles, responsibilities, and optimum interactions among municipal commissions, and a planning session on how attendees could best put their newly acquired knowledge to work as community volunteers.
A 6-month follow-up meeting has been scheduled  to assess their progress in implementing those plans.
In July 2000, a 4-day computer laboratory course, Geospatial Technologies at Work: A G.I.S.
Training Course for Land Use Decision Makers, was offered at the University of Connecticut's College of Agriculture and Natural Resources.
Interestingly, this topic had received a mid-range overall score on the needs assessment, but was at the top of the list of the four largest corridor towns where development pressure is greatest.
Through a series of graphic presentations followed by hands-on exercises, attendees were taught the basic functions of ArcView software and how to access and work with publicly available digital data such as roads, soils, surficial geology, watercourses, and satellite-derived land cover.
The course was marketed more heavily in the larger communities and filled to capacity both times it was offered.
Future programs designed to address high demand topics include: A creative development workshop with land use planner, site designer, award winning author, and nationally acclaimed lecturer Randall Arendt; A scenic highway design manual and growth management workshop series; A historic village district design workshop; and A multi-faceted program on land protection tools and techniques.
Summary and Conclusion A local, grass roots effort to protect the things that made a region special resulted in the creation of a National Heritage Corridor in northeastern Connecticut and southeastern Massachusetts.
The Corridor's mission overlapped with that of the University of Connecticut Cooperative Extension System.
By thinking and acting creatively, these two organizations were able to partner in a way that enhanced the effectiveness of both.
The result was a new local Extension education program addressing critical and previously neglected issues and audiences.
At this writing, the formal partnership including the CCR has been in place for just over 2 years and is becoming a model for other heritage corridors across the country.
The Clemson Cooperative Extension System and the South Carolina National Heritage Corridor partnered this year to create a position based on the Connecticut Corridor Circuit Rider concept.
A needs assessment survey, sent to members of the partnership's priority target audiences, provided crucial information to guide the development of the new education program.
The survey results have been and continue to be used to develop the Extension education curriculum and prioritize program offerings.
Program evaluations  clearly show that this formula for program development, implemented by the new partnership, is getting results.
The high turnover rate within the target audiences, and the continual emergence of new natural resource issues and concerns, will make periodic reassessment of these education preferences an important cog in the partnership's long-term efforts.
Continuing education needs in natural resources, land use and community design.
University of Connecticut Cooperative Extension System.
Quinebaug and Shetucket Rivers Valley National Heritage Corridor Advisory Council.
Vision to a reality: A Management plan.
Connecticut: Quinebaug-Shetucket Heritage Corridor.
The survey clearly revealed a strong, across-the-board demand for continuing education in natural resources and land use.
On a scale of 1  to 5 , only 3 of the 53 potential topics  received an average score below the scale midpoint of 3.
Importantly, topics relating to water and wetland resources dominated the program demand list.
"Water Resources" was the top-rated general category, and five of the top ten specific program categories were water-related.
Following closely behind were open space protection and the planning techniques that accomplish that protection, both at the town and the subdivision levels.
"Creative development techniques that conserve open space" was the top-rated topic overall and the only one to average above a 4 on the 1 to 5 scale.
"Wildlife Resources" was the third most popular general topic, followed by "Legal and Administrative Issues Related to Natural Resources".
"Computers and Natural Resources" and "Natural Resources/Land Management" tied for the fifth slot.
Overall, the results provided strong evidence to the partnership that quality educational programs and/or materials in the following topic areas would find a large and interested audience: Virtually anything related to the functions, values, and protection of wetlands, streams, ponds, and groundwater drinking supplies; Alternative development strategies that protect water resources, conserve open space, and/or minimize strip development; Tools for protecting open space and farmland, including municipal level planning and creative development techniques; Understanding, identifying, protecting, and managing important wildlife habitats and wildlife corridors; The roles, responsibilities and optimum interactions among municipal commissions.
At the same time, the results raised at least one significant question: are there cases where a low score is more reflective of ignorance about the topic than a true lack of interest?
A few respondents who gave GIS topics a low score, for example, actually wrote in the comments section that they didn't know what it was.
Several apparent inconsistencies in the results also provided fodder for this discussion.
For example: Open space planning and protection was at or near the top of every list.
Yet "Conducting and Updating Natural Resource Inventories," an essential prerequisite to a successful municipal open space program, was one of the least popular topics.
Protection of water quality came through as a clear priority.
Yet riparian buffer zone guidelines made the bottom-ten list, and reducing impervious surfaces barely avoided the bottom-ten list.
Wildlife resources was a top-three general topic.
Yet respondents were remarkably uninterested in forest fragmentation, an issue that local wildlife biologists would rank at the top of their issues requiring attention.
Such results suggest that many respondents know what they want, but not what they need.
In fact, it is true that most respondents are lay volunteers and likely do not have the background required to understand which specific topics  are required to address their general concerns.
On the other hand, some respondents may feel they already know enough about open space inventories or may have attended enough impervious surface reduction and/or riparian buffer workshops and so do not need any more information in these areas.
Understanding which of these explanations is more prevalent has become an important topic-by-topic investigation issue for CES and the Corridor as program planning proceeds.
Developing the Program Using the needs assessment results, the partnership began developing and offering a carefully constructed sequence of programs to municipal and land trust volunteer leaders.
In May, 2000, the first annual weekend-long retreat, A New Introduction to the Natural World, was held at an overnight camp facility in Woodstock, Connecticut.
Its purpose was to provide new lay-volunteers in natural resources a basic background in ecological systems and functions, and the impact of disturbance on those systems.
More than 70 local leaders applied for the 30 available program slots.
Through alternating indoor and outdoor sessions and hands-on exercises led by natural resource professionals, attendees learned how bedrock, soils, water, flora, and fauna interact to create the living world.
The weekend concluded with a discussion on the roles, responsibilities, and optimum interactions among municipal commissions, and a planning session on how attendees could best put their newly acquired knowledge to work as community volunteers.
A 6-month follow-up meeting has been scheduled  to assess their progress in implementing those plans.
In July 2000, a 4-day computer laboratory course, Geospatial Technologies at Work: A G.I.S.
Training Course for Land Use Decision Makers, was offered at the University of Connecticut's College of Agriculture and Natural Resources.
Interestingly, this topic had received a mid-range overall score on the needs assessment, but was at the top of the list of the four largest corridor towns where development pressure is greatest.
Through a series of graphic presentations followed by hands-on exercises, attendees were taught the basic functions of ArcView software and how to access and work with publicly available digital data such as roads, soils, surficial geology, watercourses, and satellite-derived land cover.
The course was marketed more heavily in the larger communities and filled to capacity both times it was offered.
Future programs designed to address high demand topics include: A creative development workshop with land use planner, site designer, award winning author, and nationally acclaimed lecturer Randall Arendt; A scenic highway design manual and growth management workshop series; A historic village district design workshop; and A multi-faceted program on land protection tools and techniques.
Summary and Conclusion A local, grass roots effort to protect the things that made a region special resulted in the creation of a National Heritage Corridor in northeastern Connecticut and southeastern Massachusetts.
The Corridor's mission overlapped with that of the University of Connecticut Cooperative Extension System.
By thinking and acting creatively, these two organizations were able to partner in a way that enhanced the effectiveness of both.
The result was a new local Extension education program addressing critical and previously neglected issues and audiences.
At this writing, the formal partnership including the CCR has been in place for just over 2 years and is becoming a model for other heritage corridors across the country.
The Clemson Cooperative Extension System and the South Carolina National Heritage Corridor partnered this year to create a position based on the Connecticut Corridor Circuit Rider concept.
A needs assessment survey, sent to members of the partnership's priority target audiences, provided crucial information to guide the development of the new education program.
The survey results have been and continue to be used to develop the Extension education curriculum and prioritize program offerings.
Program evaluations  clearly show that this formula for program development, implemented by the new partnership, is getting results.
The high turnover rate within the target audiences, and the continual emergence of new natural resource issues and concerns, will make periodic reassessment of these education preferences an important cog in the partnership's long-term efforts.
Continuing education needs in natural resources, land use and community design.
University of Connecticut Cooperative Extension System.
Quinebaug and Shetucket Rivers Valley National Heritage Corridor Advisory Council.
Vision to a reality: A Management plan.
Connecticut: Quinebaug-Shetucket Heritage Corridor.
The survey clearly revealed a strong, across-the-board demand for continuing education in natural resources and land use.
On a scale of 1  to 5 , only 3 of the 53 potential topics  received an average score below the scale midpoint of 3.
Importantly, topics relating to water and wetland resources dominated the program demand list.
"Water Resources" was the top-rated general category, and five of the top ten specific program categories were water-related.
Following closely behind were open space protection and the planning techniques that accomplish that protection, both at the town and the subdivision levels.
"Creative development techniques that conserve open space" was the top-rated topic overall and the only one to average above a 4 on the 1 to 5 scale.
"Wildlife Resources" was the third most popular general topic, followed by "Legal and Administrative Issues Related to Natural Resources".
"Computers and Natural Resources" and "Natural Resources/Land Management" tied for the fifth slot.
Overall, the results provided strong evidence to the partnership that quality educational programs and/or materials in the following topic areas would find a large and interested audience:
 At the same time, the results raised at least one significant question: are there cases where a low score is more reflective of ignorance about the topic than a true lack of interest?
A few respondents who gave GIS topics a low score, for example, actually wrote in the comments section that they didn't know what it was.
Several apparent inconsistencies in the results also provided fodder for this discussion.
Such results suggest that many respondents know what they want, but not what they need.
In fact, it is true that most respondents are lay volunteers and likely do not have the background required to understand which specific topics  are required to address their general concerns.
On the other hand, some respondents may feel they already know enough about open space inventories or may have attended enough impervious surface reduction and/or riparian buffer workshops and so do not need any more information in these areas.
Understanding which of these explanations is more prevalent has become an important topic-by-topic investigation issue for CES and the Corridor as program planning proceeds.
Using the needs assessment results, the partnership began developing and offering a carefully constructed sequence of programs to municipal and land trust volunteer leaders.
In May, 2000, the first annual weekend-long retreat, A New Introduction to the Natural World, was held at an overnight camp facility in Woodstock, Connecticut.
Its purpose was to provide new lay-volunteers in natural resources a basic background in ecological systems and functions, and the impact of disturbance on those systems.
More than 70 local leaders applied for the 30 available program slots.
Through alternating indoor and outdoor sessions and hands-on exercises led by natural resource professionals, attendees learned how bedrock, soils, water, flora, and fauna interact to create the living world.
The weekend concluded with a discussion on the roles, responsibilities, and optimum interactions among municipal commissions, and a planning session on how attendees could best put their newly acquired knowledge to work as community volunteers.
A 6-month follow-up meeting has been scheduled  to assess their progress in implementing those plans.
In July 2000, a 4-day computer laboratory course, Geospatial Technologies at Work: A G.I.S.
Training Course for Land Use Decision Makers, was offered at the University of Connecticut's College of Agriculture and Natural Resources.
Interestingly, this topic had received a mid-range overall score on the needs assessment, but was at the top of the list of the four largest corridor towns where development pressure is greatest.
Through a series of graphic presentations followed by hands-on exercises, attendees were taught the basic functions of ArcView software and how to access and work with publicly available digital data such as roads, soils, surficial geology, watercourses, and satellite-derived land cover.
The course was marketed more heavily in the larger communities and filled to capacity both times it was offered.
Future programs designed to address high demand topics include:
 A local, grass roots effort to protect the things that made a region special resulted in the creation of a National Heritage Corridor in northeastern Connecticut and southeastern Massachusetts.
The Corridor's mission overlapped with that of the University of Connecticut Cooperative Extension System.
By thinking and acting creatively, these two organizations were able to partner in a way that enhanced the effectiveness of both.
The result was a new local Extension education program addressing critical and previously neglected issues and audiences.
At this writing, the formal partnership including the CCR has been in place for just over 2 years and is becoming a model for other heritage corridors across the country.
The Clemson Cooperative Extension System and the South Carolina National Heritage Corridor partnered this year to create a position based on the Connecticut Corridor Circuit Rider concept.
A needs assessment survey, sent to members of the partnership's priority target audiences, provided crucial information to guide the development of the new education program.
The survey results have been and continue to be used to develop the Extension education curriculum and prioritize program offerings.
Program evaluations  clearly show that this formula for program development, implemented by the new partnership, is getting results.
The high turnover rate within the target audiences, and the continual emergence of new natural resource issues and concerns, will make periodic reassessment of these education preferences an important cog in the partnership's long-term efforts.
Continuing education needs in natural resources, land use and community design.
University of Connecticut Cooperative Extension System.
Quinebaug and Shetucket Rivers Valley National Heritage Corridor Advisory Council.
Vision to a reality: A Management plan.
Connecticut: Quinebaug-Shetucket Heritage Corridor.
April 2009 // Volume 47 // Number 2 // Research In Brief // v47-2rb5
 Drought and the increase in population throughout the Intermountain West area of the United States have created severe water shortages in the region.
The population in the Intermountain West continues to grow faster than anywhere else in the United States, and homeowners there use approximately 60% of potable water to irrigate landscapes.
Because water is a limited resource, the need for conservation of landscape irrigation water has become increasingly important.
Although water is used in high amounts for other purposes as well, "a landscape may serve as a visual indicator of water use to the general public due to its visual exposure".
As homeowners become more aware of landscape water conservation alternatives, attitudes toward drought-tolerant landscapes may change throughout the United States.
In 1979, Hancock suggested that residential landscape water conservation is "essential to establishing a successful water policy aimed at curbing use in all sectors of water conservation".
Since landscape water use represents a major portion of the water used in urban areas in the Intermountain West, there is considerable potential for providing water savings through landscape water conservation.
Xeriscaping has been emphasized as one potential technique for conserving water in residential landscapes.
The seven principles of Xeriscaping are:
 Xeriscape practices have long been advocated by landscape architects, landscape designers, and horticulturists with little adoption.
This may be, in part, because homeowners are unaware of landscape water requirements and the potential for Xeriscapes to provide colorful, attractive landscapes.
Little research has been conducted on homeowner preferences for Xeriscapes.
A great deal of research, however, has been conducted on what a preference is and what psychological elements influence preferences for landscapes.
Preference is an extremely useful measurement in landscape assessment research, and most differences in preference are probably influenced in one way or another by familiarity and knowledge.
Thayer  used a preference survey to determine what public responses were to xeric landscapes.
Identical plants were used in each of eight small landscapes, differing only in groundcover.
Thayer's research, although provocative, focused mainly on the ground cover and the preferences that homeowners had for the landscapes under well-watered and dry conditions.
Research has not been conducted to compare preferences for integrated ornamental and turfgrass landscapes under well-watered and drought conditions.
The research reported here implemented design elements and survey instrumentation to evaluate the hypothesis that lower water use, xeric landscapes can be equally or more aesthetically acceptable than higher water use, traditional landscapes.
The specific objectives of this research were:
 Three different landscapes were designed and constructed at the Utah Botanical Center Research Station located in Kaysville, Utah.
The test site has a high mountain desert climate, with temperature extremes ranging from -30 C in January to 41 C in July.
Average daily temperatures range from -4 C in January to 24 C in July.
Soil at the test site is a Kidman fine sandy loam .
Landscape plant materials included.
Planting plans for the landscapes were spatially identical , and landscapes differed only in plant material.
For example, each landscape contained one evergreen tree [traditional-Pinus heldreichii  Markgr.
ex Fitschen, intermediate-Pinus aristata Elgelm., and native/adapted Pinus edulis Engelm.].
Turfgrasses planted in the landscapes were Poa pratensis L.
, Festuca arundinacea Schreb.
, and Buchloe dactyloides  Engelm.
Landscape material was purchased from local retail nurseries and installed using accepted horticultural practices.
Figure 1.Conceptual Landscape Design
 Figure 2.Examples of Different Plant Materials in the Landscapes
 Figure 3.Installation of Ornamental Plants and Drip Irrigation System
 Once the landscapes were installed, a 1-year long establishment period began in which the plants were irrigated to prevent any moisture stress.
The public preference survey was conducted the following summer both before and after a 5-week-long dry-down period in which the landscapes were not irrigated.
Part 1 of the survey instrument included seven-point, bipolar adjective scale  questions.
A seven-point Likert scale was used, with "1" meaning "strongly dislike," "4" meaning "neutral," and "7" meaning "strongly like." Part 2 of the survey instrument included semantic, differential scale questions.
Part 3 of the survey instrument included demographic questions.
In June of 2005, the study population, adults over the age of 18 who owned homes within a 10-mile vicinity of the test site, was invited to participate in the survey.
Follow-up reminders were sent to the study population with a map and directions to the landscapes.
Three different days were offered for participation, and subjects were also offered a five-dollar gasoline gift card for participating.
As the study participants arrived at the experiment site, written and verbal instructions were given out along with the survey instrument.
Each survey instrument contained detailed questions concerning the three landscapes, and participants viewed each type of landscape from three different positions  and answered questions that assessed their reaction to the overall color schemes and appearances of the landscapes.
Similarly, the participants were asked for their overall opinion of the grass texture in each landscape and an overall opinion of each landscape.
As they completed the survey for each type of landscape, the participants moved on to the next type of landscape and answered the same set of questions until all three landscape types had been viewed and evaluated.
Figure 4.Location of Survey Positions Within the Landscape.
The first survey was conducted in June 2005  before the dry-down began.
A follow-up survey was conducted the following week to increase the number of participants.
A second survey was conducted in August 2005  at the end of the dry-down period.
In June of 2005, a total of 66 subjects responded over six scheduled survey days.
June respondents were similar in certain respects to the Davis County census record.
Some notable differences for June include the percentage of female respondents , age , income , and educational levels.
In August of 2005, a total of 132 subjects responded over three scheduled survey days.
The characteristics of the sample population from August were similar in many respects.
Differences existed with respect to 60% percent female, a median age of 58, over half having attained a four-year college degree, and 64% reporting household income above $50,000.
These differences can, in some respects, be explained by our strategy of sampling homeowners, with the possible exception of the proportion of female respondents.
The highest opinion ratings and preferences of the respondents in June were for the traditional landscape.
However, they favored the appearance of the turfgrass in the intermediate landscape  over any of the other turfgrasses in the study.
In the native/adapted landscape, 69% of respondents somewhat to strongly liked the color scheme of the landscape.
And statistical tests of differences in the survey items show considerably more similarities than differences in preferences.
Respondents' perceptions of the landscapes in August were different than those from June during the well-watered conditions.
For example, though not statistically different, the preference of the August respondents was for the intermediate landscape overall, whereas June respondents preferred the traditional landscape.
Thirty-eight percent of August respondents disliked or strongly disliked the turfgrass in the traditional landscape after the dry-down, whereas 39% liked or strongly liked the turfgrass in the intermediate landscape.
The native/adapted landscape, which bloomed profusely in June, was flowerless during the August survey, and the preference for this landscape dropped slightly in August.
However, the 0.5-point drop in mean preference for the native/adapted landscape was less than the 1 to 1.5-point drop in mean preference for the traditional landscape.
And mean difference tests point to more differences than similarities.
Thus, the physical changes in the landscapes as a result of the dry-down are to some extent reflected in perceptions, given how the different landscape types fared over the course of the summer.
Respondents from both survey periods understood the concept of Xeriscaping and had a basic knowledge of the seven principles of Xeriscaping.
For example, three-fourths of respondents in both surveys agreed or strongly agreed that Xeriscape designs can result in visually pleasing residential landscapes.
It is thus possible that individuals with some knowledge of Xeriscaping may have different preferences for landscapes under drought stress.
When participants were asked what percent of drinking water supplied to cities in the Rocky Mountain region was used for landscape irrigation, 64% of respondents in June and 63% of respondents in August answered either 60% or 75%.
This finding further indicates participants' familiarity with water issues in the region.
Many of the respondents in June were familiar with Xeriscapes, having seen them before in person , whereas only 14% had never seen a Xeriscape.
Respondents in August were as familiar with Xeriscaping as June respondents, with 74% of respondents having viewed Xeriscapes in person.
All of the August respondents reported having seen a Xeriscape design previously on at least one occasion.
The results of the study reported here indicate that survey respondents from Davis County, Utah are familiar with Xeriscape principles and believe that Xeriscaping can result in aesthetically pleasing landscapes with the potential to conserve water.
Under well-watered conditions, however, respondents still expressed higher opinions and preference for traditional landscape plant materials over the lower water-use intermediate and native/adapted landscape plant materials.
Under drought conditions, respondents expressed higher opinions and preference for the intermediate landscape.
Under drought conditions, respondents preferred the appearance of the grass in the intermediate landscape over the traditional landscape.
The preference levels for the native/adapted landscape plant materials were similar under both well-watered and drought conditions and were neither negative nor positive.
As water resources become more scarce across the US and landscape irrigation is more scrutinized, an understanding of public landscape preferences will help to shape and target water conservation programs.
Landscape water conservation programs often encourage the use of lower water use plant materials in landscapes to help decrease outdoor irrigation amounts, and the study reported here provides one example of how public preference information may be obtained and utilized.
Future survey research related to Xeriscaping should focus on different socio-economic classes, ethnic groups, or non-residents, because their knowledge of Xeriscaping and general landscape preferences could differ significantly from the participants in this study.
This research could also be duplicated in other parts of the United States to develop an understanding of landscape preferences on a regional basis.
Water conservation in housing.
Water Conservation Needs and Implementing Strategies Conference.
The Franklin Pierce College, Rindge, NH.
The experience of nature: A psychological perspective.
New York: Cambridge University Press.
Water-conserving landscapes and computer visual simulation: an evaluation of preference.
Utah State University, Logan, UT.
Public response to water-conserving landscapes.
Visual ecology: Revitalizing the esthetics of landscape architecture.
United States Department of Agriculture.
Soil survey: Davis-Weber area, Utah.
October 2001 // Volume 39 // Number 5 // Feature Articles // 5FEA1
 Abstract This study compared an interactive distance-education format and a face-to-face format for providing sports nutrition continuing education workshops for health care and education professionals.
A collaborative team of state and county Cooperative Extension and a County Health Department faculty and staff conducted the study using The Winning Edge: Nutrition for Fitness and Sport curriculum.
The results indicated that a well-designed distance-education format is as effective and acceptable as a face-to-face format for providing workshops.
In addition, responses to 6-month follow-up evaluations indicated that the workshop contents were useful for providing sports nutrition education programs in workshop participants' communities.
Nutrition practices play important roles in helping adults and youths achieve their personal best in exercise, sports performance, and good health.
The nutrition practices that help maximize exercise performance can also help promote good health and minimize risk factors for chronic disease such as cardiovascular diseases, certain cancers, and osteoporosis.
Research-based sports nutrition continuing education can serve to update and refresh the knowledge and applications of this information for athletes, coaches, athletic trainers, dietitians, and other health education and fitness professionals.
Expanding delivery methods of continuing education programs for professionals is critical for improving access to these programs.
Considerable interest exists in the development of alternative delivery approaches for community continuing education programs.
With the expansion and advances in technology, distance-education provides an attractive choice for busy working professionals to obtain access to continuing education opportunities.
Distance education takes place when teachers and students are separated by physical distance yet connected via technology, often in concert with face-to-face communication, bridge the instructional gap.
Delivery of distance education can occur in concert with face-to-face instruction to increase the number of participants reached and to minimizing travel time for both participants and instructors, particularly in rural areas.
Many educators ask if distant students learn as much as students receiving traditional face-to-face instruction.
Research comparing distance education to traditional face-to-face instruction for credit courses indicates that teaching and studying at a distance can be as effective as traditional instruction when:
 The impact of face-to-face sports nutrition education workshops compared to that of an interactive distance-education format for continuing education had not been evaluated prior to this project.
Thus, there was a need to compare the effectiveness and acceptability of these two educational delivery approaches.
The purpose of the study reported here was to evaluate two formats, face-to-face and distance, for outreach continuing professional education in sports nutrition.
The workshops were titled "The Winning Edge: Nutrition for Fitness and Sport." The development, implementation, and evaluation of these workshops was a collaborative effort by a team of faculty and staff from the University of Arizona, College of Agriculture and Life Sciences, Department of Nutritional Sciences; County Cooperative Extension offices; Educational Communications and Technologies Office; The University of Arizona Health Sciences Center College of Public Health, Biomedical Telecommunications network; Northern Arizona University microwave network ; and the Maricopa County Department of Public Health.
The team was lead by a State Nutrition Specialist, while all team members worked collaboratively to help develop, implement, and evaluate the workshops.
Workshop Format and Content
 The project team organized and planned the workshops primarily via conference phone calls.
These calls were conducted approximately once a month beginning in January each year for the fall workshop.
The planning process for the workshop included:
 The first 5.5 hour-long Winning Edge: Nutrition for Fitness and Sport workshops was presented in September and October, 1996.
Two workshops were presented in the face-to-face format, and two were presented to three distance sites.
The distant sites used a full motion live broadcast setup through a satellite telecommunication system managed by Northern Arizona University and instruction originating from a University of Arizona College of Agriculture teaching studio.
Workshops were also held in the fall from 1997 to 2000 using the University of Arizona Health Sciences Center's  Biomedical Telecommunications network, with a face-to-face classroom site in Tucson linked to a distance classroom site in Phoenix.
The AHSC network setup also uses an interactive, full motion, live broadcast system.
The most recent workshop held used the AHSC network and included the face-to-face site linked to two distance sites.
The agenda for the 1999 workshop is presented in Appendix 1.
Each time these workshops were presented, approximately 75% of the instruction originated from the face-to-face site, while 25% originated from the remote site.
An Extension nutrition specialist was the primary teacher of the 1996 workshops.
At the 1997-1999 workshops, guest lectures included a university professor and a sports nutritionist with an M.S.
At the 1999 and 2000 workshops, a panel of sports nutritionists and dietitians presented case studies of nutrition education/counseling, which included information about a female high school basketball player, a college football player, a professional hockey player, and a female fitness enthusiast client.
Specific questions were asked to panel members from both the face-to-face and distant site audiences following each case study.
Cooperative Extension faculty and staff at each workshop site facilitated workshop instruction.
One site also had a facilitator from a county health department.
Facilitators were provided with instructional kits containing the materials and supplies required for each workshop.
The kits were assembled by the program coordinator and were shipped to the site facilitators at the distance site locations.
The facilitators led activities at their sites and promoted discussion during the question and answer periods between the workshop instructors and participants.
The core curriculum used to teach the workshops was based on the award-winning Arizona Cooperative Extension training manual and video, Winning Sports Nutrition.
The curriculum is easy to use and contains many teaching tools, including entertaining graphics, conditioning activities, and handouts.
Brochures were developed to market the workshops.
The target audiences for these workshops were coaches, athletic and fitness trainers, dietitians and nutritionists, Extension agents, health care providers, health educators, and teachers.
Mailing lists were obtained from professional organizations to reach these groups, and brochures were sent approximately 8 weeks before the workshop date.
Continuing education credits were provided to workshop participants by the American Association of Family and Consumer Sciences, American Council on Exercise, American Dietetic Association, Aerobics and Fitness Association of America, National Commission for Health Education Credentialing, Inc., National Athletic Trainers Association, National Strength and Conditioning Association, and The University of Arizona Extended University.
Outcome evaluations from workshop participants were collected immediately after the workshops and at a 6-month follow-up period.
At the workshops, participants completed written evaluations regarding the content, format, instructors, length, and usefulness of the workshop.
Questions on these aspects of the workshop were rated on a scale of 1-5.
The follow-up evaluation surveys were mailed to participants 6 months after the workshop using a modified Dillman Method.
These follow-up evaluations were used to assess short-term impacts of the workshop on participants' knowledge change and the educational efforts of participants in their communities.
Items in the evaluations included the number of hours spent providing education programs, the number of people for whom these programs were provided, and any changes in participants' knowledge as a result of the workshop.
Descriptive statistics include a summary of the mean  SD for all evaluation questions.
Independent t-tests were used to assess differences between the average scores for each evaluation item for the distance versus face-to-face format for each year of the study.
The probability level was set at 0.05.
The number of workshop attendees  and ratings they gave for the workshop over the 5-year period are summarized in Table 1.
The ratings are based on a scale of 1  to 5.
The average scores for the overall rating of the workshop were high and similar for each of the workshops.
The overall rating of the workshop was only slightly higher from the face-to-face participants compared to the distance participants.
Table 1 Overall Rating for Workshops.
Average Values for Responses to Evaluation Question #12, "What overall rating would you give the workshop?"* The evaluation scores for all items in the workshop evaluation for each format are summarized in Table 2.
The average scores for each item were high and ranged from 2.8 to 5.0.
There were no significant differences in average scores between the face-to-face and distance formats for any evaluation items.
The comparisons of average scores of evaluation items for the two different workshop formats demonstrated that the overall ratings were only slightly higher for the face-to-face format compared to the distance-education format and that the differences were not significant.
The only difference noted was the value of the exercise breaks between face-to-face and distance locations.
In addition, 95% of the participants indicated that there was adequate interaction with the instructors at the distant sites, and 100% said they would attend another workshop taught using this format.
There were high levels of participation during the question and answer periods for both instructional formats.
Table 2 Nutrition for Fitness and Sport Workshop Average Scores  for Responses to Evaluation Items The follow-up evaluation survey completed by participants indicated that the workshops increased their sports nutrition knowledge.
The information and materials obtained at these workshops were used by participants to provide educational efforts with other people in their community.
More than half of the Winning Edge workshop participants from 1996-2000 returned surveys.
The results from the 6-month post-workshop surveys indicate that the responding participants, in total, provided educational programs to approximately 5500 people.
Table 3 Summary of 6-Month Follow-Up Workshop Surveys Responses Discussion Technological advances that allow the learner to see, hear, and interact in real time with diverse information sources are fueling interest in distance learning and providing an explosion of available information sources.
Our workshops used these advances to offer continuing education programs that took advantage of the best information and educators available.
While lectures were included in our workshop, we also included computer graphics, interactive multimedia, and expert instructors based at different locations for a richer and more personal continuing education program.
A key finding of this study was that our distance education format was as effective as our face-to-face format for teaching sport nutrition continuing education workshops.
The average ratings for the evaluation items showed only slightly higher average scores for the face-to-face format than for the distance education format, but the differences were not significant.
Similar findings have been published describing success in delivering distance continuing dental education.
These dental students reported being very pleased with the amount of interaction with the instructor and the travel time and cost savings from taking the course from a distant site.
Students taking our workshop from the very northern part of Arizona indicated that the savings of time and expense from not having to travel to Tucson contributed significantly to their ability to participate in the workshop.
It is clear that distant site students can have a cost-saving benefit from not having to travel too far, but institutions and instructors don't necessarily see immediate cost-savings.
Although the expense of developing and implementing distance education delivery systems and programs continues to fall, the start-up and ongoing costs of operation remain significant.
It is also clear that one of the greatest challenges--and strengths--of distance education will come from inter-institutional partnerships.
These partnerships will provide the basis for regional professional relationships as well as for electronic networking and resource sharing, while encouraging the exchange of information, expertise, and instructional applications to benefit all participants.
Such partnerships can provide a variety of opportunities: They can serve as gateways into communities to support lifelong learning; They can provide a point of interaction between the educational, business, and government communities; and They can be used as an economic development tool for remote communities.
While contemporary interactive technologies make it possible for teachers and learners to engage in real-time, two-way communication over distances , it is important to remember that the interactivity provided by the technologies does not necessarily guarantee that instructional interaction will ensue.
Interaction is a function of good instruction, regardless of the technologies being used to deliver that instruction.
Careful planning and good instruction will continue to have the greatest influence on the effectiveness of distance learning.
Our workshops were developed using the strategies listed below.
Educational Planning Lesson planning is especially important when teaching and learning at a distance.
Key factors that are important when planning lessons for distance delivery include: Knowing something about the distant students, Having clearly stated instructional objectives, Visualizing content, Providing practice opportunities and feedback on performance, and Having a closing point for the session.
Instructional Variety Wagner  contends that instructional formatting for distance education should be varied approximately every 20 minutes to maintain the attention of the audience.
For example, viewing a videotaped example of the topic being presented, followed by small-group activities, then a large-group discussion.
In addition, activities focusing on content should be designed to encourage interaction between the instructor and students.
Facilitators The role of the facilitator must be functionally conceptualized and clearly articulated.
In order to be effective, facilitators must have a clear understanding of their roles and responsibilities.
Facilitators are invaluable to the success of distance education programs.
They serve as the liaison between the instructor and the participants, as well as between the "home" site and the "host" site.
They help keep faculty aware of student perspectives, manage the distant environment to maximize learning effectiveness, and troubleshoot equipment.
Modifying content delivery to accommodate technology can be a challenge; however, many instructors feel the opportunities offered by distance education outweigh the obstacles.
In fact, instructors often comment that the focused preparation required by distance teaching improves their overall teaching and empathy for their students.
Effective distance education programs always begin with careful planning, a focused understanding of the workshop requirements, and student needs.
Appropriate technology can only be selected once these elements are understood in detail.
Effective distance education programs evolve through hard work, dedication, and integrated efforts of students, faculty, facilitators, support staff, and administrators.
Although technology plays a key role in the delivery of distance education, educators must remain focused on instructional outcomes rather than the delivery technology.
We subscribed to this systematic approach in developing our sports nutrition workshop and have been rewarded by capacity enrollment each year while reaching students throughout Arizona.
Summary Interactive distance education technology makes it possible to reach participants in multiple locations with one workshop while minimizing travel for instructors and participants.
The results of this study indicate that a distance-education format based on a successful model is as effective as a face-to-face format for providing fitness/sport nutrition workshops for continuing education using a collaborative team effort and interactive telecommunication networks.
Responses to the 6-month follow-up evaluations demonstrated that the curriculum provided at the workshop for the participants to deliver educational programs in their communities were effective as well.
This study demonstrates that well-designed educational programs combined with technology can expand and improve the impact of continuing education offered by Cooperative Extension for health professionals.
The impact of remote-site group size on student satisfaction and relative performance in interactive telecourses.
American Journal of Distance, 9 , 23-33.
Is distance learning the boom industry for the next decade?
Board of Trade News, July/August.
Mail and telephone surveys: The total design method.
Distance education: An overview.
In Distance Education at a Glance, Guide #1.
College of Engineering, University of Idaho.
Strategies for teaching at a distance.
In Distance education at a glance, Guide #2.
College of Engineering, University of Idaho.
Continuing dental education via an interactive video network: Course development, implementation and evaluation.
Journal of Educational Media.
Interactive television and instruction: A guide to technology, technique, facilities design, and classroom management.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.
Sports and Exercise Nutrition.
Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
McGill  A Faculty Guide to Distance Education.
Boulder, CO: Western Interstate Commission for Higher Education.
Building Learning Communities in Cyberspace, Effective Strategies for the Online Classroom.
In Search of a Functional Definition of Interaction.
A paper presented at the Massachusetts Corporation for educational Technology Publications.
Variables affecting distance educational program success.
Appendix 1: Agenda for 1999 Winning Edge Workshop The Winning Edge: Nutrition for Fitness and Sport Friday, October 29, 1999 Arizona Health Sciences Center Tucson, Phoenix, and Flagstaff Instructors: Linda Houtkooper Ph.D., R.D.
and Melinda Manore, Ph.D., R.D.
Sponsors: University of Arizona College of Agriculture  Cooperative Extension  Department of Nutritional Sciences, College of Medicine  Arizona Prevention Center, Maricopa County Department of Public Health Services Program Agenda 8:00 a.m.
Registration / Sports Product Tasting / Networking 8:30 a.m.
Welcome Introductions Overview 9:00 a.m.
Nutrition Fundamentals 9:30 a.m.
Exercise Break 9:45 a.m.
Training Tip #1 Eating for a Winning Edge 11:15 a.m.
Weight Gain / Loss Strategies 11:30 a.m.
Lunch Break 12:45 p.m.
Training Tip #2 Fluid Replacement for High Performance 1:35 p.m.
Exercise Break 1:45 p.m.
Training Tip #3 Effective Nutrition Supplements 2:15 p.m.
Applying Sports Nutrition Part 1 Case studies with common problems/solutions College Athlete Semi-Pro and Professional Athlete Questions & Answers 3:00 p.m.
Break  Sports Product Tasting 3:15 p.m.
Applying Sports Nutrition Part 2 Case studies with common problems/solutions High School Athlete Fitness enthusiast / Weekend warrior Questions & Answers 4:00 p.m.
The evaluation scores for all items in the workshop evaluation for each format are summarized in Table 2.
The average scores for each item were high and ranged from 2.8 to 5.0.
There were no significant differences in average scores between the face-to-face and distance formats for any evaluation items.
The comparisons of average scores of evaluation items for the two different workshop formats demonstrated that the overall ratings were only slightly higher for the face-to-face format compared to the distance-education format and that the differences were not significant.
The only difference noted was the value of the exercise breaks between face-to-face and distance locations.
In addition, 95% of the participants indicated that there was adequate interaction with the instructors at the distant sites, and 100% said they would attend another workshop taught using this format.
There were high levels of participation during the question and answer periods for both instructional formats.
Table 2 Nutrition for Fitness and Sport Workshop Average Scores  for Responses to Evaluation Items The follow-up evaluation survey completed by participants indicated that the workshops increased their sports nutrition knowledge.
The information and materials obtained at these workshops were used by participants to provide educational efforts with other people in their community.
More than half of the Winning Edge workshop participants from 1996-2000 returned surveys.
The results from the 6-month post-workshop surveys indicate that the responding participants, in total, provided educational programs to approximately 5500 people.
Table 3 Summary of 6-Month Follow-Up Workshop Surveys Responses Discussion Technological advances that allow the learner to see, hear, and interact in real time with diverse information sources are fueling interest in distance learning and providing an explosion of available information sources.
Our workshops used these advances to offer continuing education programs that took advantage of the best information and educators available.
While lectures were included in our workshop, we also included computer graphics, interactive multimedia, and expert instructors based at different locations for a richer and more personal continuing education program.
A key finding of this study was that our distance education format was as effective as our face-to-face format for teaching sport nutrition continuing education workshops.
The average ratings for the evaluation items showed only slightly higher average scores for the face-to-face format than for the distance education format, but the differences were not significant.
Similar findings have been published describing success in delivering distance continuing dental education.
These dental students reported being very pleased with the amount of interaction with the instructor and the travel time and cost savings from taking the course from a distant site.
Students taking our workshop from the very northern part of Arizona indicated that the savings of time and expense from not having to travel to Tucson contributed significantly to their ability to participate in the workshop.
It is clear that distant site students can have a cost-saving benefit from not having to travel too far, but institutions and instructors don't necessarily see immediate cost-savings.
Although the expense of developing and implementing distance education delivery systems and programs continues to fall, the start-up and ongoing costs of operation remain significant.
It is also clear that one of the greatest challenges--and strengths--of distance education will come from inter-institutional partnerships.
These partnerships will provide the basis for regional professional relationships as well as for electronic networking and resource sharing, while encouraging the exchange of information, expertise, and instructional applications to benefit all participants.
Such partnerships can provide a variety of opportunities: They can serve as gateways into communities to support lifelong learning; They can provide a point of interaction between the educational, business, and government communities; and They can be used as an economic development tool for remote communities.
While contemporary interactive technologies make it possible for teachers and learners to engage in real-time, two-way communication over distances , it is important to remember that the interactivity provided by the technologies does not necessarily guarantee that instructional interaction will ensue.
Interaction is a function of good instruction, regardless of the technologies being used to deliver that instruction.
Careful planning and good instruction will continue to have the greatest influence on the effectiveness of distance learning.
Our workshops were developed using the strategies listed below.
Educational Planning Lesson planning is especially important when teaching and learning at a distance.
Key factors that are important when planning lessons for distance delivery include: Knowing something about the distant students, Having clearly stated instructional objectives, Visualizing content, Providing practice opportunities and feedback on performance, and Having a closing point for the session.
Instructional Variety Wagner  contends that instructional formatting for distance education should be varied approximately every 20 minutes to maintain the attention of the audience.
For example, viewing a videotaped example of the topic being presented, followed by small-group activities, then a large-group discussion.
In addition, activities focusing on content should be designed to encourage interaction between the instructor and students.
Facilitators The role of the facilitator must be functionally conceptualized and clearly articulated.
In order to be effective, facilitators must have a clear understanding of their roles and responsibilities.
Facilitators are invaluable to the success of distance education programs.
They serve as the liaison between the instructor and the participants, as well as between the "home" site and the "host" site.
They help keep faculty aware of student perspectives, manage the distant environment to maximize learning effectiveness, and troubleshoot equipment.
Modifying content delivery to accommodate technology can be a challenge; however, many instructors feel the opportunities offered by distance education outweigh the obstacles.
In fact, instructors often comment that the focused preparation required by distance teaching improves their overall teaching and empathy for their students.
Effective distance education programs always begin with careful planning, a focused understanding of the workshop requirements, and student needs.
Appropriate technology can only be selected once these elements are understood in detail.
Effective distance education programs evolve through hard work, dedication, and integrated efforts of students, faculty, facilitators, support staff, and administrators.
Although technology plays a key role in the delivery of distance education, educators must remain focused on instructional outcomes rather than the delivery technology.
We subscribed to this systematic approach in developing our sports nutrition workshop and have been rewarded by capacity enrollment each year while reaching students throughout Arizona.
Summary Interactive distance education technology makes it possible to reach participants in multiple locations with one workshop while minimizing travel for instructors and participants.
The results of this study indicate that a distance-education format based on a successful model is as effective as a face-to-face format for providing fitness/sport nutrition workshops for continuing education using a collaborative team effort and interactive telecommunication networks.
Responses to the 6-month follow-up evaluations demonstrated that the curriculum provided at the workshop for the participants to deliver educational programs in their communities were effective as well.
This study demonstrates that well-designed educational programs combined with technology can expand and improve the impact of continuing education offered by Cooperative Extension for health professionals.
The impact of remote-site group size on student satisfaction and relative performance in interactive telecourses.
American Journal of Distance, 9 , 23-33.
Is distance learning the boom industry for the next decade?
Board of Trade News, July/August.
Mail and telephone surveys: The total design method.
Distance education: An overview.
In Distance Education at a Glance, Guide #1.
College of Engineering, University of Idaho.
Strategies for teaching at a distance.
In Distance education at a glance, Guide #2.
College of Engineering, University of Idaho.
Continuing dental education via an interactive video network: Course development, implementation and evaluation.
Journal of Educational Media.
Interactive television and instruction: A guide to technology, technique, facilities design, and classroom management.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.
Sports and Exercise Nutrition.
Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
McGill  A Faculty Guide to Distance Education.
Boulder, CO: Western Interstate Commission for Higher Education.
Building Learning Communities in Cyberspace, Effective Strategies for the Online Classroom.
In Search of a Functional Definition of Interaction.
A paper presented at the Massachusetts Corporation for educational Technology Publications.
Variables affecting distance educational program success.
Appendix 1: Agenda for 1999 Winning Edge Workshop The Winning Edge: Nutrition for Fitness and Sport Friday, October 29, 1999 Arizona Health Sciences Center Tucson, Phoenix, and Flagstaff Instructors: Linda Houtkooper Ph.D., R.D.
and Melinda Manore, Ph.D., R.D.
Sponsors: University of Arizona College of Agriculture  Cooperative Extension  Department of Nutritional Sciences, College of Medicine  Arizona Prevention Center, Maricopa County Department of Public Health Services Program Agenda 8:00 a.m.
Registration / Sports Product Tasting / Networking 8:30 a.m.
Welcome Introductions Overview 9:00 a.m.
Nutrition Fundamentals 9:30 a.m.
Exercise Break 9:45 a.m.
Training Tip #1 Eating for a Winning Edge 11:15 a.m.
Weight Gain / Loss Strategies 11:30 a.m.
Lunch Break 12:45 p.m.
Training Tip #2 Fluid Replacement for High Performance 1:35 p.m.
Exercise Break 1:45 p.m.
Training Tip #3 Effective Nutrition Supplements 2:15 p.m.
Applying Sports Nutrition Part 1 Case studies with common problems/solutions College Athlete Semi-Pro and Professional Athlete Questions & Answers 3:00 p.m.
Break  Sports Product Tasting 3:15 p.m.
Applying Sports Nutrition Part 2 Case studies with common problems/solutions High School Athlete Fitness enthusiast / Weekend warrior Questions & Answers 4:00 p.m.
The evaluation scores for all items in the workshop evaluation for each format are summarized in Table 2.
The average scores for each item were high and ranged from 2.8 to 5.0.
There were no significant differences in average scores between the face-to-face and distance formats for any evaluation items.
The comparisons of average scores of evaluation items for the two different workshop formats demonstrated that the overall ratings were only slightly higher for the face-to-face format compared to the distance-education format and that the differences were not significant.
The only difference noted was the value of the exercise breaks between face-to-face and distance locations.
In addition, 95% of the participants indicated that there was adequate interaction with the instructors at the distant sites, and 100% said they would attend another workshop taught using this format.
There were high levels of participation during the question and answer periods for both instructional formats.
Table 2 Nutrition for Fitness and Sport Workshop Average Scores  for Responses to Evaluation Items The follow-up evaluation survey completed by participants indicated that the workshops increased their sports nutrition knowledge.
The information and materials obtained at these workshops were used by participants to provide educational efforts with other people in their community.
More than half of the Winning Edge workshop participants from 1996-2000 returned surveys.
The results from the 6-month post-workshop surveys indicate that the responding participants, in total, provided educational programs to approximately 5500 people.
Table 3 Summary of 6-Month Follow-Up Workshop Surveys Responses Discussion Technological advances that allow the learner to see, hear, and interact in real time with diverse information sources are fueling interest in distance learning and providing an explosion of available information sources.
Our workshops used these advances to offer continuing education programs that took advantage of the best information and educators available.
While lectures were included in our workshop, we also included computer graphics, interactive multimedia, and expert instructors based at different locations for a richer and more personal continuing education program.
A key finding of this study was that our distance education format was as effective as our face-to-face format for teaching sport nutrition continuing education workshops.
The average ratings for the evaluation items showed only slightly higher average scores for the face-to-face format than for the distance education format, but the differences were not significant.
Similar findings have been published describing success in delivering distance continuing dental education.
These dental students reported being very pleased with the amount of interaction with the instructor and the travel time and cost savings from taking the course from a distant site.
Students taking our workshop from the very northern part of Arizona indicated that the savings of time and expense from not having to travel to Tucson contributed significantly to their ability to participate in the workshop.
It is clear that distant site students can have a cost-saving benefit from not having to travel too far, but institutions and instructors don't necessarily see immediate cost-savings.
Although the expense of developing and implementing distance education delivery systems and programs continues to fall, the start-up and ongoing costs of operation remain significant.
It is also clear that one of the greatest challenges--and strengths--of distance education will come from inter-institutional partnerships.
These partnerships will provide the basis for regional professional relationships as well as for electronic networking and resource sharing, while encouraging the exchange of information, expertise, and instructional applications to benefit all participants.
Such partnerships can provide a variety of opportunities: They can serve as gateways into communities to support lifelong learning; They can provide a point of interaction between the educational, business, and government communities; and They can be used as an economic development tool for remote communities.
While contemporary interactive technologies make it possible for teachers and learners to engage in real-time, two-way communication over distances , it is important to remember that the interactivity provided by the technologies does not necessarily guarantee that instructional interaction will ensue.
Interaction is a function of good instruction, regardless of the technologies being used to deliver that instruction.
Careful planning and good instruction will continue to have the greatest influence on the effectiveness of distance learning.
Our workshops were developed using the strategies listed below.
Educational Planning Lesson planning is especially important when teaching and learning at a distance.
Key factors that are important when planning lessons for distance delivery include: Knowing something about the distant students, Having clearly stated instructional objectives, Visualizing content, Providing practice opportunities and feedback on performance, and Having a closing point for the session.
Instructional Variety Wagner  contends that instructional formatting for distance education should be varied approximately every 20 minutes to maintain the attention of the audience.
For example, viewing a videotaped example of the topic being presented, followed by small-group activities, then a large-group discussion.
In addition, activities focusing on content should be designed to encourage interaction between the instructor and students.
Facilitators The role of the facilitator must be functionally conceptualized and clearly articulated.
In order to be effective, facilitators must have a clear understanding of their roles and responsibilities.
Facilitators are invaluable to the success of distance education programs.
They serve as the liaison between the instructor and the participants, as well as between the "home" site and the "host" site.
They help keep faculty aware of student perspectives, manage the distant environment to maximize learning effectiveness, and troubleshoot equipment.
Modifying content delivery to accommodate technology can be a challenge; however, many instructors feel the opportunities offered by distance education outweigh the obstacles.
In fact, instructors often comment that the focused preparation required by distance teaching improves their overall teaching and empathy for their students.
Effective distance education programs always begin with careful planning, a focused understanding of the workshop requirements, and student needs.
Appropriate technology can only be selected once these elements are understood in detail.
Effective distance education programs evolve through hard work, dedication, and integrated efforts of students, faculty, facilitators, support staff, and administrators.
Although technology plays a key role in the delivery of distance education, educators must remain focused on instructional outcomes rather than the delivery technology.
We subscribed to this systematic approach in developing our sports nutrition workshop and have been rewarded by capacity enrollment each year while reaching students throughout Arizona.
Summary Interactive distance education technology makes it possible to reach participants in multiple locations with one workshop while minimizing travel for instructors and participants.
The results of this study indicate that a distance-education format based on a successful model is as effective as a face-to-face format for providing fitness/sport nutrition workshops for continuing education using a collaborative team effort and interactive telecommunication networks.
Responses to the 6-month follow-up evaluations demonstrated that the curriculum provided at the workshop for the participants to deliver educational programs in their communities were effective as well.
This study demonstrates that well-designed educational programs combined with technology can expand and improve the impact of continuing education offered by Cooperative Extension for health professionals.
The impact of remote-site group size on student satisfaction and relative performance in interactive telecourses.
American Journal of Distance, 9 , 23-33.
Is distance learning the boom industry for the next decade?
Board of Trade News, July/August.
Mail and telephone surveys: The total design method.
Distance education: An overview.
In Distance Education at a Glance, Guide #1.
College of Engineering, University of Idaho.
Strategies for teaching at a distance.
In Distance education at a glance, Guide #2.
College of Engineering, University of Idaho.
Continuing dental education via an interactive video network: Course development, implementation and evaluation.
Journal of Educational Media.
Interactive television and instruction: A guide to technology, technique, facilities design, and classroom management.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.
Sports and Exercise Nutrition.
Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
McGill  A Faculty Guide to Distance Education.
Boulder, CO: Western Interstate Commission for Higher Education.
Building Learning Communities in Cyberspace, Effective Strategies for the Online Classroom.
In Search of a Functional Definition of Interaction.
A paper presented at the Massachusetts Corporation for educational Technology Publications.
Variables affecting distance educational program success.
Appendix 1: Agenda for 1999 Winning Edge Workshop The Winning Edge: Nutrition for Fitness and Sport Friday, October 29, 1999 Arizona Health Sciences Center Tucson, Phoenix, and Flagstaff Instructors: Linda Houtkooper Ph.D., R.D.
and Melinda Manore, Ph.D., R.D.
Sponsors: University of Arizona College of Agriculture  Cooperative Extension  Department of Nutritional Sciences, College of Medicine  Arizona Prevention Center, Maricopa County Department of Public Health Services Program Agenda 8:00 a.m.
Registration / Sports Product Tasting / Networking 8:30 a.m.
Welcome Introductions Overview 9:00 a.m.
Nutrition Fundamentals 9:30 a.m.
Exercise Break 9:45 a.m.
Training Tip #1 Eating for a Winning Edge 11:15 a.m.
Weight Gain / Loss Strategies 11:30 a.m.
Lunch Break 12:45 p.m.
Training Tip #2 Fluid Replacement for High Performance 1:35 p.m.
Exercise Break 1:45 p.m.
Training Tip #3 Effective Nutrition Supplements 2:15 p.m.
Applying Sports Nutrition Part 1 Case studies with common problems/solutions College Athlete Semi-Pro and Professional Athlete Questions & Answers 3:00 p.m.
Break  Sports Product Tasting 3:15 p.m.
Applying Sports Nutrition Part 2 Case studies with common problems/solutions High School Athlete Fitness enthusiast / Weekend warrior Questions & Answers 4:00 p.m.
The follow-up evaluation survey completed by participants indicated that the workshops increased their sports nutrition knowledge.
The information and materials obtained at these workshops were used by participants to provide educational efforts with other people in their community.
More than half of the Winning Edge workshop participants from 1996-2000 returned surveys.
The results from the 6-month post-workshop surveys indicate that the responding participants, in total, provided educational programs to approximately 5500 people.
Table 3 Summary of 6-Month Follow-Up Workshop Surveys Responses Discussion Technological advances that allow the learner to see, hear, and interact in real time with diverse information sources are fueling interest in distance learning and providing an explosion of available information sources.
Our workshops used these advances to offer continuing education programs that took advantage of the best information and educators available.
While lectures were included in our workshop, we also included computer graphics, interactive multimedia, and expert instructors based at different locations for a richer and more personal continuing education program.
A key finding of this study was that our distance education format was as effective as our face-to-face format for teaching sport nutrition continuing education workshops.
The average ratings for the evaluation items showed only slightly higher average scores for the face-to-face format than for the distance education format, but the differences were not significant.
Similar findings have been published describing success in delivering distance continuing dental education.
These dental students reported being very pleased with the amount of interaction with the instructor and the travel time and cost savings from taking the course from a distant site.
Students taking our workshop from the very northern part of Arizona indicated that the savings of time and expense from not having to travel to Tucson contributed significantly to their ability to participate in the workshop.
It is clear that distant site students can have a cost-saving benefit from not having to travel too far, but institutions and instructors don't necessarily see immediate cost-savings.
Although the expense of developing and implementing distance education delivery systems and programs continues to fall, the start-up and ongoing costs of operation remain significant.
It is also clear that one of the greatest challenges--and strengths--of distance education will come from inter-institutional partnerships.
These partnerships will provide the basis for regional professional relationships as well as for electronic networking and resource sharing, while encouraging the exchange of information, expertise, and instructional applications to benefit all participants.
Such partnerships can provide a variety of opportunities: They can serve as gateways into communities to support lifelong learning; They can provide a point of interaction between the educational, business, and government communities; and They can be used as an economic development tool for remote communities.
While contemporary interactive technologies make it possible for teachers and learners to engage in real-time, two-way communication over distances , it is important to remember that the interactivity provided by the technologies does not necessarily guarantee that instructional interaction will ensue.
Interaction is a function of good instruction, regardless of the technologies being used to deliver that instruction.
Careful planning and good instruction will continue to have the greatest influence on the effectiveness of distance learning.
Our workshops were developed using the strategies listed below.
Educational Planning Lesson planning is especially important when teaching and learning at a distance.
Key factors that are important when planning lessons for distance delivery include: Knowing something about the distant students, Having clearly stated instructional objectives, Visualizing content, Providing practice opportunities and feedback on performance, and Having a closing point for the session.
Instructional Variety Wagner  contends that instructional formatting for distance education should be varied approximately every 20 minutes to maintain the attention of the audience.
For example, viewing a videotaped example of the topic being presented, followed by small-group activities, then a large-group discussion.
In addition, activities focusing on content should be designed to encourage interaction between the instructor and students.
Facilitators The role of the facilitator must be functionally conceptualized and clearly articulated.
In order to be effective, facilitators must have a clear understanding of their roles and responsibilities.
Facilitators are invaluable to the success of distance education programs.
They serve as the liaison between the instructor and the participants, as well as between the "home" site and the "host" site.
They help keep faculty aware of student perspectives, manage the distant environment to maximize learning effectiveness, and troubleshoot equipment.
Modifying content delivery to accommodate technology can be a challenge; however, many instructors feel the opportunities offered by distance education outweigh the obstacles.
In fact, instructors often comment that the focused preparation required by distance teaching improves their overall teaching and empathy for their students.
Effective distance education programs always begin with careful planning, a focused understanding of the workshop requirements, and student needs.
Appropriate technology can only be selected once these elements are understood in detail.
Effective distance education programs evolve through hard work, dedication, and integrated efforts of students, faculty, facilitators, support staff, and administrators.
Although technology plays a key role in the delivery of distance education, educators must remain focused on instructional outcomes rather than the delivery technology.
We subscribed to this systematic approach in developing our sports nutrition workshop and have been rewarded by capacity enrollment each year while reaching students throughout Arizona.
Summary Interactive distance education technology makes it possible to reach participants in multiple locations with one workshop while minimizing travel for instructors and participants.
The results of this study indicate that a distance-education format based on a successful model is as effective as a face-to-face format for providing fitness/sport nutrition workshops for continuing education using a collaborative team effort and interactive telecommunication networks.
Responses to the 6-month follow-up evaluations demonstrated that the curriculum provided at the workshop for the participants to deliver educational programs in their communities were effective as well.
This study demonstrates that well-designed educational programs combined with technology can expand and improve the impact of continuing education offered by Cooperative Extension for health professionals.
The impact of remote-site group size on student satisfaction and relative performance in interactive telecourses.
American Journal of Distance, 9 , 23-33.
Is distance learning the boom industry for the next decade?
Board of Trade News, July/August.
Mail and telephone surveys: The total design method.
Distance education: An overview.
In Distance Education at a Glance, Guide #1.
College of Engineering, University of Idaho.
Strategies for teaching at a distance.
In Distance education at a glance, Guide #2.
College of Engineering, University of Idaho.
Continuing dental education via an interactive video network: Course development, implementation and evaluation.
Journal of Educational Media.
Interactive television and instruction: A guide to technology, technique, facilities design, and classroom management.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.
Sports and Exercise Nutrition.
Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
McGill  A Faculty Guide to Distance Education.
Boulder, CO: Western Interstate Commission for Higher Education.
Building Learning Communities in Cyberspace, Effective Strategies for the Online Classroom.
In Search of a Functional Definition of Interaction.
A paper presented at the Massachusetts Corporation for educational Technology Publications.
Variables affecting distance educational program success.
Appendix 1: Agenda for 1999 Winning Edge Workshop The Winning Edge: Nutrition for Fitness and Sport Friday, October 29, 1999 Arizona Health Sciences Center Tucson, Phoenix, and Flagstaff Instructors: Linda Houtkooper Ph.D., R.D.
and Melinda Manore, Ph.D., R.D.
Sponsors: University of Arizona College of Agriculture  Cooperative Extension  Department of Nutritional Sciences, College of Medicine  Arizona Prevention Center, Maricopa County Department of Public Health Services Program Agenda 8:00 a.m.
Registration / Sports Product Tasting / Networking 8:30 a.m.
Welcome Introductions Overview 9:00 a.m.
Nutrition Fundamentals 9:30 a.m.
Exercise Break 9:45 a.m.
Training Tip #1 Eating for a Winning Edge 11:15 a.m.
Weight Gain / Loss Strategies 11:30 a.m.
Lunch Break 12:45 p.m.
Training Tip #2 Fluid Replacement for High Performance 1:35 p.m.
Exercise Break 1:45 p.m.
Training Tip #3 Effective Nutrition Supplements 2:15 p.m.
Applying Sports Nutrition Part 1 Case studies with common problems/solutions College Athlete Semi-Pro and Professional Athlete Questions & Answers 3:00 p.m.
Break  Sports Product Tasting 3:15 p.m.
Applying Sports Nutrition Part 2 Case studies with common problems/solutions High School Athlete Fitness enthusiast / Weekend warrior Questions & Answers 4:00 p.m.
The follow-up evaluation survey completed by participants indicated that the workshops increased their sports nutrition knowledge.
The information and materials obtained at these workshops were used by participants to provide educational efforts with other people in their community.
More than half of the Winning Edge workshop participants from 1996-2000 returned surveys.
The results from the 6-month post-workshop surveys indicate that the responding participants, in total, provided educational programs to approximately 5500 people.
Table 3 Summary of 6-Month Follow-Up Workshop Surveys Responses Discussion Technological advances that allow the learner to see, hear, and interact in real time with diverse information sources are fueling interest in distance learning and providing an explosion of available information sources.
Our workshops used these advances to offer continuing education programs that took advantage of the best information and educators available.
While lectures were included in our workshop, we also included computer graphics, interactive multimedia, and expert instructors based at different locations for a richer and more personal continuing education program.
A key finding of this study was that our distance education format was as effective as our face-to-face format for teaching sport nutrition continuing education workshops.
The average ratings for the evaluation items showed only slightly higher average scores for the face-to-face format than for the distance education format, but the differences were not significant.
Similar findings have been published describing success in delivering distance continuing dental education.
These dental students reported being very pleased with the amount of interaction with the instructor and the travel time and cost savings from taking the course from a distant site.
Students taking our workshop from the very northern part of Arizona indicated that the savings of time and expense from not having to travel to Tucson contributed significantly to their ability to participate in the workshop.
It is clear that distant site students can have a cost-saving benefit from not having to travel too far, but institutions and instructors don't necessarily see immediate cost-savings.
Although the expense of developing and implementing distance education delivery systems and programs continues to fall, the start-up and ongoing costs of operation remain significant.
It is also clear that one of the greatest challenges--and strengths--of distance education will come from inter-institutional partnerships.
These partnerships will provide the basis for regional professional relationships as well as for electronic networking and resource sharing, while encouraging the exchange of information, expertise, and instructional applications to benefit all participants.
Such partnerships can provide a variety of opportunities: They can serve as gateways into communities to support lifelong learning; They can provide a point of interaction between the educational, business, and government communities; and They can be used as an economic development tool for remote communities.
While contemporary interactive technologies make it possible for teachers and learners to engage in real-time, two-way communication over distances , it is important to remember that the interactivity provided by the technologies does not necessarily guarantee that instructional interaction will ensue.
Interaction is a function of good instruction, regardless of the technologies being used to deliver that instruction.
Careful planning and good instruction will continue to have the greatest influence on the effectiveness of distance learning.
Our workshops were developed using the strategies listed below.
Educational Planning Lesson planning is especially important when teaching and learning at a distance.
Key factors that are important when planning lessons for distance delivery include: Knowing something about the distant students, Having clearly stated instructional objectives, Visualizing content, Providing practice opportunities and feedback on performance, and Having a closing point for the session.
Instructional Variety Wagner  contends that instructional formatting for distance education should be varied approximately every 20 minutes to maintain the attention of the audience.
For example, viewing a videotaped example of the topic being presented, followed by small-group activities, then a large-group discussion.
In addition, activities focusing on content should be designed to encourage interaction between the instructor and students.
Facilitators The role of the facilitator must be functionally conceptualized and clearly articulated.
In order to be effective, facilitators must have a clear understanding of their roles and responsibilities.
Facilitators are invaluable to the success of distance education programs.
They serve as the liaison between the instructor and the participants, as well as between the "home" site and the "host" site.
They help keep faculty aware of student perspectives, manage the distant environment to maximize learning effectiveness, and troubleshoot equipment.
Modifying content delivery to accommodate technology can be a challenge; however, many instructors feel the opportunities offered by distance education outweigh the obstacles.
In fact, instructors often comment that the focused preparation required by distance teaching improves their overall teaching and empathy for their students.
Effective distance education programs always begin with careful planning, a focused understanding of the workshop requirements, and student needs.
Appropriate technology can only be selected once these elements are understood in detail.
Effective distance education programs evolve through hard work, dedication, and integrated efforts of students, faculty, facilitators, support staff, and administrators.
Although technology plays a key role in the delivery of distance education, educators must remain focused on instructional outcomes rather than the delivery technology.
We subscribed to this systematic approach in developing our sports nutrition workshop and have been rewarded by capacity enrollment each year while reaching students throughout Arizona.
Summary Interactive distance education technology makes it possible to reach participants in multiple locations with one workshop while minimizing travel for instructors and participants.
The results of this study indicate that a distance-education format based on a successful model is as effective as a face-to-face format for providing fitness/sport nutrition workshops for continuing education using a collaborative team effort and interactive telecommunication networks.
Responses to the 6-month follow-up evaluations demonstrated that the curriculum provided at the workshop for the participants to deliver educational programs in their communities were effective as well.
This study demonstrates that well-designed educational programs combined with technology can expand and improve the impact of continuing education offered by Cooperative Extension for health professionals.
The impact of remote-site group size on student satisfaction and relative performance in interactive telecourses.
American Journal of Distance, 9 , 23-33.
Is distance learning the boom industry for the next decade?
Board of Trade News, July/August.
Mail and telephone surveys: The total design method.
Distance education: An overview.
In Distance Education at a Glance, Guide #1.
College of Engineering, University of Idaho.
Strategies for teaching at a distance.
In Distance education at a glance, Guide #2.
College of Engineering, University of Idaho.
Continuing dental education via an interactive video network: Course development, implementation and evaluation.
Journal of Educational Media.
Interactive television and instruction: A guide to technology, technique, facilities design, and classroom management.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.
Sports and Exercise Nutrition.
Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
McGill  A Faculty Guide to Distance Education.
Boulder, CO: Western Interstate Commission for Higher Education.
Building Learning Communities in Cyberspace, Effective Strategies for the Online Classroom.
In Search of a Functional Definition of Interaction.
A paper presented at the Massachusetts Corporation for educational Technology Publications.
Variables affecting distance educational program success.
Appendix 1: Agenda for 1999 Winning Edge Workshop The Winning Edge: Nutrition for Fitness and Sport Friday, October 29, 1999 Arizona Health Sciences Center Tucson, Phoenix, and Flagstaff Instructors: Linda Houtkooper Ph.D., R.D.
and Melinda Manore, Ph.D., R.D.
Sponsors: University of Arizona College of Agriculture  Cooperative Extension  Department of Nutritional Sciences, College of Medicine  Arizona Prevention Center, Maricopa County Department of Public Health Services Program Agenda 8:00 a.m.
Registration / Sports Product Tasting / Networking 8:30 a.m.
Welcome Introductions Overview 9:00 a.m.
Nutrition Fundamentals 9:30 a.m.
Exercise Break 9:45 a.m.
Training Tip #1 Eating for a Winning Edge 11:15 a.m.
Weight Gain / Loss Strategies 11:30 a.m.
Lunch Break 12:45 p.m.
Training Tip #2 Fluid Replacement for High Performance 1:35 p.m.
Exercise Break 1:45 p.m.
Training Tip #3 Effective Nutrition Supplements 2:15 p.m.
Applying Sports Nutrition Part 1 Case studies with common problems/solutions College Athlete Semi-Pro and Professional Athlete Questions & Answers 3:00 p.m.
Break  Sports Product Tasting 3:15 p.m.
Applying Sports Nutrition Part 2 Case studies with common problems/solutions High School Athlete Fitness enthusiast / Weekend warrior Questions & Answers 4:00 p.m.
Discussion Technological advances that allow the learner to see, hear, and interact in real time with diverse information sources are fueling interest in distance learning and providing an explosion of available information sources.
Our workshops used these advances to offer continuing education programs that took advantage of the best information and educators available.
While lectures were included in our workshop, we also included computer graphics, interactive multimedia, and expert instructors based at different locations for a richer and more personal continuing education program.
A key finding of this study was that our distance education format was as effective as our face-to-face format for teaching sport nutrition continuing education workshops.
The average ratings for the evaluation items showed only slightly higher average scores for the face-to-face format than for the distance education format, but the differences were not significant.
Similar findings have been published describing success in delivering distance continuing dental education.
These dental students reported being very pleased with the amount of interaction with the instructor and the travel time and cost savings from taking the course from a distant site.
Students taking our workshop from the very northern part of Arizona indicated that the savings of time and expense from not having to travel to Tucson contributed significantly to their ability to participate in the workshop.
It is clear that distant site students can have a cost-saving benefit from not having to travel too far, but institutions and instructors don't necessarily see immediate cost-savings.
Although the expense of developing and implementing distance education delivery systems and programs continues to fall, the start-up and ongoing costs of operation remain significant.
It is also clear that one of the greatest challenges--and strengths--of distance education will come from inter-institutional partnerships.
These partnerships will provide the basis for regional professional relationships as well as for electronic networking and resource sharing, while encouraging the exchange of information, expertise, and instructional applications to benefit all participants.
Such partnerships can provide a variety of opportunities: They can serve as gateways into communities to support lifelong learning; They can provide a point of interaction between the educational, business, and government communities; and They can be used as an economic development tool for remote communities.
While contemporary interactive technologies make it possible for teachers and learners to engage in real-time, two-way communication over distances , it is important to remember that the interactivity provided by the technologies does not necessarily guarantee that instructional interaction will ensue.
Interaction is a function of good instruction, regardless of the technologies being used to deliver that instruction.
Careful planning and good instruction will continue to have the greatest influence on the effectiveness of distance learning.
Our workshops were developed using the strategies listed below.
Educational Planning Lesson planning is especially important when teaching and learning at a distance.
Key factors that are important when planning lessons for distance delivery include: Knowing something about the distant students, Having clearly stated instructional objectives, Visualizing content, Providing practice opportunities and feedback on performance, and Having a closing point for the session.
Instructional Variety Wagner  contends that instructional formatting for distance education should be varied approximately every 20 minutes to maintain the attention of the audience.
For example, viewing a videotaped example of the topic being presented, followed by small-group activities, then a large-group discussion.
In addition, activities focusing on content should be designed to encourage interaction between the instructor and students.
Facilitators The role of the facilitator must be functionally conceptualized and clearly articulated.
In order to be effective, facilitators must have a clear understanding of their roles and responsibilities.
Facilitators are invaluable to the success of distance education programs.
They serve as the liaison between the instructor and the participants, as well as between the "home" site and the "host" site.
They help keep faculty aware of student perspectives, manage the distant environment to maximize learning effectiveness, and troubleshoot equipment.
Modifying content delivery to accommodate technology can be a challenge; however, many instructors feel the opportunities offered by distance education outweigh the obstacles.
In fact, instructors often comment that the focused preparation required by distance teaching improves their overall teaching and empathy for their students.
Effective distance education programs always begin with careful planning, a focused understanding of the workshop requirements, and student needs.
Appropriate technology can only be selected once these elements are understood in detail.
Effective distance education programs evolve through hard work, dedication, and integrated efforts of students, faculty, facilitators, support staff, and administrators.
Although technology plays a key role in the delivery of distance education, educators must remain focused on instructional outcomes rather than the delivery technology.
We subscribed to this systematic approach in developing our sports nutrition workshop and have been rewarded by capacity enrollment each year while reaching students throughout Arizona.
Summary Interactive distance education technology makes it possible to reach participants in multiple locations with one workshop while minimizing travel for instructors and participants.
The results of this study indicate that a distance-education format based on a successful model is as effective as a face-to-face format for providing fitness/sport nutrition workshops for continuing education using a collaborative team effort and interactive telecommunication networks.
Responses to the 6-month follow-up evaluations demonstrated that the curriculum provided at the workshop for the participants to deliver educational programs in their communities were effective as well.
This study demonstrates that well-designed educational programs combined with technology can expand and improve the impact of continuing education offered by Cooperative Extension for health professionals.
The impact of remote-site group size on student satisfaction and relative performance in interactive telecourses.
American Journal of Distance, 9 , 23-33.
Is distance learning the boom industry for the next decade?
Board of Trade News, July/August.
Mail and telephone surveys: The total design method.
Distance education: An overview.
In Distance Education at a Glance, Guide #1.
College of Engineering, University of Idaho.
Strategies for teaching at a distance.
In Distance education at a glance, Guide #2.
College of Engineering, University of Idaho.
Continuing dental education via an interactive video network: Course development, implementation and evaluation.
Journal of Educational Media.
Interactive television and instruction: A guide to technology, technique, facilities design, and classroom management.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.
Sports and Exercise Nutrition.
Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
McGill  A Faculty Guide to Distance Education.
Boulder, CO: Western Interstate Commission for Higher Education.
Building Learning Communities in Cyberspace, Effective Strategies for the Online Classroom.
In Search of a Functional Definition of Interaction.
A paper presented at the Massachusetts Corporation for educational Technology Publications.
Variables affecting distance educational program success.
Appendix 1: Agenda for 1999 Winning Edge Workshop The Winning Edge: Nutrition for Fitness and Sport Friday, October 29, 1999 Arizona Health Sciences Center Tucson, Phoenix, and Flagstaff Instructors: Linda Houtkooper Ph.D., R.D.
and Melinda Manore, Ph.D., R.D.
Sponsors: University of Arizona College of Agriculture  Cooperative Extension  Department of Nutritional Sciences, College of Medicine  Arizona Prevention Center, Maricopa County Department of Public Health Services Program Agenda 8:00 a.m.
Registration / Sports Product Tasting / Networking 8:30 a.m.
Welcome Introductions Overview 9:00 a.m.
Nutrition Fundamentals 9:30 a.m.
Exercise Break 9:45 a.m.
Training Tip #1 Eating for a Winning Edge 11:15 a.m.
Weight Gain / Loss Strategies 11:30 a.m.
Lunch Break 12:45 p.m.
Training Tip #2 Fluid Replacement for High Performance 1:35 p.m.
Exercise Break 1:45 p.m.
Training Tip #3 Effective Nutrition Supplements 2:15 p.m.
Applying Sports Nutrition Part 1 Case studies with common problems/solutions College Athlete Semi-Pro and Professional Athlete Questions & Answers 3:00 p.m.
Break  Sports Product Tasting 3:15 p.m.
Applying Sports Nutrition Part 2 Case studies with common problems/solutions High School Athlete Fitness enthusiast / Weekend warrior Questions & Answers 4:00 p.m.
Technological advances that allow the learner to see, hear, and interact in real time with diverse information sources are fueling interest in distance learning and providing an explosion of available information sources.
Our workshops used these advances to offer continuing education programs that took advantage of the best information and educators available.
While lectures were included in our workshop, we also included computer graphics, interactive multimedia, and expert instructors based at different locations for a richer and more personal continuing education program.
A key finding of this study was that our distance education format was as effective as our face-to-face format for teaching sport nutrition continuing education workshops.
The average ratings for the evaluation items showed only slightly higher average scores for the face-to-face format than for the distance education format, but the differences were not significant.
Similar findings have been published describing success in delivering distance continuing dental education.
These dental students reported being very pleased with the amount of interaction with the instructor and the travel time and cost savings from taking the course from a distant site.
Students taking our workshop from the very northern part of Arizona indicated that the savings of time and expense from not having to travel to Tucson contributed significantly to their ability to participate in the workshop.
It is clear that distant site students can have a cost-saving benefit from not having to travel too far, but institutions and instructors don't necessarily see immediate cost-savings.
Although the expense of developing and implementing distance education delivery systems and programs continues to fall, the start-up and ongoing costs of operation remain significant.
It is also clear that one of the greatest challenges--and strengths--of distance education will come from inter-institutional partnerships.
These partnerships will provide the basis for regional professional relationships as well as for electronic networking and resource sharing, while encouraging the exchange of information, expertise, and instructional applications to benefit all participants.
Such partnerships can provide a variety of opportunities:
 While contemporary interactive technologies make it possible for teachers and learners to engage in real-time, two-way communication over distances , it is important to remember that the interactivity provided by the technologies does not necessarily guarantee that instructional interaction will ensue.
Interaction is a function of good instruction, regardless of the technologies being used to deliver that instruction.
Careful planning and good instruction will continue to have the greatest influence on the effectiveness of distance learning.
Our workshops were developed using the strategies listed below.
Lesson planning is especially important when teaching and learning at a distance.
Key factors that are important when planning lessons for distance delivery include:
 Wagner  contends that instructional formatting for distance education should be varied approximately every 20 minutes to maintain the attention of the audience.
For example, viewing a videotaped example of the topic being presented, followed by small-group activities, then a large-group discussion.
In addition, activities focusing on content should be designed to encourage interaction between the instructor and students.
The role of the facilitator must be functionally conceptualized and clearly articulated.
In order to be effective, facilitators must have a clear understanding of their roles and responsibilities.
Facilitators are invaluable to the success of distance education programs.
They serve as the liaison between the instructor and the participants, as well as between the "home" site and the "host" site.
They help keep faculty aware of student perspectives, manage the distant environment to maximize learning effectiveness, and troubleshoot equipment.
Modifying content delivery to accommodate technology can be a challenge; however, many instructors feel the opportunities offered by distance education outweigh the obstacles.
In fact, instructors often comment that the focused preparation required by distance teaching improves their overall teaching and empathy for their students.
Effective distance education programs always begin with careful planning, a focused understanding of the workshop requirements, and student needs.
Appropriate technology can only be selected once these elements are understood in detail.
Effective distance education programs evolve through hard work, dedication, and integrated efforts of students, faculty, facilitators, support staff, and administrators.
Although technology plays a key role in the delivery of distance education, educators must remain focused on instructional outcomes rather than the delivery technology.
We subscribed to this systematic approach in developing our sports nutrition workshop and have been rewarded by capacity enrollment each year while reaching students throughout Arizona.
Interactive distance education technology makes it possible to reach participants in multiple locations with one workshop while minimizing travel for instructors and participants.
The results of this study indicate that a distance-education format based on a successful model is as effective as a face-to-face format for providing fitness/sport nutrition workshops for continuing education using a collaborative team effort and interactive telecommunication networks.
Responses to the 6-month follow-up evaluations demonstrated that the curriculum provided at the workshop for the participants to deliver educational programs in their communities were effective as well.
This study demonstrates that well-designed educational programs combined with technology can expand and improve the impact of continuing education offered by Cooperative Extension for health professionals.
The impact of remote-site group size on student satisfaction and relative performance in interactive telecourses.
American Journal of Distance, 9 , 23-33.
Is distance learning the boom industry for the next decade?
Board of Trade News, July/August.
Mail and telephone surveys: The total design method.
Distance education: An overview.
In Distance Education at a Glance, Guide #1.
College of Engineering, University of Idaho.
Strategies for teaching at a distance.
In Distance education at a glance, Guide #2.
College of Engineering, University of Idaho.
Continuing dental education via an interactive video network: Course development, implementation and evaluation.
Journal of Educational Media.
Interactive television and instruction: A guide to technology, technique, facilities design, and classroom management.
Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Educational Technology Publications.
Sports and Exercise Nutrition.
Philadelphia: Lippincott Williams & Wilkins.
McGill  A Faculty Guide to Distance Education.
Boulder, CO: Western Interstate Commission for Higher Education.
Building Learning Communities in Cyberspace, Effective Strategies for the Online Classroom.
In Search of a Functional Definition of Interaction.
A paper presented at the Massachusetts Corporation for educational Technology Publications.
Variables affecting distance educational program success.
The Winning Edge: Nutrition for Fitness and Sport
 Friday, October 29, 1999 Arizona Health Sciences Center Tucson, Phoenix, and Flagstaff Instructors: Linda Houtkooper Ph.D., R.D.
and Melinda Manore, Ph.D., R.D.
Sponsors: University of Arizona College of Agriculture  Cooperative Extension  Department of Nutritional Sciences, College of Medicine  Arizona Prevention Center, Maricopa County Department of Public Health Services
 Community Nutrition Programs Manager Maricopa County Department of Public Health Office of Nutritional Services Tempe, AZ 85292 shirleystrembel@mail.maricopa.gov
June 2005 // Volume 43 // Number 3 // Ideas at Work // 3IAW1
 Abstract Turfgrass specialists and Extension educators responsible for developing educational materials in the Master Gardener Program sought stakeholder input for an innovative curriculum by using innovative data collection methods.
County agents, program coordinators, and volunteers from 11 Cooperative Extension Service districts responded to a Web-based, Delphi study.
Interactive, online data collection methods provided rapid feedback in the consensus-building process.
Extension personnel can use this methodology to develop similar consensus-building activities for other programming issues.
Stakeholder input can be achieved, with minimum time and expense, while curriculum developers minimize wasted time in programming development that clientele may not find useful.
Cooperative Extension has a rich history of developing outreach programs that have a direct and relevant impact on stakeholders' lives.
In order to develop relevant programming, clientele are asked for input during the development stages for many programs.
Often, requesting and incorporating timely and relevant input to program curricula can be a time-consuming, expensive process.
Decreasing state and federal resources are forcing Extension personnel to seek alternative methods to continue their rich tradition of stakeholder input in the program curricula development processes.
Alternative methods for collecting stakeholder input to Extension program curricula provide Extension personnel with timely, relevant feedback during the curricula development process.
One inexpensive alternative to holding several face-to-face or traditional postal mail surveys is achieved through the Delphi technique, using a Web-based medium.
The Delphi technique was developed by the Rand Corporation in the late 1950's as a forecasting methodology.
Unlike the nominal group process, the Delphi does not require face-to face participation.
It is a "systematic solicitation and collation of judgments on a particular topic through a set of carefully designed sequential questionnaires interspersed with summarized information and feedback of opinions derived from earlier responses" (Debecq, Van de Ven, & Gustafson, 1975, p.
The Delphi technique affords researchers an opportunity to collect large amounts of input over a wide geographic area.
Delphi techniques incorporate expert panel members' opinions, value judgments, and agreement in the consensus-building process.
Decisions about which participants to invite to a Delphi should be considered carefully.
Randomly selecting participants is NOT acceptable.
Instead, characteristics and qualifications of desirable respondents should be identified and a nomination process used to select participants.
Because the group number will be small , the researcher needs to locate and target individuals who are "expert," have knowledge and experience to base their futuring activities upon, and are self-motivated.
Delphi should not be used with groups that have difficulty in reading or expressing themselves in written communication.
Ladner, Wingenbach, and Raven  found Web-based and traditional paper-based survey methodologies were equally valid and reliable for social science research.
A significant difference occurred in the response rates between two equal groups of agricultural educators; however, no differences were found between the groups' opinions on computer usage in an educational setting.
The Web-based group's response rate exceeded the traditional group, 72 to 7, in the first week of data collection.
These results provided strong evidence for using Web-based data collection methods in social science research when time and/or financial constraints pose barriers to relevant, timely, effective program development processes.
Before developing new programs, it is important to be mindful of gathering and using Extension stakeholder input in developing the program materials.
One of the first steps in designing adult education curricula is to conduct a needs assessment.
Knowles, Holton, and Swanson  provided two assumptions about adult learning that are critical in the needs assessment phase.
These assumptions are the need to know and the learner's self-concept.
Essentially, adults need to know why they need to learn something new.
Also, adults will resist and resent  situations in which they feel others are imposing their will on them.
Such assumptions about adult learning provide important reasons for using stakeholder input during curriculum development.
Decreasing state funds for Extension programming have forced many states to seek alternative methods to continue providing quality educational programs for their clientele at the county level.
Extension clientele input for developing instructional modules in the Turf for Texans Master Gardener Program was sought using innovative, cost-effective data collection methods.
The purpose of the study described here was to gather stakeholder input for the most Frequently Asked Questions  in turfgrass management curricula for the Turf for Texans Master Gardener Program.
The following objectives guided this study.
Identify FAQs for nine turfgrass instructional modules in the Turf for Texans Master Gardener Program.
Rank the importance of the identified FAQs.
Rank participants' agreement levels of the identified FAQs for inclusion in the turfgrass instructional modules.
Descriptive survey methodology, with a Delphi technique, was used in this study.
Web-based survey data collection methods  were used after obtaining approval to conduct the study through the Texas A&M University Institutional Review Board.
The target population  consisted of all Texas County Extension Agents, program coordinators, and volunteers who participated in a Texas Master Gardener Program during 2003.
A proportional stratified sample from 11 Texas Cooperative Extension Service districts was obtained by contacting two agents from each district, who in turn, chose one coordinator and one volunteer with at least 1 year of experience from their respective Master Gardener Programs.
All participants were sent formal letters requesting their participation in the study.
The sample consisted of 22 agents, 22 program coordinators, and 22 volunteers.
The first instrument, posted on a secure Internet site, consisted of nine open-ended questions designed to obtain a wide range of responses.
Using their own Master Gardener experiences, respondents were asked to identify the top five FAQs for turfgrass management in each of nine Turf for Texans instructional modules.
The identified FAQs were used to develop content for the modules.
Electronic mail reminders were sent to non-respondents to complete round one; all data were collected in 3 weeks.
A total of 20 agents, 4 coordinators, and 12 volunteers  from 33 counties in the 11 districts responded to round one, resulting in a 55% response rate.
Findings from this study should not be generalized beyond the limited number of respondents.
A team of Extension turfgrass specialists, graduate students, and agricultural education faculty members condensed and combined initial responses into statements without altering their original meanings.
A panel of experts from the Departments of Soil and Crop Science and Agricultural Education reviewed the instrument for face validity.
The statements were posted on a secure Internet site for use in round two.
In the second round of data collection, respondents were instructed to read each FAQ for each module and rate the level of importance  for including the FAQ in its respective turfgrass instructional module.
Electronic mail notices requesting participation in round two were sent to all 66 participants.
All 66 participants were asked to complete all three rounds because of their vested interest in the consensus-building process.
A total of 16 agents, 7 coordinators, and 12 volunteers  responded, resulting in a 53% response rate.
All data were collected in 2 weeks.
Upon conclusion of data collection in the second round, all statements were ranked according to their grand mean scores, sorted by level of importance, and posted in a third instrument on a secure Internet site.
The third instrument allowed respondents to rate their agreement levels  with the importance levels for each FAQ in each turfgrass instructional module.
Electronic mail notices requesting participation in round three were sent to all 66 participants.
A total of 15 agents, 5 coordinators, and 10 volunteers  responded, resulting in a 46% response rate.
All data were collected in 10 days.
Descriptive statistics were derived for each instructional module.
ANOVA tests were used to determine significant differences among subgroups in this consensus-building process.
Instrument reliability was assessed using Cronbach's alpha coefficients in rounds two and three.
Results are presented in Table 1.
Introduction to Texas Lawn Care
 How Lawn Grasses Grow
 Grass Species and Varieties Adapted for Texas
 Cultural Practices for Established Texas Lawns
 Irrigation Matters in Texas
 Pests and Integrated Pest Management
 Thirty-six respondents with Texas Master Gardener Program experiences ranging from less than 1 to over 20 years , identified the top five FAQs for turfgrass management in their Texas Master Gardener Programs.
Overall, a total of 115 FAQs were identified, ranked, and prioritized by stakeholders.
The top three FAQs for each module are depicted in Table 2.
Results are sorted by descending grand means.
Module One: Introduction to Texas Lawn Care
 What determines if a lawn is healthy?
Are there benefits of having turf in my landscape?
What are the environmental benefits of turf?
Module Two: How Lawn Grasses Grow
 What are the differences between warm and cool season grasses?
What techniques can I use to plant grass?
Why do you sod some grasses and others you seed?
Module Three: Grass Species and Varieties Adapted for Texas
 What factors should be considered when selecting a lawn grass?
How do I decide which grass is best suited for my area?
Which grass variety is best suited for me in my area of Texas?
What is the most drought-tolerant turfgrass?
Module Four: Turfgrass Establishment
 Why should I have a soil test?
What is the best way to prepare the soil for a new lawn?
How much and how often should I irrigate my new lawn until it becomes established?
What are the effects of improper mowing?
What are the mowing heights for different grasses?
Should I catch or leave the clippings?
Module Six: Cultural Practices for Established Texas Lawns
 Does the practice of leaving grass clippings on my lawn contribute to thatch?
What is a good indication that I may need to aerate my lawn?
What is the difference between scalping and de-thatching?
Module Seven: Nutrient Management
 When do I need to fertilize?
How often should I fertilize?
How much fertilizer should I apply?
Module Eight: Irrigation Matters in Texas
 How often should I water my turfgrass?
What is a good indicator that my lawn needs watering?
How much water does my lawn need?
Module Nine: Pests and Integrated Pest Management
 What common Texas turfgrass diseases might attack my lawn?
What common Texas insects attack lawns?
How can I determine if I have a disease problem or an insect problem?
The consensus-building process of this Delphi technique was useful in helping respondents prioritize the most important FAQs for each of the nine modules.
No significant differences were found among respondents' agreement levels of the FAQs in eight of the nine modules.
Only in Module 5  was there a significant difference between rankings.
Program coordinators agreed with the FAQ "how often should mower blades be sharpened," more than did agents in round three.
From the findings, it can be concluded that lawn health, differences between warm and cool season grasses, turfgrass selection factors, soil tests, effects of improper mowing, grass clippings, when to fertilize, frequency of irrigation, and lawn diseases were deemed the most important FAQs for inclusion in the turfgrass curricula.
Although the identified and ranked FAQs for the instructional modules proved useful in developing curricula for the Turf for Texans Master Gardener Program, the authors believe the most important finding was derived from the methodology used to gather stakeholder input.
The Delphi technique, administered through online data collection techniques, provided effective means to determine stakeholders' needs in designing turfgrass management curricula.
Participants were able to incorporate their opinions , value judgments , and agreement levels  in a consensus-building process for the FAQs used in the turfgrass management instructional modules.
A practitioner's checklist for using this data collection process includes:
 Asking respondents to provide information relevant to the programming objective.
Condensing responses into statements, being careful not to change the original meanings of the responses.
Gathering respondents' importance level ratings for each identified statement.
Rank-ordering statements according to their indicated levels of importance.
Collecting respondents' agreement levels on the rank-ordered importance of each statement for its inclusion in the programming objective.
Additionally, stakeholder input was gathered in an economical, shortened frame , confirming the Web-based surveying methods proposed by Ladner, Wingenbach, and Raven.
The Delphi technique used in the study provided consistency in the data collection procedures, as proposed by Somers, Baker, and Isbell.
By including stakeholders' input to build consensus on relevant topics for Extension programs, Extension personnel address the need to know and learner's self-concept assumptions raised by Knowles, Holton, and Swanson.
This could allow for more rapid adoption of Extension programs.
It can also allow Extension personnel to focus greater attention on developing relevant educational materials for their clientele.
We recommend these methodologies  be used by Extension personnel when seeking stakeholder input for instructional materials development.
Using these methodologies, Extension personnel can gather stakeholder input in a shortened time frame with minimal cost and inconvenience resulting in a high quality Extension program.
Group techniques for program planning.
Glenview, Illinois: Scott, Foresman and Company.
The adult learner: The definitive classic in adult education and human resource development.
Houston, TX: Gulf Publishing Co.
Internet and paper-based data collection methods in agricultural education research.
Journal of Southern Agricultural Education Research, 52, 40-51.
How to use the Delphi technique to forecast training needs.
Performance and Instruction Journal, 23, 26-28.
Planning programs for adults.
Cunningham, , Handbook of adult and continuing education (pp.
San Francisco: Jossey-Bass Publishers.
Summer 1992 // Volume 30 // Number 2 // To The Point // 2TP3
 Abstract [Urban and rural descriptors] can stereotype clientele and set up adversarial relationships.
...we must face the needs of urban clientele through issues-based programming, not through the establishment of a separate Extension System.
We're faced with the possibility of three Cooperative Extension units-urban, rural, and campus.
In some states, on-campus and off-campus Extension employees already have less than cooperative relationships.
Do we then need to further distinguish between rural and urban Extension efforts?
There are lots of wide-open spaces in the western states.
Eighty percent of Colorado's population, however, lies within eight counties along the front range of the Rocky Mountains.
These counties are designated as "urban" since they have population centers of over 50,000 people.
Ironically, one of these designated "urban" counties also happens to rank in the top four counties nationally in the value of agricultural production sold.
This tends to be the case in most of the western states with considerable land mass, but also concentrated population centers.
The implementation of issues-based programming within the Cooperative Extension System in recent years has broken down some of the old barriers about urban issues as separate from rural issues.
Here in Colorado, we've found issues affect people whether they're living in rural or urban settings.
For example, water quality, food safety, waste management, youth at risk, parenting, the cost and availability of health care, and care for the elderly are all issues everyone can identify with.
In at least one western state's Extension System, the terms "urban" and "rural" are no longer used.
The philosophy in that state is that these descriptors, innocent as they may seem, can stereotype clientele and set up adversarial relationships.
Also, since more than 90% of that state's population resides in two metropolitan areas, these residents view agricultural Extension work as developing new varieties of turfgrass and implementing new irrigation technologies that reduce water requirements.
They see these and other Extension programs as appropriate in the urban environment.
Legislative redistricting based on the latest Census figures will give urban dwellers more political clout than they've ever had.
It's presumptuous that taxpayers would, over the long-term, encourage the use of their tax dollars to address strictly rural problems.
In my opinion, we must face the needs of urban clientele through issues-based programming, not through the establishment of a separate Extension System.
Cooperative efforts will answer the public accountability questions.
Programs such as Ag in the Classroom and Farm-City Week, environmental education, and inservice training for teachers are all opportunities for different clientele groups to share experiences and exchange ideas.
How we approach and use our information delivery system to bridge the communication gaps among groups will, however, be critical to the success of the programs.
In Colorado, we've embarked on a renewed effort to establish "vital connections" among all constituences in the state.
While Extension programs have traditionally focused on nonmetropolitan residents, an enlightened Extension System in the future will need to address the issues of all clientele, regardless of where they reside.
The process of achieving a comprehensive educational delivery system will take strong leadership and continuing communication among all parties.
August 2019 // Volume 57 // Number 4 // Commentary // v57-4comm2
 The trend of globalizationwhich entails the integration of local and national economies into a single worldwide onehas been steadily increasing for the last couple of decades.
Consequently, it is now a reality that U.S.
workers must compete not only with other U.S.
workers but also with skilled workers from around the world.
In addition to this competition, workers must be prepared to work with international partners and collaborators as product supply chains are increasingly multinational.
This global interconnectivity will only increase as technology continues to lower barriers to global interaction.
As a result, all communities served by Extension will face increasing interactions with international entities.
Additionally, modern leadership requires global competencies, even for those within small and regional organizations.
Many have identified skills such as cultural intelligence and tolerance for ambiguity as important for successful leadership, and these skills can no longer be overlooked by leadership training programs.
Extension plays a prominent role in leadership development for youths and adults in many communities throughout the United States, as evidenced in several published articles.
It only makes sense for Extension to incorporate global perspectives into the leadership development programming it currently delivers.
As we in Extension consider how to maintain the organization's relevance in modern times, one necessary action for meeting this challenge is increasing our global thinking and engagement.
Global engagement can take many formsdiverse potential embodiments of and partners for this endeavor exist.
Further, increased global engagement will create direct benefits for the communities in which it is implemented.
Therefore, global engagement should be considered a priority for all Extension personnel who envision growth opportunities.
I believe Extension is uniquely suited to provide the resources needed for global partnerships.
There is no single method that those within Extension must use to increase their global engagement.
Instead, diverse options exist for working toward this goal.
Further, this action does not require international travel.
Rather, there are multiple ways one can pursue global engagement from within the United States.
In other words, Extension professionals may consider various embodiments of global engagement and pursue the paths of action that best fit their skill sets and the responsibilities of their Extension appointments.
One of the simplest ways for Extension professionals to increase global engagement is to augment programming currently being delivered to include material focused on global topics.
For example, Extension leadership development programs for both adults and youths could be made more beneficial through attention to global competencies necessary for successful leadership.
Entrepreneurship programming delivered by Extension, such as that introduced by Zimbroff, Schlake, Anderson-Knott, Eberle, and Vigna , could be enhanced through incorporation of topics such as global business trends and strategies entrepreneurs can use to reach worldwide markets.
Longer term efforts could even include creating new curricula or interventions aimed solely at developing global competencies.
Further, many people come to the United States from other countries for education and training, a trend especially concentrated around universities.
This training frequently entails informal learning.
Extension professionals, with their vast experience delivering informal programming, can effectively contribute to this training, thereby sharing their expertise with an international audience.
One example of such opportunities is the Mandela Washington Fellowship , a program that brings hundreds of young African leaders to U.S.
universities every year for 6 weeks of leadership training.
Many of the fellows in the program pursue careers in agriculture and civic leadership.
Many in Extension have considerable experience delivering programming focused on both of these topics and could make an impactful contribution to the MWF program and others like it.
Finally, Extension professionals can increase global engagement by participating in educational programming in international settings.
Such programming provides an opportunity for sharing best practices and insights from the United States with those in other countries, where training and education systems might not be as advanced.
For example, the Agricultural Capacity Development program of the U.S.
Agency for International Development is focused on providing technical assistance to farmers in developing nations.
This program brings U.S.
agricultural experts to developing countries to train farmers, with the goal of increasing agricultural output and farm incomes.
Many Extension specialists and educators have the exact expertise needed to run such programming and could make an impactful contribution to training abroad (U.S.
Agency for International Development, 2018).
It is important to note that many of these programs are less than 3 weeks in length, meaning that Extension personnel can participate without significant disruption of their responsibilities in the United States.
When discussing this topic, I have heard some argue that international engagement is outside the scope of Extension.
Further, they claim that although there are diplomatic benefits to engaging international audiences, doing so does not directly benefit the communities Extension serves.
I respond to these arguments by discussing the multiple ways I have seen international engagement and leadership create tangible benefits for U.S.
My observations, some examples of which I describe herein, make me confident that such work helps fulfill our land-grant mission and benefits the communities in which Extension operates.
Many within Extension work to create economic development and new opportunities for the communities in which they reside.
Global engagement creates opportunities for economic growth through new markets and business partners.
It is not especially challenging to create these new opportunities as they fit with the modern trends of international supply chains and commerce.
As an example, I mentor a student from Colombia who wants to start a business importing soybeans to his home country.
Through his own past research, he has identified many within the country who would buy U.S.
soybeans if they were available domestically.
Personnel in Nebraska Extension are showing this student how to identify and work with suppliers and transportation partners in the United States.
If successful, he will create a new market for soybeans, benefiting local farmers.
Additionally, global engagement can lead to the discovery of innovations and new ideas around the world.
These ideas can be adapted and implemented within the communities we serve, leading to opportunities for innovation and improvement.
For example, a recent report identified 338 agribusiness-focused start-ups in Brazil, many of which are intended to help producers of important crops in the United States, such as corn, soybeans, and cattle.
Collaboration with start-ups such as these can help producers in the United States improve output and better compete with Brazilian farmers who are using these same innovations.
Initiating global engagement does not have to be a new or completely independent action.
There are many existing programs Extension can leverage for successful global engagement.
In addition to the examples mentioned previously, other academic entities may be considered as potential partners:
 Although increasing global engagement is not always considered within Extension, the organization is well suited to address this currently growing challenge.
Extension has a large pool of human capital with skills that are ideal for diverse forms of global engagement.
Further, the greater Extension network, and other infrastructure, make finding collaborators and creating these new initiatives relatively straightforward.
As a result, increasing global engagement should not cause apprehension or uncertainty for those within Extension.
Extension has great capacity to address this challenge, and thus increase its modern relevance for the communities and constituents the organization serves.
Global leadership success through emotional and cultural intelligences.
Business Horizons, 48, 501512.
Dynamic cross-cultural competencies and global leadership effectiveness.
Journal of World Business, 47, 612622.
The world is flat (p.
New York, NY: Farrar, Straus and Giroux.
Excel-Based Computational Template for Irrigation Scheduling Using Dual Crop Coefficients Abstract We developed an Excel-based computational template Extension educators can use to assist clientele with scheduling irrigation for efficient use of water.
With the template, the user applies the dual crop coefficient method to calculate evaporation and transpiration rates separately, with the result being more accurate soil water tracking as compared to what occurs when a single crop coefficient is used.
Crop water needs can be conveniently calculated on the basis of soil characteristics, crop growth stages, and weather information.
Application examples demonstrate that the amount and frequency of irrigation should be adjusted according to soil texture.
The template and application examples are available to Extension professionals as electronic supplementary material.
Thus, estimating the amount of water evaporated from soil and transpired from vegetation is a necessary process in many engineering and science fields, such as agricultural water management, water resources planning, and hydrologic analysis.
A convenient way to calculate an actual ET rate for crop plants  is to use a crop coefficient  method based on a reference ET rate estimate and the types of plants located in an area of interest.
There are two approaches to the crop coefficient method.
With the single crop coefficient approach, the single coefficient used is the averaged effects of evaporation from soil and transpiration from vegetation for the cropped surface.
With the dual crop coefficient approach, Tools of the Trade Excel-Based Computational Template for Irrigation Scheduling Using Dual Crop Coefficients JOE 57 evaporation from soil and transpiration from vegetation are considered as two independent coefficients.
The single crop coefficient approach is relatively simple, but the dual crop coefficient approach can more effectively address a soil moisture condition and plant drought stress that can limit evaporation and transpiration, respectively, in an actual ET rate estimation.
Despite its expected accuracy, the dual crop coefficient approach has not been widely used in practice due to the complexity of the required calculation procedures.
To address this situation, we developed an Excel-based computational template that Extension professionals and irrigation practitioners can use to develop irrigation scheduling based on the dual crop coefficient method.
Excel-based computing templates have been developed as tools that aid Extension professionals in their capacity building efforts.
Additionally, the article describes the calculations and assumptions on which the tool is based.
FAO-56 Dual Crop Coefficient Method The dual crop coefficient approach was proposed as a part of the FAO-56 method for improving the accuracy of ETc estimation using the basal crop and soil evaporation coefficients.
The basal crop coefficient  represents the ratio of ETc for specific vegetation to the reference ET in the cropped areas where soils hold moisture well enough to sustain full plant transpiration.
The soil evaporation coefficient  addresses evaporation from the soil surface.
The relationship among the coefficients is where Kc is an actual crop coefficient, Kcb is a basal crop coefficient, Ks is a water stress coefficient, and Ke is a soil evaporation coefficient.
The basal crop coefficient  is expressed as a function of weather variables: = where Kcb is a basal crop coefficient for the standard condition, a mean daily wind speed at 2 m height , RHmin is a mean daily minimum relative humidity , and h is a mean plant height.
The soil evaporation coefficient  is determined by considering soil moisture condition: where Kr is a dimensionless evaporation reduction coefficient dependent on the cumulative depth of water depleted or evaporated from the topsoil, Kc,max is the maximum value of K following a rain or irrigation event, and few is a fraction of the soil that is both exposed and wetted.
Parameters and Assumptions ET rates are calculated on the basis of the reference ET  and the amount of water infiltrated into the soil in the FAO-56 method.
The ETo is determined by weather, and it is estimated through use of the Penman-Monteith ET equation.
The infiltration rate may be computed using an infiltration model such as Horton's equation or the Natural Resources Conservation Service's curve number method combined with a continuity equation.
Assumptions are that irrigation and a rainfall event occur early in a day and that a rainfall event is not followed by an irrigation application.
The depth of the surface soil layer that is subject to drying by way of evaporation is set to 0.10 m  in the template, and a user may want to adjust it to somewhere between 0.10 m and 0.15 m depending on soil textures.
The amount of the total evaporable water from the soil and the amount of readily evaporable soil water are calculated automatically on the basis of the soil texture.
The parameter values are determined by data the user enters in the "Crop and Soil Characteristics" section in the template.
For instance, the amounts of total evaporable water that can be evaporated from the soil and readily evaporable soil water are calculated as functions of field capacity, wilting point, and soil depth, which are determined on the basis of soil texture types specified in the template by the user.
Application Examples Sample applications of the Excel-based template for determining irrigation timing are provided in the supplementary material for this article, and screen captures of two examples that can be found in the template are shown in Figure 1.
In the first example , irrigation is to be applied when the amount of readily available soil water in the root zone is depleted.
The calculation shows that there is no need to apply water to the tomato field with sandy loam soil after the irrigation of 40 mm  on the first day or after the rainfall event  of 20 mm  on the fifth day.
In the second example , the same weather conditions as those of the first example are assumed, but the field will need additional water applications of 13 mm on the fourth day and 14 mm on the ninth day to satisfy the crop water requirement in the sandy soil.
A comparison between the two examples shows that the small field capacity makes the sandy soil require more frequent water application than the sandy loam soil.
Sample Views of the Excel-Based Computational Template  Irrigation Timing Calculation Example for a Sandy Loam Soil Tools of the Trade Excel-Based Computational Template for Irrigation Scheduling Using Dual Crop Coefficients  Irrigation Timing Calculation Example for a Sandy Soil Summary This article introduces an Excel-based irrigation scheduling template and includes a description of the relevant background theory as well as application examples.
Extension educators can use the template as a handy tool for helping irrigation practitioners and growers save water while maintaining crop productivity.
Copies of the template are freely available in the supplementary material for the article.
Additionally, the Excel template can serve as the basis for smartphone or tablet applications Extension educators and irrigation practitioners can use in developing site-specific crop irrigation schedules.
Using the FAO-56 dual crop coefficient method over an irrigated region as part of an evapotranspiration intercomparison study.
Journal of Hydrology, 229, 27-41.
FAO irrigation and drainage paper No.
Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
SpreaderCal: An MS Excel-based computer program for spreader calibration.
Financial analysis tools for on-farm and off-farm commercial kitchens.
Evapotranspiration: Potential or reference.
IFAS Extension EDIS, ABE343.
Estrus synchronization planner spreadsheet helps beef producers implement artificial insemination programs.
The global distribution and dynamics of surface soil moisture.
Nature Geoscience, 10, 100-104.
Citrus water uptake dynamics on a sandy Florida Entisol.
Soil Science Society of America Journal, 70, 90-97.
Boom sprayer calibration made easy with an Excel spreadsheet program.
A beef calf retention decision tool.
Step by step calculation of the Penman-Monteith Evapotranspiration.
IFAS Extension EDIS, AE459.
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June 2013 // Volume 51 // Number 3 // Tools of the Trade // v51-3tt2
 The CIT did not surface, however, in a search of recent published JOE manuscripts and may, thus, be unfamiliar to a new generation of Extension faculty.
This article bridges that gap by describing recent use of the CIT in an Extension-led personal finance training program for library professionals.
Developed by Flanagan , the CIT is a systematic, open-ended technique tor encouraging subjects to tell personal stories that provide descriptive data.
In the case of the aforementioned program, the CIT was used to collect data about how library staff made use of information provided during a series of financial education classes.
The focus of the class series was to build their skills, confidence, and capacity to help library patrons access timely, accurate, and trustworthy information and resource materials about personal finance topics.
The CIT is a qualitative data technique.
As such, the focus is on collecting open-ended descriptive data from respondents and converting it into meaningful categories that can be used to quantify the results.
It is commonly used in studies of nursing care, marketing efforts, and the effectiveness of employee training programs.
Researchers who use the CIT employ a structured methodology to encourage respondents to share their experiences about a particular topic of study.
As described by Flanagan , there are five steps in the CIT procedure: 1.
Determination of the objectives of the activity, 2.
Development of plans and specifications for collecting factual incidents, 3.
Collection of data, 4.
Analysis of data, and 5.
Interpretation and reporting of facts regarding reported incidents.
While critical incidents represent only raw data and not automatic solutions or insights, the CIT can assist with collecting information that is directly relevant to important questions or problems.
Very simply, the CIT is a form of story-telling where respondents are asked to share their experiences about something.
For example, Hampton  used the CIT to study Extension agents' effectiveness in carrying out their job responsibilities, and Santoplo & Kell  conducted a similar analysis with EFNEP aides.
Respondents are typically asked to describe a critical incident  and its outcome and their feelings about and/or perceptions of it.
Incidents are considered effective/successful when something positive occurs: program objectives are met, staff and/or clientele are happy, effective solutions are found, and information from staff training is put into practice.
On the flip side, incidents are considered ineffective/unsuccessful when there are negative results.
The CIT has advantages and disadvantages.
On the plus side, it provides a methodology to collect data in respondents' own words and is fairly inexpensive to administer.
Questions can be asked using personal interviews or written  questionnaires and provide valuable insights that might be missed by forced choice responses.
Disadvantages include respondents' difficulty recalling less recent incidents and unwillingness to take time to fully consider CIT questions and "tell their story" to researchers.
The CIT was used as one of several evaluation methods in an Extension-led financial education training program for library staff.
Staff completed a questionnaire before a series of 11 classes began and will complete another upon project completion.
The four questions used to elicit respondents' critical incident stories were as follows.
Following administration of a pre-training survey, the number of successful and unsuccessful incidents was recorded and tabulated.
Successful incidents were defined as those where staff were able to assist patrons with personal finance questions.
A sample of 73 library staff reported 40 successful and 39 unsuccessful critical incidents.
These incidents were then sorted into quantifiable categories.
Successful incident categories were: provided quality information resources, patron satisfied, provided referral, and enabled patron to solve problem.
Unsuccessful critical incident categories were: lack of training/knowledge, patron wanted advice/more help than able to provide, lack of resources, and poor patron attitude.
CIT data can be used to evaluate program impact in several ways.
First, differences in the number of successful and unsuccessful incidents can be compared using data collected before and after an educational program to determine if and how participants made use of the information provided.
Ideally, there will be an increase in reported post-training successful incidents and fewer unsuccessful incidents versus pre-training results.
Responses in specific categories of incidents can also be compared.
Questions about respondents' perceptions of critical incidents can also provide excellent quotes for reports to stakeholders and funders who may like to see case study examples in evaluation reports as well as quantitative data.
The following quote is an example.
This article described the use and application of the critical incident technique  to collect qualitative program impact data.
Extension faculty should consider adding the CIT to their "toolkit" of program evaluation methods.
The critical incident technique.
Psychological Bulletin, 51, 327-355.
Evaluation report 1: Money Matters financial education program.
New York: New York Public Library.
June 2004 // Volume 42 // Number 3 // Tools of the Trade // 3TOT5
 Abstract The current drought situation and continued urban development have forced water issues to the forefront in the West.
At Utah State University, a team composed of five extension specialists and six agents with expertise in soils, ornamental horticulture, turfgrass, water conservation and quality, and irrigation engineering was formed to respond to water issues.
The team developed a drought resources Web site, 15 Extension bulletins on water management and conservation, water auditing workshops and training, and irrigation quality testing information.
The team summarizes its approach and accomplishments to provide guidance for future issue teams.
Water issues are ubiquitous in Utah State University Extension programming.
Nearly every specialist and agent with an assignment in agriculture, natural resources, horticulture, or family and consumer science is involved in some aspect of water programming.
With the current drought situation in the Intermountain West, the issues of water quantity, conservation, quality, and management have moved to the forefront.
It is expected that water issues will remain important after the immediate drought situation ends.
Continued urban development will place additional quality and quantity demands on what are already limited water supplies in western states.
In response to water programming needs and the drought situation, the Utah State University Extension Water Issues Team  was formed in March 2002.
The WIT was composed of five specialists and six agents with these assignments:
 Issue-based programming should allow Extension to develop a more efficient response to emerging issues.
The University of Wisconsin's College of Agriculture and Natural Resources was one of the first Extension groups to develop program teams.
They currently have 14 issue teams working in the areas of agriculture and natural resources.
Other universities have developed multi-disciplinary groups to address issues such as animal feeding operations  and urban planning.
This article summarizes Utah State University Extension's WIT approach and provides guidance for future teams.
In March 2002, the WIT sent an e-mail poll to all county staff soliciting input on information needs and formats.
The poll determined that a web site, publications, and specific support, including landscape irrigation auditing workshops, water testing, and assistance with water audits were needed.
Fifteen bulletins related to drought and water management/conservation in urban, agriculture, and home settings were completed.
In addition, one special insert  on drought was prepared for the August 2002 edition of the Utah Farm Bureau News.
A series of large water users' workshops was developed.
The workshops were directed toward municipalities, park managers, and church and school districts.
A total of 11 workshops were presented to 244 people in 2002.
At the end of 2002, the WIT met to evaluate successes and to identify opportunities for improving Team effectiveness in future activities.
The drought provided a narrow focus for planning activities;
 The WIT contained the right discipline areas to address the varied aspects of drought;
 The team approach increased awareness of granting opportunities among Team members and increased grant success;
 Team discussion and planning avoided redundancy and facilitated an organized response;
 Positive competition encouraged Team members to be more productive;
 A small group size was efficient for scheduling meetings and discussions; and
 The Team leader kept the group moving forward and focused on clear goals.
More involvement from off campus personnel and other specialists is necessary;
 Other water areas, including indoor  water use and water quality, should be expanded;
 Personnel with specific assignments in water areas are needed.
Because water is a priority issue, it needs to be recognized by administration to allow staff to focus efforts and reduce time in other areas;
 Team effort to organize and identify priorities for future publications should be increased; and
 Sub-teams for water conservation and water quality should be formed.
Ensure that water programs are ongoing in an environment of changing staff;
 Assess how Team accomplishments impacted statewide water conservation and quality;
 Develop programs addressing emerging water issues, such as the use of marginal quality and gray water;
 Become more informed about the social/legal issues surrounding water use such as laws governing gray water use and local ordinances on low water use landscapes; and
 Develop new publications for worsening drought situation,
 Continue to develop and maintain the Web site.
The WIT believes that the issue-based approach has, in the short term, increased productivity over individually directed efforts.
We are unable to measure long-term impacts of the team's efforts yet, but will continue to monitor their effectiveness as the program develops.
Team approaches in Utah State University Extension have been expanded to include such topics as biosecurity, community development, and home horticulture.
During the spring of 2006, surveys were distributed to residents of 14 sandpit lake communities throughout Nebraska in order to generate information on lawn management practices, perceptions and attitudes.
The survey was used to provide insight to current residential lawn care practices.
The majority of respondents fertilize their lawn at least once each year.
However, because only 3% of respondents have ever had their soil tested, education effort should focus on proper lawn management  practices.
Introduction As the population continues to increase in urban and peri-urban residential areas, the extent and intensity of lawn care and associated use of consumables, including fertilizers and pesticides, is expected to increase.
In the United States, 74% of households use some form of manufactured fertilizers or pesticides.
Rates of application vary, but nitrogen application rates for lawns have been found to be comparable to rates for crop production and golf courses, and these rates are increasing in urban watersheds.
Inappropriate use of lawn chemicals may have adverse effects on water quality, such as eutrophication  and hypoxia .
Lawn care professionals may feel limited in their flexibility to recommend lower-input management approaches, in part because of customers' attitudes.
Sandpit lakes in Nebraska, many adjacent to the Platte River with surface areas of 0.2 ha  to 80 ha , were originally excavations for construction sand.
There are over 800 publicly and privately owned sandpit lakes in Nebraska.
Many of these lakes have been developed for recreational uses such as boating and fishing, and for either weekend or full-time residences.
However, in recent years the waters of many sandpit lakes have been degraded due to nutrient loading leading to eutrophication and the development of toxic algae blooms.
One possible source of excess nutrients, particularly phosphorus , may be residential lawns bordering the lakes.
Other possible P sources are single home septic systems, fertilizer use from agricultural land, and water fowl.
Since the soils bordering these lakes are coarse-textured and the lakes themselves are relatively shallow, the risk of nutrient loading is increased.
Many of the lawns on homesites surrounding these lakes are routinely watered and fertilized, possibly to excess.
It is important to understand the attitudes and perceptions of homeowners when attempting to interpret the link between lawn care and water quality, and then to plan effective educational programming.
The objective of the study reported here was to assess homeowner lawn management practices, and perceptions and attitudes toward environmental and public health issues by conducting a survey of residents of sandpit lake communities in eastern Nebraska.
This information can be used by various agencies, managers, and Extension personnel to develop programs to enable residential landowners to implement more effective and environmental friendly lawn care practices.
Surveys were distributed to residents of sandpit lake communities throughout eastern Nebraska during the spring of 2006.
Locations with formal association leadership were chosen for the survey because they are among the most intensively developed recreational and residential lakes and SO were expected to have sustained the greatest impact from land use management.
Most surveys were distributed to lake communities in the Lower Platte River watershed, with the remainder in the central Platte or lower Elkhorn River watersheds.
Location of Surveys Distributed to Residents of Sandpit Lake Communities in Eastern Nebraska.
Dots Indicate Communities with Survey Respondents Survey Design and Methods For the purpose of the survey, "lawn" was defined as an area of land that is generally covered with grass and other plants that are maintained at an even, low height.
The survey consisted of 32 questions separated into three different sections: 1.
Lawn management: requested information regarding fertilization, irrigation, mowing regime, lawn size, turfgrass type, and previous soil nutrient analyses.
Lawn care attitudes and environmental perceptions: addressed questions regarding personal preference towards lawn aesthetics and management, and environmental perceptions.
Septic systems: requested information regarding whether the home was served by a septic system, what was the system's age, and the system's history of maintenance and inspection.
Survey Distribution Surveys were distributed to 130 residents of 14 sandpit lake communities.
Surveys were sent in groups of 10 to a lake association contact, who then distributed the surveys to other residents.
Additional surveys were sent out upon request.
A cover letter explaining the study and return pre-paid envelopes were sent along with the survey.
Survey distribution was not random.
First, not all homeowners had lawns as defined in the survey.
Many lots were covered with sand from the house to the lakeshore.
Consequently, surveys were distributed only to those residents who had lawn areas covered with grass.
Second, additional surveys were distributed door to door while performing site evaluations.
Statistical Analysis In order to analyze survey data, word responses from the survey were coded 1 to 4, where "1" corresponded to a low-impact practice.
For analysis, questions and responses were arranged into four categories: management, environmental impact, aesthetics, and environmental attitude.
Differences within each category by lake community were analyzed using the General Linear Model Procedure of SAS Version 9.1.
Results and Discussion Response Rate Of the surveys distributed to the survey population, 68 households responded, giving a response rate of 52%.
Lawn Management Size and Type of Lawn The mean size of the lawns surveyed was approximately 1010 m  or less.
Of those surveyed, 67% had a lawn comprised of either Kentucky bluegrass  or turf-type tall fescue.
Kentucky bluegrass is a common turfgrass in eastern Nebraska because it has exceptional reproductive capacity and recovery.
Turf type fescues are also commonly found in this region because of their tolerance to shade and their range of adaptability from temperate humid to temperate arid regions.
Management Costs Nationally, homeowners spend a total of approximately $27 billion per year to maintain their lawns either themselves or by hiring outside help.
In Nebraska, over $300 million is spent per year on turfgrass maintenance.
Over half of the homeowners surveyed spent more than $100 each year maintaining their lawns.
This amount is consistent with that reported by Fech & Gaussoin.
Fertilization The survey found that in a typical summer, 91% of the residents apply fertilizers to their lawn; however, only 3% of those surveyed have ever had their soil tested.
This is lower than the 20% rate reported by Osmond and Hardy.
Nearly 50% of residents surveyed applied fertilizers one to two times per year, and 32% applied three to four times per year, with spring and fall being the most common seasons for fertilization.
For those who fertilized, 66% apply the fertilizer themselves; of that group, 52% follow the directions given on the container.
Homeowners' Response to, "If you apply the fertilizer yourself, how do you determine the amount to be applied?" Lawn Management Practices and Perceptions of Residents in 14 Sandpit Lakes of Nebraska04/26/10 07:20:57 Irrigation Intensity of irrigation practices is directly related to the intensity of cultural, nutrient, and pest management on turfgrass systems and has been associated with nutrient leaching from lawns.
Overall, 85% of the survey respondents watered their lawns one to four times a week, with mean application rates of approximately 1.3 cm  per application.
By combining survey results describing irrigation frequency and irrigation amount, we estimate that respondents may be watering at a minimum of 0.5 cm per week to a maximum of 10 cm per week.
Mowing The survey reported that 82% of homeowners mowed their lawns at least once per week in a typical summer.
Overall, 57% of those surveyed left the clippings on the lawn after mowing.
Leaving clippings will help meet nutrient requirements through mineralization of plant material.
Lawn Care Attitudes and Perception The second part of the survey focused on lawn care attitudes and perceptions of the homeowners.
This section consisted of 11 questions that could be divided into two subtopics: 1) personal preference and 2) environmental attitude.
Personal Preference The personal preference section consisted of statements addressing how homeowners felt about their lawns.
We found that 85% of respondents felt that a well-kept lawn increased property values.
Ninety percent of the homeowners took pride in the appearance of their lawns, and 69% were generally satisfied with appearance of their lawns.
When asked if a weed-free lawn was important to them, 91% agreed or strongly agreed.
It may be inferred that some homeowners use herbicides for weed control under circumstances in which the control measures may be ineffective or inadvisable.
Homeowners' Responses to Multiple Questions Addressing Personal Preference and Environmental Attitude Lawn Management Practices and Perceptions of Residents in 14 Sandpit Lakes of Nebraska04/26/10 07:20:57 0% 10% 20% 30% 40% 50% 60% 70% 80% 90% 100 Environmental Attitude The environmental attitude portion of the survey addressed statements pertaining to the environment and public health.
Homeowners provided no clear sentiment when asked if they agreed with the statement "As long as my lawn is green, it is healthy".
Of those surveyed, 57% disagreed or strongly disagreed that a green lawn means a healthy lawn, compared to the 43% who agreed or strongly agreed with the statement.
When asked about lawn pesticides, 77% of homeowners agreed that pesticides are harmful to the environment, and 64% felt that pesticides are harmful to public health.
These responses suggest a dichotomy between the broad environmental attitudes of the survey population and the potential for herbicide use to maintain a weed-free lawn noted earlier.
A lower percentage of homeowners  felt that lawn fertilizers are harmful to the environment, and 56% agreed that lawn fertilizers were harmful to public health.
Septic Systems Improperly maintained septic systems are a potential source of lake water contaminants.
Homes at seven of the 14 lake communities surveyed are served by single-dwelling septic systems, corresponding to 25% of the total survey respondents.
Most septic systems were 6 or more years old.
Seventy-seven percent of the respondents agreed that inspection and routine clean-out of septic tanks is necessary to protect water quality.
Thirty-five percent of respondents reported that their system was checked every 3 years or more frequently, but 41% did not know how often the septic system was inspected and emptied.
Statistical Analysis Each grouped response category  was analyzed to determine if responses differed among residents of the different lake communities.
It might be suspected that responses would vary among lakes due to social factors.
For example, homeowners may feel compelled to maintain a certain aesthetic value of their lawns in one lake community, but feel less pressure at another.
Also, some lake organizations might have specific rules and regulations towards the upkeep of the properties on the lakes.
Despite this, there was no significant difference among residents grouped by lake community for any group of survey responses: Management , Environmental Impact , Aesthetics , and Environmental Attitude.
Conclusions and Recommendations The residential lawn care survey reported here is one of few studies that attempted to assess homeowner lawn management practices and attitudes, and the only study found focusing on Great Plains communities and sandpit lakes.
Eighty-five percent of those surveyed felt that a well-kept lawn increases property values, and 90% take pride in the appearance of their lawn.
This may lead some homeowners to over apply turfgrass chemicals in pursuit of a high-quality lawn.
The survey results suggest that attitudes are ambiguous toward the environment and public health.
A majority of respondents fertilize their lawn at least once each year.
This is a potential cause for concern if residents apply fertilizer regardless of whether additional nutrients, particularly P, are needed.
This concern was also noted by Osmond and Hardy.
Related to this is that only 3% of respondents have ever had their soil tested.
As a partial remedy, some lake associations are recommending the use of N-only fertilizers.
This is an appropriate recommendation because the average Bray and Kurtz 1 P analysis for a subset of lawn soils in the study was 97.3 mg P/kg soil  in the 0-11 cm  depth and 72.4 mg P/kg soil  in the 12-22 cm  depth.
These values are in contrast to a Bray and Kurtz 1 P analysis of 24 to 30 mg P/kg soil  in excess of which plants generally do not respond.
In order to better accomplish the dual goals of high-quality home turf and maintenance of water quality in these sensitive sandpit lake communities, current effective education and outreach programs should be strengthened.
The intent should be to inform residents of these communities about lawn management practices having low potential for negative environmental impact, emphasizing nutrient management.
These educational efforts could be targeted and designed for direct delivery to homeowners or magnified and enhanced through delivery to Master Gardeners, lawn care operators, and county Extension personnel.
lawn and garden consumables demand to exceed $9 billion in 2010.
Background and overview of environmental issues.
Golf course management and construction: Environmental issues.
Role and conservation of water resources.
Golf course management and construction: Environmental issues.
Center for Watershed Protection.
Center for Watershed Protection.
Toward a low input lawn.
Fundamentals of turfgrass management.
John Wiley & Sons, Inc., Hoboken, New Jersey.
Selecting a lawn care company.
University of Nebraska-Lincoln Extension, Institute of Agriculture and Natural Resources.
Nitrate-Nitrogen losses to groundwater from rural and suburban land uses.
It's just a dandelion: Perceived benefits and barriers to urban integrated pest management.
Impact of a turfgrass system on nutrient loadings to surface water.
Nitrogen input from residential lawn care practices in suburban watersheds in Baltimore County, MD.
Characterization of turf practices in five North Carolina communities.
Lawns and Toxins: An Ecology of the City.
Nitrate leaching potential from lawns and turfgrass.
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August 2019 // Volume 57 // Number 4 // Research In Brief // v57-4rb7
 Local governments charged with watershed management are uniquely positioned to enhance environmental and socioeconomic conditions through policy decisions.
Given the large-scale interconnectedness of water resources, local management decisions can have cascading effects on water, people, and ecosystems well beyond local jurisdictions.
Extension programs in watershed science therefore have potential for widespread impacts generated through the provision of needed resources for better informed policy development.
To be relevant and effective, educational programs should address learners' needs and priorities and should involve preferred learning formats.
A needs assessment is essential for identifying such needs and priorities.
Our goal with the assessment reported here was to identify the watershed science needs of directors  of Nebraska's natural resources districts the local governing organizations for water and other natural resources.
In 1972 the Nebraska state legislature enacted laws that eventually resulted in 23 NRDs , with boundaries that approximately align with river basin boundaries.
Most basins were subdivided into two or more NRDs.
The NRD system features strong local governance through locally elected boards of directors.
Directors of an NRD work with a full-time manager and staff to develop policies, implement programs for the district, and coordinate transboundary issues.
NRDs are tasked with 12 statutory responsibilities, including groundwater and surface water management, erosion prevention, flood control, recreation area management, soil conservation, solid waste disposal, and wildlife habitat protection.
Performing these responsibilities depends on watershed science, "the interdisciplinary study of the natural processes and human activities that affect fresh water resources".
NRD directors comprise a unique educational audiencedissimilar to the audience of watershed management practitioners.
Directors have various educational and professional backgrounds and serve varying tenures on their boards.
They receive minor compensation for meetings and related expenses, but many have full-time careers.
We assessed three factors:  the need for watershed science training for directors,  critical topics on which watershed science education is needed, and  preferred educational delivery formats for education on those critical topics.
We used focus groups of NRD staff and managers initially and then conducted a web-based survey of NRD directors.
We used a mixed-methods design wherein we first collected qualitative interview data to assist in developing a quantitative web-based director survey.
The interviews and director survey were administered by the Bureau of Sociological Research at the University of NebraskaLincoln.
Semistructured interview questions and survey items were reviewed by the University of NebraskaLincoln Institutional Review Board.
In February and March 2017, we conducted qualitative interviews with NRD staff and managers through two focus group sessions with 12 people total and three individual phone interviews.
The semistructured interviews focused on five questions, with probes.
Questions were designed to evaluate the educational needs of the directorsincluding related to critical topics and preferred delivery methodsas perceived by NRD staff and managers who often provide technical information to directors.
Focus group and phone interviews lasted 3090 min, were recorded and transcribed verbatim, and were then analyzed for common themes independently by two social scientists to validate the data through triangulation.
Thematic analysis grounded in the data transcripts  allowed water topics and subtopics and relevant themes and salient meanings to emerge from the data.
In developing the quantitative survey, we emphasized topics and themes that interviewees had become passionate about, that were repeated, and/or that were agreed on by multiple interviewees.
The director survey contained the following 34 items:
 In November 2017, all 23 NRD managers were emailed a link to a web-based survey.
Managers sent the link to 323 current directors.
Reminders were sent 10 and 25 days after the original request, and data collection ended after 36 days.
A total of 59 directors completed part or all of the survey, for a response rate of 18%.
Simple statistics  were calculated in Excel.
The average reported age of respondents was 58.5 years ; 96% were male, and 86% reported having had at least some college education.
The average age of and percentage of males among our respondents were similar to demographics of farm operators in Nebraska  (U.S.
Department of Agriculture National Agricultural Statistics Service, n.d.), who regularly make up a large percentage of NRD directors.
Interview and director survey responses indicated a need for watershed science training.
Most interview participants indicated that watershed science training would help NRD staff provide background to assist directors in making policy decisions.
They further stated that the information should specifically target issues that are under NRD jurisdiction and should be easily accessible to directors.
Several interview participants noted that workshops and courses on watershed science topics were sometimes available but that the time and travel required to attend were prohibitive to many.
Further, interviewees stated that although web searches provide a plethora of information choices, it is difficult to determine what information is most relevant and reliable.
These interview responses highlight a need to provide targeted and specific information, consistent with other studies, to effectively address watershed issues.
In the director survey, we assessed training needs related to a subset of topics and hydrologic terms identified during the interviews.
The director survey contained two conceptual questions  and five definition questions.
Responses were more accurate regarding the contribution of environmental factors to elevated nitrate concentrations in groundwater  and the primary benefits of wetlands.
Overall, 59% of definition questions were answered correctly.
The definition of watershed was understood by most interviewees , perhaps related to the knowledge that NRD boundaries generally coincide with watershed boundaries.
The critical educational topics identified by interview participants related to the categories of  basic watershed science,  regional issues, and  legal, regulatory, and agency issues.
The greatest emphasis was on the critical topics of water quantity and water quality and related subtopics.
Interview participants strongly emphasized the need for basic terminology and concept education, but the scope of learning spanned from basic to complex watershed topics.
For example, one participant cited the need for directors to understand "confined aquifers and unconfined aquifers and how does it all relate," and another interview participant noted that effective watershed management requires a recognition of interactions across "groundwater, water quantity, water quality, the storm water, the flooding, the conservation practices, right down to the recreation and protection of those resources."
 Interviewees expressed a preference for topics locally or personally relevant to directors.
For example, case studies for regions of the state might interest directors.
Some inconsistency occurred during discussions on the generality of information.
Several participants cited examples of existing information that is too site-specific, but others indicated that research or Extension products are sometimes overly generalized given the differences in geology, precipitation, and/or land use across Nebraska.
Directors were asked to indicate their levels of interest in 14 of the topics identified by interview participants.
Eighty-five percent of the directors indicated that they were somewhat to very interested in learning more about all but two of the selected topics.
Interview participants favored web-based materials due to geographical diversity across NRDs.
However, inclusion of some personal interaction  was desired.
They emphasized preference for learnercontent interaction , especially for topics for which visualization and engagement are difficult.
The director survey revealed that many of the directors relied on print media to obtain watershed information.
Moreover, one director printed the web survey for manual completion, and another requested that future surveys be available in print.
The directors' preference toward printed material suggests potential headwinds for delivering online-only content.
However, the majority of directors learned about watershed issues from NRD colleagues.
The relevance of this circumstance was underscored by a comment from one of the interview participants: "If we had a committee meeting and we could devote 20 or 30 minutes to a topic and then do our regular business, they [directors] would be willing to do that." Such an approach might facilitate collaborative learning through group discussions.
Results indicate openness to Extension expertise among directors.
Among web-based options on the director survey, Nebraska Extension websites were more likely to be used  as compared to other sources.
Fifty-nine percent of directors reported using Nebraska Extension information to make decisions about water resources management.
This response is similar to the percentage of directors who rely on newspapers or printed fact sheets, bulletins, or brochures.
Regardless of information source and delivery format, time limitations of directors were highlighted by interview participants, who suggested that training should be limited to 30-min sessions.
Most directors  reported spending less than 5 hr per month on NRD issues, whereas 39% reported spending more than 5 hr.
Thus, one short training session per month would substantially increase the time most directors spend on NRD business1 hr of training equates to an increase of about 20% of such time for most directorsunless the activity were to be completed during regular meetings.
The research reported here is the first step in a coproduction approach  to influencing NRD directors' knowledge levels and decision-making approaches.
We assessed need, topics of interest, and preferred delivery formats related to providing watershed science information to locally elected directors.
Focus group and individual interviews with NRD staff and managers and a web survey of directors indicated that additional watershed science training would be beneficial.
Directors who responded to the survey were interested in learning about a wide range of watershed science topics.
Directors performed well when asked about two applied concepts related to water quality.
Their understanding of hydrologic terminology was less advanced and is therefore an intuitive starting point for any training program.
Further analysis of the core technical competencies exhibited and/or identified by effective directors  is warranted to prioritize topics identified in our study.
A web-based, interactive delivery format was suggested by NRD staff, but directors favored print media.
Many directors indicated that they learned a great deal from NRD colleagues, although some did acquire information from web sources, including Extension websites.
Directors may be more receptive to web-based learning modules if associated collaborative learning is available  and/or hybrid delivery is executed.
For example, NRD staff are well positioned to facilitate completion of online training in a group setting, perhaps supplemented by print-based exercises.
Continued collaboration between Extension personnel and NRD staff and integration of NRD directors' feedback are essential for developing the most effective curriculum and delivery method.
Our work focused on training needs for directors in Nebraska, but water resources management leaders in other states  and countries  are currently studying the NRD approach.
Groups that adopt components of the NRD model may encounter similar training needs.
Therefore, our results and subsequent training materials could appeal to broader audiences.
Our work was supported by a Nebraska Extension Innovative Programming grant and by the U.S.
Department of Agriculture National Institute of Food and Agriculture, Hatch project NEB-21-177.
We gratefully acknowledge NRD managers who assisted with disseminating the web survey and NRD staff and directors who took time to share their views and practices.
A., & McCawley, P.
Solving problems, ensuring relevance, and facilitating change: The evolution of needs assessment within Cooperative Extension.
Journal of Human Sciences and Extension Volume, 3, 2647.
June 2013 // Volume 51 // Number 3 // Feature // v51-3a9
 In 1991, JOE published results of a study of Extension home economics professionals identifying current research needs.
The fourth-ranked item  was "effects of stress on children and teens." Since 1991, a great deal of research has been conducted on this topic, but most research exploring adolescent stress has been based on urban samples.
Despite the fact that approximately 25% of the nation's youth live in rural areas , where stress research is concerned, rural youth have been an understudied, neglected population.
Stress is prevalent in the lives of adolescents , with most reporting a large number of daily experiences perceived as stressful.
The current study was undertaken to learn about the types and frequencies of stressors reported by rural adolescents and the relationship between personally experienced stressors and psychosocial well-being.
We hope our findings will improve understanding of rural adolescent stressors and lead to effective programming to help adolescents with these issues.
Given the work of Extension in promoting health and well-being as well as the role of 4-H in the lives of many rural youth, Extension is primed to address adolescent stress through its traditional programs or new prevention/intervention programs.
Adolescent stress is a major concern because of its link to various maladaptive physical, behavioral, social, and emotional outcomes.
For example, higher levels of stress in adolescents have been linked to depression, suicidal behavior, anxiety, externalizing behaviors such as aggression and antisocial acts, and a heightened risk of drug and alcohol abuse.
In general, stressors fall into one of two categories: major life events and daily hassles.
While major life events occur less frequently, daily hassles are a common feature of everyday life.
Most studies of adolescent stress have focused on major life events, yet research shows daily hassles are more predictive than major life events of maladjustment , and those reporting higher levels of daily stress should be considered at greatest risk for poor adjustment.
Therefore, the emphasis in the present study was everyday problems  rather than major life events.
Participants were 99 adolescents  attending a rural high school in the southeastern United States.
The mean age was 15.16 years.
The sample was 52% White and 41% African American, with the remaining participants reporting other ethnic backgrounds.
In terms of family type, 41% of participants reported living in intact nuclear families, 21% in stepfamilies, 25% in single-parent families, and 11% in other family arrangements.
Fifty-eight percent of participants reported receiving either free or reduced-price school lunches.
Participants completed the Personal Problems Checklist for Adolescents.
The PPCA consists of 240 items and surveys problems experienced personally in 13 areas: social, job, parents, school, money, religion, emotions, appearance, family, dating, health, attitude, and crises, e.g., "feeling unpopular" [social domain], "parents fighting or arguing" [parental domain], and "getting bad grades" [school domain].
The job domain was omitted from present analyses because most participants reported not engaging in paid employment.
In addition to an overall score, subscale scores provide information regarding specific domains of reported problems.
The PPCA demonstrated excellent overall reliability , and subscale reliabilities ranged from good  to excellent.
The mean number of total problems reported by the adolescents in the study  was 28.55 , with number of problems ranging from 0 to 99 out of a possible 220.
There were significant correlations between most subscales of the PPCA, indicating that problems in one domain tend to be co-morbid  with problems in other domains.
Participants also completed three measures of psychosocial well-being.
First, self-esteem was assessed using a five-item version of the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale.
Phillips and Pittman  have reported an acceptable alpha of.78 for the short version of the scale.
Scores could range from 5 to 20, with this sample's mean self-esteem score being 15.00.
Second, hopelessness was measured using five items from the 10-item Hopelessness Scale for Children.
A sample item from the HSC reads, "I never get what I want, so it's dumb to want anything." The HSC has acceptable reliability of.71.
For the study, the true-false response format was replaced with a 4-point Likert-type response format.
Total hopelessness scores could range from 5 to 20, with higher scores indicating a greater sense of hopelessness.
The mean hopelessness score for this sample was 9.00.
Third, delinquent attitudes were assessed using the Delinquent Attitude Scale.
Respondents indicated on a 4-point Likert-type scale the degree to which they either endorse or oppose 13 acts of delinquency.
Scores could range from 13 to 52, with higher scores indicating greater endorsement of delinquent acts.
The measure demonstrates good internal consistency.
Reliabilities have been reported as.84 and.88.
The mean delinquent attitude score for the present sample was 24.60.
Surveys were group-administered to participants during school hours by the first author with the assistance of school staff.
No personally identifying information  was collected.
Participants were entered in a drawing for three $50  gift cards from a major retail chain, with the drawing being held by school personnel immediately after all questionnaires were completed.
All participants received token souvenirs from a nearby major university.
The study was approved by the institutional review board at the first author's university at the time of the study.
Adolescents reported the highest level of problems in the social/friendship and parental domains.
Eighty percent of participants reported at least one problem in the social domain.
Other areas where at least two-thirds of participants reported at least one problem included parental, appearance, school, and family domains.
The 10 most frequently reported individual problems are listed in Table 2.
The most common problem, reported by 35% of the sample, was "Not having any privacy." A majority of the most frequently reported problems among participants involved relationships.
Participants were least likely to report problems in the religious domain.
Participant age was related negatively to problems in the parental domain , dating domain , and crisis domain , indicating modest yet significant decreases in number of problems reported in those areas by older participants.
There were no significant correlations between participant age and total number of problems or types of problems reported in other domains.
Using analysis of variance , we examined differences in problems reported based on gender, ethnicity, family type, and school lunch status.
The only significant gender difference was in number of problems reported in the parental domain , with girls reporting significantly more problems  than boys.
Participants living in stepfamilies reported significantly more problems in the parental domain  than participants living in intact nuclear families , F  = 4.03, p =.011.
There were no significant differences by ethnicity or school lunch status in problems reported.
Table 3 shows the correlations between problems reported overall and in each of the 12 domains and scores on the measures of self-esteem, hopelessness, and delinquent attitudes.
Reporting more problems  was associated with lower self-esteem, a greater sense of hopelessness, and a higher delinquent attitude score.
Additionally, self-esteem was related significantly and negatively to number of problems reported in 10 of the 12 domains.
There were significant positive correlations between hopelessness and number of problems reported in 10 of the 12 problem domains.
Health and money problems were not significantly related to self-esteem or hopelessness.
Finally, problems in attitude, money, religion, dating/sex, and health domains were significantly and positively associated with delinquent attitude score.
Three stepwise regression analyses were conducted to identify which of the 12 domains were the best predictors of self-esteem, hopelessness, and delinquent attitudes.
For self-esteem, only problems in attitude and crisis domains were significant predictors, together accounting for 21% of the variance, with problems in both domains predicting lower self-esteem scores.
Problems in family and religion domains predicted higher hopelessness scores, accounting for 23% of the variance.
Finally, problems in social, attitude, and health domains predicted delinquent attitudes.
While problems in attitude and health domains were predictive of higher delinquent attitude scores, number of problems in the social domain was associated with lower delinquent attitude scores.
Simple linear regression analyses showed that total number of problems reported was a significant predictor of all three indicators of psychosocial well-being, accounting for 12% of the variance in self-esteem, 15% of the variance in hopelessness, and 10% of the variance in delinquent attitude score, with total number of problems reported predicting lower self-esteem and higher hopelessness and delinquent attitude.
The study reported here makes a much-needed contribution to the research literature on adolescence by providing information on the everyday problems reported by rural youth, a historically understudied group of adolescents.
The results also provide confirmation that stress in the form of routinely experienced problems can detract from adolescent well-being.
Consistent with previous research , the most commonly reported problems by adolescents in the study were in the social, parental, and family domains.
In other words, the problems most frequently reported had to do with other people, a finding not surprising given that adolescence is a time of major  social transitions, including a variety of related normative developments, such as moving from elementary to middle to high school, individuation, striving for greater autonomy and independence, and increased orientation toward peers.
Problems in the crisis, parental, and dating domains were found to decrease with age.
This is understandable given that, relative to midto later adolescence, early adolescence is a generally more tumultuous period, characterized by more changes, especially those associated with the transition to middle school.
In general, research indicates that the tendency is for things to settle down over the course of adolescence.
Only one significant gender difference was found: girls reported more problems than boys in the parental domain.
This may be related to the fact that girls may experience higher levels of direct parental control, are granted less independence, and are expected to stay closer to home.
It is possible that girls perceive this enhanced degree of parental oversight as constricting or stifling, with this being reflected in the higher mean number of problems in the parental domain reported by girls in this study.
In terms of differences between youths living in various family structures, participants in stepfamilies reported more problems in the parental domain than participants in intact nuclear families.
This is not entirely unexpected, as previous research has found that youth living with two biological parents experience better emotional well-being than those in other family structures.
As Ganong and Coleman  noted, "In virtually every area of assessment, stepchildren are found to fare more poorly, on average, than children living with both of their parents" (p.
146), although the differences are small, with meta-analyses finding effect sizes that range from .07 to .46.
The results of correlational and regression analyses suggest that the experience of stress-inducing problems is antithetical to well-being.
Even commonly experienced problems can have the effect of lowering self-esteem while increasing hopelessness and delinquent attitudes.
This is in line with research cited previously in this article indicating a relationship between "ordinary" stress and increased risk of poor adjustment or maladjustment.
Finally, the fact that total number of problems reported was correlated with and predictive of self-esteem, hopelessness, and delinquent attitudes supports the idea that a build-up or pile-up of stressors undermines well-being.
Perhaps the major limitation of the study had to do with the nature of the Personal Problems Checklist for Adolescence.
The instrument only asks participants to indicate which problems they are currently experiencing.
Therefore, there is no way of knowing whether the problems reported in the study were chronic or transitory.
Likewise, problem severity was not determined.
While the Personal Problems Checklist for Adolescents does instruct individuals to circle the problems they feel are worst or that are causing them the most trouble, most of the study's participants did not use that option.
Because stress constitutes a serious threat to adolescent health , the question becomes, what  can Extension do to mitigate these problems and their effects?
Although the most common problems reported by the study's participants might seem relatively minor in nature to adult readers, they nonetheless constitute very real sources of stress for the adolescent.
Developmental differences in coping exist , in which early adolescents may not have the same skills as adults for coping with stressors.
At a minimum, Extension and 4-H staff and volunteers should know how to appropriately respond when they are approached by an adolescent facing a stressful, or even crisis, situation.
Russell  provided suggestions for ways Extension volunteers can communicate their support: a) protect the youth if he/she is in immediate danger, b) work with the youth to plan how to talk to his/her parents about the issue, c) support the youth until he/she is able to discuss it with parents, and d) in the interest of safety and health, tell the parents if the youth does not follow through with the plan.
Extension can also use its traditional programming to help adolescents experiencing stress and poor psychosocial well-being.
Depressed mood has been shown to be more strongly and positively related to stress for rural youth than for urban youth.
Additionally, community attachment is related to a less depressed mood among rural youth.
A study by Adedokun and Balschweid  found that rural 4-H members, compared to non-4-H members, reported higher levels of social connection to people in their communities and said they found it easy to approach others in their communities for advice when needed.
Given this potential protective effect of community attachment, youth programs offered through Extension and 4-H that promote civic engagement or other types of community connections can help strengthen attachment to community and thus ease the impact of stress on rural youth.
Finally, Extension can implement prevention and intervention programs specific to stress, coping, and psychosocial well-being within or outside school settings or partner with other organizations to do so.
As suggested by Self-Brown et al.
, the centerpiece of any program or plan for dealing with adolescent stressors should focus on building coping and problem-solving skills to improve the ability of rural youth to manage stressors more effectively.
The efficacy of such an approach has been documented by Frauenknecht, Black, and Coster , who found that as social problem-solving scores increased, distress and personal problems decreased.
By helping adolescents learn to prevent stress and manage stress where it cannot be prevented, we can decrease the potential for negative stress-related outcomes.
Also, many of the study's respondents reported problems in different types of relationships , demonstrating a need for interventions to help rural adolescents understand and navigate various types of relationships, as well as the issues and challenges that arise in relationships.
Programs that promote youth leadership skills or include peer mentoring and youth-adult partnerships can also enhance relationship skills.
These characteristics are common in 4-H programs.
The study reported here focused on the types of problems or stressors most frequently experienced by rural youth.
The strong presence of Extension and 4-H in some rural communities  and the related connections between youth and adult staff and volunteers puts these organizations in a good position to work with adolescents in ways described above to reduce stress and enhance psychosocial well-being.
The impact of family formation change on the cognitive, social, and emotional well-being of the next generation.
The Future Of Children, 15, 75-96.
An exploratory study of the Urban Hassles Index: A contextually relevant measure of chronic multidimensional urban stressors.
Research on Social Work Practice, 16, 305-314.
Sex differences in adolescent life stress, social support, and well-being.
Journal of Psychology, 98, 277-288.
Sources of stress in Australian adolescents: Factor structure and stability over time.
Stress and Health, 18, 185-192.
Personal problems of Seventh-day Adventist academy students.
Journal of Research on Christian Education, 15, 77-93.
Self-reported substance use and sexual behaviors among adolescents in a rural state.
Journal of School Health, 78, 587-593.
Stress, coping, and behavioural problems among rural and urban adolescents.
Journal of Adolescence, 26, 574-585.
The experience of stressors and hassles among rural adolescents from lowand middle-income households in the USA.
Children, Youth, and Environments, 19, 164-175.
Adolescent problem solving, stress, and the Stepped Approach Model.
American Journal of Health, 20, 30-41.
Stepfamily relationships: Development, dynamics, and interventions.
New York: Kluwer Academic.
Ebb and flow when navigating adolescence: Predictors of daily hassles among African-American adolescent girls.
Journal for Specialists in Pediatric Nursing, 7, 143-152.
Hopelessness, depression, and suicidal intent among psychiatrically disturbed children.
Journal of Consulting and Clinical Psychology, 51, 504-510.
Family Structure and Adolescent Physical Health, Behavior, and Emotional Well-Being.
Social Service Review, 85, 323-357.
Community programs to promote youth development.
Washington, DC: The National Academies Press.
Adolescent psychological well-being by identity style: A between-groups analysis.
Journal of Adolescence, 30, 1021-1034.
New York: Basic Books.
Personal problems checklist for adolescents.
Odessa, FL: Psychological Assessment Resources, Inc.
Effects of violence exposure and daily stressors on psychological outcomes in urban adolescents.
Journal of Traumatic Stress, 17, 519-527.
Relationship of daily hassles and social support to depression and antisocial behavior among early adolescents.
Journal of Youth and Adolescence, 29, 647-659.
The development of coping.
Annual Review of Psychology, 58, 119-144.
Stepfather families and the emotional well-being of adolescents.
Journal of Health and Social Behavior, 48, 33-49.
Longitudinal study of stressful life events and daily stressors among adolescents at high risk for psychotic disorders.
Schizophrenia Bulletin, 37, 432-441.
Perceived community cohesion and the stress process in youth.
Rural Sociology, 76, 293-318.
Gender, parental control, and adolescent risk-taking.
Deviant Behavior, 29, 690-725.
Do older siblings make a difference?
The effects of older sibling support and older sibling adjustment on the adjustment of socially disadvantaged adolescents.
Journal of Research on Adolescence, 10, 127.
Adolescent stress and self-esteem.
Adolescents' coping with stress: Development and diversity.
Prevention Researcher, 15, 3-7.
October 2005 // Volume 43 // Number 5
 Abstract "Some JOE Style Points" talks about terminal punctuation  and superscripts.
"October JOE" highlights three articles that deal with underrepresented audiences and five that deal in one way or another with information technology.
As I said in my August Editor's Page, I am going to start building a JOE style guide in "bits and pieces." The bits I'm tackling this month are terminal punctuation and superscripts.
The phrase "terminal punctuation" sounds so, well, terminal, doesn't it?
But it's just the punctuation convention that calls for a comma before the "or" or "and" in every series, even when a series contains only three items.
That's not the only approved way to punctuate a series.
Associated Press style, for example, does not always call for that "terminal" comma, but JOE style does.
So, before the "or" or "and," even in a short series, insert a comma, and make the JOE editor's life a little easier.
As for superscripts, there's nothing wrong with them--except when it comes to the Web.
For reasons I do not profess to understand, when you use a superscript on the Web it causes spacing problems in the text.
So, for example, instead of writing "21st century" , please make it "21st century."
 These JOE style points will also be posted on the Help for JOE Authors page.
And those are just eight of 28 fine articles.
June 2017 // Volume 55 // Number 3 // Research In Brief // v55-3rb2
 The Purdue University Exhibit Design Center  develops science-based exhibits for Purdue's College of Agriculture and Purdue Extension.
EDC exhibits typically premiere at the Indiana State Fair and then travel to museums throughout the United States.
The EDC developed the exhibit A Salamander Tale  to educate the public about the eastern hellbender salamander, the largest amphibian native to North America.
Misconceptions about the species may lead to antagonistic behavior from humans and hinder conservation efforts.
The exhibit's purpose is to raise awareness about amphibians in general and hellbenders in particular, thereby positively affecting the public's attitude about this unique species.
In August 2015, the exhibit was part of Purdue Extension's presence at the Indiana State Fair.
For most attendees, the Indiana State Fair is simply entertainment, but fairs also provide significant opportunities for education.
During the exhibit's time at the state fair, visitors were surveyed regarding their reactions to the exhibit, their understanding of hellbenders and their habitats, their feelings toward hellbenders, and possible changes in their behavior after learning about hellbenders.
Exhibits are often used for Extension outreach and education.
Past studies on the effectiveness of Extension exhibits have incorporated tools such as logic models in the design of the evaluation.
Others have involved quantitative methods for analyzing data.
However, there is little information available about the intention behind the design and development of the exhibits.
The EDC developed A Salamander Tale on the basis of the works of two sociocognitive theorists: Lev Vygotsky's zone of proximal development  and Jean Piaget's stages of cognitive development.
The exhibit's content was written in three layers.
The first, or bottom, layer was developed for young learners in the kindergarten through grade 2 range.
This content is focused on matching images with labels.
For instance, amphibians are compared with reptiles through images of reptiles' feet with claws on their toes and amphibians' feet without claws.
This first-level information was developed to appeal to the abilities of learners described in Piaget's preoperational stage; learners at this stage are expected to understand symbols and shapes.
The second, or top, layer of content was developed for the adult learners who typically accompany younger learners and includes content focused on Piaget's formal operations stage.
Learners at this stage are expected to understand abstract ideas and be capable of strategy and planning.
Information presented at this stage is about threats to hellbender habitat, the range of the species, and what may be done to help protect the hellbender.
The third, or middle, layer of content was developed to address Vygotsky's ZPD.
This content encourages adult learners to interact with younger learners to help them understand more complex ideas of space  and quantity  and elevate them to Piaget's concrete operational stage.
These layers of content are not abstractions; the printed text and images on the exhibit are also layered, with the lower-level content near the bottom, the upper-level content near the top, and the content targeted at ZPD in the middle.
In addition to images and text, the exhibit includes a diorama showing a life-sized replica of the hellbender, hinged flip labels , and a video game.
A combination of text, images, and hands-on interactivity appeals to learners on many levels, and it makes sense that learners gain more from images and text than from text alone.
This idea is supported by theories on multimedia learning.
Larger exhibits with concrete characteristics such as tactile elements, sound, and visually attractive three-dimensional shapes are best at attracting visitors; exhibits with smaller hands-on interactive elements have a higher holding power.
Holding power  is important and can be used as a measure of an exhibit's effectiveness.
According to John Falk, holding power is bimodal.
Visitors either spend very little time with an exhibit  or a lot of time .
Extension programming has little value unless it is effectively communicated to the public, and it is important to deliver content in various formats.
The video game developed for the exhibit  is titled "Hellbender Havoc" and incorporates the learning objectives of the exhibit into the game play.
The game addresses the following objectives:
 As noted previously, large, attractive three-dimensional exhibits are effective for attracting visitors , and A Salamander Tale has those traits.
The exhibit also incorporates some degree of anthropomorphism.
Anthropomorphism is a tool frequently used by designers to attract younger visitors.
In the case of the eastern hellbender, it is particularly useful.
The hellbender is not an attractive animal; greenish-brown, mottled, slimy, and somewhat aggressive-looking, it does not have endearing qualities.
The exhibit diorama shows a lifelike replica of the hellbender so that visitors can see what the animal really looks like.
The exhibit furniture, however, shows a hellbender with human-like eyes and a smiling mouth along with a softer, more approachable, shape.
Aside from being an effective design technique, anthropomorphism can be useful in other ways.
The anthropomorphism of wildlife creates empathy among exhibit visitors toward exhibit subjects.
For the hellbender, increased empathy is especially important.
As with many creatures, erroneous information about hellbenders is common and often passed on from one generation to the next.
One often-repeated myth is that the hellbender's bite is poisonous.
Increased knowledge and empathy may decrease the spread of misinformation.
Raising awareness of and changing attitudes about hellbenders has significance in another critical area: affective factors may have more influence on public perceptions than scientific or environmental factors.
People are more willing to support funding for conservation if the subject of the funding is something they feel strongly about.
The purpose of the author-created survey was to measure the attitudinal effect the exhibit had on state fair visitors regarding the eastern hellbender.
The survey questions were based on research literature on attitudinal learning, especially literature discussing cognitive, affective, and behavioral learning components.
The survey was administered for 9 days via a touch screen computer kiosk at the Indiana State Fair.
The kiosk had signage asking visitors passing through the Purdue exhibits area to take a brief survey.
An introduction screen asked whether participants were 18 years old or older and explained that participant input was valuable in helping with future exhibits at Purdue's EDC.
The introduction screen explained that the survey was voluntary.
The participants had to agree to take the survey and confirm their age.
If participants indicated that they were not 18 years of age or older, interaction ceased and a screen appeared explaining that a person must be 18 or older to participate.
For those who chose to participate in the survey, onscreen instructions provided directions for how to participate in the survey by touching check boxes.
Subjects could stop participating in the survey at any time.
Following questions designed to collect basic demographic information were nine questions about the cognitive, affective, and behavioral effects of the exhibit on respondents.
During 9 days at the 2015 Indiana State Fair, 409 visitors completed the survey.
The results are presented in Table 1.
Slightly less than half of survey respondents became aware of eastern hellbenders for the first time.
The Indiana State Fair staff estimates annual attendance at the Purdue Extension building to be 95,000 (B.
Blackford, personal communication, August 2013).
Although the percentage of building attendees who took the survey is unknown, given the estimated attendance numbers, the impact of the exhibit likely was significant.
The responses to questions 1 through 8 indicate that A Salamander Tale had a positive effect in informing the public and changing attitudes about hellbenders.
Though 49% of survey respondents did not know what a hellbender salamander was before visiting the exhibit, in all categories, 69% or more reported positive changes in attitude or understanding about hellbenders and their habitats.
Perhaps most important to hellbender conservation efforts, 73% of survey respondents claimed they would change their behavior and 70% claimed they would tell others what they learned by visiting the exhibit.
The positive response to the video game as the most informative part of the exhibit reinforces the effectiveness of presenting information by using a multimedia approach.
Whereas other methods are somewhat effective, "multimedia materials other than games do not usually require the rapid responding that is typical of action games, nor do they evoke the same levels of motivation" (Mayer, 2005, p.
Compared to a simple multimedia lesson, playing games has been demonstrated to increase learning by 69%.
Video games may or may not be the best tool for conveying exhibit content; the constraints of some exhibit designs may dictate that an exhibit use no electricity, or the exhibit budget and timeline may not allow for the development of an electronic interactive.
When conditions for a video game do exist, the learning objectives of the exhibit or the learning objectives from the specific exhibit area can serve as a guide for game design.
Large, one-topic exhibits are effective vehicles for communicating natural science topics, and using text, images, and video games reinforces simple learning objectives.
The survey described here was limited to respondents 18 years of age or older, and the positive responses to the survey indicate that the content directed at learners in the formal operational stage was very effective.
Extension professionals interested in using learning theories to guide the development of exhibits should consider the design process tested by the EDC as an effective way to present information to an adult audience.
Using Piaget's stages of development and a scaffolded delivery of content focused on Vygotsky's ZPD should be effective for exhibits with one message or in each area of exhibits with multiple messages.
In addition, survey questions can be modified for use in various exhibit settings through the insertion of language referring to different Extension topics.
To test the effectiveness of the scaffolding of content, further evaluation of the exhibit should include input from the target learners in the preoperational and concrete operational stages of development.
Future evaluations should be conducted to reach younger learners through the use of face-to-face survey techniques.
Conducting face-to-face surveys will provide an opportunity to ask parents and guardians to sign consent forms giving permission for their children to speak to evaluators.
Collecting the responses of those in the lower age ranges will give the EDC and Purdue Extension information critical for making design decisions for content targeted at that audience.
Outcome evaluation is important, but process evaluation is the key to improving future projects.
Face-to-face interaction will also provide an opportunity to do preand post-visit surveys.
By observing families in a venue, evaluators can ask pre-visit questions of children and their families as they move into the exhibit area and post-visit questions as they exit the exhibit area.
Although the survey described here is valuable as a measurement of overall increases in awareness and changes in attitude, a pre-visit/post-visit survey format in future studies would provide more insights into specific exhibit features and elements.
The relationship between exhibit characteristics and learningassociated behaviors in a science museum discovery space.
Science Education, 79, 503518.
Anthropomorphism as a conservation tool.
Biodiversity and Conservation, 21, 1889.
Effect size: A guide for researchers and users.
Revista De Psicologa, 21, 145177.
Vygotsky, Piaget, and education: A reciprocal assimilation of theories and educational practices.
New Ideas in Psychology, 18, 187213.
The use of time as a measure of visitor behavior and exhibit effectiveness.
Roundtable Reports, 7, 1013.
Naturalizing anthropomorphism: Behavioral prompts to our humanizing of animals.
Structured design for attitudinal instruction.
Reigeluth , Instructional-design theories and models: A new paradigm of instructional theory (Vol.
2), Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
State fairs' role in educating the public about agriculture.
Successful Farming, 109, 23.
The non-economic motives behind the willingness to pay for biodiversity conservation.
Biological Conservation, 139, 6782.
The Cambridge handbook of multimedia learning.
New York, NY: University of Cambridge.
Multimedia learning.
New York, NY: Cambridge University Press.
Conserving the eastern hellbender salamander.
Human Dimensions of Wildlife, 19, 166178.
Mom told me scary things about this animal: Parents installing fear beliefs in their children via the verbal information pathway.
Behaviour Research and Therapy, 48, 341346.
Instructional technology and attitude change.
Jonassen , Handbook of research for educational communications and technology (pp.
Mayway, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates.
October 1994 // Volume 32 // Number 3 // Ideas at Work // 3IAW3
 Abstract "I Love My Village" is a successful community based program in Taiwan.
Community physical development and spiritual and psychological well-being are the main emphases.
Collaboration, focusing on the family and community as a whole, and empowerment are the key implications for the Cooperative Extension System in the United States.
They were also the key to implementing this program to empower individuals, families, and villages to be self-reliant and self-improving.
"I Love My Village" is a successful Extension program in Taiwan.
The program was started in 1980 and by the end of 1990, 819 villages had conducted this program.
The funding resources include federal, county, and town government, farmer associations, and local organizations.
About one half of these villages' funding came from local farmer associations , and local organizations.
The purpose of this program is to empower individuals, families, and villages to be self-reliant and self-improving so they will improve their quality of life and build a healthy environment.
This program not only emphasizes community physical development, but also promotes spiritual and psychological well-being.
Internal and external collaboration are the keys to implementing this program.
Agricultural, youth development, and home economics Extension agents working together are the three main groups to carry out this program in cooperation with other community agencies.
The program is delivered through Extension education clubs , activities, workshops, and home visits.
Village leaders and volunteers are key people to help implement the program and recruit clientele.
Extension agents help villages to organize a committee.
The committee includes Extension advisory council members, leaders, farmer association members, and a village master.
Extension agents assist the committee to design their village development plan.
They also provide training, support, supervision, resources, collaboration, and evaluation to help villages implement the program.
This program addresses five main issues:
 Improvement of agricultural products and marketing.
These programs focus on increasing the quality of agricultural products and improving the system of production and marketing operations, such as irrigation, communication, farm mechanization, soil and fertilization improvements, and integration of production and marketing.
Agricultural Extension agents, marketing organizations, and other related agencies work together to meet the needs of the people.
For instance, farmer associations and banks provide loans with low or no interest to farmers.
Agricultural Extension agents provide training, workshops, field trips, and use one-on-one contact to help enhance farmers' agricultural skills.
Improvement and beautification of the living environment.
This program provides funding for improving drainage systems, road repairs, sanitation, recycling, composts, and a village garden.
Each village chooses one kind of flower as their village symbol  to plant on two sides of the main road and at a village recreational center.
People in the village have to take care of a public garden and clean roads.
Some villages have families take turns, but others have 4-H club members or school students help.
Farmers can apply for loans and subsidies to build or remodel a house from this program and obtain assistance from the housing department.
Home economics agents not only help families plan to improve their kitchen, bedroom, bathroom, living room, and yard, but also work with the housing department to help families improve their living environment.
This program emphasizes leadership training and cultivates healthy citizens.
4-H Extension agents provide activities and workshops which focus on learning by doing and working by learning.
The main purpose is to enhance young people's physical, mental, moral, and intellectual development, as well as provide an appropriate and healthy learning environment for youth.
Strengthening individual and family well-being.
Helping families to be self-sufficient and have a good quality of life is essential.
Home economics Extension agents provide practical education and support to help individuals and families increase their knowledge and skills on nutrition, health, family strengths, child care, parenting, consumer education, and financial record keeping.
Home economics Extension agents also need to work with schools, the health department, social services, and other local agencies to meet the needs of individuals and families.
Home visits, workshops, field trips, and homemaker clubs are strategies to expand education programs.
Promotion of culture, literature, morals, and mental health.
This program uses community resources and collaborative efforts to enhance spiritual well-being.
One example is "Doing a good thing for others each month." Agricultural Extension, 4-H, and home economics agents usually work with related agencies to provide various activities and classes in areas such as literature, recreation, cultural traditions, arts, athletics, and health promotion.
This also strengthens cultural values and mental and moral health to establish a strong village.
Every village has different programs of various events to promote the ideas of "I Love My Village" and to provide appropriate activities for people to get together and work together.
At the end of the year, there is an evaluation to document their efforts and the success of collaboration.
This makes these people feel worthy and proud of their contributions and living environment.
These villages usually become independent after several years guidance from the Extension service.
They also become a model for other villages.
The idea of "I Love My Village" motivates people to be aware of their strengths and realize that building a healthy village is everyone's responsibility, from the young to the old.
It also demonstrates the importance of collaboration.
Implications for the U.S.A.
Internal and external collaborative networks are the key to a successful program.
Otherwise, competition among agencies and organizations will become a barrier against program development and implementation.
Cooperative Extension should use the empowerment approach and act as a catalyst to enlighten people to use their strengths to challenge their environment and take action.
A successful program should focus on family and community as a whole--and not just individuals.
Hence, it is important to take a community or neighborhood approach and have local people, businesses, organizations, agencies and representatives from the target population involved in planning, implementation, evaluation, and recognition of the program.
Using Extension clubs as the primary groups to start the program would be helpful.
Although some states have eliminated Extension clubs, they may need to consider using these clubs as the main group to expand Extension education programs.
Moreover, a well organized committee, community leaders, and volunteers are key people to implement programs.
In particular, using volunteers as a bridge to conduct Extension programs has been one important delivery method in Cooperative Extension.
It is important to continue to provide on-going leadership training and recruit more volunteers from various backgrounds to be involved in Extension programs.
Finally, a successful program also needs to include recognition.
This recognition not only shows appreciation of people's contributions and efforts, but also raises awareness on the value of collaboration.
Department of Agriculture and Forestry.
Agricultural Extension education plan 1991.
Chung-hsien Village: Taiwan Provincial Government.
Extending Extension's Outreach: Using Student Interns as a Resource for Obtaining Implementation of Irrigation Improvements Abstract Student interns are a resource that can increase the capacities of Extension professionals.
Trained student interns based out of Nebraska Extension offices provided water and energy reduction recommendations to irrigators using center pivot irrigation systems.
Follow-up interviews and a survey performed 1 to 3 years after the original assistance indicated impacts at levels similar to those garnered via previous assistance from Extension staff.
In almost all cases, irrigators implemented soil water sensors, and the main motivations for doing so were financial.
Recommendations for other improvements were infrequently implemented; however, as part of making those recommendations, the student interns collected fuel usage data that allowed for quantifying the energy and greenhouse gas impacts from reduced water use.
Department of Agriculture, 2013).
One perhaps often overlooked resource available to Extension professionals for disseminating this and other information is university student interns.
The use of student interns to extend the ability of Extension professionals and programs to provide direct education to Extension clientele has been shown to be effective and successful.
Therefore, we identified student interns as a potential resource for extending the outreach efforts of Nebraska Extension.
In the study reported here, we examined the efficacy of using engineering student interns, supported by Extension educators and specialists, to provide on-site assistance to  agricultural irrigators, with the goal of facilitating changes in the irrigators' practices.
Tools of the TradeExtending Extension's Outreach: Using Student Interns as a Resource for Obtaining Implementation of Irrigation Improvements Initially the students received 2 weeks' training in preparing reports for irrigators, using Extension guides, evaluating irrigation and pumping systems to reduce water and energy use, and using evapotranspiration  gauges and soil water sensors.
Each student was assigned to an Extension office and received day-to-day assistance by an Extension educator who was located at the office and had expertise in ET gauges and soil water sensors.
The participating educators had received relevant training as part of the Nebraska Agricultural Water Management Network program, which was started in 2005 to promote water conservation among irrigators through education and demonstrations of innovative irrigation techniques and use of soil water sensors.
Over the five summers during which the project occurred, 18 students participated.
The students worked in six Extension offices, with three to five students participating each summer.
All irrigators involved in the program used center pivot systems to irrigate maize and were located in a region of Nebraska where the farms share similar climatic conditions and an average growing-season precipitation range of 15 to 18 in.
.
Each student assisted 10 irrigators with soil water probe installation and interpretation, assessed the irrigators' pumping and irrigation systems, and made recommendations for improvements of irrigation system components.
Soil water sensors and ET gauges usually were supplied at no charge or a nominal cost <<20 each) by the local natural resources district or Extension office and became the property of the irrigators.
The main "cost" to an irrigator was the time required to interpret the sensor's data, remove the sensor at the end of the season, and install it the next growing season.
Data students obtained from the irrigators included water used per irrigation event, pumping plant efficiency, fuel/energy type and consumption, and cost to pump irrigation water.
The students prepared an economic analysis for each irrigator related to the benefits of soil water sensor use and other irrigation system improvements.
To quantify fuel use reductions and cost savings associated with the program, we interviewed irrigators by phone 1 to 3 years after the student assistance had occurred.
Of 52 irrigators randomly selected from those who participated in the first four summers of the program, we successfully interviewed 43.
After the interviews, we sent irrigators a survey by mail, and 44% responded.
Respondents selected from a list of potential motivations to indicate why they had or had not implemented each recommendation.
Program Results Implementation Rate Of the 40 irrigators who received the recommendation to implement soil water sensors, 39  did SO.
The interns also had made 22 suggestions to irrigators regarding improvements other than implementation of soil water sensors, typically related to replacing inefficient engines and aging sprinkler packages.
The irrigators implemented only five  of these "other suggestions." Compared to the implementation rate  revealed in a 2014 survey of Nebraska manufacturers who received similar student assistance , the implementation rates by participants in our study were extremely high for soil water sensors and low for the other suggested improvements.
Water Use Reduction Every interviewed irrigator who implemented the water sensors reported a reduction in water use.
The average water use reduction for the irrigators was 1.86 in.
of water for maize.
Yearly, irrigators reduced water application by an average of about 6.60 million gal per irrigation system, with an average yearly water use of 47,800 gal/ac.
This result is comparable to the water reduction rate associated with soil water sensor education provided by Nebraska Extension educators.
Energy Use Reduction The interns inspected irrigation water pumps and collected energy use data.
The observed variability in fuel use  reflects differences in pump efficiencies, field elevations, and well depths.
Though diesel was the most expensive fuel used, it is commonly used by irrigators for pumping water in the region because it is readily available and does not require electric lines or gas lines to each pump.
Fuel Use and Cost of Pumping Plants Fuel usage per Fuel cost per Ave.
Number in study circle Superscript circle Superscript Ave.
usage cost irrigator gasb-MT Fuel type usage Range cost Range savings savings fuel cost  Irrigators Pumps  circle  circle acre acre   Diesel  17 32 330  170$1,100 $3604.6 $16 $3,900 3.7  550  $1,900 Natural gas 12 16 75,000 38,000$370 $140830 $4.10 $700 3.8    110,000  $670 Electricity 15 21 4,500 2,700$350 $20064 $4.80 $900 4.2    12,000  $850 Propane  4 5 520  130$750 $1807.2 $10 $1,400 2.4  830  $1,300 aA circle is a full 360-degree rotation of a center pivot irrigation system.
bConversion factors for each specific energy source are from the 2014 U.S.
Environmental Protection Agency  greenhouse gas spreadsheet based on state-specific data from the U.S.
EPA, 2012, 2013) and using global warming potentials  from the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change's Fourth Assessment Report  (U.S.
cMT CO2E = metric tons CO2 equivalent.
Greenhouse Gas Emissions Table 1 lists the greenhouse gas emissions from each fuel type based on the combustion at the pump for diesel, natural gas, and propane and the combustion at the power plant for electricity.
The three nonelectric fuels resulted in similar emission values.
The high proportion of fossil fuels used to power the electric grid in eastern Nebraska influenced the higher value for electricity.
Motivation for Implementing Suggestions The main motivations for implementing the recommendations were financial .
A secondary driver was reduction of "business risk," indicating a desire to lessen the potential of decreased production rates or increased cost.
Motivations for Implemented Suggestions Other All implemented Soil water sensor implemented suggestions suggestions b suggestions # Motivating factor Selected % # Selected % # Selected % Acceptable payback 20 77% 15 88% 5 56% Reduced operating 20 77% 15 88% 5 56% cost Energy efficiency 18 69% 13 76% 5 56% Reduced business risk 17 65% 12 71% 5 56% Enhanced 10 38% 6 35% 4 44% environmental awareness Increased employee 8 31% 4 24% 4 44% productivity Improved public 6 23% 5 29% 1 11% image Regulatory 3 12% 3 24% o 0% compliance Reduced 3 12% 3 18% o 0% environmental and health risk Neighbors also 1 4% 1 6% o 0% implemented Note: The numbers in this table are based on the total 26 implemented suggestions.
aThere were 26 total implemented suggestions.
bThere were 17 soil water sensor suggestions.
cThere were 9 other implemented suggestions.
The survey results are comparable to other work indicating that irrigators are motivated to adopt new technology by financial drivers and the desire to produce higher quality crops.
The results from our survey suggest that financial considerations, especially long payback periods, were the major reasons for nonimplementation.
Summary Trained student interns working together with local Extension educators can help irrigators implement positive changes in their irrigation system management to reduce water use, fuel use, and greenhouse gas emissions.
This information may be useful for Extension specialists and educators to justify using financial resources to hire student interns to extend their program's reach.
Acknowledgments We are grateful to the 43 irrigators who participated in this assessment and the University of Nebraska-Lincoln Extension educators Aaron Nygren, Wayne Ohnesorg, Jenny Rees, Ron Seymour, Amy Timmerman, and Brandy VanDerWaals that provided extensive support of student interns at their local offices.
Environmental Protection Agency Region VII's Pollution Prevention Incentives for States grants program provided direct funding support for the student interns.
Externships in sustainability program as an outreach tool for Extension.
The adoption of improved irrigation technology and management practices-A study of two irrigation districts in Alberta, Canada.
Agricultural Water Management, 96, 121-131.
Modified atmometers  for irrigation management [NebGuide G05-1579].
Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska-Lincoln Extension.
Principles and operational characteristics of Watermark granular matrix sensor to measure soil water status and its practical applications for irrigation management in various soil textures [Extension Circular EC783].
Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska-Lincoln Extension.
Nebraska Agricultural Water Management Demonstration Network : Integrating research and extension/outreach.
Applied Engineering in Agriculture, 26, 599-613.
Spatial and temporal variability of precipitation across Nebraska [Extension Circular EC2002].
Lincoln, NE: University of Nebraska-Lincoln Extension.
Implementation of sustainability improvements at the facility level: Motivations and barriers.
Journal of Cleaner Production, 139, Tools of the TradeExtending Extension's Outreach: Using Student Interns as a Resource for Obtaining Implementation of Irrigation Improvements JOE 56 1529-1538.
Involving undergraduate students as Extension program interns.
2013 farm and ranch irrigation survey.
Retrieved from https://www.agcensus.usda.gov/Publications/2012/Online, Resources/Farm and Ranch Irrigation Survey/ U.S.
eGrid 2012  [Data file].
Retrieved from tp://www.epa.gov/cleanenergy/energy-resources/egrid/ U.S.
Memorandum: Table of final 2013 revisions to the greenhouse gas reporting rule [PDF file].
Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/ghgreporting/documents/pdf/2013/documents/memo-2013-technical-revisions.pdf U.S.
Articles appearing in the Journal become the property of the Journal.
Single copies of articles may be reproduced in electronic or print form for use in educational or training activities.
If you have difficulties viewing or printing this page, please contact JOE Technical Support
August 2019 // Volume 57 // Number 4 // Tools of the Trade // v57-4tt3
 Many higher education institutions are facing budget challenges and declines in financial support, a circumstance that creates considerable constraints for Extension, along with the need for creativity in addressing those constraints.
Budget cuts can greatly reduce specialists' abilities to provide education and other resources to the communities they serve.
Crowdfunding is a viable tool Extension specialists can use to offset some of the deficits in traditional funding sources.
Although Hill et al.
encouraged the pursuit of crowdfunding in Extension by articulating what it is and why it might benefit the organization, specialists may not know how to undertake the process.
We provide a seven-step procedure for conducting crowdfunding  and an example of a successfully crowdfunded project to help Extension specialists use crowdfunding as a tool.
Additionally, the appendix comprises a list of example crowdfunding sites and their stated foci.
Does your university currently have mechanisms for supporting crowdfunding ?
What university office can provide resources or best fit the purposes of your project?
Would the university see crowdfunding as conflicting with existing foundation, fundraising, or advancement initiatives?
How money is channeled through the university  may depend on project goals  and the crowdfunding site used.
If the project represents research or program evaluation, offices that handle sponsored programs may be supportive.
Fundraising for applied work may be best routed through Extension or the nonprofit branch of the university.
Some crowdfunding sites are tailored to universities and have a "frequently asked questions" section to answer administrator questions.
Who are the potential stakeholders who also care about this project ?
Who is your intended audience or crowd for your fundraising campaign?
Stakeholders with particularly strong interest can form an advisory committee that provides diverse resources to your project, such as knowledge about the issue and/or community, social networks to help spread the word or donate, feedback on the cultural appropriateness of your messaging and advertising pitch, passion to keep the team motivated, etc.
Thinking in grant application terms, what is the "funding call or agency"  that best fits your proposal or end goal?
What is the crowdfunding source's focus, and does it align with your needs and goals?
How will you convince "grant reviewers"  that the problem is important and you can address it?
If there is a question that needs to be answered, why and how will your research answer that question?
If there is a need in the community you serve, how will your program address that need?
How can you most effectively communicate the importance of your project to the people who would care about it?
Many crowdfunding sites recommend that you begin planning well in advance of launching your campaign.
Similar to writing a grant proposal, you likely will write on your crowdfunding web page about a compelling need that your project will address, and this should fit the goal of the crowdfunding site used.
Crowdfunding sites have usually done research on what information and delivery methods are most effective for reaching their audiences, so you should read their guides, recommendations, and required web page elements before you start developing your page content.
Many sites also offer consultants or "coaches" who can help you in your efforts by providing suggestions and feedback regarding your crowdfunding page before you launch.
What are strategies that will encourage potential stakeholders to donate?
Some crowdfunding sites encourage incentive structures that provide larger incentives for larger donations.
The incentives need to match the interests and priorities of your stakeholders.
Incentives can be items, opportunities, public acknowledgments, or services.
For example, for smaller donations, you might offer a t-shirt or mug with your program's logo on it, and for larger donations, funders may be listed in the acknowledgments of a publication, training manual, or presentation.
It is helpful to pilot test ideas with potential stakeholders  already in your network to get their feedback on your proposal and incentives before you launch your campaign.
It is critical to have diverse mechanisms for disseminating awareness of your project.
Although fliers, announcements, and social media are helpful, mapping the personal and professional networks of your team members and talking to people face-to-face is invaluable and will require "all hands on deck" once your campaign has launched.
Some crowdfunding sites provide workbooks and guides to help you develop a comprehensive fundraising strategy that reaches deep into your existing networks.
Once you launch  your initial campaign, it is not over!
The campaign builds a group of stakeholders who are invested, to varying degrees, in the project.
Continued engagement can lead to more momentum  and repeat donations of time, money, and talent or additional connections.
Providing updates on the project to donors allows them to stay engaged with their investment.
Give stakeholders a "behind the scenes" look at the research or program development and implementation process, and let them know you are "making good on your promises" and having an impact.
Ongoing engagement mechanisms are built into many crowdfunding sites  but also can be done through social media or in-person meetings or events.
Relevate is a transdisciplinary team of researchers and practitioners on a mission to make research-based information about interpersonal relationships accessible to all.
Relevate was developed by Amber V.
Vennum , who also serves as the executive director.
Kale Monk  serves as the director of outreach and engagement, and Jeremy B.
Kanter  serves as a content development specialist for Relevate.
Although social scientists have been researching what makes relationships thrive for decades , there is a gap between what researchers know about healthy relationships and what is accessible to the general public.
Relevate is addressing that gap.
A website, MyRelevate, is being refined through beta testing and content creation, and an associated mobile application is being developed.
Through the MyRelevate platform, scholars, clinicians, and relationship educators can share  research-based content written for the public.
Public users can then tailor newsfeeds of trustworthy research-based information about relationships according to their unique interests and circumstances.
We applied Steps 14 outlined in Table 1 to make initial determinations about using crowdfunding in developing MyRelevate.
We chose to crowdfund because of our focus on engaging stakeholders to improve the programMyRelevate is continually improved on the basis of feedback from professional and public stakeholders.
A previous mechanism for crowdfunding did not exist at the second author's university; thus, several meetings with preaward services personnel, department administrators, university accountants, and foundation representatives were needed to arrange appropriate university mechanisms for supporting the project.
We determined that in addition to professionals, the crowdfunding campaign would target  young adults, due to their prolific use of social media  and smartphones across demographic groups , and  people who care about young adult relationships, such as parents and youth leaders.
We chose to use Indiegogo because we were focused on promoting an educational product, a relationship education tool.
As for incentive structures , we devised a system whereby donation amounts were matched to different levels of "perks," some that were promotional  and others that were engagement-based incentives specific to both professional audiences who might become future "contributors" of MyRelevate content  and public audiences who might use MyRelevate in the future.
We determined that all donors would be listed on the MyRelevate website.
To market the campaign, we shared our project via social media and other academic outlets.
The campaign resulted in our surpassing our goal to raise $6,850 in 1 month.
Finally, we have continued to update stakeholders about new developments within MyRelevate.
An advantage of crowdfunding over traditional funding sources is the opportunity to build community awareness and support for a project.
In addition to the ideas proposed by Hill et al.
, we would add that this tool can be used to purchase or develop curricula or programs, build community teams and resources, or provide incentives that increase public participation in programs.
For example, crowdfunding could be used for developing a nutrition class or for providing grocery cards to participants in a nutrition class to facilitate their buying the fruits and vegetables discussed in the class.
Crowdfunding is an important resource Extension specialists can use to offset declines in traditional funding sources and support the communities they serve.
Ellen Berscheid, Elaine Hatfield, and the emergence of relationship science.
Perspectives on Psychological Science, 8, 558572.
Evidenceinformed program improvement: Using principles of effectiveness to enhance the quality and impact of familybased prevention programs.
Family Relations, 58, 113.
August 2009 // Volume 47 // Number 4 // Research In Brief // v47-4rb8
 The lawn and landscape practices of homeowners can collectively affect the environment.
Fertilizers and pesticides pollute water resources.
Enormous amounts of potable drinking water are squandered on lawns and landscapes.
Waste management systems are burdened by yard debris that homeowners could recycle as mulch or compost.
In light of this, Extension educational programs focusing on environmentally friendly landscape practices have emerged nationwide.
In 1992, Florida Extension initiated a statewide educational program now called the "Florida Yards and Neighborhoods Program"  that emphasizes how landscape practices affect both the health of the yard and the environment
 The goal of the program is behavior change, centered on nine major practices:
 The findings presented here are part of a larger study that attempted to identify ways to focus the resources and efforts of Extension to increase adoption of environmentally friendly landscape practices.
The section of the study presented here examined three questions:
 The original study also investigated the perceived positive and negative outcomes  resulting from the adoption of landscape practices.
A self-administered questionnaire was developed to gather demographic and landscape behavior data.
Content and face validity were established by three panels of experts that included University of Florida horticulture faculty and research and measurement specialists.
Four groups pre-tested the questionnaire, and an estimation of the reliability of the final version was established using the test-retest method.
The population consisted of 2,050 former participants in Extension FYN educational programs.
The sample size was calculated using Yamane's  formula 2), where n is the sample size, N is the population size and e is the level of precision.
Assuming a 95% confidence level and a 50% non-response level, a sample size of 845 was determined and rounded to 900.
A questionnaire and cover letter were mailed, followed-up by a reminder postcard 1 week later.
Three weeks after the first mailing, a second questionnaire was mailed to non-respondents, and 7 weeks after the first mailing, a third questionnaire was sent to those who had not yet responded.
Part I of the questionnaire focused on demographic information; Part II focused on six lawn and landscape practices, listed below.
For each practice, respondents were asked to identify their approach to it.
An example of a practice  and approaches to that practice are displayed in Figure 1.
Figure 1.Example from the Questionnaire of One of the Six Landscape Practices Examined
 Frequencies were calculated for all demographic variables and for each of the six landscape practices.
Bivariate relationships were explored between each practice and each demographic variable.
The same relationship was explored between the adoption of all six practices.
Kendall's tau correlation coefficients were determined for all ordinal data; eta correlation coefficients were calculated on all categorical data.
Correlations that met or exceeded a threshold value of.20  were considered to be meaningful.
All data analyses were performed using SPSS version 9.0.
The response rate to the questionnaire was 76%.
The typical participant in the study was college-educated , female , over the age of 56 , and a resident of Florida for more than 10 years.
They resided in urban/suburban communities  that were not deed-restricted  or gated.
The typical size of their yard was between 10,000 and 14,000 square feet.
They worked 8 to 15 hours a month on their yard  and spent about $700 per year on it.
They, or someone in their household, maintained the lawn , and landscape plants , and made the decisions about the care of the lawn  and landscape.
They used city/county-supplied water as their irrigation source.
Respondents were, for the most part, adopters of environmentally friendly approaches to landscape practices.
Grass clippings were recycled or reused by 97% ; 94% mowed correctly ; 53% spot-treated pesticides as needed on the lawn, 20% routinely treated it, and 27% did not use pesticides on the lawn.
In regards to pesticide use on landscape plants, 66% of the respondents spot treated as needed, 4% routinely applied pesticides, and 29% indicated they did not apply pesticides at all.
Slow-release fertilizer use was reported by 83% of the respondents, 7% used quick-release fertilizers, and 11% said they applied no fertilizers at all.
Seventy-nine percent answered that they irrigated as needed , 8% watered according to a routine schedule, and 13% watered only to establish new plants.
As indicated in Table 1, correlations between landscape practices and demographic variables  were found for only Practice 3-Pesticide use on the Lawn.
Group means indicate a positive relationship between the most environmentally friendly approach and years lived in Florida , living in a community that was not deed restricted , doing the maintenance themselves  and making decisions about the maintenance.
None of the other five practices were correlated  with any of the demographic variables.
However, PRMean, the mean scores on all six practices, was correlated with several demographic variables.
A statistically significant relationship was found between the PRMean of those who use environmentally friendly approaches and those who do not live in deed restricted communities , those who maintain and make decisions themselves , money spent per year  and municipally supplied irrigation water.
In summary, notable demographic characteristics associated with respondents and their landscape behaviors were:
 Education: In the study reported here, nearly 54% of the respondents had achieved a Bachelors Degree.
Of that group, almost 9% had completed some graduate school and 22% had a graduate degree.
A technical or community college degree or some college study had been completed by 35% of the respondents.
Fewer than than 11% achieved 12th grade or its equivalent, and 0.1% reported achieving less than 12th grade.
Deed Restrictions: Respondents who adopted the most environmentally friendly approach to all six practices  did not live in deed-restricted or gated communities.
Sixty-six percent of the respondents who lived in deed-restricted communities had a maintenance service, whereas 37% who did not live in a deed-restricted community used one.
Gender: Sixty-two percent of the respondents were female.
These female clients as a whole were adopters of environmental landscape practices and did not differ substantially from their male counterparts in that regard.
Exceptional behavior was evident only where pesticides were concerned; females were more likely than males to spot-treat pesticides as needed  or to not use pesticides at all.
Length of Residence: Respondents were largely long-time residents of Florida.
Almost 72% reported they had resided in the state for more than 10 years.
Forty-eight percent of the respondents had lived in the state for more than 21 years; only 0.6%, represented had lived in the state fewer than 2 years.
Who Decides?: Those respondents who adopted the most environmentally friendly approaches also did the maintenance and decision making themselves.
Money Spent per Year: Less money spent per year was a strong demographic correlate with the adoption of the most environmentally friendly approaches.
The findings from the study reported here have possible implications for Extension faculty who work in the area of horticulture.
Most of the respondents in the study were adopters of the six environmentally friendly practices investigated.
These findings support former research of Florida Extension programs addressing environmental landscape practices  indicating that clientele exposure to Extension educational information usually leads to adoption of environmental landscape practices.
Some recommendations for practice are the following.
Introduction to statistics.
New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston.
Nutrient pollution of coastal rivers, bays, and seas.
Issues in Ecology, Issue 7.
Converting yard wastes into landscape assets.
Gainesville, FL: University of Florida, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences.
Environmental landscape management: Use of practices by Florida consumers (Bulletin No.
Gainesville, FL: University of Florida, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences.
Social marketing study of individuals' environmental landscape practices CSI File No.
.
Social marketing study of the perceptions Tampa Bay homeowners have regarding environmental landscape practices CSI File No.
.
Statistics: An introductory analysis.
New York: Harper and Row.
October 2017 // Volume 55 // Number 5 // Commentary // v55-5comm1
 Two issues we are addressing in the Alabama Cooperative Extension System  and the Alabama Agricultural Experiment Station  are  distinguishing ourselves from all the other information sources available through the Internet and industry and  educating our stakeholders on the critical value of unbiased, research-based recommendations.
We know that information sources over the past 30 years have evolved from personal and paper sources to include a vast array of Internet sites.
Internet resources can immediately deliver a wide range of information on any topic ; however, anyone relying on those resources must carefully vet them for accuracy.
If we in Extension want to continue to have an impact on agriculture and other areas, we must educate our stakeholders on the critical value of unbiased, research-based information.
In addition, we must value teamwork and stakeholder input , especially if we want to remain strong in an industry full of choices.
Unfortunately, stakeholders typically do not have knowledge of the efforts we expend to provide unbiased, research-based information.
In particular, agricultural stakeholders are seldom aware of the multitude of on-farm demonstrations, small-plot research trials, labor hours, experiences, and personal communications that underlie our recommendations.
In fact, even we often do not realize the amount of human and financial resources we have invested in developing management recommendations.
Herein, we use a real-world example of our response to a specific crop problem to illustrate why and how we in Extension should educate stakeholders on the effort involved in providing unbiased, research-based recommendations.
It is critical that we continue to emphasize the difference between information provided by Extension and that provided by sources that often have a financial, "market-based" agenda.
Our discussion addresses the expanse of the work conducted and the ways in which we communicated to stakeholders not only vital recommendations but a description of the immense effort we undertook to produce those recommendations.
For the project we are using as an example, a team was assembled for management of target spot , a devastating late-season foliar disease in upland cotton.
The overall yield impact can be a 30% reduction from what is expected.
The specific objectives were  to acquire stakeholder input, identify the specific problem, and develop a management team;  to use unbiased methods to plan and conduct small-plot research and on-farm demonstrations; and  to compile and interpret our findings without predetermined outcomes and then make that information available to our stakeholders.
In taking action to achieve our objectives, we were guided by the principles of encouraging producer involvement, taking advantage of the expertise and resources available in Extension and research, and avoiding any outside influences that could bias the results.
To begin the process, the team leader recognized the need to form a rapid, comprehensive response to develop TS management options.
Responsibilities for that response were distributed across ACES and AAES personnel.
Our team discussed the problem and potential impact on cotton at semiannual meetings  and through emails, ACES Timely Information fact sheets, and regional Extension agent  and agent training webinars, which were also made available to stakeholders via YouTube.
After the initial training webinars, we contacted crop advisors and producers in the affected areas to determine the extent of the problem.
Stakeholder involvement continued throughout the project during on-site farm visits, county production meetings, state commodity commission meetings, and phone contacts.
Next, we prepared for and conducted small-plot research and on-farm demonstration trials.
These efforts involved significant collaboration, coordination, and manpower.
During the early planning stages, we met with Extension and research scientist colleagues from Louisiana State University, Mississippi State University, University of Arkansas, University of Florida, University of Georgia, and University of Tennessee, as well as with representatives from Cotton Incorporated, to build a robust multistate collaboration.
Each group met with its respective state cotton producer commission to secure funding for its own TS management projects.
Our efforts in Alabama resulted in securing $485,800 from several sources, including the state cotton commission, Cotton Incorporated, Southern Region Integrated Pest Management, and the National Institute of Food and Agriculture.
With funding secured, we began the broad scope of work that occurred from 2012 through 2016.
With the need for a rapid yet comprehensive response, we conducted 100 trials over 5 years at the research and Extension centers  and in producer fields.
The highest concentrations of work were at the Gulf Coast REC and Brewton Agricultural Research Unit because those research units are located in the epicenter of the initial outbreak in southwest Alabama.
ACES and AAES personnel worked 6,700 man-hours, not including travel time.
Finally, we compiled and analyzed all the data, interpreted the results as a team, and then transferred the findings to our stakeholders.
Our results were rapidly communicated by ACES in a far-reaching approach that included meetings with stakeholder committees, in-person contacts, on-farm tours, regional production meetings, and use of social media.
The results were presented to scientists and producers at state and national conferences and published in ACES Timely Information fact sheets, the annual AAES cotton research bulletin, abstracts, proceedings, refereed technical reports, and a peer-reviewed journal article.
We also made the information available as social media content, including YouTube videos and Twitter alerts that highlighted TS diagnosis and management recommendations.
Using our project as an example of teamwork and rapid response is helping us improve stakeholder understanding of and appreciation for ACES and the AAES.
As has already been mentioned, it is critical for Extension to emphasize the amount of work supporting our recommendations and to make clear that our results are free from outside, market-driven influences.
As we present our findings and describe the work that went into this project, we encounter both surprise and positive response with regard to the breadth and depth of our efforts.
Perhaps, then, the most significant part of our project for Extension as a whole has been demonstrating the importance of presenting an overall view of a project to our stakeholders.
With an understanding of the amounts of time, effort, and money required to develop recommendations, funding sources may be more compelled to support Extension programs.
Although we knew we had done a tremendous amount of work on our project, it came as some surprise even to us when all aspects of the effort were documented.
If this is the case for those who participate in an Extension effort, how much more important is it for our stakeholders to be explicitly informed about these circumstances as well?
We carry the primary burden of informing others of the efforts routinely conducted by Extension researchers and educators if we are to remain critical to stakeholders in agriculture and other areas.
In most states, there exists a leadership stakeholder group that acts to steer policy and funding toward projects that impact members' interests.
We have found that the likelihood of success, support, and appreciation for ACES and AAES efforts is greater when that group is brought into the decision-making process early in the initiation of a project.
It is easy to get sidetracked with project results such that mission drift occurs and the impact directly to the stakeholders is never adequately communicated.
Our experience has been that meeting with the stakeholder steering group in person with team members present is the best way to pass along findings and convey the effort behind those results.
This meeting between Extension, researchers, and the steering group should occur before the release of information to the general public.
In this way, the steering group continues to be part of the overall team and can be given appropriate credit among their peers so that their constituency will support our efforts going forward.
We would like to thank the Extension agents, specialists, and AAES directors involved for their dedication and work throughout the TS investigation project.
These include Christy Hicks, ACES Agronomic Crops Regional Agent; Dennis Delaney, ACES Agronomic Crops Specialist; Malcomb Pegues, director, Gulf Coast REC; and Jarrod Jones, associate director, Gulf Coast REC.
October 2017 // Volume 55 // Number 5 // Tools of the Trade // v55-5tt5
 We used data from Cow Herd Appraisal Performance Software  to create CHAPS20Y, a 20-year data set spanning from 1994 through 2013, as an Extension tool for understanding trends in beef production.
In Parts 1 and 2 of this series, we described CHAPS20Y calving distribution and reproductive rate data.
In this article, we describe data related to
 Knowledge gained from examining CHAPS20Y weight and growth data will allow Extension professionals to help producers set and achieve herd management goals.
Herein, we present yearly means, 20-year averages, and linear trends over time.
The CHAPS program calculates values for weight and growth variables according to Beef Improvement Federation  guidelines and recommendations put forth by Ringwall and Berg.
Those variables and the applicable calculations are shown in Figure 1.
Calculations for Weight and Growth Variables
 Figures 24 show CHAPS20Y birth and weaning weight data.
Yearly mean birth weights ranged from 81 to 90 lb, with a 20-year average of 86 lb.
Yearly mean actual weaning weights ranged from 518 to 580 lb, with a 20-year average of 551 lb.
Adjusted 205-day weights ranged from 580 to 646 lb, with a 20-year average of 621 lb.
Pounds weaned ranged from 453 to 512 lb, with a 20-year average of 490 lb.
Bull weaning weights ranged from 564 to 624 lb, with a 20-year average of 598 lb.
Heifer weights ranged from 504 to 560 lb, with a 20-year average of 533 lb.
And, finally, steer weights ranged from 525 to 593 lb, with a 20-year average of 563 lb.
Data related to calf age and growth are shown in Figures 57.
Yearly mean calf ages ranged from 182 to 198 days, with a 20-year average of 191 days.
Yearly mean ADGs ranged from 2.3 to 2.6 lb, with a 20-year average of 2.5 lb, and WDAs ranged from 2.7 to 3.0 lb, with a 20-year average of 2.9 lb.
Frame scores ranged from 5.3 to 6.1, with a 20-year average of 5.7.
Figures 8 and 9 show data for cow age, weight, and condition.
Yearly mean cow ages ranged from 5.3 to 5.8 years, with a 20-year average of 5.6 years.
Yearly mean cow weights ranged from 1,315 to 1,479 lb, with a 20-year average of 1,412 lb, and cow conditions ranged from 4.8 to 6.5, with a 20-year average of 5.8.
Not all producers providing data for CHAPS measure birth weights, bull and steer weights, frame scores, and cow weights and condition scores.
Table 1 shows numbers of herds for which these weight and growth data were available as compared to the numbers of herds for which other types of data, discussed here and in Parts 1 and 2 of this series, were available.
To demonstrate herd-to-herd variation in the CHAPS20Y data set, we present yearly herd minimums and maximums for birth weight , weaning weight and pounds weaned , bull, steer, and heifer weight , calf age, ADG, and WDA , frame score , and cow age, weight, and condition.
Weights, growth, and ages were consistent across the years addressed by CHAPS20Y, as indicated by the horizontal trend lines throughout the figures, but we identified wide ranges between herd minimums and maximums.
Herein we outline some possible causes of these variations.
CHAPS20Y weights and growth figures varied up to twofold between herds.
Preand postnatal calf nutrition is important in determining calf weights and growth potential  and may explain some of the variation in the data.
CHAPS20Y producers used numerous breeds, and breed affects weights and growth potential.
Weather, which varied across years and herd locations, also affects weights and growth.
Cooler growing seasons increase growth rate from birth to weaning , whereas elevated temperatures can cause maternal heat stress, decreasing birth weight.
Moreover, calf age at weaning affects weight gains and yields.
Research has shown that steer calves weaned early gain more body weight over time, resulting in greater ADGs and WDAs.
Cow age affects cow weight and condition.
Younger and older cows have special nutritional requirements related to attaining or maintaining weight and condition.
Cow weight and condition, in turn, affect calf weight and growth.
Cows that are 5 to 8 years old tend to produce and wean heavier calves than younger or older cows do.
The reduced number of producers who measured all weight benchmarks reflects the time, expense, and difficulty of record keeping.
However, Extension professionals should encourage producers to measure these benchmarks because they affect growth and reproduction.
Calves with above-average birth weights have greater survival, growth, and reproductive potential than calves with below-average birth weights.
In addition, reproductive performance is optimal in cows with a condition score of at least 5.
The CHAPS20Y tool has yielded data that we have used to increase the Extension knowledge base.
We have outlined some of the factors affecting weights and growth, providing information Extension professionals can use to help beef producers set and achieve herd management goals.
We thank Lee Tisor, Wanda Ottmar, and Michelle Stolz for their management of the CHAPS database.
August 1997 // Volume 35 // Number 4 // Research in Brief // 4RIB1
 Abstract An investigation into the utilization of videoconferencing at a Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station  was conducted.
End users of videoconferencing were identified and how well their interests were being served was ascertained.
The purpose of this case study was to present the successes and limitations of videoconferencing as experienced during a three-and-a-half year period.
Recommendations for improving the use of videoconferencing technology in the attainment of the Center's mission include support services and on-line scheduling.
If there was a way to describe the impact of an emerging tech-nology on society, it would have to be that today's novelty becomes tomorrow's convention.
Today videoconferencing technology is being introduced to a hopeful but wary public that is as fascinated by the novelty of videoconferencing technology as it is perplexed by its complexity.
The way in which new technologies are developed and demonstrated can determine whether or not that technology is successfully adopted.
The demand for information from the Extension staff is tremendous and it is becoming more evident that they are not capable of providing all of the information requested by their clients using traditional contact methods such as farm visits, group meetings, and newsletters.
In such situations, mass media methods are used to reach large numbers of people.
According to Wilson and Gallup  mass media teaching loses some intensity when compared with personal contact, but the sheer numbers of people reached and the cost efficiency of mass media methods more than offsets the loss of intensity.
Videoconferencing and other distance learning technologies can facilitate and enhance the work carried out by scientists, professors, and other Extension personnel.
For the most part, these professionals are in the business of technology transfer to address human needs in rural areas and, increasingly, in urban settings as well.
Accordingly, the tools of distance education can allow a broader audience to be reached with a more direct flow of information.
The Trans Texas Videoconferencing Network , is a system of two-way interactive compressed video that utilizes digital, high-speed telecommunications circuits.
TTVN serves the Texas A&M University System, including universities, agricultural research and experiment stations, and the Texas Agricultural Extension Service , connecting over 40 sites throughout Texas and a site in Mexico City.
This case study was conducted at a Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station, the Center, in South Texas.
Major areas of research at the Center are citrus, vegetables, field crops, ornamental plants, irrigation and pest control.
The purpose of the current study was to ascertain the plausible uses and limitations of videoconferencing technology in furthering the mission of the Center and conducting Extension work.
Methodology The methodology employed in this case study was exploratory and will serve as a first step in developing a formative evaluation.
Investigators spent two days visiting the Center, interviewing administrators, researchers, support staff and Extension agents.
A semi-structured interview guide allowed the interviewers to pursue lines of inquiry that explored areas of recurring themes and also unanticipated issues that might emerge.
Interviews were arranged with the director of the Research Center and directors of the Extension Service's Agriculture and Family Consumer Science programs.
Information obtained from them included examples of various uses of video-conferencing and names of individuals whose experiences could contribute to the study.
Questions about experiences with TTVN sessions for the purpose of collaborating on grant writing and conducting scientific exchanges were distributed to members of a Melon Research Group listserv via electronic mail.
County Extension agents served by the Center were contacted by phone to obtain their perceptions on the uses of videoconferencing to accomplish their goals.
Additionally, the Center's videoconference schedule was obtained for the years since the Center began using TTVN.
The information was analyzed by type of application.
Results According to the Center director, "the evolution of distance learning has been an experience in flying by the seat of our pants.
When it started we really didn't know what to expect or what to anticipate.
But we are learning." Three-and-a-half years after the initial transmission, patterns of use have begun to develop at the Center.
Analysis of the Center's Videoconference Schedule revealed the following uses of videoconferences:  university courses,  continuing education and staff development, administrative activities, TAEX outreach,  scientific collaboration, and  public special interest groups.
University courses included business, mathematics, agriculture, and engineering.
After the first year, university courses dominated the usage of TTVN at the Center, consistently accounting for over 60% of scheduled videoconference events.
Continuing education classes include professional development in business and health related fields.
Staff development activities are offered in-house to Center staff and to Extension personnel.
Continuing education opportunities actually dropped in the utilization of TTVN, falling from 68% during 1993, before college courses were offered, to 12% during the fourth year.
The use of TTVN to handle administrative duties remained fairly stable.
Between 8% and 14% of scheduled videoconferencing sessions were administrative.
The fourth category represents outreach efforts of the Extension Service including 4-H, Master Gardener, and the Una Vida Mejor programs.
These programs have accounted for a very small portion of the total TTVN use ranging from less than 1% in 1994 to 8% in 1995.
Scientific collaboration involved some joint grant writing efforts and the formation of a "brown bag" lunch meeting of melon researchers who used videoconferences as a way to exchange current research information.
During 1993 scientific collaboration activities accounted for 3% of the scheduled use and fell to 0% when college courses began to be offered through TTVN.
During the last two years research use has been just over 2% of total use.
Finally, a variety of public forum and special interest group activities that involved some individual initiative by community end users accounted for 5% of the use in 1993 and stayed at 4% through 1996.
Table 1 Number of Scheduled Videoconferences by Year and Application Year Categories of TTVN Use1993A199419951996 University Credit Courses0250227235  Continuing Education/Staff Development141902445 23%) Administrative Activities42334353  TAEX Exension Activities522727  TAES Scientific Collaboration6098  Public Special Interest11171315  Total205392343383 A 1993 began in May and therefore does not represent a complete year.
Discussion Scheduling Perhaps the area that generated the greatest concern at the Center was scheduling.
Scheduling is a problem, especially with multi-site transmissions.
An administrator told of some of her scheduling dilemmas: "When I chaired the committee, I coordinated and considered all schedules.
I had to decide between having six individuals participate versus eight...and then to decide which individuals would be excluded, whose participation was critical.
I had to find what sites were available and that also determined who would participate.
It is a bubble that could burst at any time...and then I have to rebuild it again." She also reflected on using the same system as the university and the tenuous feeling of never really knowing whether one's plans are secure or whether she could be bumped at a very late moment.
"We have a partnership and we are a second class audience; priority is [university] classroom scheduling and sometimes that has to do with the room only, not the equipment." It is this reported unreliability and the conflicts which have arisen that has resulted in the decline in usage of the TTVN for continuing education and staff development purposes.
Meanwhile, university course delivery has proliferated.
Location TTVN facilities are located at universities and research centers of the Texas A&M University System throughout the state.
However, for many of the Extension agents and the rural clientele of many Extension programs, the closest facility is inconveniently located.
Many agents mentioned the fact that they were fifty miles or more away from a TTVN site as a factor limiting their use of the system.
Remarks such as "getting people to come to local programs is hard enough, but asking people to drive an hour in order to watch a presentation on TV is too much", suggest a need to improve the system's accessability.
One of the researchers in the Melon Research Group responded "I would like to be able to use it [TTVN] for agent training and Master Gardener training, but there are just not enough sites located conveniently for all those who would want to attend." Technology Use The knowledge required to effectively use the TTVN equipment is not very great but it does require an introduction and some practice.
In most cases, those who are using the system to accomplish programmatic goals, who are not teaching a regularly scheduled class, are not confident of their mastery of the technology.
Some expressed their feeling as awkward.
"Each time I use it I have to relearn the process for working the different cameras".
Also, there is difficulty in troubleshooting, not knowing where the problem lies when a failure occurs.
Teaching Style Distance education efforts should be learner focused, with teachers providing an environment for interactive learning.
Our informants recognized the need to enhance their presentations, to become more polished, more animated, and to maintain a smooth camera image.
This was seen as a chore and some noted, "Perhaps we should look to video production specialists for tips and training." Personal Contact Several individuals expressed concern about the loss of personal contact with their clients and peers while conducting activities over TTVN.
One Extension staff member lamented: " As an educator I feel that in isolating the teacher from the learners, the passion is lost, it's not the same." Extension agents stressed the importance of face-to-face contact and were in agreement that "...
it is through working individually with the clientele that the Extension worker learns about the people of the area, how they think, what their needs are, and how they carry on their work." (Swanson, 1984, p.
130) Recommendations Plan of Action The lack of a mission statement calling for greater use of TTVN technology in Extension and research is evident.
Current usage is by individual choice.
While use of this technology is embraced by a few individuals who are willing to take risks, many others continue to work with traditional methods.
Extension personnel should be encouraged to assess each duty that they perform to determine whether it could be more economically and efficiently accomplished when conducted through TTVN.
Regularly scheduled blocks of time for university courses severely limited the scheduling options available for other uses.
It is foreseeable that in order to ensure an increase in Extension use of the TTVN system, including Extension outreach and scientific collaboration, another connection to support an additional ELMO document camera and monitor located in a second classroom must be provided.
Scheduling The current scheduling system is unsatisfactory and does not allow for the needs of Extension or research priorities.
A user friendly, on-line scheduling system that provides immediate feedback and confirmation should be designed and implemented to overcome system-wide scheduling headaches.
Short of establishing a second TTVN site, reservation of time slots should be made for non-university, Center activities to ensure that predictable blocks of time are available for scientific collaboration and Extension work.
Reserved time slots should be based upon end user patterns and the systematic input of all potential end users.
Technical Support The technical demands of TTVN technology and the amount of preparation and enhanced presentation skills required have an intimidating effect on potential end users.
Adequate training must be provided for end users.
Videoconference specialists need to be employed in order to assure on-hand technical support.
Also, all sites on the TTVN system should be upgraded so that peripheral devices can be successfully used in presentations of detailed scientific slides.
A training program that will provide presenters with needed skills and confidence will enable them to make interesting presentations and conduct skillful interactions with other end users.
Peer review could also provide suggestions to improve the learning environment on TTVN.
Ideally the Center would model effective videoconference instructional design and methods within an interactive environment.
Summary This study reveals that Extension and research work at this Texas Agricultural Experiment Station has only begun the first mile of the journey toward efficient use of videoconferencing technology.
Nonetheless, the advantages of time and expense savings were noted without exception among informants.
It was also clear to the informants that increased frequency of contact and opportunities for broader interaction outweighed the disadvantages of teaching with TTVN as encountered at the Center.
The one exception was in the area of outreach where personal contact is predominantly preferred.
The Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station has changed due to the introduction of videoconferencing in 1993.
Framing the context of the center's role Center Director Dr.
Jose Amador stated "What you have to understand is that the Center is in the business of demonstrating technology and what it can do.
And our role here at the Center is to provide the setting, the equipment, and the link, as well as handle some administrative and logistical tasks.
Once people have seen the technology in action, it is up to them to develop the applications." As a working model, the experience of the Melon Research Group and their "brown bag" lunch meetings have proven to be a very good use of TTVN.
"The TTVN sessions have proven to be an excellent tool for exchange of current work in Texas, particularly for off-campus centers".
Several researchers stressed the timeliness of the information exchange as in "knowing what melon diseases are threatening".
Similar applications can be found wherever Extension professionals from different locations are engaged in common or like projects.
A Tropical Fruits class that was team taught by a faculty member at College Station and a scientist at the Center is a promising example of how complementary professionals can be brought together.
This type of team work can be further developed with supportive administrative policies and planning.
In a broader application of TTVN, ways to integrate communications among all of the agricultural components of the Texas A&M University System can be achieved.
Particular emphasis should be placed on facilitating the critical links between research and Extension activities.
Videoconferencing technology at the Center holds much promise for furthering the mission and goals of the Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station and the Texas Agricultural Extension Service.
With timely adjustments and improved planning, the Center can move from promise to fulfillment, ensuring more efficient and effective service to the public.
References Amador, Jose.
Garza, Bertha.
Jacques, Ubaldo.
New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Miller, Marvin.
Agricultural Extension: A resource manual.
Urbana, IL: University of Illinois.
Swietlik, Dariusz.
Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station.
Warren, Doyle.
Willie, Celina.
The demand for information from the Extension staff is tremendous and it is becoming more evident that they are not capable of providing all of the information requested by their clients using traditional contact methods such as farm visits, group meetings, and newsletters.
In such situations, mass media methods are used to reach large numbers of people.
According to Wilson and Gallup  mass media teaching loses some intensity when compared with personal contact, but the sheer numbers of people reached and the cost efficiency of mass media methods more than offsets the loss of intensity.
Videoconferencing and other distance learning technologies can facilitate and enhance the work carried out by scientists, professors, and other Extension personnel.
For the most part, these professionals are in the business of technology transfer to address human needs in rural areas and, increasingly, in urban settings as well.
Accordingly, the tools of distance education can allow a broader audience to be reached with a more direct flow of information.
The Trans Texas Videoconferencing Network , is a system of two-way interactive compressed video that utilizes digital, high-speed telecommunications circuits.
TTVN serves the Texas A&M University System, including universities, agricultural research and experiment stations, and the Texas Agricultural Extension Service , connecting over 40 sites throughout Texas and a site in Mexico City.
This case study was conducted at a Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station, the Center, in South Texas.
Major areas of research at the Center are citrus, vegetables, field crops, ornamental plants, irrigation and pest control.
The purpose of the current study was to ascertain the plausible uses and limitations of videoconferencing technology in furthering the mission of the Center and conducting Extension work.
Methodology The methodology employed in this case study was exploratory and will serve as a first step in developing a formative evaluation.
Investigators spent two days visiting the Center, interviewing administrators, researchers, support staff and Extension agents.
A semi-structured interview guide allowed the interviewers to pursue lines of inquiry that explored areas of recurring themes and also unanticipated issues that might emerge.
Interviews were arranged with the director of the Research Center and directors of the Extension Service's Agriculture and Family Consumer Science programs.
Information obtained from them included examples of various uses of video-conferencing and names of individuals whose experiences could contribute to the study.
Questions about experiences with TTVN sessions for the purpose of collaborating on grant writing and conducting scientific exchanges were distributed to members of a Melon Research Group listserv via electronic mail.
County Extension agents served by the Center were contacted by phone to obtain their perceptions on the uses of videoconferencing to accomplish their goals.
Additionally, the Center's videoconference schedule was obtained for the years since the Center began using TTVN.
The information was analyzed by type of application.
Results According to the Center director, "the evolution of distance learning has been an experience in flying by the seat of our pants.
When it started we really didn't know what to expect or what to anticipate.
But we are learning." Three-and-a-half years after the initial transmission, patterns of use have begun to develop at the Center.
Analysis of the Center's Videoconference Schedule revealed the following uses of videoconferences:  university courses,  continuing education and staff development, administrative activities, TAEX outreach,  scientific collaboration, and  public special interest groups.
University courses included business, mathematics, agriculture, and engineering.
After the first year, university courses dominated the usage of TTVN at the Center, consistently accounting for over 60% of scheduled videoconference events.
Continuing education classes include professional development in business and health related fields.
Staff development activities are offered in-house to Center staff and to Extension personnel.
Continuing education opportunities actually dropped in the utilization of TTVN, falling from 68% during 1993, before college courses were offered, to 12% during the fourth year.
The use of TTVN to handle administrative duties remained fairly stable.
Between 8% and 14% of scheduled videoconferencing sessions were administrative.
The fourth category represents outreach efforts of the Extension Service including 4-H, Master Gardener, and the Una Vida Mejor programs.
These programs have accounted for a very small portion of the total TTVN use ranging from less than 1% in 1994 to 8% in 1995.
Scientific collaboration involved some joint grant writing efforts and the formation of a "brown bag" lunch meeting of melon researchers who used videoconferences as a way to exchange current research information.
During 1993 scientific collaboration activities accounted for 3% of the scheduled use and fell to 0% when college courses began to be offered through TTVN.
During the last two years research use has been just over 2% of total use.
Finally, a variety of public forum and special interest group activities that involved some individual initiative by community end users accounted for 5% of the use in 1993 and stayed at 4% through 1996.
Table 1 Number of Scheduled Videoconferences by Year and Application Year Categories of TTVN Use1993A199419951996 University Credit Courses0250227235  Continuing Education/Staff Development141902445 23%) Administrative Activities42334353  TAEX Exension Activities522727  TAES Scientific Collaboration6098  Public Special Interest11171315  Total205392343383 A 1993 began in May and therefore does not represent a complete year.
Discussion Scheduling Perhaps the area that generated the greatest concern at the Center was scheduling.
Scheduling is a problem, especially with multi-site transmissions.
An administrator told of some of her scheduling dilemmas: "When I chaired the committee, I coordinated and considered all schedules.
I had to decide between having six individuals participate versus eight...and then to decide which individuals would be excluded, whose participation was critical.
I had to find what sites were available and that also determined who would participate.
It is a bubble that could burst at any time...and then I have to rebuild it again." She also reflected on using the same system as the university and the tenuous feeling of never really knowing whether one's plans are secure or whether she could be bumped at a very late moment.
"We have a partnership and we are a second class audience; priority is [university] classroom scheduling and sometimes that has to do with the room only, not the equipment." It is this reported unreliability and the conflicts which have arisen that has resulted in the decline in usage of the TTVN for continuing education and staff development purposes.
Meanwhile, university course delivery has proliferated.
Location TTVN facilities are located at universities and research centers of the Texas A&M University System throughout the state.
However, for many of the Extension agents and the rural clientele of many Extension programs, the closest facility is inconveniently located.
Many agents mentioned the fact that they were fifty miles or more away from a TTVN site as a factor limiting their use of the system.
Remarks such as "getting people to come to local programs is hard enough, but asking people to drive an hour in order to watch a presentation on TV is too much", suggest a need to improve the system's accessability.
One of the researchers in the Melon Research Group responded "I would like to be able to use it [TTVN] for agent training and Master Gardener training, but there are just not enough sites located conveniently for all those who would want to attend." Technology Use The knowledge required to effectively use the TTVN equipment is not very great but it does require an introduction and some practice.
In most cases, those who are using the system to accomplish programmatic goals, who are not teaching a regularly scheduled class, are not confident of their mastery of the technology.
Some expressed their feeling as awkward.
"Each time I use it I have to relearn the process for working the different cameras".
Also, there is difficulty in troubleshooting, not knowing where the problem lies when a failure occurs.
Teaching Style Distance education efforts should be learner focused, with teachers providing an environment for interactive learning.
Our informants recognized the need to enhance their presentations, to become more polished, more animated, and to maintain a smooth camera image.
This was seen as a chore and some noted, "Perhaps we should look to video production specialists for tips and training." Personal Contact Several individuals expressed concern about the loss of personal contact with their clients and peers while conducting activities over TTVN.
One Extension staff member lamented: " As an educator I feel that in isolating the teacher from the learners, the passion is lost, it's not the same." Extension agents stressed the importance of face-to-face contact and were in agreement that "...
it is through working individually with the clientele that the Extension worker learns about the people of the area, how they think, what their needs are, and how they carry on their work." (Swanson, 1984, p.
130) Recommendations Plan of Action The lack of a mission statement calling for greater use of TTVN technology in Extension and research is evident.
Current usage is by individual choice.
While use of this technology is embraced by a few individuals who are willing to take risks, many others continue to work with traditional methods.
Extension personnel should be encouraged to assess each duty that they perform to determine whether it could be more economically and efficiently accomplished when conducted through TTVN.
Regularly scheduled blocks of time for university courses severely limited the scheduling options available for other uses.
It is foreseeable that in order to ensure an increase in Extension use of the TTVN system, including Extension outreach and scientific collaboration, another connection to support an additional ELMO document camera and monitor located in a second classroom must be provided.
Scheduling The current scheduling system is unsatisfactory and does not allow for the needs of Extension or research priorities.
A user friendly, on-line scheduling system that provides immediate feedback and confirmation should be designed and implemented to overcome system-wide scheduling headaches.
Short of establishing a second TTVN site, reservation of time slots should be made for non-university, Center activities to ensure that predictable blocks of time are available for scientific collaboration and Extension work.
Reserved time slots should be based upon end user patterns and the systematic input of all potential end users.
Technical Support The technical demands of TTVN technology and the amount of preparation and enhanced presentation skills required have an intimidating effect on potential end users.
Adequate training must be provided for end users.
Videoconference specialists need to be employed in order to assure on-hand technical support.
Also, all sites on the TTVN system should be upgraded so that peripheral devices can be successfully used in presentations of detailed scientific slides.
A training program that will provide presenters with needed skills and confidence will enable them to make interesting presentations and conduct skillful interactions with other end users.
Peer review could also provide suggestions to improve the learning environment on TTVN.
Ideally the Center would model effective videoconference instructional design and methods within an interactive environment.
Summary This study reveals that Extension and research work at this Texas Agricultural Experiment Station has only begun the first mile of the journey toward efficient use of videoconferencing technology.
Nonetheless, the advantages of time and expense savings were noted without exception among informants.
It was also clear to the informants that increased frequency of contact and opportunities for broader interaction outweighed the disadvantages of teaching with TTVN as encountered at the Center.
The one exception was in the area of outreach where personal contact is predominantly preferred.
The Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station has changed due to the introduction of videoconferencing in 1993.
Framing the context of the center's role Center Director Dr.
Jose Amador stated "What you have to understand is that the Center is in the business of demonstrating technology and what it can do.
And our role here at the Center is to provide the setting, the equipment, and the link, as well as handle some administrative and logistical tasks.
Once people have seen the technology in action, it is up to them to develop the applications." As a working model, the experience of the Melon Research Group and their "brown bag" lunch meetings have proven to be a very good use of TTVN.
"The TTVN sessions have proven to be an excellent tool for exchange of current work in Texas, particularly for off-campus centers".
Several researchers stressed the timeliness of the information exchange as in "knowing what melon diseases are threatening".
Similar applications can be found wherever Extension professionals from different locations are engaged in common or like projects.
A Tropical Fruits class that was team taught by a faculty member at College Station and a scientist at the Center is a promising example of how complementary professionals can be brought together.
This type of team work can be further developed with supportive administrative policies and planning.
In a broader application of TTVN, ways to integrate communications among all of the agricultural components of the Texas A&M University System can be achieved.
Particular emphasis should be placed on facilitating the critical links between research and Extension activities.
Videoconferencing technology at the Center holds much promise for furthering the mission and goals of the Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station and the Texas Agricultural Extension Service.
With timely adjustments and improved planning, the Center can move from promise to fulfillment, ensuring more efficient and effective service to the public.
References Amador, Jose.
Garza, Bertha.
Jacques, Ubaldo.
New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Miller, Marvin.
Agricultural Extension: A resource manual.
Urbana, IL: University of Illinois.
Swietlik, Dariusz.
Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station.
Warren, Doyle.
Willie, Celina.
Videoconferencing and other distance learning technologies can facilitate and enhance the work carried out by scientists, professors, and other Extension personnel.
For the most part, these professionals are in the business of technology transfer to address human needs in rural areas and, increasingly, in urban settings as well.
Accordingly, the tools of distance education can allow a broader audience to be reached with a more direct flow of information.
The Trans Texas Videoconferencing Network , is a system of two-way interactive compressed video that utilizes digital, high-speed telecommunications circuits.
TTVN serves the Texas A&M University System, including universities, agricultural research and experiment stations, and the Texas Agricultural Extension Service , connecting over 40 sites throughout Texas and a site in Mexico City.
This case study was conducted at a Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station, the Center, in South Texas.
Major areas of research at the Center are citrus, vegetables, field crops, ornamental plants, irrigation and pest control.
The purpose of the current study was to ascertain the plausible uses and limitations of videoconferencing technology in furthering the mission of the Center and conducting Extension work.
Methodology The methodology employed in this case study was exploratory and will serve as a first step in developing a formative evaluation.
Investigators spent two days visiting the Center, interviewing administrators, researchers, support staff and Extension agents.
A semi-structured interview guide allowed the interviewers to pursue lines of inquiry that explored areas of recurring themes and also unanticipated issues that might emerge.
Interviews were arranged with the director of the Research Center and directors of the Extension Service's Agriculture and Family Consumer Science programs.
Information obtained from them included examples of various uses of video-conferencing and names of individuals whose experiences could contribute to the study.
Questions about experiences with TTVN sessions for the purpose of collaborating on grant writing and conducting scientific exchanges were distributed to members of a Melon Research Group listserv via electronic mail.
County Extension agents served by the Center were contacted by phone to obtain their perceptions on the uses of videoconferencing to accomplish their goals.
Additionally, the Center's videoconference schedule was obtained for the years since the Center began using TTVN.
The information was analyzed by type of application.
Results According to the Center director, "the evolution of distance learning has been an experience in flying by the seat of our pants.
When it started we really didn't know what to expect or what to anticipate.
But we are learning." Three-and-a-half years after the initial transmission, patterns of use have begun to develop at the Center.
Analysis of the Center's Videoconference Schedule revealed the following uses of videoconferences:  university courses,  continuing education and staff development, administrative activities, TAEX outreach,  scientific collaboration, and  public special interest groups.
University courses included business, mathematics, agriculture, and engineering.
After the first year, university courses dominated the usage of TTVN at the Center, consistently accounting for over 60% of scheduled videoconference events.
Continuing education classes include professional development in business and health related fields.
Staff development activities are offered in-house to Center staff and to Extension personnel.
Continuing education opportunities actually dropped in the utilization of TTVN, falling from 68% during 1993, before college courses were offered, to 12% during the fourth year.
The use of TTVN to handle administrative duties remained fairly stable.
Between 8% and 14% of scheduled videoconferencing sessions were administrative.
The fourth category represents outreach efforts of the Extension Service including 4-H, Master Gardener, and the Una Vida Mejor programs.
These programs have accounted for a very small portion of the total TTVN use ranging from less than 1% in 1994 to 8% in 1995.
Scientific collaboration involved some joint grant writing efforts and the formation of a "brown bag" lunch meeting of melon researchers who used videoconferences as a way to exchange current research information.
During 1993 scientific collaboration activities accounted for 3% of the scheduled use and fell to 0% when college courses began to be offered through TTVN.
During the last two years research use has been just over 2% of total use.
Finally, a variety of public forum and special interest group activities that involved some individual initiative by community end users accounted for 5% of the use in 1993 and stayed at 4% through 1996.
Table 1 Number of Scheduled Videoconferences by Year and Application Year Categories of TTVN Use1993A199419951996 University Credit Courses0250227235  Continuing Education/Staff Development141902445 23%) Administrative Activities42334353  TAEX Exension Activities522727  TAES Scientific Collaboration6098  Public Special Interest11171315  Total205392343383 A 1993 began in May and therefore does not represent a complete year.
Discussion Scheduling Perhaps the area that generated the greatest concern at the Center was scheduling.
Scheduling is a problem, especially with multi-site transmissions.
An administrator told of some of her scheduling dilemmas: "When I chaired the committee, I coordinated and considered all schedules.
I had to decide between having six individuals participate versus eight...and then to decide which individuals would be excluded, whose participation was critical.
I had to find what sites were available and that also determined who would participate.
It is a bubble that could burst at any time...and then I have to rebuild it again." She also reflected on using the same system as the university and the tenuous feeling of never really knowing whether one's plans are secure or whether she could be bumped at a very late moment.
"We have a partnership and we are a second class audience; priority is [university] classroom scheduling and sometimes that has to do with the room only, not the equipment." It is this reported unreliability and the conflicts which have arisen that has resulted in the decline in usage of the TTVN for continuing education and staff development purposes.
Meanwhile, university course delivery has proliferated.
Location TTVN facilities are located at universities and research centers of the Texas A&M University System throughout the state.
However, for many of the Extension agents and the rural clientele of many Extension programs, the closest facility is inconveniently located.
Many agents mentioned the fact that they were fifty miles or more away from a TTVN site as a factor limiting their use of the system.
Remarks such as "getting people to come to local programs is hard enough, but asking people to drive an hour in order to watch a presentation on TV is too much", suggest a need to improve the system's accessability.
One of the researchers in the Melon Research Group responded "I would like to be able to use it [TTVN] for agent training and Master Gardener training, but there are just not enough sites located conveniently for all those who would want to attend." Technology Use The knowledge required to effectively use the TTVN equipment is not very great but it does require an introduction and some practice.
In most cases, those who are using the system to accomplish programmatic goals, who are not teaching a regularly scheduled class, are not confident of their mastery of the technology.
Some expressed their feeling as awkward.
"Each time I use it I have to relearn the process for working the different cameras".
Also, there is difficulty in troubleshooting, not knowing where the problem lies when a failure occurs.
Teaching Style Distance education efforts should be learner focused, with teachers providing an environment for interactive learning.
Our informants recognized the need to enhance their presentations, to become more polished, more animated, and to maintain a smooth camera image.
This was seen as a chore and some noted, "Perhaps we should look to video production specialists for tips and training." Personal Contact Several individuals expressed concern about the loss of personal contact with their clients and peers while conducting activities over TTVN.
One Extension staff member lamented: " As an educator I feel that in isolating the teacher from the learners, the passion is lost, it's not the same." Extension agents stressed the importance of face-to-face contact and were in agreement that "...
it is through working individually with the clientele that the Extension worker learns about the people of the area, how they think, what their needs are, and how they carry on their work." (Swanson, 1984, p.
130) Recommendations Plan of Action The lack of a mission statement calling for greater use of TTVN technology in Extension and research is evident.
Current usage is by individual choice.
While use of this technology is embraced by a few individuals who are willing to take risks, many others continue to work with traditional methods.
Extension personnel should be encouraged to assess each duty that they perform to determine whether it could be more economically and efficiently accomplished when conducted through TTVN.
Regularly scheduled blocks of time for university courses severely limited the scheduling options available for other uses.
It is foreseeable that in order to ensure an increase in Extension use of the TTVN system, including Extension outreach and scientific collaboration, another connection to support an additional ELMO document camera and monitor located in a second classroom must be provided.
Scheduling The current scheduling system is unsatisfactory and does not allow for the needs of Extension or research priorities.
A user friendly, on-line scheduling system that provides immediate feedback and confirmation should be designed and implemented to overcome system-wide scheduling headaches.
Short of establishing a second TTVN site, reservation of time slots should be made for non-university, Center activities to ensure that predictable blocks of time are available for scientific collaboration and Extension work.
Reserved time slots should be based upon end user patterns and the systematic input of all potential end users.
Technical Support The technical demands of TTVN technology and the amount of preparation and enhanced presentation skills required have an intimidating effect on potential end users.
Adequate training must be provided for end users.
Videoconference specialists need to be employed in order to assure on-hand technical support.
Also, all sites on the TTVN system should be upgraded so that peripheral devices can be successfully used in presentations of detailed scientific slides.
A training program that will provide presenters with needed skills and confidence will enable them to make interesting presentations and conduct skillful interactions with other end users.
Peer review could also provide suggestions to improve the learning environment on TTVN.
Ideally the Center would model effective videoconference instructional design and methods within an interactive environment.
Summary This study reveals that Extension and research work at this Texas Agricultural Experiment Station has only begun the first mile of the journey toward efficient use of videoconferencing technology.
Nonetheless, the advantages of time and expense savings were noted without exception among informants.
It was also clear to the informants that increased frequency of contact and opportunities for broader interaction outweighed the disadvantages of teaching with TTVN as encountered at the Center.
The one exception was in the area of outreach where personal contact is predominantly preferred.
The Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station has changed due to the introduction of videoconferencing in 1993.
Framing the context of the center's role Center Director Dr.
Jose Amador stated "What you have to understand is that the Center is in the business of demonstrating technology and what it can do.
And our role here at the Center is to provide the setting, the equipment, and the link, as well as handle some administrative and logistical tasks.
Once people have seen the technology in action, it is up to them to develop the applications." As a working model, the experience of the Melon Research Group and their "brown bag" lunch meetings have proven to be a very good use of TTVN.
"The TTVN sessions have proven to be an excellent tool for exchange of current work in Texas, particularly for off-campus centers".
Several researchers stressed the timeliness of the information exchange as in "knowing what melon diseases are threatening".
Similar applications can be found wherever Extension professionals from different locations are engaged in common or like projects.
A Tropical Fruits class that was team taught by a faculty member at College Station and a scientist at the Center is a promising example of how complementary professionals can be brought together.
This type of team work can be further developed with supportive administrative policies and planning.
In a broader application of TTVN, ways to integrate communications among all of the agricultural components of the Texas A&M University System can be achieved.
Particular emphasis should be placed on facilitating the critical links between research and Extension activities.
Videoconferencing technology at the Center holds much promise for furthering the mission and goals of the Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station and the Texas Agricultural Extension Service.
With timely adjustments and improved planning, the Center can move from promise to fulfillment, ensuring more efficient and effective service to the public.
References Amador, Jose.
Garza, Bertha.
Jacques, Ubaldo.
New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Miller, Marvin.
Agricultural Extension: A resource manual.
Urbana, IL: University of Illinois.
Swietlik, Dariusz.
Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station.
Warren, Doyle.
Willie, Celina.
The Trans Texas Videoconferencing Network , is a system of two-way interactive compressed video that utilizes digital, high-speed telecommunications circuits.
TTVN serves the Texas A&M University System, including universities, agricultural research and experiment stations, and the Texas Agricultural Extension Service , connecting over 40 sites throughout Texas and a site in Mexico City.
This case study was conducted at a Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station, the Center, in South Texas.
Major areas of research at the Center are citrus, vegetables, field crops, ornamental plants, irrigation and pest control.
The purpose of the current study was to ascertain the plausible uses and limitations of videoconferencing technology in furthering the mission of the Center and conducting Extension work.
Methodology The methodology employed in this case study was exploratory and will serve as a first step in developing a formative evaluation.
Investigators spent two days visiting the Center, interviewing administrators, researchers, support staff and Extension agents.
A semi-structured interview guide allowed the interviewers to pursue lines of inquiry that explored areas of recurring themes and also unanticipated issues that might emerge.
Interviews were arranged with the director of the Research Center and directors of the Extension Service's Agriculture and Family Consumer Science programs.
Information obtained from them included examples of various uses of video-conferencing and names of individuals whose experiences could contribute to the study.
Questions about experiences with TTVN sessions for the purpose of collaborating on grant writing and conducting scientific exchanges were distributed to members of a Melon Research Group listserv via electronic mail.
County Extension agents served by the Center were contacted by phone to obtain their perceptions on the uses of videoconferencing to accomplish their goals.
Additionally, the Center's videoconference schedule was obtained for the years since the Center began using TTVN.
The information was analyzed by type of application.
Results According to the Center director, "the evolution of distance learning has been an experience in flying by the seat of our pants.
When it started we really didn't know what to expect or what to anticipate.
But we are learning." Three-and-a-half years after the initial transmission, patterns of use have begun to develop at the Center.
Analysis of the Center's Videoconference Schedule revealed the following uses of videoconferences:  university courses,  continuing education and staff development, administrative activities, TAEX outreach,  scientific collaboration, and  public special interest groups.
University courses included business, mathematics, agriculture, and engineering.
After the first year, university courses dominated the usage of TTVN at the Center, consistently accounting for over 60% of scheduled videoconference events.
Continuing education classes include professional development in business and health related fields.
Staff development activities are offered in-house to Center staff and to Extension personnel.
Continuing education opportunities actually dropped in the utilization of TTVN, falling from 68% during 1993, before college courses were offered, to 12% during the fourth year.
The use of TTVN to handle administrative duties remained fairly stable.
Between 8% and 14% of scheduled videoconferencing sessions were administrative.
The fourth category represents outreach efforts of the Extension Service including 4-H, Master Gardener, and the Una Vida Mejor programs.
These programs have accounted for a very small portion of the total TTVN use ranging from less than 1% in 1994 to 8% in 1995.
Scientific collaboration involved some joint grant writing efforts and the formation of a "brown bag" lunch meeting of melon researchers who used videoconferences as a way to exchange current research information.
During 1993 scientific collaboration activities accounted for 3% of the scheduled use and fell to 0% when college courses began to be offered through TTVN.
During the last two years research use has been just over 2% of total use.
Finally, a variety of public forum and special interest group activities that involved some individual initiative by community end users accounted for 5% of the use in 1993 and stayed at 4% through 1996.
Table 1 Number of Scheduled Videoconferences by Year and Application Year Categories of TTVN Use1993A199419951996 University Credit Courses0250227235  Continuing Education/Staff Development141902445 23%) Administrative Activities42334353  TAEX Exension Activities522727  TAES Scientific Collaboration6098  Public Special Interest11171315  Total205392343383 A 1993 began in May and therefore does not represent a complete year.
Discussion Scheduling Perhaps the area that generated the greatest concern at the Center was scheduling.
Scheduling is a problem, especially with multi-site transmissions.
An administrator told of some of her scheduling dilemmas: "When I chaired the committee, I coordinated and considered all schedules.
I had to decide between having six individuals participate versus eight...and then to decide which individuals would be excluded, whose participation was critical.
I had to find what sites were available and that also determined who would participate.
It is a bubble that could burst at any time...and then I have to rebuild it again." She also reflected on using the same system as the university and the tenuous feeling of never really knowing whether one's plans are secure or whether she could be bumped at a very late moment.
"We have a partnership and we are a second class audience; priority is [university] classroom scheduling and sometimes that has to do with the room only, not the equipment." It is this reported unreliability and the conflicts which have arisen that has resulted in the decline in usage of the TTVN for continuing education and staff development purposes.
Meanwhile, university course delivery has proliferated.
Location TTVN facilities are located at universities and research centers of the Texas A&M University System throughout the state.
However, for many of the Extension agents and the rural clientele of many Extension programs, the closest facility is inconveniently located.
Many agents mentioned the fact that they were fifty miles or more away from a TTVN site as a factor limiting their use of the system.
Remarks such as "getting people to come to local programs is hard enough, but asking people to drive an hour in order to watch a presentation on TV is too much", suggest a need to improve the system's accessability.
One of the researchers in the Melon Research Group responded "I would like to be able to use it [TTVN] for agent training and Master Gardener training, but there are just not enough sites located conveniently for all those who would want to attend." Technology Use The knowledge required to effectively use the TTVN equipment is not very great but it does require an introduction and some practice.
In most cases, those who are using the system to accomplish programmatic goals, who are not teaching a regularly scheduled class, are not confident of their mastery of the technology.
Some expressed their feeling as awkward.
"Each time I use it I have to relearn the process for working the different cameras".
Also, there is difficulty in troubleshooting, not knowing where the problem lies when a failure occurs.
Teaching Style Distance education efforts should be learner focused, with teachers providing an environment for interactive learning.
Our informants recognized the need to enhance their presentations, to become more polished, more animated, and to maintain a smooth camera image.
This was seen as a chore and some noted, "Perhaps we should look to video production specialists for tips and training." Personal Contact Several individuals expressed concern about the loss of personal contact with their clients and peers while conducting activities over TTVN.
One Extension staff member lamented: " As an educator I feel that in isolating the teacher from the learners, the passion is lost, it's not the same." Extension agents stressed the importance of face-to-face contact and were in agreement that "...
it is through working individually with the clientele that the Extension worker learns about the people of the area, how they think, what their needs are, and how they carry on their work." (Swanson, 1984, p.
130) Recommendations Plan of Action The lack of a mission statement calling for greater use of TTVN technology in Extension and research is evident.
Current usage is by individual choice.
While use of this technology is embraced by a few individuals who are willing to take risks, many others continue to work with traditional methods.
Extension personnel should be encouraged to assess each duty that they perform to determine whether it could be more economically and efficiently accomplished when conducted through TTVN.
Regularly scheduled blocks of time for university courses severely limited the scheduling options available for other uses.
It is foreseeable that in order to ensure an increase in Extension use of the TTVN system, including Extension outreach and scientific collaboration, another connection to support an additional ELMO document camera and monitor located in a second classroom must be provided.
Scheduling The current scheduling system is unsatisfactory and does not allow for the needs of Extension or research priorities.
A user friendly, on-line scheduling system that provides immediate feedback and confirmation should be designed and implemented to overcome system-wide scheduling headaches.
Short of establishing a second TTVN site, reservation of time slots should be made for non-university, Center activities to ensure that predictable blocks of time are available for scientific collaboration and Extension work.
Reserved time slots should be based upon end user patterns and the systematic input of all potential end users.
Technical Support The technical demands of TTVN technology and the amount of preparation and enhanced presentation skills required have an intimidating effect on potential end users.
Adequate training must be provided for end users.
Videoconference specialists need to be employed in order to assure on-hand technical support.
Also, all sites on the TTVN system should be upgraded so that peripheral devices can be successfully used in presentations of detailed scientific slides.
A training program that will provide presenters with needed skills and confidence will enable them to make interesting presentations and conduct skillful interactions with other end users.
Peer review could also provide suggestions to improve the learning environment on TTVN.
Ideally the Center would model effective videoconference instructional design and methods within an interactive environment.
Summary This study reveals that Extension and research work at this Texas Agricultural Experiment Station has only begun the first mile of the journey toward efficient use of videoconferencing technology.
Nonetheless, the advantages of time and expense savings were noted without exception among informants.
It was also clear to the informants that increased frequency of contact and opportunities for broader interaction outweighed the disadvantages of teaching with TTVN as encountered at the Center.
The one exception was in the area of outreach where personal contact is predominantly preferred.
The Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station has changed due to the introduction of videoconferencing in 1993.
Framing the context of the center's role Center Director Dr.
Jose Amador stated "What you have to understand is that the Center is in the business of demonstrating technology and what it can do.
And our role here at the Center is to provide the setting, the equipment, and the link, as well as handle some administrative and logistical tasks.
Once people have seen the technology in action, it is up to them to develop the applications." As a working model, the experience of the Melon Research Group and their "brown bag" lunch meetings have proven to be a very good use of TTVN.
"The TTVN sessions have proven to be an excellent tool for exchange of current work in Texas, particularly for off-campus centers".
Several researchers stressed the timeliness of the information exchange as in "knowing what melon diseases are threatening".
Similar applications can be found wherever Extension professionals from different locations are engaged in common or like projects.
A Tropical Fruits class that was team taught by a faculty member at College Station and a scientist at the Center is a promising example of how complementary professionals can be brought together.
This type of team work can be further developed with supportive administrative policies and planning.
In a broader application of TTVN, ways to integrate communications among all of the agricultural components of the Texas A&M University System can be achieved.
Particular emphasis should be placed on facilitating the critical links between research and Extension activities.
Videoconferencing technology at the Center holds much promise for furthering the mission and goals of the Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station and the Texas Agricultural Extension Service.
With timely adjustments and improved planning, the Center can move from promise to fulfillment, ensuring more efficient and effective service to the public.
References Amador, Jose.
Garza, Bertha.
Jacques, Ubaldo.
New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Miller, Marvin.
Agricultural Extension: A resource manual.
Urbana, IL: University of Illinois.
Swietlik, Dariusz.
Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station.
Warren, Doyle.
Willie, Celina.
This case study was conducted at a Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station, the Center, in South Texas.
Major areas of research at the Center are citrus, vegetables, field crops, ornamental plants, irrigation and pest control.
The purpose of the current study was to ascertain the plausible uses and limitations of videoconferencing technology in furthering the mission of the Center and conducting Extension work.
Methodology The methodology employed in this case study was exploratory and will serve as a first step in developing a formative evaluation.
Investigators spent two days visiting the Center, interviewing administrators, researchers, support staff and Extension agents.
A semi-structured interview guide allowed the interviewers to pursue lines of inquiry that explored areas of recurring themes and also unanticipated issues that might emerge.
Interviews were arranged with the director of the Research Center and directors of the Extension Service's Agriculture and Family Consumer Science programs.
Information obtained from them included examples of various uses of video-conferencing and names of individuals whose experiences could contribute to the study.
Questions about experiences with TTVN sessions for the purpose of collaborating on grant writing and conducting scientific exchanges were distributed to members of a Melon Research Group listserv via electronic mail.
County Extension agents served by the Center were contacted by phone to obtain their perceptions on the uses of videoconferencing to accomplish their goals.
Additionally, the Center's videoconference schedule was obtained for the years since the Center began using TTVN.
The information was analyzed by type of application.
Results According to the Center director, "the evolution of distance learning has been an experience in flying by the seat of our pants.
When it started we really didn't know what to expect or what to anticipate.
But we are learning." Three-and-a-half years after the initial transmission, patterns of use have begun to develop at the Center.
Analysis of the Center's Videoconference Schedule revealed the following uses of videoconferences:  university courses,  continuing education and staff development, administrative activities, TAEX outreach,  scientific collaboration, and  public special interest groups.
University courses included business, mathematics, agriculture, and engineering.
After the first year, university courses dominated the usage of TTVN at the Center, consistently accounting for over 60% of scheduled videoconference events.
Continuing education classes include professional development in business and health related fields.
Staff development activities are offered in-house to Center staff and to Extension personnel.
Continuing education opportunities actually dropped in the utilization of TTVN, falling from 68% during 1993, before college courses were offered, to 12% during the fourth year.
The use of TTVN to handle administrative duties remained fairly stable.
Between 8% and 14% of scheduled videoconferencing sessions were administrative.
The fourth category represents outreach efforts of the Extension Service including 4-H, Master Gardener, and the Una Vida Mejor programs.
These programs have accounted for a very small portion of the total TTVN use ranging from less than 1% in 1994 to 8% in 1995.
Scientific collaboration involved some joint grant writing efforts and the formation of a "brown bag" lunch meeting of melon researchers who used videoconferences as a way to exchange current research information.
During 1993 scientific collaboration activities accounted for 3% of the scheduled use and fell to 0% when college courses began to be offered through TTVN.
During the last two years research use has been just over 2% of total use.
Finally, a variety of public forum and special interest group activities that involved some individual initiative by community end users accounted for 5% of the use in 1993 and stayed at 4% through 1996.
Table 1 Number of Scheduled Videoconferences by Year and Application Year Categories of TTVN Use1993A199419951996 University Credit Courses0250227235  Continuing Education/Staff Development141902445 23%) Administrative Activities42334353  TAEX Exension Activities522727  TAES Scientific Collaboration6098  Public Special Interest11171315  Total205392343383 A 1993 began in May and therefore does not represent a complete year.
Discussion Scheduling Perhaps the area that generated the greatest concern at the Center was scheduling.
Scheduling is a problem, especially with multi-site transmissions.
An administrator told of some of her scheduling dilemmas: "When I chaired the committee, I coordinated and considered all schedules.
I had to decide between having six individuals participate versus eight...and then to decide which individuals would be excluded, whose participation was critical.
I had to find what sites were available and that also determined who would participate.
It is a bubble that could burst at any time...and then I have to rebuild it again." She also reflected on using the same system as the university and the tenuous feeling of never really knowing whether one's plans are secure or whether she could be bumped at a very late moment.
"We have a partnership and we are a second class audience; priority is [university] classroom scheduling and sometimes that has to do with the room only, not the equipment." It is this reported unreliability and the conflicts which have arisen that has resulted in the decline in usage of the TTVN for continuing education and staff development purposes.
Meanwhile, university course delivery has proliferated.
Location TTVN facilities are located at universities and research centers of the Texas A&M University System throughout the state.
However, for many of the Extension agents and the rural clientele of many Extension programs, the closest facility is inconveniently located.
Many agents mentioned the fact that they were fifty miles or more away from a TTVN site as a factor limiting their use of the system.
Remarks such as "getting people to come to local programs is hard enough, but asking people to drive an hour in order to watch a presentation on TV is too much", suggest a need to improve the system's accessability.
One of the researchers in the Melon Research Group responded "I would like to be able to use it [TTVN] for agent training and Master Gardener training, but there are just not enough sites located conveniently for all those who would want to attend." Technology Use The knowledge required to effectively use the TTVN equipment is not very great but it does require an introduction and some practice.
In most cases, those who are using the system to accomplish programmatic goals, who are not teaching a regularly scheduled class, are not confident of their mastery of the technology.
Some expressed their feeling as awkward.
"Each time I use it I have to relearn the process for working the different cameras".
Also, there is difficulty in troubleshooting, not knowing where the problem lies when a failure occurs.
Teaching Style Distance education efforts should be learner focused, with teachers providing an environment for interactive learning.
Our informants recognized the need to enhance their presentations, to become more polished, more animated, and to maintain a smooth camera image.
This was seen as a chore and some noted, "Perhaps we should look to video production specialists for tips and training." Personal Contact Several individuals expressed concern about the loss of personal contact with their clients and peers while conducting activities over TTVN.
One Extension staff member lamented: " As an educator I feel that in isolating the teacher from the learners, the passion is lost, it's not the same." Extension agents stressed the importance of face-to-face contact and were in agreement that "...
it is through working individually with the clientele that the Extension worker learns about the people of the area, how they think, what their needs are, and how they carry on their work." (Swanson, 1984, p.
130) Recommendations Plan of Action The lack of a mission statement calling for greater use of TTVN technology in Extension and research is evident.
Current usage is by individual choice.
While use of this technology is embraced by a few individuals who are willing to take risks, many others continue to work with traditional methods.
Extension personnel should be encouraged to assess each duty that they perform to determine whether it could be more economically and efficiently accomplished when conducted through TTVN.
Regularly scheduled blocks of time for university courses severely limited the scheduling options available for other uses.
It is foreseeable that in order to ensure an increase in Extension use of the TTVN system, including Extension outreach and scientific collaboration, another connection to support an additional ELMO document camera and monitor located in a second classroom must be provided.
Scheduling The current scheduling system is unsatisfactory and does not allow for the needs of Extension or research priorities.
A user friendly, on-line scheduling system that provides immediate feedback and confirmation should be designed and implemented to overcome system-wide scheduling headaches.
Short of establishing a second TTVN site, reservation of time slots should be made for non-university, Center activities to ensure that predictable blocks of time are available for scientific collaboration and Extension work.
Reserved time slots should be based upon end user patterns and the systematic input of all potential end users.
Technical Support The technical demands of TTVN technology and the amount of preparation and enhanced presentation skills required have an intimidating effect on potential end users.
Adequate training must be provided for end users.
Videoconference specialists need to be employed in order to assure on-hand technical support.
Also, all sites on the TTVN system should be upgraded so that peripheral devices can be successfully used in presentations of detailed scientific slides.
A training program that will provide presenters with needed skills and confidence will enable them to make interesting presentations and conduct skillful interactions with other end users.
Peer review could also provide suggestions to improve the learning environment on TTVN.
Ideally the Center would model effective videoconference instructional design and methods within an interactive environment.
Summary This study reveals that Extension and research work at this Texas Agricultural Experiment Station has only begun the first mile of the journey toward efficient use of videoconferencing technology.
Nonetheless, the advantages of time and expense savings were noted without exception among informants.
It was also clear to the informants that increased frequency of contact and opportunities for broader interaction outweighed the disadvantages of teaching with TTVN as encountered at the Center.
The one exception was in the area of outreach where personal contact is predominantly preferred.
The Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station has changed due to the introduction of videoconferencing in 1993.
Framing the context of the center's role Center Director Dr.
Jose Amador stated "What you have to understand is that the Center is in the business of demonstrating technology and what it can do.
And our role here at the Center is to provide the setting, the equipment, and the link, as well as handle some administrative and logistical tasks.
Once people have seen the technology in action, it is up to them to develop the applications." As a working model, the experience of the Melon Research Group and their "brown bag" lunch meetings have proven to be a very good use of TTVN.
"The TTVN sessions have proven to be an excellent tool for exchange of current work in Texas, particularly for off-campus centers".
Several researchers stressed the timeliness of the information exchange as in "knowing what melon diseases are threatening".
Similar applications can be found wherever Extension professionals from different locations are engaged in common or like projects.
A Tropical Fruits class that was team taught by a faculty member at College Station and a scientist at the Center is a promising example of how complementary professionals can be brought together.
This type of team work can be further developed with supportive administrative policies and planning.
In a broader application of TTVN, ways to integrate communications among all of the agricultural components of the Texas A&M University System can be achieved.
Particular emphasis should be placed on facilitating the critical links between research and Extension activities.
Videoconferencing technology at the Center holds much promise for furthering the mission and goals of the Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station and the Texas Agricultural Extension Service.
With timely adjustments and improved planning, the Center can move from promise to fulfillment, ensuring more efficient and effective service to the public.
References Amador, Jose.
Garza, Bertha.
Jacques, Ubaldo.
New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Miller, Marvin.
Agricultural Extension: A resource manual.
Urbana, IL: University of Illinois.
Swietlik, Dariusz.
Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station.
Warren, Doyle.
Willie, Celina.
The purpose of the current study was to ascertain the plausible uses and limitations of videoconferencing technology in furthering the mission of the Center and conducting Extension work.
Methodology The methodology employed in this case study was exploratory and will serve as a first step in developing a formative evaluation.
Investigators spent two days visiting the Center, interviewing administrators, researchers, support staff and Extension agents.
A semi-structured interview guide allowed the interviewers to pursue lines of inquiry that explored areas of recurring themes and also unanticipated issues that might emerge.
Interviews were arranged with the director of the Research Center and directors of the Extension Service's Agriculture and Family Consumer Science programs.
Information obtained from them included examples of various uses of video-conferencing and names of individuals whose experiences could contribute to the study.
Questions about experiences with TTVN sessions for the purpose of collaborating on grant writing and conducting scientific exchanges were distributed to members of a Melon Research Group listserv via electronic mail.
County Extension agents served by the Center were contacted by phone to obtain their perceptions on the uses of videoconferencing to accomplish their goals.
Additionally, the Center's videoconference schedule was obtained for the years since the Center began using TTVN.
The information was analyzed by type of application.
Results According to the Center director, "the evolution of distance learning has been an experience in flying by the seat of our pants.
When it started we really didn't know what to expect or what to anticipate.
But we are learning." Three-and-a-half years after the initial transmission, patterns of use have begun to develop at the Center.
Analysis of the Center's Videoconference Schedule revealed the following uses of videoconferences:  university courses,  continuing education and staff development, administrative activities, TAEX outreach,  scientific collaboration, and  public special interest groups.
University courses included business, mathematics, agriculture, and engineering.
After the first year, university courses dominated the usage of TTVN at the Center, consistently accounting for over 60% of scheduled videoconference events.
Continuing education classes include professional development in business and health related fields.
Staff development activities are offered in-house to Center staff and to Extension personnel.
Continuing education opportunities actually dropped in the utilization of TTVN, falling from 68% during 1993, before college courses were offered, to 12% during the fourth year.
The use of TTVN to handle administrative duties remained fairly stable.
Between 8% and 14% of scheduled videoconferencing sessions were administrative.
The fourth category represents outreach efforts of the Extension Service including 4-H, Master Gardener, and the Una Vida Mejor programs.
These programs have accounted for a very small portion of the total TTVN use ranging from less than 1% in 1994 to 8% in 1995.
Scientific collaboration involved some joint grant writing efforts and the formation of a "brown bag" lunch meeting of melon researchers who used videoconferences as a way to exchange current research information.
During 1993 scientific collaboration activities accounted for 3% of the scheduled use and fell to 0% when college courses began to be offered through TTVN.
During the last two years research use has been just over 2% of total use.
Finally, a variety of public forum and special interest group activities that involved some individual initiative by community end users accounted for 5% of the use in 1993 and stayed at 4% through 1996.
Table 1 Number of Scheduled Videoconferences by Year and Application Year Categories of TTVN Use1993A199419951996 University Credit Courses0250227235  Continuing Education/Staff Development141902445 23%) Administrative Activities42334353  TAEX Exension Activities522727  TAES Scientific Collaboration6098  Public Special Interest11171315  Total205392343383 A 1993 began in May and therefore does not represent a complete year.
Discussion Scheduling Perhaps the area that generated the greatest concern at the Center was scheduling.
Scheduling is a problem, especially with multi-site transmissions.
An administrator told of some of her scheduling dilemmas: "When I chaired the committee, I coordinated and considered all schedules.
I had to decide between having six individuals participate versus eight...and then to decide which individuals would be excluded, whose participation was critical.
I had to find what sites were available and that also determined who would participate.
It is a bubble that could burst at any time...and then I have to rebuild it again." She also reflected on using the same system as the university and the tenuous feeling of never really knowing whether one's plans are secure or whether she could be bumped at a very late moment.
"We have a partnership and we are a second class audience; priority is [university] classroom scheduling and sometimes that has to do with the room only, not the equipment." It is this reported unreliability and the conflicts which have arisen that has resulted in the decline in usage of the TTVN for continuing education and staff development purposes.
Meanwhile, university course delivery has proliferated.
Location TTVN facilities are located at universities and research centers of the Texas A&M University System throughout the state.
However, for many of the Extension agents and the rural clientele of many Extension programs, the closest facility is inconveniently located.
Many agents mentioned the fact that they were fifty miles or more away from a TTVN site as a factor limiting their use of the system.
Remarks such as "getting people to come to local programs is hard enough, but asking people to drive an hour in order to watch a presentation on TV is too much", suggest a need to improve the system's accessability.
One of the researchers in the Melon Research Group responded "I would like to be able to use it [TTVN] for agent training and Master Gardener training, but there are just not enough sites located conveniently for all those who would want to attend." Technology Use The knowledge required to effectively use the TTVN equipment is not very great but it does require an introduction and some practice.
In most cases, those who are using the system to accomplish programmatic goals, who are not teaching a regularly scheduled class, are not confident of their mastery of the technology.
Some expressed their feeling as awkward.
"Each time I use it I have to relearn the process for working the different cameras".
Also, there is difficulty in troubleshooting, not knowing where the problem lies when a failure occurs.
Teaching Style Distance education efforts should be learner focused, with teachers providing an environment for interactive learning.
Our informants recognized the need to enhance their presentations, to become more polished, more animated, and to maintain a smooth camera image.
This was seen as a chore and some noted, "Perhaps we should look to video production specialists for tips and training." Personal Contact Several individuals expressed concern about the loss of personal contact with their clients and peers while conducting activities over TTVN.
One Extension staff member lamented: " As an educator I feel that in isolating the teacher from the learners, the passion is lost, it's not the same." Extension agents stressed the importance of face-to-face contact and were in agreement that "...
it is through working individually with the clientele that the Extension worker learns about the people of the area, how they think, what their needs are, and how they carry on their work." (Swanson, 1984, p.
130) Recommendations Plan of Action The lack of a mission statement calling for greater use of TTVN technology in Extension and research is evident.
Current usage is by individual choice.
While use of this technology is embraced by a few individuals who are willing to take risks, many others continue to work with traditional methods.
Extension personnel should be encouraged to assess each duty that they perform to determine whether it could be more economically and efficiently accomplished when conducted through TTVN.
Regularly scheduled blocks of time for university courses severely limited the scheduling options available for other uses.
It is foreseeable that in order to ensure an increase in Extension use of the TTVN system, including Extension outreach and scientific collaboration, another connection to support an additional ELMO document camera and monitor located in a second classroom must be provided.
Scheduling The current scheduling system is unsatisfactory and does not allow for the needs of Extension or research priorities.
A user friendly, on-line scheduling system that provides immediate feedback and confirmation should be designed and implemented to overcome system-wide scheduling headaches.
Short of establishing a second TTVN site, reservation of time slots should be made for non-university, Center activities to ensure that predictable blocks of time are available for scientific collaboration and Extension work.
Reserved time slots should be based upon end user patterns and the systematic input of all potential end users.
Technical Support The technical demands of TTVN technology and the amount of preparation and enhanced presentation skills required have an intimidating effect on potential end users.
Adequate training must be provided for end users.
Videoconference specialists need to be employed in order to assure on-hand technical support.
Also, all sites on the TTVN system should be upgraded so that peripheral devices can be successfully used in presentations of detailed scientific slides.
A training program that will provide presenters with needed skills and confidence will enable them to make interesting presentations and conduct skillful interactions with other end users.
Peer review could also provide suggestions to improve the learning environment on TTVN.
Ideally the Center would model effective videoconference instructional design and methods within an interactive environment.
Summary This study reveals that Extension and research work at this Texas Agricultural Experiment Station has only begun the first mile of the journey toward efficient use of videoconferencing technology.
Nonetheless, the advantages of time and expense savings were noted without exception among informants.
It was also clear to the informants that increased frequency of contact and opportunities for broader interaction outweighed the disadvantages of teaching with TTVN as encountered at the Center.
The one exception was in the area of outreach where personal contact is predominantly preferred.
The Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station has changed due to the introduction of videoconferencing in 1993.
Framing the context of the center's role Center Director Dr.
Jose Amador stated "What you have to understand is that the Center is in the business of demonstrating technology and what it can do.
And our role here at the Center is to provide the setting, the equipment, and the link, as well as handle some administrative and logistical tasks.
Once people have seen the technology in action, it is up to them to develop the applications." As a working model, the experience of the Melon Research Group and their "brown bag" lunch meetings have proven to be a very good use of TTVN.
"The TTVN sessions have proven to be an excellent tool for exchange of current work in Texas, particularly for off-campus centers".
Several researchers stressed the timeliness of the information exchange as in "knowing what melon diseases are threatening".
Similar applications can be found wherever Extension professionals from different locations are engaged in common or like projects.
A Tropical Fruits class that was team taught by a faculty member at College Station and a scientist at the Center is a promising example of how complementary professionals can be brought together.
This type of team work can be further developed with supportive administrative policies and planning.
In a broader application of TTVN, ways to integrate communications among all of the agricultural components of the Texas A&M University System can be achieved.
Particular emphasis should be placed on facilitating the critical links between research and Extension activities.
Videoconferencing technology at the Center holds much promise for furthering the mission and goals of the Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station and the Texas Agricultural Extension Service.
With timely adjustments and improved planning, the Center can move from promise to fulfillment, ensuring more efficient and effective service to the public.
References Amador, Jose.
Garza, Bertha.
Jacques, Ubaldo.
New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Miller, Marvin.
Agricultural Extension: A resource manual.
Urbana, IL: University of Illinois.
Swietlik, Dariusz.
Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station.
Warren, Doyle.
Willie, Celina.
The methodology employed in this case study was exploratory and will serve as a first step in developing a formative evaluation.
Investigators spent two days visiting the Center, interviewing administrators, researchers, support staff and Extension agents.
A semi-structured interview guide allowed the interviewers to pursue lines of inquiry that explored areas of recurring themes and also unanticipated issues that might emerge.
Interviews were arranged with the director of the Research Center and directors of the Extension Service's Agriculture and Family Consumer Science programs.
Information obtained from them included examples of various uses of video-conferencing and names of individuals whose experiences could contribute to the study.
Questions about experiences with TTVN sessions for the purpose of collaborating on grant writing and conducting scientific exchanges were distributed to members of a Melon Research Group listserv via electronic mail.
County Extension agents served by the Center were contacted by phone to obtain their perceptions on the uses of videoconferencing to accomplish their goals.
Additionally, the Center's videoconference schedule was obtained for the years since the Center began using TTVN.
The information was analyzed by type of application.
Results According to the Center director, "the evolution of distance learning has been an experience in flying by the seat of our pants.
When it started we really didn't know what to expect or what to anticipate.
But we are learning." Three-and-a-half years after the initial transmission, patterns of use have begun to develop at the Center.
Analysis of the Center's Videoconference Schedule revealed the following uses of videoconferences:  university courses,  continuing education and staff development, administrative activities, TAEX outreach,  scientific collaboration, and  public special interest groups.
University courses included business, mathematics, agriculture, and engineering.
After the first year, university courses dominated the usage of TTVN at the Center, consistently accounting for over 60% of scheduled videoconference events.
Continuing education classes include professional development in business and health related fields.
Staff development activities are offered in-house to Center staff and to Extension personnel.
Continuing education opportunities actually dropped in the utilization of TTVN, falling from 68% during 1993, before college courses were offered, to 12% during the fourth year.
The use of TTVN to handle administrative duties remained fairly stable.
Between 8% and 14% of scheduled videoconferencing sessions were administrative.
The fourth category represents outreach efforts of the Extension Service including 4-H, Master Gardener, and the Una Vida Mejor programs.
These programs have accounted for a very small portion of the total TTVN use ranging from less than 1% in 1994 to 8% in 1995.
Scientific collaboration involved some joint grant writing efforts and the formation of a "brown bag" lunch meeting of melon researchers who used videoconferences as a way to exchange current research information.
During 1993 scientific collaboration activities accounted for 3% of the scheduled use and fell to 0% when college courses began to be offered through TTVN.
During the last two years research use has been just over 2% of total use.
Finally, a variety of public forum and special interest group activities that involved some individual initiative by community end users accounted for 5% of the use in 1993 and stayed at 4% through 1996.
Table 1 Number of Scheduled Videoconferences by Year and Application Year Categories of TTVN Use1993A199419951996 University Credit Courses0250227235  Continuing Education/Staff Development141902445 23%) Administrative Activities42334353  TAEX Exension Activities522727  TAES Scientific Collaboration6098  Public Special Interest11171315  Total205392343383 A 1993 began in May and therefore does not represent a complete year.
Discussion Scheduling Perhaps the area that generated the greatest concern at the Center was scheduling.
Scheduling is a problem, especially with multi-site transmissions.
An administrator told of some of her scheduling dilemmas: "When I chaired the committee, I coordinated and considered all schedules.
I had to decide between having six individuals participate versus eight...and then to decide which individuals would be excluded, whose participation was critical.
I had to find what sites were available and that also determined who would participate.
It is a bubble that could burst at any time...and then I have to rebuild it again." She also reflected on using the same system as the university and the tenuous feeling of never really knowing whether one's plans are secure or whether she could be bumped at a very late moment.
"We have a partnership and we are a second class audience; priority is [university] classroom scheduling and sometimes that has to do with the room only, not the equipment." It is this reported unreliability and the conflicts which have arisen that has resulted in the decline in usage of the TTVN for continuing education and staff development purposes.
Meanwhile, university course delivery has proliferated.
Location TTVN facilities are located at universities and research centers of the Texas A&M University System throughout the state.
However, for many of the Extension agents and the rural clientele of many Extension programs, the closest facility is inconveniently located.
Many agents mentioned the fact that they were fifty miles or more away from a TTVN site as a factor limiting their use of the system.
Remarks such as "getting people to come to local programs is hard enough, but asking people to drive an hour in order to watch a presentation on TV is too much", suggest a need to improve the system's accessability.
One of the researchers in the Melon Research Group responded "I would like to be able to use it [TTVN] for agent training and Master Gardener training, but there are just not enough sites located conveniently for all those who would want to attend." Technology Use The knowledge required to effectively use the TTVN equipment is not very great but it does require an introduction and some practice.
In most cases, those who are using the system to accomplish programmatic goals, who are not teaching a regularly scheduled class, are not confident of their mastery of the technology.
Some expressed their feeling as awkward.
"Each time I use it I have to relearn the process for working the different cameras".
Also, there is difficulty in troubleshooting, not knowing where the problem lies when a failure occurs.
Teaching Style Distance education efforts should be learner focused, with teachers providing an environment for interactive learning.
Our informants recognized the need to enhance their presentations, to become more polished, more animated, and to maintain a smooth camera image.
This was seen as a chore and some noted, "Perhaps we should look to video production specialists for tips and training." Personal Contact Several individuals expressed concern about the loss of personal contact with their clients and peers while conducting activities over TTVN.
One Extension staff member lamented: " As an educator I feel that in isolating the teacher from the learners, the passion is lost, it's not the same." Extension agents stressed the importance of face-to-face contact and were in agreement that "...
it is through working individually with the clientele that the Extension worker learns about the people of the area, how they think, what their needs are, and how they carry on their work." (Swanson, 1984, p.
130) Recommendations Plan of Action The lack of a mission statement calling for greater use of TTVN technology in Extension and research is evident.
Current usage is by individual choice.
While use of this technology is embraced by a few individuals who are willing to take risks, many others continue to work with traditional methods.
Extension personnel should be encouraged to assess each duty that they perform to determine whether it could be more economically and efficiently accomplished when conducted through TTVN.
Regularly scheduled blocks of time for university courses severely limited the scheduling options available for other uses.
It is foreseeable that in order to ensure an increase in Extension use of the TTVN system, including Extension outreach and scientific collaboration, another connection to support an additional ELMO document camera and monitor located in a second classroom must be provided.
Scheduling The current scheduling system is unsatisfactory and does not allow for the needs of Extension or research priorities.
A user friendly, on-line scheduling system that provides immediate feedback and confirmation should be designed and implemented to overcome system-wide scheduling headaches.
Short of establishing a second TTVN site, reservation of time slots should be made for non-university, Center activities to ensure that predictable blocks of time are available for scientific collaboration and Extension work.
Reserved time slots should be based upon end user patterns and the systematic input of all potential end users.
Technical Support The technical demands of TTVN technology and the amount of preparation and enhanced presentation skills required have an intimidating effect on potential end users.
Adequate training must be provided for end users.
Videoconference specialists need to be employed in order to assure on-hand technical support.
Also, all sites on the TTVN system should be upgraded so that peripheral devices can be successfully used in presentations of detailed scientific slides.
A training program that will provide presenters with needed skills and confidence will enable them to make interesting presentations and conduct skillful interactions with other end users.
Peer review could also provide suggestions to improve the learning environment on TTVN.
Ideally the Center would model effective videoconference instructional design and methods within an interactive environment.
Summary This study reveals that Extension and research work at this Texas Agricultural Experiment Station has only begun the first mile of the journey toward efficient use of videoconferencing technology.
Nonetheless, the advantages of time and expense savings were noted without exception among informants.
It was also clear to the informants that increased frequency of contact and opportunities for broader interaction outweighed the disadvantages of teaching with TTVN as encountered at the Center.
The one exception was in the area of outreach where personal contact is predominantly preferred.
The Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station has changed due to the introduction of videoconferencing in 1993.
Framing the context of the center's role Center Director Dr.
Jose Amador stated "What you have to understand is that the Center is in the business of demonstrating technology and what it can do.
And our role here at the Center is to provide the setting, the equipment, and the link, as well as handle some administrative and logistical tasks.
Once people have seen the technology in action, it is up to them to develop the applications." As a working model, the experience of the Melon Research Group and their "brown bag" lunch meetings have proven to be a very good use of TTVN.
"The TTVN sessions have proven to be an excellent tool for exchange of current work in Texas, particularly for off-campus centers".
Several researchers stressed the timeliness of the information exchange as in "knowing what melon diseases are threatening".
Similar applications can be found wherever Extension professionals from different locations are engaged in common or like projects.
A Tropical Fruits class that was team taught by a faculty member at College Station and a scientist at the Center is a promising example of how complementary professionals can be brought together.
This type of team work can be further developed with supportive administrative policies and planning.
In a broader application of TTVN, ways to integrate communications among all of the agricultural components of the Texas A&M University System can be achieved.
Particular emphasis should be placed on facilitating the critical links between research and Extension activities.
Videoconferencing technology at the Center holds much promise for furthering the mission and goals of the Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station and the Texas Agricultural Extension Service.
With timely adjustments and improved planning, the Center can move from promise to fulfillment, ensuring more efficient and effective service to the public.
References Amador, Jose.
Garza, Bertha.
Jacques, Ubaldo.
New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Miller, Marvin.
Agricultural Extension: A resource manual.
Urbana, IL: University of Illinois.
Swietlik, Dariusz.
Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station.
Warren, Doyle.
Willie, Celina.
Interviews were arranged with the director of the Research Center and directors of the Extension Service's Agriculture and Family Consumer Science programs.
Information obtained from them included examples of various uses of video-conferencing and names of individuals whose experiences could contribute to the study.
Questions about experiences with TTVN sessions for the purpose of collaborating on grant writing and conducting scientific exchanges were distributed to members of a Melon Research Group listserv via electronic mail.
County Extension agents served by the Center were contacted by phone to obtain their perceptions on the uses of videoconferencing to accomplish their goals.
Additionally, the Center's videoconference schedule was obtained for the years since the Center began using TTVN.
The information was analyzed by type of application.
Results According to the Center director, "the evolution of distance learning has been an experience in flying by the seat of our pants.
When it started we really didn't know what to expect or what to anticipate.
But we are learning." Three-and-a-half years after the initial transmission, patterns of use have begun to develop at the Center.
Analysis of the Center's Videoconference Schedule revealed the following uses of videoconferences:  university courses,  continuing education and staff development, administrative activities, TAEX outreach,  scientific collaboration, and  public special interest groups.
University courses included business, mathematics, agriculture, and engineering.
After the first year, university courses dominated the usage of TTVN at the Center, consistently accounting for over 60% of scheduled videoconference events.
Continuing education classes include professional development in business and health related fields.
Staff development activities are offered in-house to Center staff and to Extension personnel.
Continuing education opportunities actually dropped in the utilization of TTVN, falling from 68% during 1993, before college courses were offered, to 12% during the fourth year.
The use of TTVN to handle administrative duties remained fairly stable.
Between 8% and 14% of scheduled videoconferencing sessions were administrative.
The fourth category represents outreach efforts of the Extension Service including 4-H, Master Gardener, and the Una Vida Mejor programs.
These programs have accounted for a very small portion of the total TTVN use ranging from less than 1% in 1994 to 8% in 1995.
Scientific collaboration involved some joint grant writing efforts and the formation of a "brown bag" lunch meeting of melon researchers who used videoconferences as a way to exchange current research information.
During 1993 scientific collaboration activities accounted for 3% of the scheduled use and fell to 0% when college courses began to be offered through TTVN.
During the last two years research use has been just over 2% of total use.
Finally, a variety of public forum and special interest group activities that involved some individual initiative by community end users accounted for 5% of the use in 1993 and stayed at 4% through 1996.
Table 1 Number of Scheduled Videoconferences by Year and Application Year Categories of TTVN Use1993A199419951996 University Credit Courses0250227235  Continuing Education/Staff Development141902445 23%) Administrative Activities42334353  TAEX Exension Activities522727  TAES Scientific Collaboration6098  Public Special Interest11171315  Total205392343383 A 1993 began in May and therefore does not represent a complete year.
Discussion Scheduling Perhaps the area that generated the greatest concern at the Center was scheduling.
Scheduling is a problem, especially with multi-site transmissions.
An administrator told of some of her scheduling dilemmas: "When I chaired the committee, I coordinated and considered all schedules.
I had to decide between having six individuals participate versus eight...and then to decide which individuals would be excluded, whose participation was critical.
I had to find what sites were available and that also determined who would participate.
It is a bubble that could burst at any time...and then I have to rebuild it again." She also reflected on using the same system as the university and the tenuous feeling of never really knowing whether one's plans are secure or whether she could be bumped at a very late moment.
"We have a partnership and we are a second class audience; priority is [university] classroom scheduling and sometimes that has to do with the room only, not the equipment." It is this reported unreliability and the conflicts which have arisen that has resulted in the decline in usage of the TTVN for continuing education and staff development purposes.
Meanwhile, university course delivery has proliferated.
Location TTVN facilities are located at universities and research centers of the Texas A&M University System throughout the state.
However, for many of the Extension agents and the rural clientele of many Extension programs, the closest facility is inconveniently located.
Many agents mentioned the fact that they were fifty miles or more away from a TTVN site as a factor limiting their use of the system.
Remarks such as "getting people to come to local programs is hard enough, but asking people to drive an hour in order to watch a presentation on TV is too much", suggest a need to improve the system's accessability.
One of the researchers in the Melon Research Group responded "I would like to be able to use it [TTVN] for agent training and Master Gardener training, but there are just not enough sites located conveniently for all those who would want to attend." Technology Use The knowledge required to effectively use the TTVN equipment is not very great but it does require an introduction and some practice.
In most cases, those who are using the system to accomplish programmatic goals, who are not teaching a regularly scheduled class, are not confident of their mastery of the technology.
Some expressed their feeling as awkward.
"Each time I use it I have to relearn the process for working the different cameras".
Also, there is difficulty in troubleshooting, not knowing where the problem lies when a failure occurs.
Teaching Style Distance education efforts should be learner focused, with teachers providing an environment for interactive learning.
Our informants recognized the need to enhance their presentations, to become more polished, more animated, and to maintain a smooth camera image.
This was seen as a chore and some noted, "Perhaps we should look to video production specialists for tips and training." Personal Contact Several individuals expressed concern about the loss of personal contact with their clients and peers while conducting activities over TTVN.
One Extension staff member lamented: " As an educator I feel that in isolating the teacher from the learners, the passion is lost, it's not the same." Extension agents stressed the importance of face-to-face contact and were in agreement that "...
it is through working individually with the clientele that the Extension worker learns about the people of the area, how they think, what their needs are, and how they carry on their work." (Swanson, 1984, p.
130) Recommendations Plan of Action The lack of a mission statement calling for greater use of TTVN technology in Extension and research is evident.
Current usage is by individual choice.
While use of this technology is embraced by a few individuals who are willing to take risks, many others continue to work with traditional methods.
Extension personnel should be encouraged to assess each duty that they perform to determine whether it could be more economically and efficiently accomplished when conducted through TTVN.
Regularly scheduled blocks of time for university courses severely limited the scheduling options available for other uses.
It is foreseeable that in order to ensure an increase in Extension use of the TTVN system, including Extension outreach and scientific collaboration, another connection to support an additional ELMO document camera and monitor located in a second classroom must be provided.
Scheduling The current scheduling system is unsatisfactory and does not allow for the needs of Extension or research priorities.
A user friendly, on-line scheduling system that provides immediate feedback and confirmation should be designed and implemented to overcome system-wide scheduling headaches.
Short of establishing a second TTVN site, reservation of time slots should be made for non-university, Center activities to ensure that predictable blocks of time are available for scientific collaboration and Extension work.
Reserved time slots should be based upon end user patterns and the systematic input of all potential end users.
Technical Support The technical demands of TTVN technology and the amount of preparation and enhanced presentation skills required have an intimidating effect on potential end users.
Adequate training must be provided for end users.
Videoconference specialists need to be employed in order to assure on-hand technical support.
Also, all sites on the TTVN system should be upgraded so that peripheral devices can be successfully used in presentations of detailed scientific slides.
A training program that will provide presenters with needed skills and confidence will enable them to make interesting presentations and conduct skillful interactions with other end users.
Peer review could also provide suggestions to improve the learning environment on TTVN.
Ideally the Center would model effective videoconference instructional design and methods within an interactive environment.
Summary This study reveals that Extension and research work at this Texas Agricultural Experiment Station has only begun the first mile of the journey toward efficient use of videoconferencing technology.
Nonetheless, the advantages of time and expense savings were noted without exception among informants.
It was also clear to the informants that increased frequency of contact and opportunities for broader interaction outweighed the disadvantages of teaching with TTVN as encountered at the Center.
The one exception was in the area of outreach where personal contact is predominantly preferred.
The Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station has changed due to the introduction of videoconferencing in 1993.
Framing the context of the center's role Center Director Dr.
Jose Amador stated "What you have to understand is that the Center is in the business of demonstrating technology and what it can do.
And our role here at the Center is to provide the setting, the equipment, and the link, as well as handle some administrative and logistical tasks.
Once people have seen the technology in action, it is up to them to develop the applications." As a working model, the experience of the Melon Research Group and their "brown bag" lunch meetings have proven to be a very good use of TTVN.
"The TTVN sessions have proven to be an excellent tool for exchange of current work in Texas, particularly for off-campus centers".
Several researchers stressed the timeliness of the information exchange as in "knowing what melon diseases are threatening".
Similar applications can be found wherever Extension professionals from different locations are engaged in common or like projects.
A Tropical Fruits class that was team taught by a faculty member at College Station and a scientist at the Center is a promising example of how complementary professionals can be brought together.
This type of team work can be further developed with supportive administrative policies and planning.
In a broader application of TTVN, ways to integrate communications among all of the agricultural components of the Texas A&M University System can be achieved.
Particular emphasis should be placed on facilitating the critical links between research and Extension activities.
Videoconferencing technology at the Center holds much promise for furthering the mission and goals of the Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station and the Texas Agricultural Extension Service.
With timely adjustments and improved planning, the Center can move from promise to fulfillment, ensuring more efficient and effective service to the public.
References Amador, Jose.
Garza, Bertha.
Jacques, Ubaldo.
New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Miller, Marvin.
Agricultural Extension: A resource manual.
Urbana, IL: University of Illinois.
Swietlik, Dariusz.
Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station.
Warren, Doyle.
Willie, Celina.
Questions about experiences with TTVN sessions for the purpose of collaborating on grant writing and conducting scientific exchanges were distributed to members of a Melon Research Group listserv via electronic mail.
County Extension agents served by the Center were contacted by phone to obtain their perceptions on the uses of videoconferencing to accomplish their goals.
Additionally, the Center's videoconference schedule was obtained for the years since the Center began using TTVN.
The information was analyzed by type of application.
Results According to the Center director, "the evolution of distance learning has been an experience in flying by the seat of our pants.
When it started we really didn't know what to expect or what to anticipate.
But we are learning." Three-and-a-half years after the initial transmission, patterns of use have begun to develop at the Center.
Analysis of the Center's Videoconference Schedule revealed the following uses of videoconferences:  university courses,  continuing education and staff development, administrative activities, TAEX outreach,  scientific collaboration, and  public special interest groups.
University courses included business, mathematics, agriculture, and engineering.
After the first year, university courses dominated the usage of TTVN at the Center, consistently accounting for over 60% of scheduled videoconference events.
Continuing education classes include professional development in business and health related fields.
Staff development activities are offered in-house to Center staff and to Extension personnel.
Continuing education opportunities actually dropped in the utilization of TTVN, falling from 68% during 1993, before college courses were offered, to 12% during the fourth year.
The use of TTVN to handle administrative duties remained fairly stable.
Between 8% and 14% of scheduled videoconferencing sessions were administrative.
The fourth category represents outreach efforts of the Extension Service including 4-H, Master Gardener, and the Una Vida Mejor programs.
These programs have accounted for a very small portion of the total TTVN use ranging from less than 1% in 1994 to 8% in 1995.
Scientific collaboration involved some joint grant writing efforts and the formation of a "brown bag" lunch meeting of melon researchers who used videoconferences as a way to exchange current research information.
During 1993 scientific collaboration activities accounted for 3% of the scheduled use and fell to 0% when college courses began to be offered through TTVN.
During the last two years research use has been just over 2% of total use.
Finally, a variety of public forum and special interest group activities that involved some individual initiative by community end users accounted for 5% of the use in 1993 and stayed at 4% through 1996.
Table 1 Number of Scheduled Videoconferences by Year and Application Year Categories of TTVN Use1993A199419951996 University Credit Courses0250227235  Continuing Education/Staff Development141902445 23%) Administrative Activities42334353  TAEX Exension Activities522727  TAES Scientific Collaboration6098  Public Special Interest11171315  Total205392343383 A 1993 began in May and therefore does not represent a complete year.
Discussion Scheduling Perhaps the area that generated the greatest concern at the Center was scheduling.
Scheduling is a problem, especially with multi-site transmissions.
An administrator told of some of her scheduling dilemmas: "When I chaired the committee, I coordinated and considered all schedules.
I had to decide between having six individuals participate versus eight...and then to decide which individuals would be excluded, whose participation was critical.
I had to find what sites were available and that also determined who would participate.
It is a bubble that could burst at any time...and then I have to rebuild it again." She also reflected on using the same system as the university and the tenuous feeling of never really knowing whether one's plans are secure or whether she could be bumped at a very late moment.
"We have a partnership and we are a second class audience; priority is [university] classroom scheduling and sometimes that has to do with the room only, not the equipment." It is this reported unreliability and the conflicts which have arisen that has resulted in the decline in usage of the TTVN for continuing education and staff development purposes.
Meanwhile, university course delivery has proliferated.
Location TTVN facilities are located at universities and research centers of the Texas A&M University System throughout the state.
However, for many of the Extension agents and the rural clientele of many Extension programs, the closest facility is inconveniently located.
Many agents mentioned the fact that they were fifty miles or more away from a TTVN site as a factor limiting their use of the system.
Remarks such as "getting people to come to local programs is hard enough, but asking people to drive an hour in order to watch a presentation on TV is too much", suggest a need to improve the system's accessability.
One of the researchers in the Melon Research Group responded "I would like to be able to use it [TTVN] for agent training and Master Gardener training, but there are just not enough sites located conveniently for all those who would want to attend." Technology Use The knowledge required to effectively use the TTVN equipment is not very great but it does require an introduction and some practice.
In most cases, those who are using the system to accomplish programmatic goals, who are not teaching a regularly scheduled class, are not confident of their mastery of the technology.
Some expressed their feeling as awkward.
"Each time I use it I have to relearn the process for working the different cameras".
Also, there is difficulty in troubleshooting, not knowing where the problem lies when a failure occurs.
Teaching Style Distance education efforts should be learner focused, with teachers providing an environment for interactive learning.
Our informants recognized the need to enhance their presentations, to become more polished, more animated, and to maintain a smooth camera image.
This was seen as a chore and some noted, "Perhaps we should look to video production specialists for tips and training." Personal Contact Several individuals expressed concern about the loss of personal contact with their clients and peers while conducting activities over TTVN.
One Extension staff member lamented: " As an educator I feel that in isolating the teacher from the learners, the passion is lost, it's not the same." Extension agents stressed the importance of face-to-face contact and were in agreement that "...
it is through working individually with the clientele that the Extension worker learns about the people of the area, how they think, what their needs are, and how they carry on their work." (Swanson, 1984, p.
130) Recommendations Plan of Action The lack of a mission statement calling for greater use of TTVN technology in Extension and research is evident.
Current usage is by individual choice.
While use of this technology is embraced by a few individuals who are willing to take risks, many others continue to work with traditional methods.
Extension personnel should be encouraged to assess each duty that they perform to determine whether it could be more economically and efficiently accomplished when conducted through TTVN.
Regularly scheduled blocks of time for university courses severely limited the scheduling options available for other uses.
It is foreseeable that in order to ensure an increase in Extension use of the TTVN system, including Extension outreach and scientific collaboration, another connection to support an additional ELMO document camera and monitor located in a second classroom must be provided.
Scheduling The current scheduling system is unsatisfactory and does not allow for the needs of Extension or research priorities.
A user friendly, on-line scheduling system that provides immediate feedback and confirmation should be designed and implemented to overcome system-wide scheduling headaches.
Short of establishing a second TTVN site, reservation of time slots should be made for non-university, Center activities to ensure that predictable blocks of time are available for scientific collaboration and Extension work.
Reserved time slots should be based upon end user patterns and the systematic input of all potential end users.
Technical Support The technical demands of TTVN technology and the amount of preparation and enhanced presentation skills required have an intimidating effect on potential end users.
Adequate training must be provided for end users.
Videoconference specialists need to be employed in order to assure on-hand technical support.
Also, all sites on the TTVN system should be upgraded so that peripheral devices can be successfully used in presentations of detailed scientific slides.
A training program that will provide presenters with needed skills and confidence will enable them to make interesting presentations and conduct skillful interactions with other end users.
Peer review could also provide suggestions to improve the learning environment on TTVN.
Ideally the Center would model effective videoconference instructional design and methods within an interactive environment.
Summary This study reveals that Extension and research work at this Texas Agricultural Experiment Station has only begun the first mile of the journey toward efficient use of videoconferencing technology.
Nonetheless, the advantages of time and expense savings were noted without exception among informants.
It was also clear to the informants that increased frequency of contact and opportunities for broader interaction outweighed the disadvantages of teaching with TTVN as encountered at the Center.
The one exception was in the area of outreach where personal contact is predominantly preferred.
The Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station has changed due to the introduction of videoconferencing in 1993.
Framing the context of the center's role Center Director Dr.
Jose Amador stated "What you have to understand is that the Center is in the business of demonstrating technology and what it can do.
And our role here at the Center is to provide the setting, the equipment, and the link, as well as handle some administrative and logistical tasks.
Once people have seen the technology in action, it is up to them to develop the applications." As a working model, the experience of the Melon Research Group and their "brown bag" lunch meetings have proven to be a very good use of TTVN.
"The TTVN sessions have proven to be an excellent tool for exchange of current work in Texas, particularly for off-campus centers".
Several researchers stressed the timeliness of the information exchange as in "knowing what melon diseases are threatening".
Similar applications can be found wherever Extension professionals from different locations are engaged in common or like projects.
A Tropical Fruits class that was team taught by a faculty member at College Station and a scientist at the Center is a promising example of how complementary professionals can be brought together.
This type of team work can be further developed with supportive administrative policies and planning.
In a broader application of TTVN, ways to integrate communications among all of the agricultural components of the Texas A&M University System can be achieved.
Particular emphasis should be placed on facilitating the critical links between research and Extension activities.
Videoconferencing technology at the Center holds much promise for furthering the mission and goals of the Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station and the Texas Agricultural Extension Service.
With timely adjustments and improved planning, the Center can move from promise to fulfillment, ensuring more efficient and effective service to the public.
References Amador, Jose.
Garza, Bertha.
Jacques, Ubaldo.
New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Miller, Marvin.
Agricultural Extension: A resource manual.
Urbana, IL: University of Illinois.
Swietlik, Dariusz.
Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station.
Warren, Doyle.
Willie, Celina.
Additionally, the Center's videoconference schedule was obtained for the years since the Center began using TTVN.
The information was analyzed by type of application.
Results According to the Center director, "the evolution of distance learning has been an experience in flying by the seat of our pants.
When it started we really didn't know what to expect or what to anticipate.
But we are learning." Three-and-a-half years after the initial transmission, patterns of use have begun to develop at the Center.
Analysis of the Center's Videoconference Schedule revealed the following uses of videoconferences:  university courses,  continuing education and staff development, administrative activities, TAEX outreach,  scientific collaboration, and  public special interest groups.
University courses included business, mathematics, agriculture, and engineering.
After the first year, university courses dominated the usage of TTVN at the Center, consistently accounting for over 60% of scheduled videoconference events.
Continuing education classes include professional development in business and health related fields.
Staff development activities are offered in-house to Center staff and to Extension personnel.
Continuing education opportunities actually dropped in the utilization of TTVN, falling from 68% during 1993, before college courses were offered, to 12% during the fourth year.
The use of TTVN to handle administrative duties remained fairly stable.
Between 8% and 14% of scheduled videoconferencing sessions were administrative.
The fourth category represents outreach efforts of the Extension Service including 4-H, Master Gardener, and the Una Vida Mejor programs.
These programs have accounted for a very small portion of the total TTVN use ranging from less than 1% in 1994 to 8% in 1995.
Scientific collaboration involved some joint grant writing efforts and the formation of a "brown bag" lunch meeting of melon researchers who used videoconferences as a way to exchange current research information.
During 1993 scientific collaboration activities accounted for 3% of the scheduled use and fell to 0% when college courses began to be offered through TTVN.
During the last two years research use has been just over 2% of total use.
Finally, a variety of public forum and special interest group activities that involved some individual initiative by community end users accounted for 5% of the use in 1993 and stayed at 4% through 1996.
Table 1 Number of Scheduled Videoconferences by Year and Application Year Categories of TTVN Use1993A199419951996 University Credit Courses0250227235  Continuing Education/Staff Development141902445 23%) Administrative Activities42334353  TAEX Exension Activities522727  TAES Scientific Collaboration6098  Public Special Interest11171315  Total205392343383 A 1993 began in May and therefore does not represent a complete year.
Discussion Scheduling Perhaps the area that generated the greatest concern at the Center was scheduling.
Scheduling is a problem, especially with multi-site transmissions.
An administrator told of some of her scheduling dilemmas: "When I chaired the committee, I coordinated and considered all schedules.
I had to decide between having six individuals participate versus eight...and then to decide which individuals would be excluded, whose participation was critical.
I had to find what sites were available and that also determined who would participate.
It is a bubble that could burst at any time...and then I have to rebuild it again." She also reflected on using the same system as the university and the tenuous feeling of never really knowing whether one's plans are secure or whether she could be bumped at a very late moment.
"We have a partnership and we are a second class audience; priority is [university] classroom scheduling and sometimes that has to do with the room only, not the equipment." It is this reported unreliability and the conflicts which have arisen that has resulted in the decline in usage of the TTVN for continuing education and staff development purposes.
Meanwhile, university course delivery has proliferated.
Location TTVN facilities are located at universities and research centers of the Texas A&M University System throughout the state.
However, for many of the Extension agents and the rural clientele of many Extension programs, the closest facility is inconveniently located.
Many agents mentioned the fact that they were fifty miles or more away from a TTVN site as a factor limiting their use of the system.
Remarks such as "getting people to come to local programs is hard enough, but asking people to drive an hour in order to watch a presentation on TV is too much", suggest a need to improve the system's accessability.
One of the researchers in the Melon Research Group responded "I would like to be able to use it [TTVN] for agent training and Master Gardener training, but there are just not enough sites located conveniently for all those who would want to attend." Technology Use The knowledge required to effectively use the TTVN equipment is not very great but it does require an introduction and some practice.
In most cases, those who are using the system to accomplish programmatic goals, who are not teaching a regularly scheduled class, are not confident of their mastery of the technology.
Some expressed their feeling as awkward.
"Each time I use it I have to relearn the process for working the different cameras".
Also, there is difficulty in troubleshooting, not knowing where the problem lies when a failure occurs.
Teaching Style Distance education efforts should be learner focused, with teachers providing an environment for interactive learning.
Our informants recognized the need to enhance their presentations, to become more polished, more animated, and to maintain a smooth camera image.
This was seen as a chore and some noted, "Perhaps we should look to video production specialists for tips and training." Personal Contact Several individuals expressed concern about the loss of personal contact with their clients and peers while conducting activities over TTVN.
One Extension staff member lamented: " As an educator I feel that in isolating the teacher from the learners, the passion is lost, it's not the same." Extension agents stressed the importance of face-to-face contact and were in agreement that "...
it is through working individually with the clientele that the Extension worker learns about the people of the area, how they think, what their needs are, and how they carry on their work." (Swanson, 1984, p.
130) Recommendations Plan of Action The lack of a mission statement calling for greater use of TTVN technology in Extension and research is evident.
Current usage is by individual choice.
While use of this technology is embraced by a few individuals who are willing to take risks, many others continue to work with traditional methods.
Extension personnel should be encouraged to assess each duty that they perform to determine whether it could be more economically and efficiently accomplished when conducted through TTVN.
Regularly scheduled blocks of time for university courses severely limited the scheduling options available for other uses.
It is foreseeable that in order to ensure an increase in Extension use of the TTVN system, including Extension outreach and scientific collaboration, another connection to support an additional ELMO document camera and monitor located in a second classroom must be provided.
Scheduling The current scheduling system is unsatisfactory and does not allow for the needs of Extension or research priorities.
A user friendly, on-line scheduling system that provides immediate feedback and confirmation should be designed and implemented to overcome system-wide scheduling headaches.
Short of establishing a second TTVN site, reservation of time slots should be made for non-university, Center activities to ensure that predictable blocks of time are available for scientific collaboration and Extension work.
Reserved time slots should be based upon end user patterns and the systematic input of all potential end users.
Technical Support The technical demands of TTVN technology and the amount of preparation and enhanced presentation skills required have an intimidating effect on potential end users.
Adequate training must be provided for end users.
Videoconference specialists need to be employed in order to assure on-hand technical support.
Also, all sites on the TTVN system should be upgraded so that peripheral devices can be successfully used in presentations of detailed scientific slides.
A training program that will provide presenters with needed skills and confidence will enable them to make interesting presentations and conduct skillful interactions with other end users.
Peer review could also provide suggestions to improve the learning environment on TTVN.
Ideally the Center would model effective videoconference instructional design and methods within an interactive environment.
Summary This study reveals that Extension and research work at this Texas Agricultural Experiment Station has only begun the first mile of the journey toward efficient use of videoconferencing technology.
Nonetheless, the advantages of time and expense savings were noted without exception among informants.
It was also clear to the informants that increased frequency of contact and opportunities for broader interaction outweighed the disadvantages of teaching with TTVN as encountered at the Center.
The one exception was in the area of outreach where personal contact is predominantly preferred.
The Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station has changed due to the introduction of videoconferencing in 1993.
Framing the context of the center's role Center Director Dr.
Jose Amador stated "What you have to understand is that the Center is in the business of demonstrating technology and what it can do.
And our role here at the Center is to provide the setting, the equipment, and the link, as well as handle some administrative and logistical tasks.
Once people have seen the technology in action, it is up to them to develop the applications." As a working model, the experience of the Melon Research Group and their "brown bag" lunch meetings have proven to be a very good use of TTVN.
"The TTVN sessions have proven to be an excellent tool for exchange of current work in Texas, particularly for off-campus centers".
Several researchers stressed the timeliness of the information exchange as in "knowing what melon diseases are threatening".
Similar applications can be found wherever Extension professionals from different locations are engaged in common or like projects.
A Tropical Fruits class that was team taught by a faculty member at College Station and a scientist at the Center is a promising example of how complementary professionals can be brought together.
This type of team work can be further developed with supportive administrative policies and planning.
In a broader application of TTVN, ways to integrate communications among all of the agricultural components of the Texas A&M University System can be achieved.
Particular emphasis should be placed on facilitating the critical links between research and Extension activities.
Videoconferencing technology at the Center holds much promise for furthering the mission and goals of the Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station and the Texas Agricultural Extension Service.
With timely adjustments and improved planning, the Center can move from promise to fulfillment, ensuring more efficient and effective service to the public.
References Amador, Jose.
Garza, Bertha.
Jacques, Ubaldo.
New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Miller, Marvin.
Agricultural Extension: A resource manual.
Urbana, IL: University of Illinois.
Swietlik, Dariusz.
Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station.
Warren, Doyle.
Willie, Celina.
According to the Center director, "the evolution of distance learning has been an experience in flying by the seat of our pants.
When it started we really didn't know what to expect or what to anticipate.
But we are learning." Three-and-a-half years after the initial transmission, patterns of use have begun to develop at the Center.
Analysis of the Center's Videoconference Schedule revealed the following uses of videoconferences:  university courses,  continuing education and staff development, administrative activities, TAEX outreach,  scientific collaboration, and  public special interest groups.
University courses included business, mathematics, agriculture, and engineering.
After the first year, university courses dominated the usage of TTVN at the Center, consistently accounting for over 60% of scheduled videoconference events.
Continuing education classes include professional development in business and health related fields.
Staff development activities are offered in-house to Center staff and to Extension personnel.
Continuing education opportunities actually dropped in the utilization of TTVN, falling from 68% during 1993, before college courses were offered, to 12% during the fourth year.
The use of TTVN to handle administrative duties remained fairly stable.
Between 8% and 14% of scheduled videoconferencing sessions were administrative.
The fourth category represents outreach efforts of the Extension Service including 4-H, Master Gardener, and the Una Vida Mejor programs.
These programs have accounted for a very small portion of the total TTVN use ranging from less than 1% in 1994 to 8% in 1995.
Scientific collaboration involved some joint grant writing efforts and the formation of a "brown bag" lunch meeting of melon researchers who used videoconferences as a way to exchange current research information.
During 1993 scientific collaboration activities accounted for 3% of the scheduled use and fell to 0% when college courses began to be offered through TTVN.
During the last two years research use has been just over 2% of total use.
Finally, a variety of public forum and special interest group activities that involved some individual initiative by community end users accounted for 5% of the use in 1993 and stayed at 4% through 1996.
Table 1 Number of Scheduled Videoconferences by Year and Application Year Categories of TTVN Use1993A199419951996 University Credit Courses0250227235  Continuing Education/Staff Development141902445 23%) Administrative Activities42334353  TAEX Exension Activities522727  TAES Scientific Collaboration6098  Public Special Interest11171315  Total205392343383 A 1993 began in May and therefore does not represent a complete year.
Discussion Scheduling Perhaps the area that generated the greatest concern at the Center was scheduling.
Scheduling is a problem, especially with multi-site transmissions.
An administrator told of some of her scheduling dilemmas: "When I chaired the committee, I coordinated and considered all schedules.
I had to decide between having six individuals participate versus eight...and then to decide which individuals would be excluded, whose participation was critical.
I had to find what sites were available and that also determined who would participate.
It is a bubble that could burst at any time...and then I have to rebuild it again." She also reflected on using the same system as the university and the tenuous feeling of never really knowing whether one's plans are secure or whether she could be bumped at a very late moment.
"We have a partnership and we are a second class audience; priority is [university] classroom scheduling and sometimes that has to do with the room only, not the equipment." It is this reported unreliability and the conflicts which have arisen that has resulted in the decline in usage of the TTVN for continuing education and staff development purposes.
Meanwhile, university course delivery has proliferated.
Location TTVN facilities are located at universities and research centers of the Texas A&M University System throughout the state.
However, for many of the Extension agents and the rural clientele of many Extension programs, the closest facility is inconveniently located.
Many agents mentioned the fact that they were fifty miles or more away from a TTVN site as a factor limiting their use of the system.
Remarks such as "getting people to come to local programs is hard enough, but asking people to drive an hour in order to watch a presentation on TV is too much", suggest a need to improve the system's accessability.
One of the researchers in the Melon Research Group responded "I would like to be able to use it [TTVN] for agent training and Master Gardener training, but there are just not enough sites located conveniently for all those who would want to attend." Technology Use The knowledge required to effectively use the TTVN equipment is not very great but it does require an introduction and some practice.
In most cases, those who are using the system to accomplish programmatic goals, who are not teaching a regularly scheduled class, are not confident of their mastery of the technology.
Some expressed their feeling as awkward.
"Each time I use it I have to relearn the process for working the different cameras".
Also, there is difficulty in troubleshooting, not knowing where the problem lies when a failure occurs.
Teaching Style Distance education efforts should be learner focused, with teachers providing an environment for interactive learning.
Our informants recognized the need to enhance their presentations, to become more polished, more animated, and to maintain a smooth camera image.
This was seen as a chore and some noted, "Perhaps we should look to video production specialists for tips and training." Personal Contact Several individuals expressed concern about the loss of personal contact with their clients and peers while conducting activities over TTVN.
One Extension staff member lamented: " As an educator I feel that in isolating the teacher from the learners, the passion is lost, it's not the same." Extension agents stressed the importance of face-to-face contact and were in agreement that "...
it is through working individually with the clientele that the Extension worker learns about the people of the area, how they think, what their needs are, and how they carry on their work." (Swanson, 1984, p.
130) Recommendations Plan of Action The lack of a mission statement calling for greater use of TTVN technology in Extension and research is evident.
Current usage is by individual choice.
While use of this technology is embraced by a few individuals who are willing to take risks, many others continue to work with traditional methods.
Extension personnel should be encouraged to assess each duty that they perform to determine whether it could be more economically and efficiently accomplished when conducted through TTVN.
Regularly scheduled blocks of time for university courses severely limited the scheduling options available for other uses.
It is foreseeable that in order to ensure an increase in Extension use of the TTVN system, including Extension outreach and scientific collaboration, another connection to support an additional ELMO document camera and monitor located in a second classroom must be provided.
Scheduling The current scheduling system is unsatisfactory and does not allow for the needs of Extension or research priorities.
A user friendly, on-line scheduling system that provides immediate feedback and confirmation should be designed and implemented to overcome system-wide scheduling headaches.
Short of establishing a second TTVN site, reservation of time slots should be made for non-university, Center activities to ensure that predictable blocks of time are available for scientific collaboration and Extension work.
Reserved time slots should be based upon end user patterns and the systematic input of all potential end users.
Technical Support The technical demands of TTVN technology and the amount of preparation and enhanced presentation skills required have an intimidating effect on potential end users.
Adequate training must be provided for end users.
Videoconference specialists need to be employed in order to assure on-hand technical support.
Also, all sites on the TTVN system should be upgraded so that peripheral devices can be successfully used in presentations of detailed scientific slides.
A training program that will provide presenters with needed skills and confidence will enable them to make interesting presentations and conduct skillful interactions with other end users.
Peer review could also provide suggestions to improve the learning environment on TTVN.
Ideally the Center would model effective videoconference instructional design and methods within an interactive environment.
Summary This study reveals that Extension and research work at this Texas Agricultural Experiment Station has only begun the first mile of the journey toward efficient use of videoconferencing technology.
Nonetheless, the advantages of time and expense savings were noted without exception among informants.
It was also clear to the informants that increased frequency of contact and opportunities for broader interaction outweighed the disadvantages of teaching with TTVN as encountered at the Center.
The one exception was in the area of outreach where personal contact is predominantly preferred.
The Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station has changed due to the introduction of videoconferencing in 1993.
Framing the context of the center's role Center Director Dr.
Jose Amador stated "What you have to understand is that the Center is in the business of demonstrating technology and what it can do.
And our role here at the Center is to provide the setting, the equipment, and the link, as well as handle some administrative and logistical tasks.
Once people have seen the technology in action, it is up to them to develop the applications." As a working model, the experience of the Melon Research Group and their "brown bag" lunch meetings have proven to be a very good use of TTVN.
"The TTVN sessions have proven to be an excellent tool for exchange of current work in Texas, particularly for off-campus centers".
Several researchers stressed the timeliness of the information exchange as in "knowing what melon diseases are threatening".
Similar applications can be found wherever Extension professionals from different locations are engaged in common or like projects.
A Tropical Fruits class that was team taught by a faculty member at College Station and a scientist at the Center is a promising example of how complementary professionals can be brought together.
This type of team work can be further developed with supportive administrative policies and planning.
In a broader application of TTVN, ways to integrate communications among all of the agricultural components of the Texas A&M University System can be achieved.
Particular emphasis should be placed on facilitating the critical links between research and Extension activities.
Videoconferencing technology at the Center holds much promise for furthering the mission and goals of the Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station and the Texas Agricultural Extension Service.
With timely adjustments and improved planning, the Center can move from promise to fulfillment, ensuring more efficient and effective service to the public.
References Amador, Jose.
Garza, Bertha.
Jacques, Ubaldo.
New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Miller, Marvin.
Agricultural Extension: A resource manual.
Urbana, IL: University of Illinois.
Swietlik, Dariusz.
Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station.
Warren, Doyle.
Willie, Celina.
Analysis of the Center's Videoconference Schedule revealed the following uses of videoconferences:  university courses,  continuing education and staff development, administrative activities, TAEX outreach,  scientific collaboration, and  public special interest groups.
University courses included business, mathematics, agriculture, and engineering.
After the first year, university courses dominated the usage of TTVN at the Center, consistently accounting for over 60% of scheduled videoconference events.
Continuing education classes include professional development in business and health related fields.
Staff development activities are offered in-house to Center staff and to Extension personnel.
Continuing education opportunities actually dropped in the utilization of TTVN, falling from 68% during 1993, before college courses were offered, to 12% during the fourth year.
The use of TTVN to handle administrative duties remained fairly stable.
Between 8% and 14% of scheduled videoconferencing sessions were administrative.
The fourth category represents outreach efforts of the Extension Service including 4-H, Master Gardener, and the Una Vida Mejor programs.
These programs have accounted for a very small portion of the total TTVN use ranging from less than 1% in 1994 to 8% in 1995.
Scientific collaboration involved some joint grant writing efforts and the formation of a "brown bag" lunch meeting of melon researchers who used videoconferences as a way to exchange current research information.
During 1993 scientific collaboration activities accounted for 3% of the scheduled use and fell to 0% when college courses began to be offered through TTVN.
During the last two years research use has been just over 2% of total use.
Finally, a variety of public forum and special interest group activities that involved some individual initiative by community end users accounted for 5% of the use in 1993 and stayed at 4% through 1996.
Table 1 Number of Scheduled Videoconferences by Year and Application Year Categories of TTVN Use1993A199419951996 University Credit Courses0250227235  Continuing Education/Staff Development141902445 23%) Administrative Activities42334353  TAEX Exension Activities522727  TAES Scientific Collaboration6098  Public Special Interest11171315  Total205392343383 A 1993 began in May and therefore does not represent a complete year.
Discussion Scheduling Perhaps the area that generated the greatest concern at the Center was scheduling.
Scheduling is a problem, especially with multi-site transmissions.
An administrator told of some of her scheduling dilemmas: "When I chaired the committee, I coordinated and considered all schedules.
I had to decide between having six individuals participate versus eight...and then to decide which individuals would be excluded, whose participation was critical.
I had to find what sites were available and that also determined who would participate.
It is a bubble that could burst at any time...and then I have to rebuild it again." She also reflected on using the same system as the university and the tenuous feeling of never really knowing whether one's plans are secure or whether she could be bumped at a very late moment.
"We have a partnership and we are a second class audience; priority is [university] classroom scheduling and sometimes that has to do with the room only, not the equipment." It is this reported unreliability and the conflicts which have arisen that has resulted in the decline in usage of the TTVN for continuing education and staff development purposes.
Meanwhile, university course delivery has proliferated.
Location TTVN facilities are located at universities and research centers of the Texas A&M University System throughout the state.
However, for many of the Extension agents and the rural clientele of many Extension programs, the closest facility is inconveniently located.
Many agents mentioned the fact that they were fifty miles or more away from a TTVN site as a factor limiting their use of the system.
Remarks such as "getting people to come to local programs is hard enough, but asking people to drive an hour in order to watch a presentation on TV is too much", suggest a need to improve the system's accessability.
One of the researchers in the Melon Research Group responded "I would like to be able to use it [TTVN] for agent training and Master Gardener training, but there are just not enough sites located conveniently for all those who would want to attend." Technology Use The knowledge required to effectively use the TTVN equipment is not very great but it does require an introduction and some practice.
In most cases, those who are using the system to accomplish programmatic goals, who are not teaching a regularly scheduled class, are not confident of their mastery of the technology.
Some expressed their feeling as awkward.
"Each time I use it I have to relearn the process for working the different cameras".
Also, there is difficulty in troubleshooting, not knowing where the problem lies when a failure occurs.
Teaching Style Distance education efforts should be learner focused, with teachers providing an environment for interactive learning.
Our informants recognized the need to enhance their presentations, to become more polished, more animated, and to maintain a smooth camera image.
This was seen as a chore and some noted, "Perhaps we should look to video production specialists for tips and training." Personal Contact Several individuals expressed concern about the loss of personal contact with their clients and peers while conducting activities over TTVN.
One Extension staff member lamented: " As an educator I feel that in isolating the teacher from the learners, the passion is lost, it's not the same." Extension agents stressed the importance of face-to-face contact and were in agreement that "...
it is through working individually with the clientele that the Extension worker learns about the people of the area, how they think, what their needs are, and how they carry on their work." (Swanson, 1984, p.
130) Recommendations Plan of Action The lack of a mission statement calling for greater use of TTVN technology in Extension and research is evident.
Current usage is by individual choice.
While use of this technology is embraced by a few individuals who are willing to take risks, many others continue to work with traditional methods.
Extension personnel should be encouraged to assess each duty that they perform to determine whether it could be more economically and efficiently accomplished when conducted through TTVN.
Regularly scheduled blocks of time for university courses severely limited the scheduling options available for other uses.
It is foreseeable that in order to ensure an increase in Extension use of the TTVN system, including Extension outreach and scientific collaboration, another connection to support an additional ELMO document camera and monitor located in a second classroom must be provided.
Scheduling The current scheduling system is unsatisfactory and does not allow for the needs of Extension or research priorities.
A user friendly, on-line scheduling system that provides immediate feedback and confirmation should be designed and implemented to overcome system-wide scheduling headaches.
Short of establishing a second TTVN site, reservation of time slots should be made for non-university, Center activities to ensure that predictable blocks of time are available for scientific collaboration and Extension work.
Reserved time slots should be based upon end user patterns and the systematic input of all potential end users.
Technical Support The technical demands of TTVN technology and the amount of preparation and enhanced presentation skills required have an intimidating effect on potential end users.
Adequate training must be provided for end users.
Videoconference specialists need to be employed in order to assure on-hand technical support.
Also, all sites on the TTVN system should be upgraded so that peripheral devices can be successfully used in presentations of detailed scientific slides.
A training program that will provide presenters with needed skills and confidence will enable them to make interesting presentations and conduct skillful interactions with other end users.
Peer review could also provide suggestions to improve the learning environment on TTVN.
Ideally the Center would model effective videoconference instructional design and methods within an interactive environment.
Summary This study reveals that Extension and research work at this Texas Agricultural Experiment Station has only begun the first mile of the journey toward efficient use of videoconferencing technology.
Nonetheless, the advantages of time and expense savings were noted without exception among informants.
It was also clear to the informants that increased frequency of contact and opportunities for broader interaction outweighed the disadvantages of teaching with TTVN as encountered at the Center.
The one exception was in the area of outreach where personal contact is predominantly preferred.
The Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station has changed due to the introduction of videoconferencing in 1993.
Framing the context of the center's role Center Director Dr.
Jose Amador stated "What you have to understand is that the Center is in the business of demonstrating technology and what it can do.
And our role here at the Center is to provide the setting, the equipment, and the link, as well as handle some administrative and logistical tasks.
Once people have seen the technology in action, it is up to them to develop the applications." As a working model, the experience of the Melon Research Group and their "brown bag" lunch meetings have proven to be a very good use of TTVN.
"The TTVN sessions have proven to be an excellent tool for exchange of current work in Texas, particularly for off-campus centers".
Several researchers stressed the timeliness of the information exchange as in "knowing what melon diseases are threatening".
Similar applications can be found wherever Extension professionals from different locations are engaged in common or like projects.
A Tropical Fruits class that was team taught by a faculty member at College Station and a scientist at the Center is a promising example of how complementary professionals can be brought together.
This type of team work can be further developed with supportive administrative policies and planning.
In a broader application of TTVN, ways to integrate communications among all of the agricultural components of the Texas A&M University System can be achieved.
Particular emphasis should be placed on facilitating the critical links between research and Extension activities.
Videoconferencing technology at the Center holds much promise for furthering the mission and goals of the Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station and the Texas Agricultural Extension Service.
With timely adjustments and improved planning, the Center can move from promise to fulfillment, ensuring more efficient and effective service to the public.
References Amador, Jose.
Garza, Bertha.
Jacques, Ubaldo.
New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Miller, Marvin.
Agricultural Extension: A resource manual.
Urbana, IL: University of Illinois.
Swietlik, Dariusz.
Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station.
Warren, Doyle.
Willie, Celina.
University courses included business, mathematics, agriculture, and engineering.
After the first year, university courses dominated the usage of TTVN at the Center, consistently accounting for over 60% of scheduled videoconference events.
Continuing education classes include professional development in business and health related fields.
Staff development activities are offered in-house to Center staff and to Extension personnel.
Continuing education opportunities actually dropped in the utilization of TTVN, falling from 68% during 1993, before college courses were offered, to 12% during the fourth year.
The use of TTVN to handle administrative duties remained fairly stable.
Between 8% and 14% of scheduled videoconferencing sessions were administrative.
The fourth category represents outreach efforts of the Extension Service including 4-H, Master Gardener, and the Una Vida Mejor programs.
These programs have accounted for a very small portion of the total TTVN use ranging from less than 1% in 1994 to 8% in 1995.
Scientific collaboration involved some joint grant writing efforts and the formation of a "brown bag" lunch meeting of melon researchers who used videoconferences as a way to exchange current research information.
During 1993 scientific collaboration activities accounted for 3% of the scheduled use and fell to 0% when college courses began to be offered through TTVN.
During the last two years research use has been just over 2% of total use.
Finally, a variety of public forum and special interest group activities that involved some individual initiative by community end users accounted for 5% of the use in 1993 and stayed at 4% through 1996.
Table 1 Number of Scheduled Videoconferences by Year and Application Year Categories of TTVN Use1993A199419951996 University Credit Courses0250227235  Continuing Education/Staff Development141902445 23%) Administrative Activities42334353  TAEX Exension Activities522727  TAES Scientific Collaboration6098  Public Special Interest11171315  Total205392343383 A 1993 began in May and therefore does not represent a complete year.
Discussion Scheduling Perhaps the area that generated the greatest concern at the Center was scheduling.
Scheduling is a problem, especially with multi-site transmissions.
An administrator told of some of her scheduling dilemmas: "When I chaired the committee, I coordinated and considered all schedules.
I had to decide between having six individuals participate versus eight...and then to decide which individuals would be excluded, whose participation was critical.
I had to find what sites were available and that also determined who would participate.
It is a bubble that could burst at any time...and then I have to rebuild it again." She also reflected on using the same system as the university and the tenuous feeling of never really knowing whether one's plans are secure or whether she could be bumped at a very late moment.
"We have a partnership and we are a second class audience; priority is [university] classroom scheduling and sometimes that has to do with the room only, not the equipment." It is this reported unreliability and the conflicts which have arisen that has resulted in the decline in usage of the TTVN for continuing education and staff development purposes.
Meanwhile, university course delivery has proliferated.
Location TTVN facilities are located at universities and research centers of the Texas A&M University System throughout the state.
However, for many of the Extension agents and the rural clientele of many Extension programs, the closest facility is inconveniently located.
Many agents mentioned the fact that they were fifty miles or more away from a TTVN site as a factor limiting their use of the system.
Remarks such as "getting people to come to local programs is hard enough, but asking people to drive an hour in order to watch a presentation on TV is too much", suggest a need to improve the system's accessability.
One of the researchers in the Melon Research Group responded "I would like to be able to use it [TTVN] for agent training and Master Gardener training, but there are just not enough sites located conveniently for all those who would want to attend." Technology Use The knowledge required to effectively use the TTVN equipment is not very great but it does require an introduction and some practice.
In most cases, those who are using the system to accomplish programmatic goals, who are not teaching a regularly scheduled class, are not confident of their mastery of the technology.
Some expressed their feeling as awkward.
"Each time I use it I have to relearn the process for working the different cameras".
Also, there is difficulty in troubleshooting, not knowing where the problem lies when a failure occurs.
Teaching Style Distance education efforts should be learner focused, with teachers providing an environment for interactive learning.
Our informants recognized the need to enhance their presentations, to become more polished, more animated, and to maintain a smooth camera image.
This was seen as a chore and some noted, "Perhaps we should look to video production specialists for tips and training." Personal Contact Several individuals expressed concern about the loss of personal contact with their clients and peers while conducting activities over TTVN.
One Extension staff member lamented: " As an educator I feel that in isolating the teacher from the learners, the passion is lost, it's not the same." Extension agents stressed the importance of face-to-face contact and were in agreement that "...
it is through working individually with the clientele that the Extension worker learns about the people of the area, how they think, what their needs are, and how they carry on their work." (Swanson, 1984, p.
130) Recommendations Plan of Action The lack of a mission statement calling for greater use of TTVN technology in Extension and research is evident.
Current usage is by individual choice.
While use of this technology is embraced by a few individuals who are willing to take risks, many others continue to work with traditional methods.
Extension personnel should be encouraged to assess each duty that they perform to determine whether it could be more economically and efficiently accomplished when conducted through TTVN.
Regularly scheduled blocks of time for university courses severely limited the scheduling options available for other uses.
It is foreseeable that in order to ensure an increase in Extension use of the TTVN system, including Extension outreach and scientific collaboration, another connection to support an additional ELMO document camera and monitor located in a second classroom must be provided.
Scheduling The current scheduling system is unsatisfactory and does not allow for the needs of Extension or research priorities.
A user friendly, on-line scheduling system that provides immediate feedback and confirmation should be designed and implemented to overcome system-wide scheduling headaches.
Short of establishing a second TTVN site, reservation of time slots should be made for non-university, Center activities to ensure that predictable blocks of time are available for scientific collaboration and Extension work.
Reserved time slots should be based upon end user patterns and the systematic input of all potential end users.
Technical Support The technical demands of TTVN technology and the amount of preparation and enhanced presentation skills required have an intimidating effect on potential end users.
Adequate training must be provided for end users.
Videoconference specialists need to be employed in order to assure on-hand technical support.
Also, all sites on the TTVN system should be upgraded so that peripheral devices can be successfully used in presentations of detailed scientific slides.
A training program that will provide presenters with needed skills and confidence will enable them to make interesting presentations and conduct skillful interactions with other end users.
Peer review could also provide suggestions to improve the learning environment on TTVN.
Ideally the Center would model effective videoconference instructional design and methods within an interactive environment.
Summary This study reveals that Extension and research work at this Texas Agricultural Experiment Station has only begun the first mile of the journey toward efficient use of videoconferencing technology.
Nonetheless, the advantages of time and expense savings were noted without exception among informants.
It was also clear to the informants that increased frequency of contact and opportunities for broader interaction outweighed the disadvantages of teaching with TTVN as encountered at the Center.
The one exception was in the area of outreach where personal contact is predominantly preferred.
The Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station has changed due to the introduction of videoconferencing in 1993.
Framing the context of the center's role Center Director Dr.
Jose Amador stated "What you have to understand is that the Center is in the business of demonstrating technology and what it can do.
And our role here at the Center is to provide the setting, the equipment, and the link, as well as handle some administrative and logistical tasks.
Once people have seen the technology in action, it is up to them to develop the applications." As a working model, the experience of the Melon Research Group and their "brown bag" lunch meetings have proven to be a very good use of TTVN.
"The TTVN sessions have proven to be an excellent tool for exchange of current work in Texas, particularly for off-campus centers".
Several researchers stressed the timeliness of the information exchange as in "knowing what melon diseases are threatening".
Similar applications can be found wherever Extension professionals from different locations are engaged in common or like projects.
A Tropical Fruits class that was team taught by a faculty member at College Station and a scientist at the Center is a promising example of how complementary professionals can be brought together.
This type of team work can be further developed with supportive administrative policies and planning.
In a broader application of TTVN, ways to integrate communications among all of the agricultural components of the Texas A&M University System can be achieved.
Particular emphasis should be placed on facilitating the critical links between research and Extension activities.
Videoconferencing technology at the Center holds much promise for furthering the mission and goals of the Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station and the Texas Agricultural Extension Service.
With timely adjustments and improved planning, the Center can move from promise to fulfillment, ensuring more efficient and effective service to the public.
References Amador, Jose.
Garza, Bertha.
Jacques, Ubaldo.
New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Miller, Marvin.
Agricultural Extension: A resource manual.
Urbana, IL: University of Illinois.
Swietlik, Dariusz.
Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station.
Warren, Doyle.
Willie, Celina.
Continuing education classes include professional development in business and health related fields.
Staff development activities are offered in-house to Center staff and to Extension personnel.
Continuing education opportunities actually dropped in the utilization of TTVN, falling from 68% during 1993, before college courses were offered, to 12% during the fourth year.
The use of TTVN to handle administrative duties remained fairly stable.
Between 8% and 14% of scheduled videoconferencing sessions were administrative.
The fourth category represents outreach efforts of the Extension Service including 4-H, Master Gardener, and the Una Vida Mejor programs.
These programs have accounted for a very small portion of the total TTVN use ranging from less than 1% in 1994 to 8% in 1995.
Scientific collaboration involved some joint grant writing efforts and the formation of a "brown bag" lunch meeting of melon researchers who used videoconferences as a way to exchange current research information.
During 1993 scientific collaboration activities accounted for 3% of the scheduled use and fell to 0% when college courses began to be offered through TTVN.
During the last two years research use has been just over 2% of total use.
Finally, a variety of public forum and special interest group activities that involved some individual initiative by community end users accounted for 5% of the use in 1993 and stayed at 4% through 1996.
Table 1 Number of Scheduled Videoconferences by Year and Application Year Categories of TTVN Use1993A199419951996 University Credit Courses0250227235  Continuing Education/Staff Development141902445 23%) Administrative Activities42334353  TAEX Exension Activities522727  TAES Scientific Collaboration6098  Public Special Interest11171315  Total205392343383 A 1993 began in May and therefore does not represent a complete year.
Discussion Scheduling Perhaps the area that generated the greatest concern at the Center was scheduling.
Scheduling is a problem, especially with multi-site transmissions.
An administrator told of some of her scheduling dilemmas: "When I chaired the committee, I coordinated and considered all schedules.
I had to decide between having six individuals participate versus eight...and then to decide which individuals would be excluded, whose participation was critical.
I had to find what sites were available and that also determined who would participate.
It is a bubble that could burst at any time...and then I have to rebuild it again." She also reflected on using the same system as the university and the tenuous feeling of never really knowing whether one's plans are secure or whether she could be bumped at a very late moment.
"We have a partnership and we are a second class audience; priority is [university] classroom scheduling and sometimes that has to do with the room only, not the equipment." It is this reported unreliability and the conflicts which have arisen that has resulted in the decline in usage of the TTVN for continuing education and staff development purposes.
Meanwhile, university course delivery has proliferated.
Location TTVN facilities are located at universities and research centers of the Texas A&M University System throughout the state.
However, for many of the Extension agents and the rural clientele of many Extension programs, the closest facility is inconveniently located.
Many agents mentioned the fact that they were fifty miles or more away from a TTVN site as a factor limiting their use of the system.
Remarks such as "getting people to come to local programs is hard enough, but asking people to drive an hour in order to watch a presentation on TV is too much", suggest a need to improve the system's accessability.
One of the researchers in the Melon Research Group responded "I would like to be able to use it [TTVN] for agent training and Master Gardener training, but there are just not enough sites located conveniently for all those who would want to attend." Technology Use The knowledge required to effectively use the TTVN equipment is not very great but it does require an introduction and some practice.
In most cases, those who are using the system to accomplish programmatic goals, who are not teaching a regularly scheduled class, are not confident of their mastery of the technology.
Some expressed their feeling as awkward.
"Each time I use it I have to relearn the process for working the different cameras".
Also, there is difficulty in troubleshooting, not knowing where the problem lies when a failure occurs.
Teaching Style Distance education efforts should be learner focused, with teachers providing an environment for interactive learning.
Our informants recognized the need to enhance their presentations, to become more polished, more animated, and to maintain a smooth camera image.
This was seen as a chore and some noted, "Perhaps we should look to video production specialists for tips and training." Personal Contact Several individuals expressed concern about the loss of personal contact with their clients and peers while conducting activities over TTVN.
One Extension staff member lamented: " As an educator I feel that in isolating the teacher from the learners, the passion is lost, it's not the same." Extension agents stressed the importance of face-to-face contact and were in agreement that "...
it is through working individually with the clientele that the Extension worker learns about the people of the area, how they think, what their needs are, and how they carry on their work." (Swanson, 1984, p.
130) Recommendations Plan of Action The lack of a mission statement calling for greater use of TTVN technology in Extension and research is evident.
Current usage is by individual choice.
While use of this technology is embraced by a few individuals who are willing to take risks, many others continue to work with traditional methods.
Extension personnel should be encouraged to assess each duty that they perform to determine whether it could be more economically and efficiently accomplished when conducted through TTVN.
Regularly scheduled blocks of time for university courses severely limited the scheduling options available for other uses.
It is foreseeable that in order to ensure an increase in Extension use of the TTVN system, including Extension outreach and scientific collaboration, another connection to support an additional ELMO document camera and monitor located in a second classroom must be provided.
Scheduling The current scheduling system is unsatisfactory and does not allow for the needs of Extension or research priorities.
A user friendly, on-line scheduling system that provides immediate feedback and confirmation should be designed and implemented to overcome system-wide scheduling headaches.
Short of establishing a second TTVN site, reservation of time slots should be made for non-university, Center activities to ensure that predictable blocks of time are available for scientific collaboration and Extension work.
Reserved time slots should be based upon end user patterns and the systematic input of all potential end users.
Technical Support The technical demands of TTVN technology and the amount of preparation and enhanced presentation skills required have an intimidating effect on potential end users.
Adequate training must be provided for end users.
Videoconference specialists need to be employed in order to assure on-hand technical support.
Also, all sites on the TTVN system should be upgraded so that peripheral devices can be successfully used in presentations of detailed scientific slides.
A training program that will provide presenters with needed skills and confidence will enable them to make interesting presentations and conduct skillful interactions with other end users.
Peer review could also provide suggestions to improve the learning environment on TTVN.
Ideally the Center would model effective videoconference instructional design and methods within an interactive environment.
Summary This study reveals that Extension and research work at this Texas Agricultural Experiment Station has only begun the first mile of the journey toward efficient use of videoconferencing technology.
Nonetheless, the advantages of time and expense savings were noted without exception among informants.
It was also clear to the informants that increased frequency of contact and opportunities for broader interaction outweighed the disadvantages of teaching with TTVN as encountered at the Center.
The one exception was in the area of outreach where personal contact is predominantly preferred.
The Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station has changed due to the introduction of videoconferencing in 1993.
Framing the context of the center's role Center Director Dr.
Jose Amador stated "What you have to understand is that the Center is in the business of demonstrating technology and what it can do.
And our role here at the Center is to provide the setting, the equipment, and the link, as well as handle some administrative and logistical tasks.
Once people have seen the technology in action, it is up to them to develop the applications." As a working model, the experience of the Melon Research Group and their "brown bag" lunch meetings have proven to be a very good use of TTVN.
"The TTVN sessions have proven to be an excellent tool for exchange of current work in Texas, particularly for off-campus centers".
Several researchers stressed the timeliness of the information exchange as in "knowing what melon diseases are threatening".
Similar applications can be found wherever Extension professionals from different locations are engaged in common or like projects.
A Tropical Fruits class that was team taught by a faculty member at College Station and a scientist at the Center is a promising example of how complementary professionals can be brought together.
This type of team work can be further developed with supportive administrative policies and planning.
In a broader application of TTVN, ways to integrate communications among all of the agricultural components of the Texas A&M University System can be achieved.
Particular emphasis should be placed on facilitating the critical links between research and Extension activities.
Videoconferencing technology at the Center holds much promise for furthering the mission and goals of the Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station and the Texas Agricultural Extension Service.
With timely adjustments and improved planning, the Center can move from promise to fulfillment, ensuring more efficient and effective service to the public.
References Amador, Jose.
Garza, Bertha.
Jacques, Ubaldo.
New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Miller, Marvin.
Agricultural Extension: A resource manual.
Urbana, IL: University of Illinois.
Swietlik, Dariusz.
Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station.
Warren, Doyle.
Willie, Celina.
The use of TTVN to handle administrative duties remained fairly stable.
Between 8% and 14% of scheduled videoconferencing sessions were administrative.
The fourth category represents outreach efforts of the Extension Service including 4-H, Master Gardener, and the Una Vida Mejor programs.
These programs have accounted for a very small portion of the total TTVN use ranging from less than 1% in 1994 to 8% in 1995.
Scientific collaboration involved some joint grant writing efforts and the formation of a "brown bag" lunch meeting of melon researchers who used videoconferences as a way to exchange current research information.
During 1993 scientific collaboration activities accounted for 3% of the scheduled use and fell to 0% when college courses began to be offered through TTVN.
During the last two years research use has been just over 2% of total use.
Finally, a variety of public forum and special interest group activities that involved some individual initiative by community end users accounted for 5% of the use in 1993 and stayed at 4% through 1996.
Table 1 Number of Scheduled Videoconferences by Year and Application Year Categories of TTVN Use1993A199419951996 University Credit Courses0250227235  Continuing Education/Staff Development141902445 23%) Administrative Activities42334353  TAEX Exension Activities522727  TAES Scientific Collaboration6098  Public Special Interest11171315  Total205392343383 A 1993 began in May and therefore does not represent a complete year.
Discussion Scheduling Perhaps the area that generated the greatest concern at the Center was scheduling.
Scheduling is a problem, especially with multi-site transmissions.
An administrator told of some of her scheduling dilemmas: "When I chaired the committee, I coordinated and considered all schedules.
I had to decide between having six individuals participate versus eight...and then to decide which individuals would be excluded, whose participation was critical.
I had to find what sites were available and that also determined who would participate.
It is a bubble that could burst at any time...and then I have to rebuild it again." She also reflected on using the same system as the university and the tenuous feeling of never really knowing whether one's plans are secure or whether she could be bumped at a very late moment.
"We have a partnership and we are a second class audience; priority is [university] classroom scheduling and sometimes that has to do with the room only, not the equipment." It is this reported unreliability and the conflicts which have arisen that has resulted in the decline in usage of the TTVN for continuing education and staff development purposes.
Meanwhile, university course delivery has proliferated.
Location TTVN facilities are located at universities and research centers of the Texas A&M University System throughout the state.
However, for many of the Extension agents and the rural clientele of many Extension programs, the closest facility is inconveniently located.
Many agents mentioned the fact that they were fifty miles or more away from a TTVN site as a factor limiting their use of the system.
Remarks such as "getting people to come to local programs is hard enough, but asking people to drive an hour in order to watch a presentation on TV is too much", suggest a need to improve the system's accessability.
One of the researchers in the Melon Research Group responded "I would like to be able to use it [TTVN] for agent training and Master Gardener training, but there are just not enough sites located conveniently for all those who would want to attend." Technology Use The knowledge required to effectively use the TTVN equipment is not very great but it does require an introduction and some practice.
In most cases, those who are using the system to accomplish programmatic goals, who are not teaching a regularly scheduled class, are not confident of their mastery of the technology.
Some expressed their feeling as awkward.
"Each time I use it I have to relearn the process for working the different cameras".
Also, there is difficulty in troubleshooting, not knowing where the problem lies when a failure occurs.
Teaching Style Distance education efforts should be learner focused, with teachers providing an environment for interactive learning.
Our informants recognized the need to enhance their presentations, to become more polished, more animated, and to maintain a smooth camera image.
This was seen as a chore and some noted, "Perhaps we should look to video production specialists for tips and training." Personal Contact Several individuals expressed concern about the loss of personal contact with their clients and peers while conducting activities over TTVN.
One Extension staff member lamented: " As an educator I feel that in isolating the teacher from the learners, the passion is lost, it's not the same." Extension agents stressed the importance of face-to-face contact and were in agreement that "...
it is through working individually with the clientele that the Extension worker learns about the people of the area, how they think, what their needs are, and how they carry on their work." (Swanson, 1984, p.
130) Recommendations Plan of Action The lack of a mission statement calling for greater use of TTVN technology in Extension and research is evident.
Current usage is by individual choice.
While use of this technology is embraced by a few individuals who are willing to take risks, many others continue to work with traditional methods.
Extension personnel should be encouraged to assess each duty that they perform to determine whether it could be more economically and efficiently accomplished when conducted through TTVN.
Regularly scheduled blocks of time for university courses severely limited the scheduling options available for other uses.
It is foreseeable that in order to ensure an increase in Extension use of the TTVN system, including Extension outreach and scientific collaboration, another connection to support an additional ELMO document camera and monitor located in a second classroom must be provided.
Scheduling The current scheduling system is unsatisfactory and does not allow for the needs of Extension or research priorities.
A user friendly, on-line scheduling system that provides immediate feedback and confirmation should be designed and implemented to overcome system-wide scheduling headaches.
Short of establishing a second TTVN site, reservation of time slots should be made for non-university, Center activities to ensure that predictable blocks of time are available for scientific collaboration and Extension work.
Reserved time slots should be based upon end user patterns and the systematic input of all potential end users.
Technical Support The technical demands of TTVN technology and the amount of preparation and enhanced presentation skills required have an intimidating effect on potential end users.
Adequate training must be provided for end users.
Videoconference specialists need to be employed in order to assure on-hand technical support.
Also, all sites on the TTVN system should be upgraded so that peripheral devices can be successfully used in presentations of detailed scientific slides.
A training program that will provide presenters with needed skills and confidence will enable them to make interesting presentations and conduct skillful interactions with other end users.
Peer review could also provide suggestions to improve the learning environment on TTVN.
Ideally the Center would model effective videoconference instructional design and methods within an interactive environment.
Summary This study reveals that Extension and research work at this Texas Agricultural Experiment Station has only begun the first mile of the journey toward efficient use of videoconferencing technology.
Nonetheless, the advantages of time and expense savings were noted without exception among informants.
It was also clear to the informants that increased frequency of contact and opportunities for broader interaction outweighed the disadvantages of teaching with TTVN as encountered at the Center.
The one exception was in the area of outreach where personal contact is predominantly preferred.
The Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station has changed due to the introduction of videoconferencing in 1993.
Framing the context of the center's role Center Director Dr.
Jose Amador stated "What you have to understand is that the Center is in the business of demonstrating technology and what it can do.
And our role here at the Center is to provide the setting, the equipment, and the link, as well as handle some administrative and logistical tasks.
Once people have seen the technology in action, it is up to them to develop the applications." As a working model, the experience of the Melon Research Group and their "brown bag" lunch meetings have proven to be a very good use of TTVN.
"The TTVN sessions have proven to be an excellent tool for exchange of current work in Texas, particularly for off-campus centers".
Several researchers stressed the timeliness of the information exchange as in "knowing what melon diseases are threatening".
Similar applications can be found wherever Extension professionals from different locations are engaged in common or like projects.
A Tropical Fruits class that was team taught by a faculty member at College Station and a scientist at the Center is a promising example of how complementary professionals can be brought together.
This type of team work can be further developed with supportive administrative policies and planning.
In a broader application of TTVN, ways to integrate communications among all of the agricultural components of the Texas A&M University System can be achieved.
Particular emphasis should be placed on facilitating the critical links between research and Extension activities.
Videoconferencing technology at the Center holds much promise for furthering the mission and goals of the Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station and the Texas Agricultural Extension Service.
With timely adjustments and improved planning, the Center can move from promise to fulfillment, ensuring more efficient and effective service to the public.
References Amador, Jose.
Garza, Bertha.
Jacques, Ubaldo.
New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Miller, Marvin.
Agricultural Extension: A resource manual.
Urbana, IL: University of Illinois.
Swietlik, Dariusz.
Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station.
Warren, Doyle.
Willie, Celina.
The fourth category represents outreach efforts of the Extension Service including 4-H, Master Gardener, and the Una Vida Mejor programs.
These programs have accounted for a very small portion of the total TTVN use ranging from less than 1% in 1994 to 8% in 1995.
Scientific collaboration involved some joint grant writing efforts and the formation of a "brown bag" lunch meeting of melon researchers who used videoconferences as a way to exchange current research information.
During 1993 scientific collaboration activities accounted for 3% of the scheduled use and fell to 0% when college courses began to be offered through TTVN.
During the last two years research use has been just over 2% of total use.
Finally, a variety of public forum and special interest group activities that involved some individual initiative by community end users accounted for 5% of the use in 1993 and stayed at 4% through 1996.
Table 1 Number of Scheduled Videoconferences by Year and Application Year Categories of TTVN Use1993A199419951996 University Credit Courses0250227235  Continuing Education/Staff Development141902445 23%) Administrative Activities42334353  TAEX Exension Activities522727  TAES Scientific Collaboration6098  Public Special Interest11171315  Total205392343383 A 1993 began in May and therefore does not represent a complete year.
Discussion Scheduling Perhaps the area that generated the greatest concern at the Center was scheduling.
Scheduling is a problem, especially with multi-site transmissions.
An administrator told of some of her scheduling dilemmas: "When I chaired the committee, I coordinated and considered all schedules.
I had to decide between having six individuals participate versus eight...and then to decide which individuals would be excluded, whose participation was critical.
I had to find what sites were available and that also determined who would participate.
It is a bubble that could burst at any time...and then I have to rebuild it again." She also reflected on using the same system as the university and the tenuous feeling of never really knowing whether one's plans are secure or whether she could be bumped at a very late moment.
"We have a partnership and we are a second class audience; priority is [university] classroom scheduling and sometimes that has to do with the room only, not the equipment." It is this reported unreliability and the conflicts which have arisen that has resulted in the decline in usage of the TTVN for continuing education and staff development purposes.
Meanwhile, university course delivery has proliferated.
Location TTVN facilities are located at universities and research centers of the Texas A&M University System throughout the state.
However, for many of the Extension agents and the rural clientele of many Extension programs, the closest facility is inconveniently located.
Many agents mentioned the fact that they were fifty miles or more away from a TTVN site as a factor limiting their use of the system.
Remarks such as "getting people to come to local programs is hard enough, but asking people to drive an hour in order to watch a presentation on TV is too much", suggest a need to improve the system's accessability.
One of the researchers in the Melon Research Group responded "I would like to be able to use it [TTVN] for agent training and Master Gardener training, but there are just not enough sites located conveniently for all those who would want to attend." Technology Use The knowledge required to effectively use the TTVN equipment is not very great but it does require an introduction and some practice.
In most cases, those who are using the system to accomplish programmatic goals, who are not teaching a regularly scheduled class, are not confident of their mastery of the technology.
Some expressed their feeling as awkward.
"Each time I use it I have to relearn the process for working the different cameras".
Also, there is difficulty in troubleshooting, not knowing where the problem lies when a failure occurs.
Teaching Style Distance education efforts should be learner focused, with teachers providing an environment for interactive learning.
Our informants recognized the need to enhance their presentations, to become more polished, more animated, and to maintain a smooth camera image.
This was seen as a chore and some noted, "Perhaps we should look to video production specialists for tips and training." Personal Contact Several individuals expressed concern about the loss of personal contact with their clients and peers while conducting activities over TTVN.
One Extension staff member lamented: " As an educator I feel that in isolating the teacher from the learners, the passion is lost, it's not the same." Extension agents stressed the importance of face-to-face contact and were in agreement that "...
it is through working individually with the clientele that the Extension worker learns about the people of the area, how they think, what their needs are, and how they carry on their work." (Swanson, 1984, p.
130) Recommendations Plan of Action The lack of a mission statement calling for greater use of TTVN technology in Extension and research is evident.
Current usage is by individual choice.
While use of this technology is embraced by a few individuals who are willing to take risks, many others continue to work with traditional methods.
Extension personnel should be encouraged to assess each duty that they perform to determine whether it could be more economically and efficiently accomplished when conducted through TTVN.
Regularly scheduled blocks of time for university courses severely limited the scheduling options available for other uses.
It is foreseeable that in order to ensure an increase in Extension use of the TTVN system, including Extension outreach and scientific collaboration, another connection to support an additional ELMO document camera and monitor located in a second classroom must be provided.
Scheduling The current scheduling system is unsatisfactory and does not allow for the needs of Extension or research priorities.
A user friendly, on-line scheduling system that provides immediate feedback and confirmation should be designed and implemented to overcome system-wide scheduling headaches.
Short of establishing a second TTVN site, reservation of time slots should be made for non-university, Center activities to ensure that predictable blocks of time are available for scientific collaboration and Extension work.
Reserved time slots should be based upon end user patterns and the systematic input of all potential end users.
Technical Support The technical demands of TTVN technology and the amount of preparation and enhanced presentation skills required have an intimidating effect on potential end users.
Adequate training must be provided for end users.
Videoconference specialists need to be employed in order to assure on-hand technical support.
Also, all sites on the TTVN system should be upgraded so that peripheral devices can be successfully used in presentations of detailed scientific slides.
A training program that will provide presenters with needed skills and confidence will enable them to make interesting presentations and conduct skillful interactions with other end users.
Peer review could also provide suggestions to improve the learning environment on TTVN.
Ideally the Center would model effective videoconference instructional design and methods within an interactive environment.
Summary This study reveals that Extension and research work at this Texas Agricultural Experiment Station has only begun the first mile of the journey toward efficient use of videoconferencing technology.
Nonetheless, the advantages of time and expense savings were noted without exception among informants.
It was also clear to the informants that increased frequency of contact and opportunities for broader interaction outweighed the disadvantages of teaching with TTVN as encountered at the Center.
The one exception was in the area of outreach where personal contact is predominantly preferred.
The Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station has changed due to the introduction of videoconferencing in 1993.
Framing the context of the center's role Center Director Dr.
Jose Amador stated "What you have to understand is that the Center is in the business of demonstrating technology and what it can do.
And our role here at the Center is to provide the setting, the equipment, and the link, as well as handle some administrative and logistical tasks.
Once people have seen the technology in action, it is up to them to develop the applications." As a working model, the experience of the Melon Research Group and their "brown bag" lunch meetings have proven to be a very good use of TTVN.
"The TTVN sessions have proven to be an excellent tool for exchange of current work in Texas, particularly for off-campus centers".
Several researchers stressed the timeliness of the information exchange as in "knowing what melon diseases are threatening".
Similar applications can be found wherever Extension professionals from different locations are engaged in common or like projects.
A Tropical Fruits class that was team taught by a faculty member at College Station and a scientist at the Center is a promising example of how complementary professionals can be brought together.
This type of team work can be further developed with supportive administrative policies and planning.
In a broader application of TTVN, ways to integrate communications among all of the agricultural components of the Texas A&M University System can be achieved.
Particular emphasis should be placed on facilitating the critical links between research and Extension activities.
Videoconferencing technology at the Center holds much promise for furthering the mission and goals of the Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station and the Texas Agricultural Extension Service.
With timely adjustments and improved planning, the Center can move from promise to fulfillment, ensuring more efficient and effective service to the public.
References Amador, Jose.
Garza, Bertha.
Jacques, Ubaldo.
New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Miller, Marvin.
Agricultural Extension: A resource manual.
Urbana, IL: University of Illinois.
Swietlik, Dariusz.
Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station.
Warren, Doyle.
Willie, Celina.
Scientific collaboration involved some joint grant writing efforts and the formation of a "brown bag" lunch meeting of melon researchers who used videoconferences as a way to exchange current research information.
During 1993 scientific collaboration activities accounted for 3% of the scheduled use and fell to 0% when college courses began to be offered through TTVN.
During the last two years research use has been just over 2% of total use.
Finally, a variety of public forum and special interest group activities that involved some individual initiative by community end users accounted for 5% of the use in 1993 and stayed at 4% through 1996.
Table 1 Number of Scheduled Videoconferences by Year and Application Year Categories of TTVN Use1993A199419951996 University Credit Courses0250227235  Continuing Education/Staff Development141902445 23%) Administrative Activities42334353  TAEX Exension Activities522727  TAES Scientific Collaboration6098  Public Special Interest11171315  Total205392343383 A 1993 began in May and therefore does not represent a complete year.
Discussion Scheduling Perhaps the area that generated the greatest concern at the Center was scheduling.
Scheduling is a problem, especially with multi-site transmissions.
An administrator told of some of her scheduling dilemmas: "When I chaired the committee, I coordinated and considered all schedules.
I had to decide between having six individuals participate versus eight...and then to decide which individuals would be excluded, whose participation was critical.
I had to find what sites were available and that also determined who would participate.
It is a bubble that could burst at any time...and then I have to rebuild it again." She also reflected on using the same system as the university and the tenuous feeling of never really knowing whether one's plans are secure or whether she could be bumped at a very late moment.
"We have a partnership and we are a second class audience; priority is [university] classroom scheduling and sometimes that has to do with the room only, not the equipment." It is this reported unreliability and the conflicts which have arisen that has resulted in the decline in usage of the TTVN for continuing education and staff development purposes.
Meanwhile, university course delivery has proliferated.
Location TTVN facilities are located at universities and research centers of the Texas A&M University System throughout the state.
However, for many of the Extension agents and the rural clientele of many Extension programs, the closest facility is inconveniently located.
Many agents mentioned the fact that they were fifty miles or more away from a TTVN site as a factor limiting their use of the system.
Remarks such as "getting people to come to local programs is hard enough, but asking people to drive an hour in order to watch a presentation on TV is too much", suggest a need to improve the system's accessability.
One of the researchers in the Melon Research Group responded "I would like to be able to use it [TTVN] for agent training and Master Gardener training, but there are just not enough sites located conveniently for all those who would want to attend." Technology Use The knowledge required to effectively use the TTVN equipment is not very great but it does require an introduction and some practice.
In most cases, those who are using the system to accomplish programmatic goals, who are not teaching a regularly scheduled class, are not confident of their mastery of the technology.
Some expressed their feeling as awkward.
"Each time I use it I have to relearn the process for working the different cameras".
Also, there is difficulty in troubleshooting, not knowing where the problem lies when a failure occurs.
Teaching Style Distance education efforts should be learner focused, with teachers providing an environment for interactive learning.
Our informants recognized the need to enhance their presentations, to become more polished, more animated, and to maintain a smooth camera image.
This was seen as a chore and some noted, "Perhaps we should look to video production specialists for tips and training." Personal Contact Several individuals expressed concern about the loss of personal contact with their clients and peers while conducting activities over TTVN.
One Extension staff member lamented: " As an educator I feel that in isolating the teacher from the learners, the passion is lost, it's not the same." Extension agents stressed the importance of face-to-face contact and were in agreement that "...
it is through working individually with the clientele that the Extension worker learns about the people of the area, how they think, what their needs are, and how they carry on their work." (Swanson, 1984, p.
130) Recommendations Plan of Action The lack of a mission statement calling for greater use of TTVN technology in Extension and research is evident.
Current usage is by individual choice.
While use of this technology is embraced by a few individuals who are willing to take risks, many others continue to work with traditional methods.
Extension personnel should be encouraged to assess each duty that they perform to determine whether it could be more economically and efficiently accomplished when conducted through TTVN.
Regularly scheduled blocks of time for university courses severely limited the scheduling options available for other uses.
It is foreseeable that in order to ensure an increase in Extension use of the TTVN system, including Extension outreach and scientific collaboration, another connection to support an additional ELMO document camera and monitor located in a second classroom must be provided.
Scheduling The current scheduling system is unsatisfactory and does not allow for the needs of Extension or research priorities.
A user friendly, on-line scheduling system that provides immediate feedback and confirmation should be designed and implemented to overcome system-wide scheduling headaches.
Short of establishing a second TTVN site, reservation of time slots should be made for non-university, Center activities to ensure that predictable blocks of time are available for scientific collaboration and Extension work.
Reserved time slots should be based upon end user patterns and the systematic input of all potential end users.
Technical Support The technical demands of TTVN technology and the amount of preparation and enhanced presentation skills required have an intimidating effect on potential end users.
Adequate training must be provided for end users.
Videoconference specialists need to be employed in order to assure on-hand technical support.
Also, all sites on the TTVN system should be upgraded so that peripheral devices can be successfully used in presentations of detailed scientific slides.
A training program that will provide presenters with needed skills and confidence will enable them to make interesting presentations and conduct skillful interactions with other end users.
Peer review could also provide suggestions to improve the learning environment on TTVN.
Ideally the Center would model effective videoconference instructional design and methods within an interactive environment.
Summary This study reveals that Extension and research work at this Texas Agricultural Experiment Station has only begun the first mile of the journey toward efficient use of videoconferencing technology.
Nonetheless, the advantages of time and expense savings were noted without exception among informants.
It was also clear to the informants that increased frequency of contact and opportunities for broader interaction outweighed the disadvantages of teaching with TTVN as encountered at the Center.
The one exception was in the area of outreach where personal contact is predominantly preferred.
The Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station has changed due to the introduction of videoconferencing in 1993.
Framing the context of the center's role Center Director Dr.
Jose Amador stated "What you have to understand is that the Center is in the business of demonstrating technology and what it can do.
And our role here at the Center is to provide the setting, the equipment, and the link, as well as handle some administrative and logistical tasks.
Once people have seen the technology in action, it is up to them to develop the applications." As a working model, the experience of the Melon Research Group and their "brown bag" lunch meetings have proven to be a very good use of TTVN.
"The TTVN sessions have proven to be an excellent tool for exchange of current work in Texas, particularly for off-campus centers".
Several researchers stressed the timeliness of the information exchange as in "knowing what melon diseases are threatening".
Similar applications can be found wherever Extension professionals from different locations are engaged in common or like projects.
A Tropical Fruits class that was team taught by a faculty member at College Station and a scientist at the Center is a promising example of how complementary professionals can be brought together.
This type of team work can be further developed with supportive administrative policies and planning.
In a broader application of TTVN, ways to integrate communications among all of the agricultural components of the Texas A&M University System can be achieved.
Particular emphasis should be placed on facilitating the critical links between research and Extension activities.
Videoconferencing technology at the Center holds much promise for furthering the mission and goals of the Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station and the Texas Agricultural Extension Service.
With timely adjustments and improved planning, the Center can move from promise to fulfillment, ensuring more efficient and effective service to the public.
References Amador, Jose.
Garza, Bertha.
Jacques, Ubaldo.
New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Miller, Marvin.
Agricultural Extension: A resource manual.
Urbana, IL: University of Illinois.
Swietlik, Dariusz.
Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station.
Warren, Doyle.
Willie, Celina.
Finally, a variety of public forum and special interest group activities that involved some individual initiative by community end users accounted for 5% of the use in 1993 and stayed at 4% through 1996.
Table 1 Number of Scheduled Videoconferences by Year and Application Year Categories of TTVN Use1993A199419951996 University Credit Courses0250227235  Continuing Education/Staff Development141902445 23%) Administrative Activities42334353  TAEX Exension Activities522727  TAES Scientific Collaboration6098  Public Special Interest11171315  Total205392343383 A 1993 began in May and therefore does not represent a complete year.
Discussion Scheduling Perhaps the area that generated the greatest concern at the Center was scheduling.
Scheduling is a problem, especially with multi-site transmissions.
An administrator told of some of her scheduling dilemmas: "When I chaired the committee, I coordinated and considered all schedules.
I had to decide between having six individuals participate versus eight...and then to decide which individuals would be excluded, whose participation was critical.
I had to find what sites were available and that also determined who would participate.
It is a bubble that could burst at any time...and then I have to rebuild it again." She also reflected on using the same system as the university and the tenuous feeling of never really knowing whether one's plans are secure or whether she could be bumped at a very late moment.
"We have a partnership and we are a second class audience; priority is [university] classroom scheduling and sometimes that has to do with the room only, not the equipment." It is this reported unreliability and the conflicts which have arisen that has resulted in the decline in usage of the TTVN for continuing education and staff development purposes.
Meanwhile, university course delivery has proliferated.
Location TTVN facilities are located at universities and research centers of the Texas A&M University System throughout the state.
However, for many of the Extension agents and the rural clientele of many Extension programs, the closest facility is inconveniently located.
Many agents mentioned the fact that they were fifty miles or more away from a TTVN site as a factor limiting their use of the system.
Remarks such as "getting people to come to local programs is hard enough, but asking people to drive an hour in order to watch a presentation on TV is too much", suggest a need to improve the system's accessability.
One of the researchers in the Melon Research Group responded "I would like to be able to use it [TTVN] for agent training and Master Gardener training, but there are just not enough sites located conveniently for all those who would want to attend." Technology Use The knowledge required to effectively use the TTVN equipment is not very great but it does require an introduction and some practice.
In most cases, those who are using the system to accomplish programmatic goals, who are not teaching a regularly scheduled class, are not confident of their mastery of the technology.
Some expressed their feeling as awkward.
"Each time I use it I have to relearn the process for working the different cameras".
Also, there is difficulty in troubleshooting, not knowing where the problem lies when a failure occurs.
Teaching Style Distance education efforts should be learner focused, with teachers providing an environment for interactive learning.
Our informants recognized the need to enhance their presentations, to become more polished, more animated, and to maintain a smooth camera image.
This was seen as a chore and some noted, "Perhaps we should look to video production specialists for tips and training." Personal Contact Several individuals expressed concern about the loss of personal contact with their clients and peers while conducting activities over TTVN.
One Extension staff member lamented: " As an educator I feel that in isolating the teacher from the learners, the passion is lost, it's not the same." Extension agents stressed the importance of face-to-face contact and were in agreement that "...
it is through working individually with the clientele that the Extension worker learns about the people of the area, how they think, what their needs are, and how they carry on their work." (Swanson, 1984, p.
130) Recommendations Plan of Action The lack of a mission statement calling for greater use of TTVN technology in Extension and research is evident.
Current usage is by individual choice.
While use of this technology is embraced by a few individuals who are willing to take risks, many others continue to work with traditional methods.
Extension personnel should be encouraged to assess each duty that they perform to determine whether it could be more economically and efficiently accomplished when conducted through TTVN.
Regularly scheduled blocks of time for university courses severely limited the scheduling options available for other uses.
It is foreseeable that in order to ensure an increase in Extension use of the TTVN system, including Extension outreach and scientific collaboration, another connection to support an additional ELMO document camera and monitor located in a second classroom must be provided.
Scheduling The current scheduling system is unsatisfactory and does not allow for the needs of Extension or research priorities.
A user friendly, on-line scheduling system that provides immediate feedback and confirmation should be designed and implemented to overcome system-wide scheduling headaches.
Short of establishing a second TTVN site, reservation of time slots should be made for non-university, Center activities to ensure that predictable blocks of time are available for scientific collaboration and Extension work.
Reserved time slots should be based upon end user patterns and the systematic input of all potential end users.
Technical Support The technical demands of TTVN technology and the amount of preparation and enhanced presentation skills required have an intimidating effect on potential end users.
Adequate training must be provided for end users.
Videoconference specialists need to be employed in order to assure on-hand technical support.
Also, all sites on the TTVN system should be upgraded so that peripheral devices can be successfully used in presentations of detailed scientific slides.
A training program that will provide presenters with needed skills and confidence will enable them to make interesting presentations and conduct skillful interactions with other end users.
Peer review could also provide suggestions to improve the learning environment on TTVN.
Ideally the Center would model effective videoconference instructional design and methods within an interactive environment.
Summary This study reveals that Extension and research work at this Texas Agricultural Experiment Station has only begun the first mile of the journey toward efficient use of videoconferencing technology.
Nonetheless, the advantages of time and expense savings were noted without exception among informants.
It was also clear to the informants that increased frequency of contact and opportunities for broader interaction outweighed the disadvantages of teaching with TTVN as encountered at the Center.
The one exception was in the area of outreach where personal contact is predominantly preferred.
The Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station has changed due to the introduction of videoconferencing in 1993.
Framing the context of the center's role Center Director Dr.
Jose Amador stated "What you have to understand is that the Center is in the business of demonstrating technology and what it can do.
And our role here at the Center is to provide the setting, the equipment, and the link, as well as handle some administrative and logistical tasks.
Once people have seen the technology in action, it is up to them to develop the applications." As a working model, the experience of the Melon Research Group and their "brown bag" lunch meetings have proven to be a very good use of TTVN.
"The TTVN sessions have proven to be an excellent tool for exchange of current work in Texas, particularly for off-campus centers".
Several researchers stressed the timeliness of the information exchange as in "knowing what melon diseases are threatening".
Similar applications can be found wherever Extension professionals from different locations are engaged in common or like projects.
A Tropical Fruits class that was team taught by a faculty member at College Station and a scientist at the Center is a promising example of how complementary professionals can be brought together.
This type of team work can be further developed with supportive administrative policies and planning.
In a broader application of TTVN, ways to integrate communications among all of the agricultural components of the Texas A&M University System can be achieved.
Particular emphasis should be placed on facilitating the critical links between research and Extension activities.
Videoconferencing technology at the Center holds much promise for furthering the mission and goals of the Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station and the Texas Agricultural Extension Service.
With timely adjustments and improved planning, the Center can move from promise to fulfillment, ensuring more efficient and effective service to the public.
References Amador, Jose.
Garza, Bertha.
Jacques, Ubaldo.
New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Miller, Marvin.
Agricultural Extension: A resource manual.
Urbana, IL: University of Illinois.
Swietlik, Dariusz.
Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station.
Warren, Doyle.
Willie, Celina.
Table 1 Number of Scheduled Videoconferences by Year and Application Year Categories of TTVN Use1993A199419951996 University Credit Courses0250227235  Continuing Education/Staff Development141902445 23%) Administrative Activities42334353  TAEX Exension Activities522727  TAES Scientific Collaboration6098  Public Special Interest11171315  Total205392343383 A 1993 began in May and therefore does not represent a complete year.
Discussion Scheduling Perhaps the area that generated the greatest concern at the Center was scheduling.
Scheduling is a problem, especially with multi-site transmissions.
An administrator told of some of her scheduling dilemmas: "When I chaired the committee, I coordinated and considered all schedules.
I had to decide between having six individuals participate versus eight...and then to decide which individuals would be excluded, whose participation was critical.
I had to find what sites were available and that also determined who would participate.
It is a bubble that could burst at any time...and then I have to rebuild it again." She also reflected on using the same system as the university and the tenuous feeling of never really knowing whether one's plans are secure or whether she could be bumped at a very late moment.
"We have a partnership and we are a second class audience; priority is [university] classroom scheduling and sometimes that has to do with the room only, not the equipment." It is this reported unreliability and the conflicts which have arisen that has resulted in the decline in usage of the TTVN for continuing education and staff development purposes.
Meanwhile, university course delivery has proliferated.
Location TTVN facilities are located at universities and research centers of the Texas A&M University System throughout the state.
However, for many of the Extension agents and the rural clientele of many Extension programs, the closest facility is inconveniently located.
Many agents mentioned the fact that they were fifty miles or more away from a TTVN site as a factor limiting their use of the system.
Remarks such as "getting people to come to local programs is hard enough, but asking people to drive an hour in order to watch a presentation on TV is too much", suggest a need to improve the system's accessability.
One of the researchers in the Melon Research Group responded "I would like to be able to use it [TTVN] for agent training and Master Gardener training, but there are just not enough sites located conveniently for all those who would want to attend." Technology Use The knowledge required to effectively use the TTVN equipment is not very great but it does require an introduction and some practice.
In most cases, those who are using the system to accomplish programmatic goals, who are not teaching a regularly scheduled class, are not confident of their mastery of the technology.
Some expressed their feeling as awkward.
"Each time I use it I have to relearn the process for working the different cameras".
Also, there is difficulty in troubleshooting, not knowing where the problem lies when a failure occurs.
Teaching Style Distance education efforts should be learner focused, with teachers providing an environment for interactive learning.
Our informants recognized the need to enhance their presentations, to become more polished, more animated, and to maintain a smooth camera image.
This was seen as a chore and some noted, "Perhaps we should look to video production specialists for tips and training." Personal Contact Several individuals expressed concern about the loss of personal contact with their clients and peers while conducting activities over TTVN.
One Extension staff member lamented: " As an educator I feel that in isolating the teacher from the learners, the passion is lost, it's not the same." Extension agents stressed the importance of face-to-face contact and were in agreement that "...
it is through working individually with the clientele that the Extension worker learns about the people of the area, how they think, what their needs are, and how they carry on their work." (Swanson, 1984, p.
130) Recommendations Plan of Action The lack of a mission statement calling for greater use of TTVN technology in Extension and research is evident.
Current usage is by individual choice.
While use of this technology is embraced by a few individuals who are willing to take risks, many others continue to work with traditional methods.
Extension personnel should be encouraged to assess each duty that they perform to determine whether it could be more economically and efficiently accomplished when conducted through TTVN.
Regularly scheduled blocks of time for university courses severely limited the scheduling options available for other uses.
It is foreseeable that in order to ensure an increase in Extension use of the TTVN system, including Extension outreach and scientific collaboration, another connection to support an additional ELMO document camera and monitor located in a second classroom must be provided.
Scheduling The current scheduling system is unsatisfactory and does not allow for the needs of Extension or research priorities.
A user friendly, on-line scheduling system that provides immediate feedback and confirmation should be designed and implemented to overcome system-wide scheduling headaches.
Short of establishing a second TTVN site, reservation of time slots should be made for non-university, Center activities to ensure that predictable blocks of time are available for scientific collaboration and Extension work.
Reserved time slots should be based upon end user patterns and the systematic input of all potential end users.
Technical Support The technical demands of TTVN technology and the amount of preparation and enhanced presentation skills required have an intimidating effect on potential end users.
Adequate training must be provided for end users.
Videoconference specialists need to be employed in order to assure on-hand technical support.
Also, all sites on the TTVN system should be upgraded so that peripheral devices can be successfully used in presentations of detailed scientific slides.
A training program that will provide presenters with needed skills and confidence will enable them to make interesting presentations and conduct skillful interactions with other end users.
Peer review could also provide suggestions to improve the learning environment on TTVN.
Ideally the Center would model effective videoconference instructional design and methods within an interactive environment.
Summary This study reveals that Extension and research work at this Texas Agricultural Experiment Station has only begun the first mile of the journey toward efficient use of videoconferencing technology.
Nonetheless, the advantages of time and expense savings were noted without exception among informants.
It was also clear to the informants that increased frequency of contact and opportunities for broader interaction outweighed the disadvantages of teaching with TTVN as encountered at the Center.
The one exception was in the area of outreach where personal contact is predominantly preferred.
The Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station has changed due to the introduction of videoconferencing in 1993.
Framing the context of the center's role Center Director Dr.
Jose Amador stated "What you have to understand is that the Center is in the business of demonstrating technology and what it can do.
And our role here at the Center is to provide the setting, the equipment, and the link, as well as handle some administrative and logistical tasks.
Once people have seen the technology in action, it is up to them to develop the applications." As a working model, the experience of the Melon Research Group and their "brown bag" lunch meetings have proven to be a very good use of TTVN.
"The TTVN sessions have proven to be an excellent tool for exchange of current work in Texas, particularly for off-campus centers".
Several researchers stressed the timeliness of the information exchange as in "knowing what melon diseases are threatening".
Similar applications can be found wherever Extension professionals from different locations are engaged in common or like projects.
A Tropical Fruits class that was team taught by a faculty member at College Station and a scientist at the Center is a promising example of how complementary professionals can be brought together.
This type of team work can be further developed with supportive administrative policies and planning.
In a broader application of TTVN, ways to integrate communications among all of the agricultural components of the Texas A&M University System can be achieved.
Particular emphasis should be placed on facilitating the critical links between research and Extension activities.
Videoconferencing technology at the Center holds much promise for furthering the mission and goals of the Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station and the Texas Agricultural Extension Service.
With timely adjustments and improved planning, the Center can move from promise to fulfillment, ensuring more efficient and effective service to the public.
References Amador, Jose.
Garza, Bertha.
Jacques, Ubaldo.
New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Miller, Marvin.
Agricultural Extension: A resource manual.
Urbana, IL: University of Illinois.
Swietlik, Dariusz.
Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station.
Warren, Doyle.
Willie, Celina.
Scheduling Perhaps the area that generated the greatest concern at the Center was scheduling.
Scheduling is a problem, especially with multi-site transmissions.
An administrator told of some of her scheduling dilemmas: "When I chaired the committee, I coordinated and considered all schedules.
I had to decide between having six individuals participate versus eight...and then to decide which individuals would be excluded, whose participation was critical.
I had to find what sites were available and that also determined who would participate.
It is a bubble that could burst at any time...and then I have to rebuild it again." She also reflected on using the same system as the university and the tenuous feeling of never really knowing whether one's plans are secure or whether she could be bumped at a very late moment.
"We have a partnership and we are a second class audience; priority is [university] classroom scheduling and sometimes that has to do with the room only, not the equipment." It is this reported unreliability and the conflicts which have arisen that has resulted in the decline in usage of the TTVN for continuing education and staff development purposes.
Meanwhile, university course delivery has proliferated.
Location TTVN facilities are located at universities and research centers of the Texas A&M University System throughout the state.
However, for many of the Extension agents and the rural clientele of many Extension programs, the closest facility is inconveniently located.
Many agents mentioned the fact that they were fifty miles or more away from a TTVN site as a factor limiting their use of the system.
Remarks such as "getting people to come to local programs is hard enough, but asking people to drive an hour in order to watch a presentation on TV is too much", suggest a need to improve the system's accessability.
One of the researchers in the Melon Research Group responded "I would like to be able to use it [TTVN] for agent training and Master Gardener training, but there are just not enough sites located conveniently for all those who would want to attend." Technology Use The knowledge required to effectively use the TTVN equipment is not very great but it does require an introduction and some practice.
In most cases, those who are using the system to accomplish programmatic goals, who are not teaching a regularly scheduled class, are not confident of their mastery of the technology.
Some expressed their feeling as awkward.
"Each time I use it I have to relearn the process for working the different cameras".
Also, there is difficulty in troubleshooting, not knowing where the problem lies when a failure occurs.
Teaching Style Distance education efforts should be learner focused, with teachers providing an environment for interactive learning.
Our informants recognized the need to enhance their presentations, to become more polished, more animated, and to maintain a smooth camera image.
This was seen as a chore and some noted, "Perhaps we should look to video production specialists for tips and training." Personal Contact Several individuals expressed concern about the loss of personal contact with their clients and peers while conducting activities over TTVN.
One Extension staff member lamented: " As an educator I feel that in isolating the teacher from the learners, the passion is lost, it's not the same." Extension agents stressed the importance of face-to-face contact and were in agreement that "...
it is through working individually with the clientele that the Extension worker learns about the people of the area, how they think, what their needs are, and how they carry on their work." (Swanson, 1984, p.
130) Recommendations Plan of Action The lack of a mission statement calling for greater use of TTVN technology in Extension and research is evident.
Current usage is by individual choice.
While use of this technology is embraced by a few individuals who are willing to take risks, many others continue to work with traditional methods.
Extension personnel should be encouraged to assess each duty that they perform to determine whether it could be more economically and efficiently accomplished when conducted through TTVN.
Regularly scheduled blocks of time for university courses severely limited the scheduling options available for other uses.
It is foreseeable that in order to ensure an increase in Extension use of the TTVN system, including Extension outreach and scientific collaboration, another connection to support an additional ELMO document camera and monitor located in a second classroom must be provided.
Scheduling The current scheduling system is unsatisfactory and does not allow for the needs of Extension or research priorities.
A user friendly, on-line scheduling system that provides immediate feedback and confirmation should be designed and implemented to overcome system-wide scheduling headaches.
Short of establishing a second TTVN site, reservation of time slots should be made for non-university, Center activities to ensure that predictable blocks of time are available for scientific collaboration and Extension work.
Reserved time slots should be based upon end user patterns and the systematic input of all potential end users.
Technical Support The technical demands of TTVN technology and the amount of preparation and enhanced presentation skills required have an intimidating effect on potential end users.
Adequate training must be provided for end users.
Videoconference specialists need to be employed in order to assure on-hand technical support.
Also, all sites on the TTVN system should be upgraded so that peripheral devices can be successfully used in presentations of detailed scientific slides.
A training program that will provide presenters with needed skills and confidence will enable them to make interesting presentations and conduct skillful interactions with other end users.
Peer review could also provide suggestions to improve the learning environment on TTVN.
Ideally the Center would model effective videoconference instructional design and methods within an interactive environment.
Summary This study reveals that Extension and research work at this Texas Agricultural Experiment Station has only begun the first mile of the journey toward efficient use of videoconferencing technology.
Nonetheless, the advantages of time and expense savings were noted without exception among informants.
It was also clear to the informants that increased frequency of contact and opportunities for broader interaction outweighed the disadvantages of teaching with TTVN as encountered at the Center.
The one exception was in the area of outreach where personal contact is predominantly preferred.
The Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station has changed due to the introduction of videoconferencing in 1993.
Framing the context of the center's role Center Director Dr.
Jose Amador stated "What you have to understand is that the Center is in the business of demonstrating technology and what it can do.
And our role here at the Center is to provide the setting, the equipment, and the link, as well as handle some administrative and logistical tasks.
Once people have seen the technology in action, it is up to them to develop the applications." As a working model, the experience of the Melon Research Group and their "brown bag" lunch meetings have proven to be a very good use of TTVN.
"The TTVN sessions have proven to be an excellent tool for exchange of current work in Texas, particularly for off-campus centers".
Several researchers stressed the timeliness of the information exchange as in "knowing what melon diseases are threatening".
Similar applications can be found wherever Extension professionals from different locations are engaged in common or like projects.
A Tropical Fruits class that was team taught by a faculty member at College Station and a scientist at the Center is a promising example of how complementary professionals can be brought together.
This type of team work can be further developed with supportive administrative policies and planning.
In a broader application of TTVN, ways to integrate communications among all of the agricultural components of the Texas A&M University System can be achieved.
Particular emphasis should be placed on facilitating the critical links between research and Extension activities.
Videoconferencing technology at the Center holds much promise for furthering the mission and goals of the Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station and the Texas Agricultural Extension Service.
With timely adjustments and improved planning, the Center can move from promise to fulfillment, ensuring more efficient and effective service to the public.
References Amador, Jose.
Garza, Bertha.
Jacques, Ubaldo.
New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Miller, Marvin.
Agricultural Extension: A resource manual.
Urbana, IL: University of Illinois.
Swietlik, Dariusz.
Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station.
Warren, Doyle.
Willie, Celina.
Perhaps the area that generated the greatest concern at the Center was scheduling.
Scheduling is a problem, especially with multi-site transmissions.
An administrator told of some of her scheduling dilemmas: "When I chaired the committee, I coordinated and considered all schedules.
I had to decide between having six individuals participate versus eight...and then to decide which individuals would be excluded, whose participation was critical.
I had to find what sites were available and that also determined who would participate.
It is a bubble that could burst at any time...and then I have to rebuild it again." She also reflected on using the same system as the university and the tenuous feeling of never really knowing whether one's plans are secure or whether she could be bumped at a very late moment.
"We have a partnership and we are a second class audience; priority is [university] classroom scheduling and sometimes that has to do with the room only, not the equipment." It is this reported unreliability and the conflicts which have arisen that has resulted in the decline in usage of the TTVN for continuing education and staff development purposes.
Meanwhile, university course delivery has proliferated.
Location TTVN facilities are located at universities and research centers of the Texas A&M University System throughout the state.
However, for many of the Extension agents and the rural clientele of many Extension programs, the closest facility is inconveniently located.
Many agents mentioned the fact that they were fifty miles or more away from a TTVN site as a factor limiting their use of the system.
Remarks such as "getting people to come to local programs is hard enough, but asking people to drive an hour in order to watch a presentation on TV is too much", suggest a need to improve the system's accessability.
One of the researchers in the Melon Research Group responded "I would like to be able to use it [TTVN] for agent training and Master Gardener training, but there are just not enough sites located conveniently for all those who would want to attend." Technology Use The knowledge required to effectively use the TTVN equipment is not very great but it does require an introduction and some practice.
In most cases, those who are using the system to accomplish programmatic goals, who are not teaching a regularly scheduled class, are not confident of their mastery of the technology.
Some expressed their feeling as awkward.
"Each time I use it I have to relearn the process for working the different cameras".
Also, there is difficulty in troubleshooting, not knowing where the problem lies when a failure occurs.
Teaching Style Distance education efforts should be learner focused, with teachers providing an environment for interactive learning.
Our informants recognized the need to enhance their presentations, to become more polished, more animated, and to maintain a smooth camera image.
This was seen as a chore and some noted, "Perhaps we should look to video production specialists for tips and training." Personal Contact Several individuals expressed concern about the loss of personal contact with their clients and peers while conducting activities over TTVN.
One Extension staff member lamented: " As an educator I feel that in isolating the teacher from the learners, the passion is lost, it's not the same." Extension agents stressed the importance of face-to-face contact and were in agreement that "...
it is through working individually with the clientele that the Extension worker learns about the people of the area, how they think, what their needs are, and how they carry on their work." (Swanson, 1984, p.
130) Recommendations Plan of Action The lack of a mission statement calling for greater use of TTVN technology in Extension and research is evident.
Current usage is by individual choice.
While use of this technology is embraced by a few individuals who are willing to take risks, many others continue to work with traditional methods.
Extension personnel should be encouraged to assess each duty that they perform to determine whether it could be more economically and efficiently accomplished when conducted through TTVN.
Regularly scheduled blocks of time for university courses severely limited the scheduling options available for other uses.
It is foreseeable that in order to ensure an increase in Extension use of the TTVN system, including Extension outreach and scientific collaboration, another connection to support an additional ELMO document camera and monitor located in a second classroom must be provided.
Scheduling The current scheduling system is unsatisfactory and does not allow for the needs of Extension or research priorities.
A user friendly, on-line scheduling system that provides immediate feedback and confirmation should be designed and implemented to overcome system-wide scheduling headaches.
Short of establishing a second TTVN site, reservation of time slots should be made for non-university, Center activities to ensure that predictable blocks of time are available for scientific collaboration and Extension work.
Reserved time slots should be based upon end user patterns and the systematic input of all potential end users.
Technical Support The technical demands of TTVN technology and the amount of preparation and enhanced presentation skills required have an intimidating effect on potential end users.
Adequate training must be provided for end users.
Videoconference specialists need to be employed in order to assure on-hand technical support.
Also, all sites on the TTVN system should be upgraded so that peripheral devices can be successfully used in presentations of detailed scientific slides.
A training program that will provide presenters with needed skills and confidence will enable them to make interesting presentations and conduct skillful interactions with other end users.
Peer review could also provide suggestions to improve the learning environment on TTVN.
Ideally the Center would model effective videoconference instructional design and methods within an interactive environment.
Summary This study reveals that Extension and research work at this Texas Agricultural Experiment Station has only begun the first mile of the journey toward efficient use of videoconferencing technology.
Nonetheless, the advantages of time and expense savings were noted without exception among informants.
It was also clear to the informants that increased frequency of contact and opportunities for broader interaction outweighed the disadvantages of teaching with TTVN as encountered at the Center.
The one exception was in the area of outreach where personal contact is predominantly preferred.
The Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station has changed due to the introduction of videoconferencing in 1993.
Framing the context of the center's role Center Director Dr.
Jose Amador stated "What you have to understand is that the Center is in the business of demonstrating technology and what it can do.
And our role here at the Center is to provide the setting, the equipment, and the link, as well as handle some administrative and logistical tasks.
Once people have seen the technology in action, it is up to them to develop the applications." As a working model, the experience of the Melon Research Group and their "brown bag" lunch meetings have proven to be a very good use of TTVN.
"The TTVN sessions have proven to be an excellent tool for exchange of current work in Texas, particularly for off-campus centers".
Several researchers stressed the timeliness of the information exchange as in "knowing what melon diseases are threatening".
Similar applications can be found wherever Extension professionals from different locations are engaged in common or like projects.
A Tropical Fruits class that was team taught by a faculty member at College Station and a scientist at the Center is a promising example of how complementary professionals can be brought together.
This type of team work can be further developed with supportive administrative policies and planning.
In a broader application of TTVN, ways to integrate communications among all of the agricultural components of the Texas A&M University System can be achieved.
Particular emphasis should be placed on facilitating the critical links between research and Extension activities.
Videoconferencing technology at the Center holds much promise for furthering the mission and goals of the Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station and the Texas Agricultural Extension Service.
With timely adjustments and improved planning, the Center can move from promise to fulfillment, ensuring more efficient and effective service to the public.
References Amador, Jose.
Garza, Bertha.
Jacques, Ubaldo.
New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Miller, Marvin.
Agricultural Extension: A resource manual.
Urbana, IL: University of Illinois.
Swietlik, Dariusz.
Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station.
Warren, Doyle.
Willie, Celina.
She also reflected on using the same system as the university and the tenuous feeling of never really knowing whether one's plans are secure or whether she could be bumped at a very late moment.
"We have a partnership and we are a second class audience; priority is [university] classroom scheduling and sometimes that has to do with the room only, not the equipment." It is this reported unreliability and the conflicts which have arisen that has resulted in the decline in usage of the TTVN for continuing education and staff development purposes.
Meanwhile, university course delivery has proliferated.
Location TTVN facilities are located at universities and research centers of the Texas A&M University System throughout the state.
However, for many of the Extension agents and the rural clientele of many Extension programs, the closest facility is inconveniently located.
Many agents mentioned the fact that they were fifty miles or more away from a TTVN site as a factor limiting their use of the system.
Remarks such as "getting people to come to local programs is hard enough, but asking people to drive an hour in order to watch a presentation on TV is too much", suggest a need to improve the system's accessability.
One of the researchers in the Melon Research Group responded "I would like to be able to use it [TTVN] for agent training and Master Gardener training, but there are just not enough sites located conveniently for all those who would want to attend." Technology Use The knowledge required to effectively use the TTVN equipment is not very great but it does require an introduction and some practice.
In most cases, those who are using the system to accomplish programmatic goals, who are not teaching a regularly scheduled class, are not confident of their mastery of the technology.
Some expressed their feeling as awkward.
"Each time I use it I have to relearn the process for working the different cameras".
Also, there is difficulty in troubleshooting, not knowing where the problem lies when a failure occurs.
Teaching Style Distance education efforts should be learner focused, with teachers providing an environment for interactive learning.
Our informants recognized the need to enhance their presentations, to become more polished, more animated, and to maintain a smooth camera image.
This was seen as a chore and some noted, "Perhaps we should look to video production specialists for tips and training." Personal Contact Several individuals expressed concern about the loss of personal contact with their clients and peers while conducting activities over TTVN.
One Extension staff member lamented: " As an educator I feel that in isolating the teacher from the learners, the passion is lost, it's not the same." Extension agents stressed the importance of face-to-face contact and were in agreement that "...
it is through working individually with the clientele that the Extension worker learns about the people of the area, how they think, what their needs are, and how they carry on their work." (Swanson, 1984, p.
130) Recommendations Plan of Action The lack of a mission statement calling for greater use of TTVN technology in Extension and research is evident.
Current usage is by individual choice.
While use of this technology is embraced by a few individuals who are willing to take risks, many others continue to work with traditional methods.
Extension personnel should be encouraged to assess each duty that they perform to determine whether it could be more economically and efficiently accomplished when conducted through TTVN.
Regularly scheduled blocks of time for university courses severely limited the scheduling options available for other uses.
It is foreseeable that in order to ensure an increase in Extension use of the TTVN system, including Extension outreach and scientific collaboration, another connection to support an additional ELMO document camera and monitor located in a second classroom must be provided.
Scheduling The current scheduling system is unsatisfactory and does not allow for the needs of Extension or research priorities.
A user friendly, on-line scheduling system that provides immediate feedback and confirmation should be designed and implemented to overcome system-wide scheduling headaches.
Short of establishing a second TTVN site, reservation of time slots should be made for non-university, Center activities to ensure that predictable blocks of time are available for scientific collaboration and Extension work.
Reserved time slots should be based upon end user patterns and the systematic input of all potential end users.
Technical Support The technical demands of TTVN technology and the amount of preparation and enhanced presentation skills required have an intimidating effect on potential end users.
Adequate training must be provided for end users.
Videoconference specialists need to be employed in order to assure on-hand technical support.
Also, all sites on the TTVN system should be upgraded so that peripheral devices can be successfully used in presentations of detailed scientific slides.
A training program that will provide presenters with needed skills and confidence will enable them to make interesting presentations and conduct skillful interactions with other end users.
Peer review could also provide suggestions to improve the learning environment on TTVN.
Ideally the Center would model effective videoconference instructional design and methods within an interactive environment.
Summary This study reveals that Extension and research work at this Texas Agricultural Experiment Station has only begun the first mile of the journey toward efficient use of videoconferencing technology.
Nonetheless, the advantages of time and expense savings were noted without exception among informants.
It was also clear to the informants that increased frequency of contact and opportunities for broader interaction outweighed the disadvantages of teaching with TTVN as encountered at the Center.
The one exception was in the area of outreach where personal contact is predominantly preferred.
The Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station has changed due to the introduction of videoconferencing in 1993.
Framing the context of the center's role Center Director Dr.
Jose Amador stated "What you have to understand is that the Center is in the business of demonstrating technology and what it can do.
And our role here at the Center is to provide the setting, the equipment, and the link, as well as handle some administrative and logistical tasks.
Once people have seen the technology in action, it is up to them to develop the applications." As a working model, the experience of the Melon Research Group and their "brown bag" lunch meetings have proven to be a very good use of TTVN.
"The TTVN sessions have proven to be an excellent tool for exchange of current work in Texas, particularly for off-campus centers".
Several researchers stressed the timeliness of the information exchange as in "knowing what melon diseases are threatening".
Similar applications can be found wherever Extension professionals from different locations are engaged in common or like projects.
A Tropical Fruits class that was team taught by a faculty member at College Station and a scientist at the Center is a promising example of how complementary professionals can be brought together.
This type of team work can be further developed with supportive administrative policies and planning.
In a broader application of TTVN, ways to integrate communications among all of the agricultural components of the Texas A&M University System can be achieved.
Particular emphasis should be placed on facilitating the critical links between research and Extension activities.
Videoconferencing technology at the Center holds much promise for furthering the mission and goals of the Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station and the Texas Agricultural Extension Service.
With timely adjustments and improved planning, the Center can move from promise to fulfillment, ensuring more efficient and effective service to the public.
References Amador, Jose.
Garza, Bertha.
Jacques, Ubaldo.
New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Miller, Marvin.
Agricultural Extension: A resource manual.
Urbana, IL: University of Illinois.
Swietlik, Dariusz.
Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station.
Warren, Doyle.
Willie, Celina.
It is this reported unreliability and the conflicts which have arisen that has resulted in the decline in usage of the TTVN for continuing education and staff development purposes.
Meanwhile, university course delivery has proliferated.
Location TTVN facilities are located at universities and research centers of the Texas A&M University System throughout the state.
However, for many of the Extension agents and the rural clientele of many Extension programs, the closest facility is inconveniently located.
Many agents mentioned the fact that they were fifty miles or more away from a TTVN site as a factor limiting their use of the system.
Remarks such as "getting people to come to local programs is hard enough, but asking people to drive an hour in order to watch a presentation on TV is too much", suggest a need to improve the system's accessability.
One of the researchers in the Melon Research Group responded "I would like to be able to use it [TTVN] for agent training and Master Gardener training, but there are just not enough sites located conveniently for all those who would want to attend." Technology Use The knowledge required to effectively use the TTVN equipment is not very great but it does require an introduction and some practice.
In most cases, those who are using the system to accomplish programmatic goals, who are not teaching a regularly scheduled class, are not confident of their mastery of the technology.
Some expressed their feeling as awkward.
"Each time I use it I have to relearn the process for working the different cameras".
Also, there is difficulty in troubleshooting, not knowing where the problem lies when a failure occurs.
Teaching Style Distance education efforts should be learner focused, with teachers providing an environment for interactive learning.
Our informants recognized the need to enhance their presentations, to become more polished, more animated, and to maintain a smooth camera image.
This was seen as a chore and some noted, "Perhaps we should look to video production specialists for tips and training." Personal Contact Several individuals expressed concern about the loss of personal contact with their clients and peers while conducting activities over TTVN.
One Extension staff member lamented: " As an educator I feel that in isolating the teacher from the learners, the passion is lost, it's not the same." Extension agents stressed the importance of face-to-face contact and were in agreement that "...
it is through working individually with the clientele that the Extension worker learns about the people of the area, how they think, what their needs are, and how they carry on their work." (Swanson, 1984, p.
130) Recommendations Plan of Action The lack of a mission statement calling for greater use of TTVN technology in Extension and research is evident.
Current usage is by individual choice.
While use of this technology is embraced by a few individuals who are willing to take risks, many others continue to work with traditional methods.
Extension personnel should be encouraged to assess each duty that they perform to determine whether it could be more economically and efficiently accomplished when conducted through TTVN.
Regularly scheduled blocks of time for university courses severely limited the scheduling options available for other uses.
It is foreseeable that in order to ensure an increase in Extension use of the TTVN system, including Extension outreach and scientific collaboration, another connection to support an additional ELMO document camera and monitor located in a second classroom must be provided.
Scheduling The current scheduling system is unsatisfactory and does not allow for the needs of Extension or research priorities.
A user friendly, on-line scheduling system that provides immediate feedback and confirmation should be designed and implemented to overcome system-wide scheduling headaches.
Short of establishing a second TTVN site, reservation of time slots should be made for non-university, Center activities to ensure that predictable blocks of time are available for scientific collaboration and Extension work.
Reserved time slots should be based upon end user patterns and the systematic input of all potential end users.
Technical Support The technical demands of TTVN technology and the amount of preparation and enhanced presentation skills required have an intimidating effect on potential end users.
Adequate training must be provided for end users.
Videoconference specialists need to be employed in order to assure on-hand technical support.
Also, all sites on the TTVN system should be upgraded so that peripheral devices can be successfully used in presentations of detailed scientific slides.
A training program that will provide presenters with needed skills and confidence will enable them to make interesting presentations and conduct skillful interactions with other end users.
Peer review could also provide suggestions to improve the learning environment on TTVN.
Ideally the Center would model effective videoconference instructional design and methods within an interactive environment.
Summary This study reveals that Extension and research work at this Texas Agricultural Experiment Station has only begun the first mile of the journey toward efficient use of videoconferencing technology.
Nonetheless, the advantages of time and expense savings were noted without exception among informants.
It was also clear to the informants that increased frequency of contact and opportunities for broader interaction outweighed the disadvantages of teaching with TTVN as encountered at the Center.
The one exception was in the area of outreach where personal contact is predominantly preferred.
The Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station has changed due to the introduction of videoconferencing in 1993.
Framing the context of the center's role Center Director Dr.
Jose Amador stated "What you have to understand is that the Center is in the business of demonstrating technology and what it can do.
And our role here at the Center is to provide the setting, the equipment, and the link, as well as handle some administrative and logistical tasks.
Once people have seen the technology in action, it is up to them to develop the applications." As a working model, the experience of the Melon Research Group and their "brown bag" lunch meetings have proven to be a very good use of TTVN.
"The TTVN sessions have proven to be an excellent tool for exchange of current work in Texas, particularly for off-campus centers".
Several researchers stressed the timeliness of the information exchange as in "knowing what melon diseases are threatening".
Similar applications can be found wherever Extension professionals from different locations are engaged in common or like projects.
A Tropical Fruits class that was team taught by a faculty member at College Station and a scientist at the Center is a promising example of how complementary professionals can be brought together.
This type of team work can be further developed with supportive administrative policies and planning.
In a broader application of TTVN, ways to integrate communications among all of the agricultural components of the Texas A&M University System can be achieved.
Particular emphasis should be placed on facilitating the critical links between research and Extension activities.
Videoconferencing technology at the Center holds much promise for furthering the mission and goals of the Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station and the Texas Agricultural Extension Service.
With timely adjustments and improved planning, the Center can move from promise to fulfillment, ensuring more efficient and effective service to the public.
References Amador, Jose.
Garza, Bertha.
Jacques, Ubaldo.
New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Miller, Marvin.
Agricultural Extension: A resource manual.
Urbana, IL: University of Illinois.
Swietlik, Dariusz.
Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station.
Warren, Doyle.
Willie, Celina.
Location TTVN facilities are located at universities and research centers of the Texas A&M University System throughout the state.
However, for many of the Extension agents and the rural clientele of many Extension programs, the closest facility is inconveniently located.
Many agents mentioned the fact that they were fifty miles or more away from a TTVN site as a factor limiting their use of the system.
Remarks such as "getting people to come to local programs is hard enough, but asking people to drive an hour in order to watch a presentation on TV is too much", suggest a need to improve the system's accessability.
One of the researchers in the Melon Research Group responded "I would like to be able to use it [TTVN] for agent training and Master Gardener training, but there are just not enough sites located conveniently for all those who would want to attend." Technology Use The knowledge required to effectively use the TTVN equipment is not very great but it does require an introduction and some practice.
In most cases, those who are using the system to accomplish programmatic goals, who are not teaching a regularly scheduled class, are not confident of their mastery of the technology.
Some expressed their feeling as awkward.
"Each time I use it I have to relearn the process for working the different cameras".
Also, there is difficulty in troubleshooting, not knowing where the problem lies when a failure occurs.
Teaching Style Distance education efforts should be learner focused, with teachers providing an environment for interactive learning.
Our informants recognized the need to enhance their presentations, to become more polished, more animated, and to maintain a smooth camera image.
This was seen as a chore and some noted, "Perhaps we should look to video production specialists for tips and training." Personal Contact Several individuals expressed concern about the loss of personal contact with their clients and peers while conducting activities over TTVN.
One Extension staff member lamented: " As an educator I feel that in isolating the teacher from the learners, the passion is lost, it's not the same." Extension agents stressed the importance of face-to-face contact and were in agreement that "...
it is through working individually with the clientele that the Extension worker learns about the people of the area, how they think, what their needs are, and how they carry on their work." (Swanson, 1984, p.
130) Recommendations Plan of Action The lack of a mission statement calling for greater use of TTVN technology in Extension and research is evident.
Current usage is by individual choice.
While use of this technology is embraced by a few individuals who are willing to take risks, many others continue to work with traditional methods.
Extension personnel should be encouraged to assess each duty that they perform to determine whether it could be more economically and efficiently accomplished when conducted through TTVN.
Regularly scheduled blocks of time for university courses severely limited the scheduling options available for other uses.
It is foreseeable that in order to ensure an increase in Extension use of the TTVN system, including Extension outreach and scientific collaboration, another connection to support an additional ELMO document camera and monitor located in a second classroom must be provided.
Scheduling The current scheduling system is unsatisfactory and does not allow for the needs of Extension or research priorities.
A user friendly, on-line scheduling system that provides immediate feedback and confirmation should be designed and implemented to overcome system-wide scheduling headaches.
Short of establishing a second TTVN site, reservation of time slots should be made for non-university, Center activities to ensure that predictable blocks of time are available for scientific collaboration and Extension work.
Reserved time slots should be based upon end user patterns and the systematic input of all potential end users.
Technical Support The technical demands of TTVN technology and the amount of preparation and enhanced presentation skills required have an intimidating effect on potential end users.
Adequate training must be provided for end users.
Videoconference specialists need to be employed in order to assure on-hand technical support.
Also, all sites on the TTVN system should be upgraded so that peripheral devices can be successfully used in presentations of detailed scientific slides.
A training program that will provide presenters with needed skills and confidence will enable them to make interesting presentations and conduct skillful interactions with other end users.
Peer review could also provide suggestions to improve the learning environment on TTVN.
Ideally the Center would model effective videoconference instructional design and methods within an interactive environment.
Summary This study reveals that Extension and research work at this Texas Agricultural Experiment Station has only begun the first mile of the journey toward efficient use of videoconferencing technology.
Nonetheless, the advantages of time and expense savings were noted without exception among informants.
It was also clear to the informants that increased frequency of contact and opportunities for broader interaction outweighed the disadvantages of teaching with TTVN as encountered at the Center.
The one exception was in the area of outreach where personal contact is predominantly preferred.
The Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station has changed due to the introduction of videoconferencing in 1993.
Framing the context of the center's role Center Director Dr.
Jose Amador stated "What you have to understand is that the Center is in the business of demonstrating technology and what it can do.
And our role here at the Center is to provide the setting, the equipment, and the link, as well as handle some administrative and logistical tasks.
Once people have seen the technology in action, it is up to them to develop the applications." As a working model, the experience of the Melon Research Group and their "brown bag" lunch meetings have proven to be a very good use of TTVN.
"The TTVN sessions have proven to be an excellent tool for exchange of current work in Texas, particularly for off-campus centers".
Several researchers stressed the timeliness of the information exchange as in "knowing what melon diseases are threatening".
Similar applications can be found wherever Extension professionals from different locations are engaged in common or like projects.
A Tropical Fruits class that was team taught by a faculty member at College Station and a scientist at the Center is a promising example of how complementary professionals can be brought together.
This type of team work can be further developed with supportive administrative policies and planning.
In a broader application of TTVN, ways to integrate communications among all of the agricultural components of the Texas A&M University System can be achieved.
Particular emphasis should be placed on facilitating the critical links between research and Extension activities.
Videoconferencing technology at the Center holds much promise for furthering the mission and goals of the Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station and the Texas Agricultural Extension Service.
With timely adjustments and improved planning, the Center can move from promise to fulfillment, ensuring more efficient and effective service to the public.
References Amador, Jose.
Garza, Bertha.
Jacques, Ubaldo.
New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Miller, Marvin.
Agricultural Extension: A resource manual.
Urbana, IL: University of Illinois.
Swietlik, Dariusz.
Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station.
Warren, Doyle.
Willie, Celina.
TTVN facilities are located at universities and research centers of the Texas A&M University System throughout the state.
However, for many of the Extension agents and the rural clientele of many Extension programs, the closest facility is inconveniently located.
Many agents mentioned the fact that they were fifty miles or more away from a TTVN site as a factor limiting their use of the system.
Remarks such as "getting people to come to local programs is hard enough, but asking people to drive an hour in order to watch a presentation on TV is too much", suggest a need to improve the system's accessability.
One of the researchers in the Melon Research Group responded "I would like to be able to use it [TTVN] for agent training and Master Gardener training, but there are just not enough sites located conveniently for all those who would want to attend." Technology Use The knowledge required to effectively use the TTVN equipment is not very great but it does require an introduction and some practice.
In most cases, those who are using the system to accomplish programmatic goals, who are not teaching a regularly scheduled class, are not confident of their mastery of the technology.
Some expressed their feeling as awkward.
"Each time I use it I have to relearn the process for working the different cameras".
Also, there is difficulty in troubleshooting, not knowing where the problem lies when a failure occurs.
Teaching Style Distance education efforts should be learner focused, with teachers providing an environment for interactive learning.
Our informants recognized the need to enhance their presentations, to become more polished, more animated, and to maintain a smooth camera image.
This was seen as a chore and some noted, "Perhaps we should look to video production specialists for tips and training." Personal Contact Several individuals expressed concern about the loss of personal contact with their clients and peers while conducting activities over TTVN.
One Extension staff member lamented: " As an educator I feel that in isolating the teacher from the learners, the passion is lost, it's not the same." Extension agents stressed the importance of face-to-face contact and were in agreement that "...
it is through working individually with the clientele that the Extension worker learns about the people of the area, how they think, what their needs are, and how they carry on their work." (Swanson, 1984, p.
130) Recommendations Plan of Action The lack of a mission statement calling for greater use of TTVN technology in Extension and research is evident.
Current usage is by individual choice.
While use of this technology is embraced by a few individuals who are willing to take risks, many others continue to work with traditional methods.
Extension personnel should be encouraged to assess each duty that they perform to determine whether it could be more economically and efficiently accomplished when conducted through TTVN.
Regularly scheduled blocks of time for university courses severely limited the scheduling options available for other uses.
It is foreseeable that in order to ensure an increase in Extension use of the TTVN system, including Extension outreach and scientific collaboration, another connection to support an additional ELMO document camera and monitor located in a second classroom must be provided.
Scheduling The current scheduling system is unsatisfactory and does not allow for the needs of Extension or research priorities.
A user friendly, on-line scheduling system that provides immediate feedback and confirmation should be designed and implemented to overcome system-wide scheduling headaches.
Short of establishing a second TTVN site, reservation of time slots should be made for non-university, Center activities to ensure that predictable blocks of time are available for scientific collaboration and Extension work.
Reserved time slots should be based upon end user patterns and the systematic input of all potential end users.
Technical Support The technical demands of TTVN technology and the amount of preparation and enhanced presentation skills required have an intimidating effect on potential end users.
Adequate training must be provided for end users.
Videoconference specialists need to be employed in order to assure on-hand technical support.
Also, all sites on the TTVN system should be upgraded so that peripheral devices can be successfully used in presentations of detailed scientific slides.
A training program that will provide presenters with needed skills and confidence will enable them to make interesting presentations and conduct skillful interactions with other end users.
Peer review could also provide suggestions to improve the learning environment on TTVN.
Ideally the Center would model effective videoconference instructional design and methods within an interactive environment.
Summary This study reveals that Extension and research work at this Texas Agricultural Experiment Station has only begun the first mile of the journey toward efficient use of videoconferencing technology.
Nonetheless, the advantages of time and expense savings were noted without exception among informants.
It was also clear to the informants that increased frequency of contact and opportunities for broader interaction outweighed the disadvantages of teaching with TTVN as encountered at the Center.
The one exception was in the area of outreach where personal contact is predominantly preferred.
The Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station has changed due to the introduction of videoconferencing in 1993.
Framing the context of the center's role Center Director Dr.
Jose Amador stated "What you have to understand is that the Center is in the business of demonstrating technology and what it can do.
And our role here at the Center is to provide the setting, the equipment, and the link, as well as handle some administrative and logistical tasks.
Once people have seen the technology in action, it is up to them to develop the applications." As a working model, the experience of the Melon Research Group and their "brown bag" lunch meetings have proven to be a very good use of TTVN.
"The TTVN sessions have proven to be an excellent tool for exchange of current work in Texas, particularly for off-campus centers".
Several researchers stressed the timeliness of the information exchange as in "knowing what melon diseases are threatening".
Similar applications can be found wherever Extension professionals from different locations are engaged in common or like projects.
A Tropical Fruits class that was team taught by a faculty member at College Station and a scientist at the Center is a promising example of how complementary professionals can be brought together.
This type of team work can be further developed with supportive administrative policies and planning.
In a broader application of TTVN, ways to integrate communications among all of the agricultural components of the Texas A&M University System can be achieved.
Particular emphasis should be placed on facilitating the critical links between research and Extension activities.
Videoconferencing technology at the Center holds much promise for furthering the mission and goals of the Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station and the Texas Agricultural Extension Service.
With timely adjustments and improved planning, the Center can move from promise to fulfillment, ensuring more efficient and effective service to the public.
References Amador, Jose.
Garza, Bertha.
Jacques, Ubaldo.
New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Miller, Marvin.
Agricultural Extension: A resource manual.
Urbana, IL: University of Illinois.
Swietlik, Dariusz.
Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station.
Warren, Doyle.
Willie, Celina.
Technology Use The knowledge required to effectively use the TTVN equipment is not very great but it does require an introduction and some practice.
In most cases, those who are using the system to accomplish programmatic goals, who are not teaching a regularly scheduled class, are not confident of their mastery of the technology.
Some expressed their feeling as awkward.
"Each time I use it I have to relearn the process for working the different cameras".
Also, there is difficulty in troubleshooting, not knowing where the problem lies when a failure occurs.
Teaching Style Distance education efforts should be learner focused, with teachers providing an environment for interactive learning.
Our informants recognized the need to enhance their presentations, to become more polished, more animated, and to maintain a smooth camera image.
This was seen as a chore and some noted, "Perhaps we should look to video production specialists for tips and training." Personal Contact Several individuals expressed concern about the loss of personal contact with their clients and peers while conducting activities over TTVN.
One Extension staff member lamented: " As an educator I feel that in isolating the teacher from the learners, the passion is lost, it's not the same." Extension agents stressed the importance of face-to-face contact and were in agreement that "...
it is through working individually with the clientele that the Extension worker learns about the people of the area, how they think, what their needs are, and how they carry on their work." (Swanson, 1984, p.
130) Recommendations Plan of Action The lack of a mission statement calling for greater use of TTVN technology in Extension and research is evident.
Current usage is by individual choice.
While use of this technology is embraced by a few individuals who are willing to take risks, many others continue to work with traditional methods.
Extension personnel should be encouraged to assess each duty that they perform to determine whether it could be more economically and efficiently accomplished when conducted through TTVN.
Regularly scheduled blocks of time for university courses severely limited the scheduling options available for other uses.
It is foreseeable that in order to ensure an increase in Extension use of the TTVN system, including Extension outreach and scientific collaboration, another connection to support an additional ELMO document camera and monitor located in a second classroom must be provided.
Scheduling The current scheduling system is unsatisfactory and does not allow for the needs of Extension or research priorities.
A user friendly, on-line scheduling system that provides immediate feedback and confirmation should be designed and implemented to overcome system-wide scheduling headaches.
Short of establishing a second TTVN site, reservation of time slots should be made for non-university, Center activities to ensure that predictable blocks of time are available for scientific collaboration and Extension work.
Reserved time slots should be based upon end user patterns and the systematic input of all potential end users.
Technical Support The technical demands of TTVN technology and the amount of preparation and enhanced presentation skills required have an intimidating effect on potential end users.
Adequate training must be provided for end users.
Videoconference specialists need to be employed in order to assure on-hand technical support.
Also, all sites on the TTVN system should be upgraded so that peripheral devices can be successfully used in presentations of detailed scientific slides.
A training program that will provide presenters with needed skills and confidence will enable them to make interesting presentations and conduct skillful interactions with other end users.
Peer review could also provide suggestions to improve the learning environment on TTVN.
Ideally the Center would model effective videoconference instructional design and methods within an interactive environment.
Summary This study reveals that Extension and research work at this Texas Agricultural Experiment Station has only begun the first mile of the journey toward efficient use of videoconferencing technology.
Nonetheless, the advantages of time and expense savings were noted without exception among informants.
It was also clear to the informants that increased frequency of contact and opportunities for broader interaction outweighed the disadvantages of teaching with TTVN as encountered at the Center.
The one exception was in the area of outreach where personal contact is predominantly preferred.
The Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station has changed due to the introduction of videoconferencing in 1993.
Framing the context of the center's role Center Director Dr.
Jose Amador stated "What you have to understand is that the Center is in the business of demonstrating technology and what it can do.
And our role here at the Center is to provide the setting, the equipment, and the link, as well as handle some administrative and logistical tasks.
Once people have seen the technology in action, it is up to them to develop the applications." As a working model, the experience of the Melon Research Group and their "brown bag" lunch meetings have proven to be a very good use of TTVN.
"The TTVN sessions have proven to be an excellent tool for exchange of current work in Texas, particularly for off-campus centers".
Several researchers stressed the timeliness of the information exchange as in "knowing what melon diseases are threatening".
Similar applications can be found wherever Extension professionals from different locations are engaged in common or like projects.
A Tropical Fruits class that was team taught by a faculty member at College Station and a scientist at the Center is a promising example of how complementary professionals can be brought together.
This type of team work can be further developed with supportive administrative policies and planning.
In a broader application of TTVN, ways to integrate communications among all of the agricultural components of the Texas A&M University System can be achieved.
Particular emphasis should be placed on facilitating the critical links between research and Extension activities.
Videoconferencing technology at the Center holds much promise for furthering the mission and goals of the Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station and the Texas Agricultural Extension Service.
With timely adjustments and improved planning, the Center can move from promise to fulfillment, ensuring more efficient and effective service to the public.
References Amador, Jose.
Garza, Bertha.
Jacques, Ubaldo.
New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Miller, Marvin.
Agricultural Extension: A resource manual.
Urbana, IL: University of Illinois.
Swietlik, Dariusz.
Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station.
Warren, Doyle.
Willie, Celina.
The knowledge required to effectively use the TTVN equipment is not very great but it does require an introduction and some practice.
In most cases, those who are using the system to accomplish programmatic goals, who are not teaching a regularly scheduled class, are not confident of their mastery of the technology.
Some expressed their feeling as awkward.
"Each time I use it I have to relearn the process for working the different cameras".
Also, there is difficulty in troubleshooting, not knowing where the problem lies when a failure occurs.
Teaching Style Distance education efforts should be learner focused, with teachers providing an environment for interactive learning.
Our informants recognized the need to enhance their presentations, to become more polished, more animated, and to maintain a smooth camera image.
This was seen as a chore and some noted, "Perhaps we should look to video production specialists for tips and training." Personal Contact Several individuals expressed concern about the loss of personal contact with their clients and peers while conducting activities over TTVN.
One Extension staff member lamented: " As an educator I feel that in isolating the teacher from the learners, the passion is lost, it's not the same." Extension agents stressed the importance of face-to-face contact and were in agreement that "...
it is through working individually with the clientele that the Extension worker learns about the people of the area, how they think, what their needs are, and how they carry on their work." (Swanson, 1984, p.
130) Recommendations Plan of Action The lack of a mission statement calling for greater use of TTVN technology in Extension and research is evident.
Current usage is by individual choice.
While use of this technology is embraced by a few individuals who are willing to take risks, many others continue to work with traditional methods.
Extension personnel should be encouraged to assess each duty that they perform to determine whether it could be more economically and efficiently accomplished when conducted through TTVN.
Regularly scheduled blocks of time for university courses severely limited the scheduling options available for other uses.
It is foreseeable that in order to ensure an increase in Extension use of the TTVN system, including Extension outreach and scientific collaboration, another connection to support an additional ELMO document camera and monitor located in a second classroom must be provided.
Scheduling The current scheduling system is unsatisfactory and does not allow for the needs of Extension or research priorities.
A user friendly, on-line scheduling system that provides immediate feedback and confirmation should be designed and implemented to overcome system-wide scheduling headaches.
Short of establishing a second TTVN site, reservation of time slots should be made for non-university, Center activities to ensure that predictable blocks of time are available for scientific collaboration and Extension work.
Reserved time slots should be based upon end user patterns and the systematic input of all potential end users.
Technical Support The technical demands of TTVN technology and the amount of preparation and enhanced presentation skills required have an intimidating effect on potential end users.
Adequate training must be provided for end users.
Videoconference specialists need to be employed in order to assure on-hand technical support.
Also, all sites on the TTVN system should be upgraded so that peripheral devices can be successfully used in presentations of detailed scientific slides.
A training program that will provide presenters with needed skills and confidence will enable them to make interesting presentations and conduct skillful interactions with other end users.
Peer review could also provide suggestions to improve the learning environment on TTVN.
Ideally the Center would model effective videoconference instructional design and methods within an interactive environment.
Summary This study reveals that Extension and research work at this Texas Agricultural Experiment Station has only begun the first mile of the journey toward efficient use of videoconferencing technology.
Nonetheless, the advantages of time and expense savings were noted without exception among informants.
It was also clear to the informants that increased frequency of contact and opportunities for broader interaction outweighed the disadvantages of teaching with TTVN as encountered at the Center.
The one exception was in the area of outreach where personal contact is predominantly preferred.
The Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station has changed due to the introduction of videoconferencing in 1993.
Framing the context of the center's role Center Director Dr.
Jose Amador stated "What you have to understand is that the Center is in the business of demonstrating technology and what it can do.
And our role here at the Center is to provide the setting, the equipment, and the link, as well as handle some administrative and logistical tasks.
Once people have seen the technology in action, it is up to them to develop the applications." As a working model, the experience of the Melon Research Group and their "brown bag" lunch meetings have proven to be a very good use of TTVN.
"The TTVN sessions have proven to be an excellent tool for exchange of current work in Texas, particularly for off-campus centers".
Several researchers stressed the timeliness of the information exchange as in "knowing what melon diseases are threatening".
Similar applications can be found wherever Extension professionals from different locations are engaged in common or like projects.
A Tropical Fruits class that was team taught by a faculty member at College Station and a scientist at the Center is a promising example of how complementary professionals can be brought together.
This type of team work can be further developed with supportive administrative policies and planning.
In a broader application of TTVN, ways to integrate communications among all of the agricultural components of the Texas A&M University System can be achieved.
Particular emphasis should be placed on facilitating the critical links between research and Extension activities.
Videoconferencing technology at the Center holds much promise for furthering the mission and goals of the Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station and the Texas Agricultural Extension Service.
With timely adjustments and improved planning, the Center can move from promise to fulfillment, ensuring more efficient and effective service to the public.
References Amador, Jose.
Garza, Bertha.
Jacques, Ubaldo.
New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Miller, Marvin.
Agricultural Extension: A resource manual.
Urbana, IL: University of Illinois.
Swietlik, Dariusz.
Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station.
Warren, Doyle.
Willie, Celina.
Teaching Style Distance education efforts should be learner focused, with teachers providing an environment for interactive learning.
Our informants recognized the need to enhance their presentations, to become more polished, more animated, and to maintain a smooth camera image.
This was seen as a chore and some noted, "Perhaps we should look to video production specialists for tips and training." Personal Contact Several individuals expressed concern about the loss of personal contact with their clients and peers while conducting activities over TTVN.
One Extension staff member lamented: " As an educator I feel that in isolating the teacher from the learners, the passion is lost, it's not the same." Extension agents stressed the importance of face-to-face contact and were in agreement that "...
it is through working individually with the clientele that the Extension worker learns about the people of the area, how they think, what their needs are, and how they carry on their work." (Swanson, 1984, p.
130) Recommendations Plan of Action The lack of a mission statement calling for greater use of TTVN technology in Extension and research is evident.
Current usage is by individual choice.
While use of this technology is embraced by a few individuals who are willing to take risks, many others continue to work with traditional methods.
Extension personnel should be encouraged to assess each duty that they perform to determine whether it could be more economically and efficiently accomplished when conducted through TTVN.
Regularly scheduled blocks of time for university courses severely limited the scheduling options available for other uses.
It is foreseeable that in order to ensure an increase in Extension use of the TTVN system, including Extension outreach and scientific collaboration, another connection to support an additional ELMO document camera and monitor located in a second classroom must be provided.
Scheduling The current scheduling system is unsatisfactory and does not allow for the needs of Extension or research priorities.
A user friendly, on-line scheduling system that provides immediate feedback and confirmation should be designed and implemented to overcome system-wide scheduling headaches.
Short of establishing a second TTVN site, reservation of time slots should be made for non-university, Center activities to ensure that predictable blocks of time are available for scientific collaboration and Extension work.
Reserved time slots should be based upon end user patterns and the systematic input of all potential end users.
Technical Support The technical demands of TTVN technology and the amount of preparation and enhanced presentation skills required have an intimidating effect on potential end users.
Adequate training must be provided for end users.
Videoconference specialists need to be employed in order to assure on-hand technical support.
Also, all sites on the TTVN system should be upgraded so that peripheral devices can be successfully used in presentations of detailed scientific slides.
A training program that will provide presenters with needed skills and confidence will enable them to make interesting presentations and conduct skillful interactions with other end users.
Peer review could also provide suggestions to improve the learning environment on TTVN.
Ideally the Center would model effective videoconference instructional design and methods within an interactive environment.
Summary This study reveals that Extension and research work at this Texas Agricultural Experiment Station has only begun the first mile of the journey toward efficient use of videoconferencing technology.
Nonetheless, the advantages of time and expense savings were noted without exception among informants.
It was also clear to the informants that increased frequency of contact and opportunities for broader interaction outweighed the disadvantages of teaching with TTVN as encountered at the Center.
The one exception was in the area of outreach where personal contact is predominantly preferred.
The Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station has changed due to the introduction of videoconferencing in 1993.
Framing the context of the center's role Center Director Dr.
Jose Amador stated "What you have to understand is that the Center is in the business of demonstrating technology and what it can do.
And our role here at the Center is to provide the setting, the equipment, and the link, as well as handle some administrative and logistical tasks.
Once people have seen the technology in action, it is up to them to develop the applications." As a working model, the experience of the Melon Research Group and their "brown bag" lunch meetings have proven to be a very good use of TTVN.
"The TTVN sessions have proven to be an excellent tool for exchange of current work in Texas, particularly for off-campus centers".
Several researchers stressed the timeliness of the information exchange as in "knowing what melon diseases are threatening".
Similar applications can be found wherever Extension professionals from different locations are engaged in common or like projects.
A Tropical Fruits class that was team taught by a faculty member at College Station and a scientist at the Center is a promising example of how complementary professionals can be brought together.
This type of team work can be further developed with supportive administrative policies and planning.
In a broader application of TTVN, ways to integrate communications among all of the agricultural components of the Texas A&M University System can be achieved.
Particular emphasis should be placed on facilitating the critical links between research and Extension activities.
Videoconferencing technology at the Center holds much promise for furthering the mission and goals of the Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station and the Texas Agricultural Extension Service.
With timely adjustments and improved planning, the Center can move from promise to fulfillment, ensuring more efficient and effective service to the public.
References Amador, Jose.
Garza, Bertha.
Jacques, Ubaldo.
New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Miller, Marvin.
Agricultural Extension: A resource manual.
Urbana, IL: University of Illinois.
Swietlik, Dariusz.
Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station.
Warren, Doyle.
Willie, Celina.
Distance education efforts should be learner focused, with teachers providing an environment for interactive learning.
Our informants recognized the need to enhance their presentations, to become more polished, more animated, and to maintain a smooth camera image.
This was seen as a chore and some noted, "Perhaps we should look to video production specialists for tips and training." Personal Contact Several individuals expressed concern about the loss of personal contact with their clients and peers while conducting activities over TTVN.
One Extension staff member lamented: " As an educator I feel that in isolating the teacher from the learners, the passion is lost, it's not the same." Extension agents stressed the importance of face-to-face contact and were in agreement that "...
it is through working individually with the clientele that the Extension worker learns about the people of the area, how they think, what their needs are, and how they carry on their work." (Swanson, 1984, p.
130) Recommendations Plan of Action The lack of a mission statement calling for greater use of TTVN technology in Extension and research is evident.
Current usage is by individual choice.
While use of this technology is embraced by a few individuals who are willing to take risks, many others continue to work with traditional methods.
Extension personnel should be encouraged to assess each duty that they perform to determine whether it could be more economically and efficiently accomplished when conducted through TTVN.
Regularly scheduled blocks of time for university courses severely limited the scheduling options available for other uses.
It is foreseeable that in order to ensure an increase in Extension use of the TTVN system, including Extension outreach and scientific collaboration, another connection to support an additional ELMO document camera and monitor located in a second classroom must be provided.
Scheduling The current scheduling system is unsatisfactory and does not allow for the needs of Extension or research priorities.
A user friendly, on-line scheduling system that provides immediate feedback and confirmation should be designed and implemented to overcome system-wide scheduling headaches.
Short of establishing a second TTVN site, reservation of time slots should be made for non-university, Center activities to ensure that predictable blocks of time are available for scientific collaboration and Extension work.
Reserved time slots should be based upon end user patterns and the systematic input of all potential end users.
Technical Support The technical demands of TTVN technology and the amount of preparation and enhanced presentation skills required have an intimidating effect on potential end users.
Adequate training must be provided for end users.
Videoconference specialists need to be employed in order to assure on-hand technical support.
Also, all sites on the TTVN system should be upgraded so that peripheral devices can be successfully used in presentations of detailed scientific slides.
A training program that will provide presenters with needed skills and confidence will enable them to make interesting presentations and conduct skillful interactions with other end users.
Peer review could also provide suggestions to improve the learning environment on TTVN.
Ideally the Center would model effective videoconference instructional design and methods within an interactive environment.
Summary This study reveals that Extension and research work at this Texas Agricultural Experiment Station has only begun the first mile of the journey toward efficient use of videoconferencing technology.
Nonetheless, the advantages of time and expense savings were noted without exception among informants.
It was also clear to the informants that increased frequency of contact and opportunities for broader interaction outweighed the disadvantages of teaching with TTVN as encountered at the Center.
The one exception was in the area of outreach where personal contact is predominantly preferred.
The Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station has changed due to the introduction of videoconferencing in 1993.
Framing the context of the center's role Center Director Dr.
Jose Amador stated "What you have to understand is that the Center is in the business of demonstrating technology and what it can do.
And our role here at the Center is to provide the setting, the equipment, and the link, as well as handle some administrative and logistical tasks.
Once people have seen the technology in action, it is up to them to develop the applications." As a working model, the experience of the Melon Research Group and their "brown bag" lunch meetings have proven to be a very good use of TTVN.
"The TTVN sessions have proven to be an excellent tool for exchange of current work in Texas, particularly for off-campus centers".
Several researchers stressed the timeliness of the information exchange as in "knowing what melon diseases are threatening".
Similar applications can be found wherever Extension professionals from different locations are engaged in common or like projects.
A Tropical Fruits class that was team taught by a faculty member at College Station and a scientist at the Center is a promising example of how complementary professionals can be brought together.
This type of team work can be further developed with supportive administrative policies and planning.
In a broader application of TTVN, ways to integrate communications among all of the agricultural components of the Texas A&M University System can be achieved.
Particular emphasis should be placed on facilitating the critical links between research and Extension activities.
Videoconferencing technology at the Center holds much promise for furthering the mission and goals of the Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station and the Texas Agricultural Extension Service.
With timely adjustments and improved planning, the Center can move from promise to fulfillment, ensuring more efficient and effective service to the public.
References Amador, Jose.
Garza, Bertha.
Jacques, Ubaldo.
New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Miller, Marvin.
Agricultural Extension: A resource manual.
Urbana, IL: University of Illinois.
Swietlik, Dariusz.
Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station.
Warren, Doyle.
Willie, Celina.
Several individuals expressed concern about the loss of personal contact with their clients and peers while conducting activities over TTVN.
One Extension staff member lamented: " As an educator I feel that in isolating the teacher from the learners, the passion is lost, it's not the same." Extension agents stressed the importance of face-to-face contact and were in agreement that "...
it is through working individually with the clientele that the Extension worker learns about the people of the area, how they think, what their needs are, and how they carry on their work." (Swanson, 1984, p.
130) Recommendations Plan of Action The lack of a mission statement calling for greater use of TTVN technology in Extension and research is evident.
Current usage is by individual choice.
While use of this technology is embraced by a few individuals who are willing to take risks, many others continue to work with traditional methods.
Extension personnel should be encouraged to assess each duty that they perform to determine whether it could be more economically and efficiently accomplished when conducted through TTVN.
Regularly scheduled blocks of time for university courses severely limited the scheduling options available for other uses.
It is foreseeable that in order to ensure an increase in Extension use of the TTVN system, including Extension outreach and scientific collaboration, another connection to support an additional ELMO document camera and monitor located in a second classroom must be provided.
Scheduling The current scheduling system is unsatisfactory and does not allow for the needs of Extension or research priorities.
A user friendly, on-line scheduling system that provides immediate feedback and confirmation should be designed and implemented to overcome system-wide scheduling headaches.
Short of establishing a second TTVN site, reservation of time slots should be made for non-university, Center activities to ensure that predictable blocks of time are available for scientific collaboration and Extension work.
Reserved time slots should be based upon end user patterns and the systematic input of all potential end users.
Technical Support The technical demands of TTVN technology and the amount of preparation and enhanced presentation skills required have an intimidating effect on potential end users.
Adequate training must be provided for end users.
Videoconference specialists need to be employed in order to assure on-hand technical support.
Also, all sites on the TTVN system should be upgraded so that peripheral devices can be successfully used in presentations of detailed scientific slides.
A training program that will provide presenters with needed skills and confidence will enable them to make interesting presentations and conduct skillful interactions with other end users.
Peer review could also provide suggestions to improve the learning environment on TTVN.
Ideally the Center would model effective videoconference instructional design and methods within an interactive environment.
Summary This study reveals that Extension and research work at this Texas Agricultural Experiment Station has only begun the first mile of the journey toward efficient use of videoconferencing technology.
Nonetheless, the advantages of time and expense savings were noted without exception among informants.
It was also clear to the informants that increased frequency of contact and opportunities for broader interaction outweighed the disadvantages of teaching with TTVN as encountered at the Center.
The one exception was in the area of outreach where personal contact is predominantly preferred.
The Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station has changed due to the introduction of videoconferencing in 1993.
Framing the context of the center's role Center Director Dr.
Jose Amador stated "What you have to understand is that the Center is in the business of demonstrating technology and what it can do.
And our role here at the Center is to provide the setting, the equipment, and the link, as well as handle some administrative and logistical tasks.
Once people have seen the technology in action, it is up to them to develop the applications." As a working model, the experience of the Melon Research Group and their "brown bag" lunch meetings have proven to be a very good use of TTVN.
"The TTVN sessions have proven to be an excellent tool for exchange of current work in Texas, particularly for off-campus centers".
Several researchers stressed the timeliness of the information exchange as in "knowing what melon diseases are threatening".
Similar applications can be found wherever Extension professionals from different locations are engaged in common or like projects.
A Tropical Fruits class that was team taught by a faculty member at College Station and a scientist at the Center is a promising example of how complementary professionals can be brought together.
This type of team work can be further developed with supportive administrative policies and planning.
In a broader application of TTVN, ways to integrate communications among all of the agricultural components of the Texas A&M University System can be achieved.
Particular emphasis should be placed on facilitating the critical links between research and Extension activities.
Videoconferencing technology at the Center holds much promise for furthering the mission and goals of the Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station and the Texas Agricultural Extension Service.
With timely adjustments and improved planning, the Center can move from promise to fulfillment, ensuring more efficient and effective service to the public.
References Amador, Jose.
Garza, Bertha.
Jacques, Ubaldo.
New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Miller, Marvin.
Agricultural Extension: A resource manual.
Urbana, IL: University of Illinois.
Swietlik, Dariusz.
Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station.
Warren, Doyle.
Willie, Celina.
Plan of Action The lack of a mission statement calling for greater use of TTVN technology in Extension and research is evident.
Current usage is by individual choice.
While use of this technology is embraced by a few individuals who are willing to take risks, many others continue to work with traditional methods.
Extension personnel should be encouraged to assess each duty that they perform to determine whether it could be more economically and efficiently accomplished when conducted through TTVN.
Regularly scheduled blocks of time for university courses severely limited the scheduling options available for other uses.
It is foreseeable that in order to ensure an increase in Extension use of the TTVN system, including Extension outreach and scientific collaboration, another connection to support an additional ELMO document camera and monitor located in a second classroom must be provided.
Scheduling The current scheduling system is unsatisfactory and does not allow for the needs of Extension or research priorities.
A user friendly, on-line scheduling system that provides immediate feedback and confirmation should be designed and implemented to overcome system-wide scheduling headaches.
Short of establishing a second TTVN site, reservation of time slots should be made for non-university, Center activities to ensure that predictable blocks of time are available for scientific collaboration and Extension work.
Reserved time slots should be based upon end user patterns and the systematic input of all potential end users.
Technical Support The technical demands of TTVN technology and the amount of preparation and enhanced presentation skills required have an intimidating effect on potential end users.
Adequate training must be provided for end users.
Videoconference specialists need to be employed in order to assure on-hand technical support.
Also, all sites on the TTVN system should be upgraded so that peripheral devices can be successfully used in presentations of detailed scientific slides.
A training program that will provide presenters with needed skills and confidence will enable them to make interesting presentations and conduct skillful interactions with other end users.
Peer review could also provide suggestions to improve the learning environment on TTVN.
Ideally the Center would model effective videoconference instructional design and methods within an interactive environment.
Summary This study reveals that Extension and research work at this Texas Agricultural Experiment Station has only begun the first mile of the journey toward efficient use of videoconferencing technology.
Nonetheless, the advantages of time and expense savings were noted without exception among informants.
It was also clear to the informants that increased frequency of contact and opportunities for broader interaction outweighed the disadvantages of teaching with TTVN as encountered at the Center.
The one exception was in the area of outreach where personal contact is predominantly preferred.
The Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station has changed due to the introduction of videoconferencing in 1993.
Framing the context of the center's role Center Director Dr.
Jose Amador stated "What you have to understand is that the Center is in the business of demonstrating technology and what it can do.
And our role here at the Center is to provide the setting, the equipment, and the link, as well as handle some administrative and logistical tasks.
Once people have seen the technology in action, it is up to them to develop the applications." As a working model, the experience of the Melon Research Group and their "brown bag" lunch meetings have proven to be a very good use of TTVN.
"The TTVN sessions have proven to be an excellent tool for exchange of current work in Texas, particularly for off-campus centers".
Several researchers stressed the timeliness of the information exchange as in "knowing what melon diseases are threatening".
Similar applications can be found wherever Extension professionals from different locations are engaged in common or like projects.
A Tropical Fruits class that was team taught by a faculty member at College Station and a scientist at the Center is a promising example of how complementary professionals can be brought together.
This type of team work can be further developed with supportive administrative policies and planning.
In a broader application of TTVN, ways to integrate communications among all of the agricultural components of the Texas A&M University System can be achieved.
Particular emphasis should be placed on facilitating the critical links between research and Extension activities.
Videoconferencing technology at the Center holds much promise for furthering the mission and goals of the Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station and the Texas Agricultural Extension Service.
With timely adjustments and improved planning, the Center can move from promise to fulfillment, ensuring more efficient and effective service to the public.
References Amador, Jose.
Garza, Bertha.
Jacques, Ubaldo.
New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Miller, Marvin.
Agricultural Extension: A resource manual.
Urbana, IL: University of Illinois.
Swietlik, Dariusz.
Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station.
Warren, Doyle.
Willie, Celina.
The lack of a mission statement calling for greater use of TTVN technology in Extension and research is evident.
Current usage is by individual choice.
While use of this technology is embraced by a few individuals who are willing to take risks, many others continue to work with traditional methods.
Extension personnel should be encouraged to assess each duty that they perform to determine whether it could be more economically and efficiently accomplished when conducted through TTVN.
Regularly scheduled blocks of time for university courses severely limited the scheduling options available for other uses.
It is foreseeable that in order to ensure an increase in Extension use of the TTVN system, including Extension outreach and scientific collaboration, another connection to support an additional ELMO document camera and monitor located in a second classroom must be provided.
Scheduling The current scheduling system is unsatisfactory and does not allow for the needs of Extension or research priorities.
A user friendly, on-line scheduling system that provides immediate feedback and confirmation should be designed and implemented to overcome system-wide scheduling headaches.
Short of establishing a second TTVN site, reservation of time slots should be made for non-university, Center activities to ensure that predictable blocks of time are available for scientific collaboration and Extension work.
Reserved time slots should be based upon end user patterns and the systematic input of all potential end users.
Technical Support The technical demands of TTVN technology and the amount of preparation and enhanced presentation skills required have an intimidating effect on potential end users.
Adequate training must be provided for end users.
Videoconference specialists need to be employed in order to assure on-hand technical support.
Also, all sites on the TTVN system should be upgraded so that peripheral devices can be successfully used in presentations of detailed scientific slides.
A training program that will provide presenters with needed skills and confidence will enable them to make interesting presentations and conduct skillful interactions with other end users.
Peer review could also provide suggestions to improve the learning environment on TTVN.
Ideally the Center would model effective videoconference instructional design and methods within an interactive environment.
Summary This study reveals that Extension and research work at this Texas Agricultural Experiment Station has only begun the first mile of the journey toward efficient use of videoconferencing technology.
Nonetheless, the advantages of time and expense savings were noted without exception among informants.
It was also clear to the informants that increased frequency of contact and opportunities for broader interaction outweighed the disadvantages of teaching with TTVN as encountered at the Center.
The one exception was in the area of outreach where personal contact is predominantly preferred.
The Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station has changed due to the introduction of videoconferencing in 1993.
Framing the context of the center's role Center Director Dr.
Jose Amador stated "What you have to understand is that the Center is in the business of demonstrating technology and what it can do.
And our role here at the Center is to provide the setting, the equipment, and the link, as well as handle some administrative and logistical tasks.
Once people have seen the technology in action, it is up to them to develop the applications." As a working model, the experience of the Melon Research Group and their "brown bag" lunch meetings have proven to be a very good use of TTVN.
"The TTVN sessions have proven to be an excellent tool for exchange of current work in Texas, particularly for off-campus centers".
Several researchers stressed the timeliness of the information exchange as in "knowing what melon diseases are threatening".
Similar applications can be found wherever Extension professionals from different locations are engaged in common or like projects.
A Tropical Fruits class that was team taught by a faculty member at College Station and a scientist at the Center is a promising example of how complementary professionals can be brought together.
This type of team work can be further developed with supportive administrative policies and planning.
In a broader application of TTVN, ways to integrate communications among all of the agricultural components of the Texas A&M University System can be achieved.
Particular emphasis should be placed on facilitating the critical links between research and Extension activities.
Videoconferencing technology at the Center holds much promise for furthering the mission and goals of the Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station and the Texas Agricultural Extension Service.
With timely adjustments and improved planning, the Center can move from promise to fulfillment, ensuring more efficient and effective service to the public.
References Amador, Jose.
Garza, Bertha.
Jacques, Ubaldo.
New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Miller, Marvin.
Agricultural Extension: A resource manual.
Urbana, IL: University of Illinois.
Swietlik, Dariusz.
Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station.
Warren, Doyle.
Willie, Celina.
Extension personnel should be encouraged to assess each duty that they perform to determine whether it could be more economically and efficiently accomplished when conducted through TTVN.
Regularly scheduled blocks of time for university courses severely limited the scheduling options available for other uses.
It is foreseeable that in order to ensure an increase in Extension use of the TTVN system, including Extension outreach and scientific collaboration, another connection to support an additional ELMO document camera and monitor located in a second classroom must be provided.
Scheduling The current scheduling system is unsatisfactory and does not allow for the needs of Extension or research priorities.
A user friendly, on-line scheduling system that provides immediate feedback and confirmation should be designed and implemented to overcome system-wide scheduling headaches.
Short of establishing a second TTVN site, reservation of time slots should be made for non-university, Center activities to ensure that predictable blocks of time are available for scientific collaboration and Extension work.
Reserved time slots should be based upon end user patterns and the systematic input of all potential end users.
Technical Support The technical demands of TTVN technology and the amount of preparation and enhanced presentation skills required have an intimidating effect on potential end users.
Adequate training must be provided for end users.
Videoconference specialists need to be employed in order to assure on-hand technical support.
Also, all sites on the TTVN system should be upgraded so that peripheral devices can be successfully used in presentations of detailed scientific slides.
A training program that will provide presenters with needed skills and confidence will enable them to make interesting presentations and conduct skillful interactions with other end users.
Peer review could also provide suggestions to improve the learning environment on TTVN.
Ideally the Center would model effective videoconference instructional design and methods within an interactive environment.
Summary This study reveals that Extension and research work at this Texas Agricultural Experiment Station has only begun the first mile of the journey toward efficient use of videoconferencing technology.
Nonetheless, the advantages of time and expense savings were noted without exception among informants.
It was also clear to the informants that increased frequency of contact and opportunities for broader interaction outweighed the disadvantages of teaching with TTVN as encountered at the Center.
The one exception was in the area of outreach where personal contact is predominantly preferred.
The Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station has changed due to the introduction of videoconferencing in 1993.
Framing the context of the center's role Center Director Dr.
Jose Amador stated "What you have to understand is that the Center is in the business of demonstrating technology and what it can do.
And our role here at the Center is to provide the setting, the equipment, and the link, as well as handle some administrative and logistical tasks.
Once people have seen the technology in action, it is up to them to develop the applications." As a working model, the experience of the Melon Research Group and their "brown bag" lunch meetings have proven to be a very good use of TTVN.
"The TTVN sessions have proven to be an excellent tool for exchange of current work in Texas, particularly for off-campus centers".
Several researchers stressed the timeliness of the information exchange as in "knowing what melon diseases are threatening".
Similar applications can be found wherever Extension professionals from different locations are engaged in common or like projects.
A Tropical Fruits class that was team taught by a faculty member at College Station and a scientist at the Center is a promising example of how complementary professionals can be brought together.
This type of team work can be further developed with supportive administrative policies and planning.
In a broader application of TTVN, ways to integrate communications among all of the agricultural components of the Texas A&M University System can be achieved.
Particular emphasis should be placed on facilitating the critical links between research and Extension activities.
Videoconferencing technology at the Center holds much promise for furthering the mission and goals of the Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station and the Texas Agricultural Extension Service.
With timely adjustments and improved planning, the Center can move from promise to fulfillment, ensuring more efficient and effective service to the public.
References Amador, Jose.
Garza, Bertha.
Jacques, Ubaldo.
New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Miller, Marvin.
Agricultural Extension: A resource manual.
Urbana, IL: University of Illinois.
Swietlik, Dariusz.
Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station.
Warren, Doyle.
Willie, Celina.
Regularly scheduled blocks of time for university courses severely limited the scheduling options available for other uses.
It is foreseeable that in order to ensure an increase in Extension use of the TTVN system, including Extension outreach and scientific collaboration, another connection to support an additional ELMO document camera and monitor located in a second classroom must be provided.
Scheduling The current scheduling system is unsatisfactory and does not allow for the needs of Extension or research priorities.
A user friendly, on-line scheduling system that provides immediate feedback and confirmation should be designed and implemented to overcome system-wide scheduling headaches.
Short of establishing a second TTVN site, reservation of time slots should be made for non-university, Center activities to ensure that predictable blocks of time are available for scientific collaboration and Extension work.
Reserved time slots should be based upon end user patterns and the systematic input of all potential end users.
Technical Support The technical demands of TTVN technology and the amount of preparation and enhanced presentation skills required have an intimidating effect on potential end users.
Adequate training must be provided for end users.
Videoconference specialists need to be employed in order to assure on-hand technical support.
Also, all sites on the TTVN system should be upgraded so that peripheral devices can be successfully used in presentations of detailed scientific slides.
A training program that will provide presenters with needed skills and confidence will enable them to make interesting presentations and conduct skillful interactions with other end users.
Peer review could also provide suggestions to improve the learning environment on TTVN.
Ideally the Center would model effective videoconference instructional design and methods within an interactive environment.
Summary This study reveals that Extension and research work at this Texas Agricultural Experiment Station has only begun the first mile of the journey toward efficient use of videoconferencing technology.
Nonetheless, the advantages of time and expense savings were noted without exception among informants.
It was also clear to the informants that increased frequency of contact and opportunities for broader interaction outweighed the disadvantages of teaching with TTVN as encountered at the Center.
The one exception was in the area of outreach where personal contact is predominantly preferred.
The Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station has changed due to the introduction of videoconferencing in 1993.
Framing the context of the center's role Center Director Dr.
Jose Amador stated "What you have to understand is that the Center is in the business of demonstrating technology and what it can do.
And our role here at the Center is to provide the setting, the equipment, and the link, as well as handle some administrative and logistical tasks.
Once people have seen the technology in action, it is up to them to develop the applications." As a working model, the experience of the Melon Research Group and their "brown bag" lunch meetings have proven to be a very good use of TTVN.
"The TTVN sessions have proven to be an excellent tool for exchange of current work in Texas, particularly for off-campus centers".
Several researchers stressed the timeliness of the information exchange as in "knowing what melon diseases are threatening".
Similar applications can be found wherever Extension professionals from different locations are engaged in common or like projects.
A Tropical Fruits class that was team taught by a faculty member at College Station and a scientist at the Center is a promising example of how complementary professionals can be brought together.
This type of team work can be further developed with supportive administrative policies and planning.
In a broader application of TTVN, ways to integrate communications among all of the agricultural components of the Texas A&M University System can be achieved.
Particular emphasis should be placed on facilitating the critical links between research and Extension activities.
Videoconferencing technology at the Center holds much promise for furthering the mission and goals of the Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station and the Texas Agricultural Extension Service.
With timely adjustments and improved planning, the Center can move from promise to fulfillment, ensuring more efficient and effective service to the public.
References Amador, Jose.
Garza, Bertha.
Jacques, Ubaldo.
New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Miller, Marvin.
Agricultural Extension: A resource manual.
Urbana, IL: University of Illinois.
Swietlik, Dariusz.
Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station.
Warren, Doyle.
Willie, Celina.
The current scheduling system is unsatisfactory and does not allow for the needs of Extension or research priorities.
A user friendly, on-line scheduling system that provides immediate feedback and confirmation should be designed and implemented to overcome system-wide scheduling headaches.
Short of establishing a second TTVN site, reservation of time slots should be made for non-university, Center activities to ensure that predictable blocks of time are available for scientific collaboration and Extension work.
Reserved time slots should be based upon end user patterns and the systematic input of all potential end users.
Technical Support The technical demands of TTVN technology and the amount of preparation and enhanced presentation skills required have an intimidating effect on potential end users.
Adequate training must be provided for end users.
Videoconference specialists need to be employed in order to assure on-hand technical support.
Also, all sites on the TTVN system should be upgraded so that peripheral devices can be successfully used in presentations of detailed scientific slides.
A training program that will provide presenters with needed skills and confidence will enable them to make interesting presentations and conduct skillful interactions with other end users.
Peer review could also provide suggestions to improve the learning environment on TTVN.
Ideally the Center would model effective videoconference instructional design and methods within an interactive environment.
Summary This study reveals that Extension and research work at this Texas Agricultural Experiment Station has only begun the first mile of the journey toward efficient use of videoconferencing technology.
Nonetheless, the advantages of time and expense savings were noted without exception among informants.
It was also clear to the informants that increased frequency of contact and opportunities for broader interaction outweighed the disadvantages of teaching with TTVN as encountered at the Center.
The one exception was in the area of outreach where personal contact is predominantly preferred.
The Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station has changed due to the introduction of videoconferencing in 1993.
Framing the context of the center's role Center Director Dr.
Jose Amador stated "What you have to understand is that the Center is in the business of demonstrating technology and what it can do.
And our role here at the Center is to provide the setting, the equipment, and the link, as well as handle some administrative and logistical tasks.
Once people have seen the technology in action, it is up to them to develop the applications." As a working model, the experience of the Melon Research Group and their "brown bag" lunch meetings have proven to be a very good use of TTVN.
"The TTVN sessions have proven to be an excellent tool for exchange of current work in Texas, particularly for off-campus centers".
Several researchers stressed the timeliness of the information exchange as in "knowing what melon diseases are threatening".
Similar applications can be found wherever Extension professionals from different locations are engaged in common or like projects.
A Tropical Fruits class that was team taught by a faculty member at College Station and a scientist at the Center is a promising example of how complementary professionals can be brought together.
This type of team work can be further developed with supportive administrative policies and planning.
In a broader application of TTVN, ways to integrate communications among all of the agricultural components of the Texas A&M University System can be achieved.
Particular emphasis should be placed on facilitating the critical links between research and Extension activities.
Videoconferencing technology at the Center holds much promise for furthering the mission and goals of the Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station and the Texas Agricultural Extension Service.
With timely adjustments and improved planning, the Center can move from promise to fulfillment, ensuring more efficient and effective service to the public.
References Amador, Jose.
Garza, Bertha.
Jacques, Ubaldo.
New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Miller, Marvin.
Agricultural Extension: A resource manual.
Urbana, IL: University of Illinois.
Swietlik, Dariusz.
Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station.
Warren, Doyle.
Willie, Celina.
Short of establishing a second TTVN site, reservation of time slots should be made for non-university, Center activities to ensure that predictable blocks of time are available for scientific collaboration and Extension work.
Reserved time slots should be based upon end user patterns and the systematic input of all potential end users.
Technical Support The technical demands of TTVN technology and the amount of preparation and enhanced presentation skills required have an intimidating effect on potential end users.
Adequate training must be provided for end users.
Videoconference specialists need to be employed in order to assure on-hand technical support.
Also, all sites on the TTVN system should be upgraded so that peripheral devices can be successfully used in presentations of detailed scientific slides.
A training program that will provide presenters with needed skills and confidence will enable them to make interesting presentations and conduct skillful interactions with other end users.
Peer review could also provide suggestions to improve the learning environment on TTVN.
Ideally the Center would model effective videoconference instructional design and methods within an interactive environment.
Summary This study reveals that Extension and research work at this Texas Agricultural Experiment Station has only begun the first mile of the journey toward efficient use of videoconferencing technology.
Nonetheless, the advantages of time and expense savings were noted without exception among informants.
It was also clear to the informants that increased frequency of contact and opportunities for broader interaction outweighed the disadvantages of teaching with TTVN as encountered at the Center.
The one exception was in the area of outreach where personal contact is predominantly preferred.
The Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station has changed due to the introduction of videoconferencing in 1993.
Framing the context of the center's role Center Director Dr.
Jose Amador stated "What you have to understand is that the Center is in the business of demonstrating technology and what it can do.
And our role here at the Center is to provide the setting, the equipment, and the link, as well as handle some administrative and logistical tasks.
Once people have seen the technology in action, it is up to them to develop the applications." As a working model, the experience of the Melon Research Group and their "brown bag" lunch meetings have proven to be a very good use of TTVN.
"The TTVN sessions have proven to be an excellent tool for exchange of current work in Texas, particularly for off-campus centers".
Several researchers stressed the timeliness of the information exchange as in "knowing what melon diseases are threatening".
Similar applications can be found wherever Extension professionals from different locations are engaged in common or like projects.
A Tropical Fruits class that was team taught by a faculty member at College Station and a scientist at the Center is a promising example of how complementary professionals can be brought together.
This type of team work can be further developed with supportive administrative policies and planning.
In a broader application of TTVN, ways to integrate communications among all of the agricultural components of the Texas A&M University System can be achieved.
Particular emphasis should be placed on facilitating the critical links between research and Extension activities.
Videoconferencing technology at the Center holds much promise for furthering the mission and goals of the Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station and the Texas Agricultural Extension Service.
With timely adjustments and improved planning, the Center can move from promise to fulfillment, ensuring more efficient and effective service to the public.
References Amador, Jose.
Garza, Bertha.
Jacques, Ubaldo.
New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Miller, Marvin.
Agricultural Extension: A resource manual.
Urbana, IL: University of Illinois.
Swietlik, Dariusz.
Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station.
Warren, Doyle.
Willie, Celina.
The technical demands of TTVN technology and the amount of preparation and enhanced presentation skills required have an intimidating effect on potential end users.
Adequate training must be provided for end users.
Videoconference specialists need to be employed in order to assure on-hand technical support.
Also, all sites on the TTVN system should be upgraded so that peripheral devices can be successfully used in presentations of detailed scientific slides.
A training program that will provide presenters with needed skills and confidence will enable them to make interesting presentations and conduct skillful interactions with other end users.
Peer review could also provide suggestions to improve the learning environment on TTVN.
Ideally the Center would model effective videoconference instructional design and methods within an interactive environment.
Summary This study reveals that Extension and research work at this Texas Agricultural Experiment Station has only begun the first mile of the journey toward efficient use of videoconferencing technology.
Nonetheless, the advantages of time and expense savings were noted without exception among informants.
It was also clear to the informants that increased frequency of contact and opportunities for broader interaction outweighed the disadvantages of teaching with TTVN as encountered at the Center.
The one exception was in the area of outreach where personal contact is predominantly preferred.
The Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station has changed due to the introduction of videoconferencing in 1993.
Framing the context of the center's role Center Director Dr.
Jose Amador stated "What you have to understand is that the Center is in the business of demonstrating technology and what it can do.
And our role here at the Center is to provide the setting, the equipment, and the link, as well as handle some administrative and logistical tasks.
Once people have seen the technology in action, it is up to them to develop the applications." As a working model, the experience of the Melon Research Group and their "brown bag" lunch meetings have proven to be a very good use of TTVN.
"The TTVN sessions have proven to be an excellent tool for exchange of current work in Texas, particularly for off-campus centers".
Several researchers stressed the timeliness of the information exchange as in "knowing what melon diseases are threatening".
Similar applications can be found wherever Extension professionals from different locations are engaged in common or like projects.
A Tropical Fruits class that was team taught by a faculty member at College Station and a scientist at the Center is a promising example of how complementary professionals can be brought together.
This type of team work can be further developed with supportive administrative policies and planning.
In a broader application of TTVN, ways to integrate communications among all of the agricultural components of the Texas A&M University System can be achieved.
Particular emphasis should be placed on facilitating the critical links between research and Extension activities.
Videoconferencing technology at the Center holds much promise for furthering the mission and goals of the Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station and the Texas Agricultural Extension Service.
With timely adjustments and improved planning, the Center can move from promise to fulfillment, ensuring more efficient and effective service to the public.
References Amador, Jose.
Garza, Bertha.
Jacques, Ubaldo.
New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Miller, Marvin.
Agricultural Extension: A resource manual.
Urbana, IL: University of Illinois.
Swietlik, Dariusz.
Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station.
Warren, Doyle.
Willie, Celina.
A training program that will provide presenters with needed skills and confidence will enable them to make interesting presentations and conduct skillful interactions with other end users.
Peer review could also provide suggestions to improve the learning environment on TTVN.
Ideally the Center would model effective videoconference instructional design and methods within an interactive environment.
Summary This study reveals that Extension and research work at this Texas Agricultural Experiment Station has only begun the first mile of the journey toward efficient use of videoconferencing technology.
Nonetheless, the advantages of time and expense savings were noted without exception among informants.
It was also clear to the informants that increased frequency of contact and opportunities for broader interaction outweighed the disadvantages of teaching with TTVN as encountered at the Center.
The one exception was in the area of outreach where personal contact is predominantly preferred.
The Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station has changed due to the introduction of videoconferencing in 1993.
Framing the context of the center's role Center Director Dr.
Jose Amador stated "What you have to understand is that the Center is in the business of demonstrating technology and what it can do.
And our role here at the Center is to provide the setting, the equipment, and the link, as well as handle some administrative and logistical tasks.
Once people have seen the technology in action, it is up to them to develop the applications." As a working model, the experience of the Melon Research Group and their "brown bag" lunch meetings have proven to be a very good use of TTVN.
"The TTVN sessions have proven to be an excellent tool for exchange of current work in Texas, particularly for off-campus centers".
Several researchers stressed the timeliness of the information exchange as in "knowing what melon diseases are threatening".
Similar applications can be found wherever Extension professionals from different locations are engaged in common or like projects.
A Tropical Fruits class that was team taught by a faculty member at College Station and a scientist at the Center is a promising example of how complementary professionals can be brought together.
This type of team work can be further developed with supportive administrative policies and planning.
In a broader application of TTVN, ways to integrate communications among all of the agricultural components of the Texas A&M University System can be achieved.
Particular emphasis should be placed on facilitating the critical links between research and Extension activities.
Videoconferencing technology at the Center holds much promise for furthering the mission and goals of the Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station and the Texas Agricultural Extension Service.
With timely adjustments and improved planning, the Center can move from promise to fulfillment, ensuring more efficient and effective service to the public.
References Amador, Jose.
Garza, Bertha.
Jacques, Ubaldo.
New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Miller, Marvin.
Agricultural Extension: A resource manual.
Urbana, IL: University of Illinois.
Swietlik, Dariusz.
Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station.
Warren, Doyle.
Willie, Celina.
This study reveals that Extension and research work at this Texas Agricultural Experiment Station has only begun the first mile of the journey toward efficient use of videoconferencing technology.
Nonetheless, the advantages of time and expense savings were noted without exception among informants.
It was also clear to the informants that increased frequency of contact and opportunities for broader interaction outweighed the disadvantages of teaching with TTVN as encountered at the Center.
The one exception was in the area of outreach where personal contact is predominantly preferred.
The Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station has changed due to the introduction of videoconferencing in 1993.
Framing the context of the center's role Center Director Dr.
Jose Amador stated "What you have to understand is that the Center is in the business of demonstrating technology and what it can do.
And our role here at the Center is to provide the setting, the equipment, and the link, as well as handle some administrative and logistical tasks.
Once people have seen the technology in action, it is up to them to develop the applications." As a working model, the experience of the Melon Research Group and their "brown bag" lunch meetings have proven to be a very good use of TTVN.
"The TTVN sessions have proven to be an excellent tool for exchange of current work in Texas, particularly for off-campus centers".
Several researchers stressed the timeliness of the information exchange as in "knowing what melon diseases are threatening".
Similar applications can be found wherever Extension professionals from different locations are engaged in common or like projects.
A Tropical Fruits class that was team taught by a faculty member at College Station and a scientist at the Center is a promising example of how complementary professionals can be brought together.
This type of team work can be further developed with supportive administrative policies and planning.
In a broader application of TTVN, ways to integrate communications among all of the agricultural components of the Texas A&M University System can be achieved.
Particular emphasis should be placed on facilitating the critical links between research and Extension activities.
Videoconferencing technology at the Center holds much promise for furthering the mission and goals of the Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station and the Texas Agricultural Extension Service.
With timely adjustments and improved planning, the Center can move from promise to fulfillment, ensuring more efficient and effective service to the public.
References Amador, Jose.
Garza, Bertha.
Jacques, Ubaldo.
New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Miller, Marvin.
Agricultural Extension: A resource manual.
Urbana, IL: University of Illinois.
Swietlik, Dariusz.
Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station.
Warren, Doyle.
Willie, Celina.
The Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station has changed due to the introduction of videoconferencing in 1993.
Framing the context of the center's role Center Director Dr.
Jose Amador stated "What you have to understand is that the Center is in the business of demonstrating technology and what it can do.
And our role here at the Center is to provide the setting, the equipment, and the link, as well as handle some administrative and logistical tasks.
Once people have seen the technology in action, it is up to them to develop the applications." As a working model, the experience of the Melon Research Group and their "brown bag" lunch meetings have proven to be a very good use of TTVN.
"The TTVN sessions have proven to be an excellent tool for exchange of current work in Texas, particularly for off-campus centers".
Several researchers stressed the timeliness of the information exchange as in "knowing what melon diseases are threatening".
Similar applications can be found wherever Extension professionals from different locations are engaged in common or like projects.
A Tropical Fruits class that was team taught by a faculty member at College Station and a scientist at the Center is a promising example of how complementary professionals can be brought together.
This type of team work can be further developed with supportive administrative policies and planning.
In a broader application of TTVN, ways to integrate communications among all of the agricultural components of the Texas A&M University System can be achieved.
Particular emphasis should be placed on facilitating the critical links between research and Extension activities.
Videoconferencing technology at the Center holds much promise for furthering the mission and goals of the Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station and the Texas Agricultural Extension Service.
With timely adjustments and improved planning, the Center can move from promise to fulfillment, ensuring more efficient and effective service to the public.
References Amador, Jose.
Garza, Bertha.
Jacques, Ubaldo.
New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Miller, Marvin.
Agricultural Extension: A resource manual.
Urbana, IL: University of Illinois.
Swietlik, Dariusz.
Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station.
Warren, Doyle.
Willie, Celina.
As a working model, the experience of the Melon Research Group and their "brown bag" lunch meetings have proven to be a very good use of TTVN.
"The TTVN sessions have proven to be an excellent tool for exchange of current work in Texas, particularly for off-campus centers".
Several researchers stressed the timeliness of the information exchange as in "knowing what melon diseases are threatening".
Similar applications can be found wherever Extension professionals from different locations are engaged in common or like projects.
A Tropical Fruits class that was team taught by a faculty member at College Station and a scientist at the Center is a promising example of how complementary professionals can be brought together.
This type of team work can be further developed with supportive administrative policies and planning.
In a broader application of TTVN, ways to integrate communications among all of the agricultural components of the Texas A&M University System can be achieved.
Particular emphasis should be placed on facilitating the critical links between research and Extension activities.
Videoconferencing technology at the Center holds much promise for furthering the mission and goals of the Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station and the Texas Agricultural Extension Service.
With timely adjustments and improved planning, the Center can move from promise to fulfillment, ensuring more efficient and effective service to the public.
References Amador, Jose.
Garza, Bertha.
Jacques, Ubaldo.
New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Miller, Marvin.
Agricultural Extension: A resource manual.
Urbana, IL: University of Illinois.
Swietlik, Dariusz.
Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station.
Warren, Doyle.
Willie, Celina.
A Tropical Fruits class that was team taught by a faculty member at College Station and a scientist at the Center is a promising example of how complementary professionals can be brought together.
This type of team work can be further developed with supportive administrative policies and planning.
In a broader application of TTVN, ways to integrate communications among all of the agricultural components of the Texas A&M University System can be achieved.
Particular emphasis should be placed on facilitating the critical links between research and Extension activities.
Videoconferencing technology at the Center holds much promise for furthering the mission and goals of the Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station and the Texas Agricultural Extension Service.
With timely adjustments and improved planning, the Center can move from promise to fulfillment, ensuring more efficient and effective service to the public.
References Amador, Jose.
Garza, Bertha.
Jacques, Ubaldo.
New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Miller, Marvin.
Agricultural Extension: A resource manual.
Urbana, IL: University of Illinois.
Swietlik, Dariusz.
Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station.
Warren, Doyle.
Willie, Celina.
In a broader application of TTVN, ways to integrate communications among all of the agricultural components of the Texas A&M University System can be achieved.
Particular emphasis should be placed on facilitating the critical links between research and Extension activities.
Videoconferencing technology at the Center holds much promise for furthering the mission and goals of the Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station and the Texas Agricultural Extension Service.
With timely adjustments and improved planning, the Center can move from promise to fulfillment, ensuring more efficient and effective service to the public.
References Amador, Jose.
Garza, Bertha.
Jacques, Ubaldo.
New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Miller, Marvin.
Agricultural Extension: A resource manual.
Urbana, IL: University of Illinois.
Swietlik, Dariusz.
Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station.
Warren, Doyle.
Willie, Celina.
Videoconferencing technology at the Center holds much promise for furthering the mission and goals of the Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station and the Texas Agricultural Extension Service.
With timely adjustments and improved planning, the Center can move from promise to fulfillment, ensuring more efficient and effective service to the public.
References Amador, Jose.
Garza, Bertha.
Jacques, Ubaldo.
New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Miller, Marvin.
Agricultural Extension: A resource manual.
Urbana, IL: University of Illinois.
Swietlik, Dariusz.
Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station.
Warren, Doyle.
Willie, Celina.
Amador, Jose.
Garza, Bertha.
Jacques, Ubaldo.
New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Miller, Marvin.
Agricultural Extension: A resource manual.
Urbana, IL: University of Illinois.
Swietlik, Dariusz.
Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station.
Warren, Doyle.
Willie, Celina.
Garza, Bertha.
Jacques, Ubaldo.
New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Miller, Marvin.
Agricultural Extension: A resource manual.
Urbana, IL: University of Illinois.
Swietlik, Dariusz.
Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station.
Warren, Doyle.
Willie, Celina.
Jacques, Ubaldo.
New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Miller, Marvin.
Agricultural Extension: A resource manual.
Urbana, IL: University of Illinois.
Swietlik, Dariusz.
Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station.
Warren, Doyle.
Willie, Celina.
New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
Miller, Marvin.
Agricultural Extension: A resource manual.
Urbana, IL: University of Illinois.
Swietlik, Dariusz.
Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station.
Warren, Doyle.
Willie, Celina.
Miller, Marvin.
Agricultural Extension: A resource manual.
Urbana, IL: University of Illinois.
Swietlik, Dariusz.
Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station.
Warren, Doyle.
Willie, Celina.
Agricultural Extension: A resource manual.
Urbana, IL: University of Illinois.
Swietlik, Dariusz.
Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station.
Warren, Doyle.
Willie, Celina.
Swietlik, Dariusz.
Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station.
Warren, Doyle.
Willie, Celina.
Texas Agricultural Research and Experiment Station.
Warren, Doyle.
Willie, Celina.
Warren, Doyle.
Willie, Celina.
Willie, Celina.
June 2013 // Volume 51 // Number 3 // Tools of the Trade // v51-3tt3
 Considering the high demands and limited resources common in Extension education, there is always interest in free resources to increase productivity, and software is no exception.
Donaldson  listed a few free software programs that might help Extension professionals do concept-mapping, online polling, and project plan management.
Similarly, having access to free software for statistical analysis is desirable because statistical software is often relatively expensive and some packages require further annual fees.
These expenses may be difficult to justify for some Extension professionals who may not need to perform statistical analyses very often.
The SAS statistical package is often cited for performing statistical procedures of interest in Extension research.
Free alternatives for statistical analysis include online calculators and the R-project for Statistical Computing software.
Many simple analyses, such as t-tests or linear regression, can be performed using online calculators for the specific analysis.
Table 1 lists a few sites with online calculators.
Such sites are useful for doing quick analyses, and though there may be some reluctance to trust a website one is unfamiliar with, many of these analyses are standard enough that calculators from legitimate sources are unlikely to contain errors.
One free, powerful, and well-respected software package for statistical analysis is the R-project for Statistical Computing, or simply R or R-project.
R-project is a computing language and environment, and is based on a free version of the programming language S.
It has the ability to manipulate data, perform statistical analyses, and generate high-quality plots.
Its abilities can be extended through additional downloadable packages designed for specific analyses.
It has gained popularity at universities for its pedagogical value in statistics classes and adaptability for specific analyses in research.
Advantages of using R-project include:
 Disadvantages of using R-project include:
 One method to get around the difficulty of learning the R-project language is to use a Graphic User Interface  that can import data, perform common analyses, and produce plots.
A GUI allows users to perform analyses with pull-down menus and dialog boxes rather than needing to write the code.
One popular GUI is R Commander.
Benefits of this GUI include:
 R Commander can be installed on Windows machines from R with the command:
 For each session, Rcmdr is summoned with the command:
 Once data are properly imported into R-project, most common analyses require only a few lines of code.
Interaction of the analyst is usually necessary, though, for exploratory data analysis or to be sure data fit the assumptions of the analysis.
There are numerous documents and websites that give examples in R-project code for common analyses.
Two examples of useful texts for beginners are those by Verzani  and Muenchen.
Code for specific analyses, however, could also be assembled like a program so that less experienced users could run the complete analysis without much intervention or knowledge of R-project language.
As an example, code for a linear regression analysis is included here.
The included code can be simply copied and pasted into the R-project command line prompt or R Commander script window.
The code produces a plot of the data with the best-fit line , plots of residuals to check model assumptions, and relevant statistics in blue text:
 Users can simply change the x and y values in the beginning of the program to reflect their own data.
Plot of Hypothetical Data with Best-fit Line Using the Included Code for R-project
 Both online calculators and R-project software with a graphical user interface are tools Extension researchers can use to complete simple statistical analyses without a large investment in money or learning the required code.
Users are cautioned, though, that statistical analyses should be performed only with an understanding of when they are appropriate and when their underlying assumptions are met.
R for SAS and SPSS users.
New York, NY: Springer.
June 2017 // Volume 55 // Number 3 // Research In Brief // v55-3rb1
 Response to invasive species involves complex, value-laden issues that affect Extension professionals and clients.
Invasive pests and pathogens are those that inhabit new geographic areas in which they proliferate and damage the environment by altering ecosystems, sometimes causing extinctions of native species or damaging agricultural production.
The scope and frequency of biological invasions are increasing due to the escalating volumes of human transport and commerce.
The more than 50,000 invasive species in the United States cause nearly $120 billion in environmental damage and loss per year.
Public education and the use of volunteer networks can be effective tools for early detection and monitoring of invasive species.
Previous Extension efforts affirm the value of public education.
McReynolds and Howery  were able to contribute to the control of Russian knapweed in their state through education and mapping.
Extension professionals also have prevented the release of exotic pets through collaboration with pet stores.
This article addresses an Extension program that builds capacity for the early detection of invasive species through a volunteer network: the Collaborative and Enhanced First Detector Training program.
The program is based on the idea that although nonexpert volunteers may have difficulty identifying certain species or recording detailed data, they can be effective during the early stages of species monitoring.
The First Detector program was funded by cooperative agreement initiatives of the U.S.
Department of Agriculture Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service's Plant Protection and Quarantine program  and involved federal and state agencies and three land-grant universities in as many states.
Learning goals for First Detector program participants center on  the roles of the relevant agencies,  the identification of five to 10 invasive pests or pathogens that threaten to proliferate in their region  scouting methods, and  sample collection and submission.
In an evaluation of the program, we used a questionnaire to determine the impacts of the program relative to the learning goals.
Here, we discuss our results and consider implications for Extension programming related to invasive species.
We collected data by using an in-person survey method at First Detector trainings from 2012 to 2014.
The 5-hr training involved lecture, discussion, and hands-on microscopy.
The hosting Extension agents recruited participants.
Target audiences were agriculture professionals, engaged citizens, and volunteers at parks or gardens.
Workshop instructors described the purpose of the survey during introductory remarks.
Informed consent forms and demographic questions were completed at that time.
After the workshop, instructors asked participants to complete a retrospective "post-then-pre" questionnaire before leaving.
Although post-then-pre questionnaires are susceptible to response-shift bias, they are considered appropriate tools for detecting self-perceived changes caused by short-term programs, especially those in which participants may overestimate their understandings on a pretest.
No incentives were offered for completion of the questionnaire.
We analyzed data in IBM SPSS version 20.0.0.0 using descriptive statistics, t-tests for paired samples, and one-way analyses of variance.
Likert-type items involved a 5-point scale that ranged from strongly disagree  to strongly agree.
Summated Likert scales were calculated on the basis of five to 10 individual Likert-type items.
We checked scale reliability using Cronbach's alpha, with a cutoff value of 0.7.
The scales met the assumptions of t-tests and analyses of variance because of the approximately normal distributions, homogeneity of variances, and independence of cases.
A total of 449 participants completed questionnaires at 19 workshops in Florida, California, and New York from 2012 to 2014.
Cases were eliminated due to missing data on an analysis by analysis basis.
Therefore, the number of respondents is reported for each analysis.
Although the exact number of nonrespondents was not tracked consistently, a rough estimate of the response rate is 90%.
Ages of participants ranged from 18 to 85 and averaged 54.
About 56% of the participants identified as female, and 44% identified as male.
The First Detector program reached a diverse group in terms of education, with proportions almost even across those without college degrees, those with bachelor's degrees, and those with postgraduate degrees.
With regard to race and ethnicity, 93% of participants were White or Caucasian, 3% were Asian, 2% were Native American, Alaskan, or Islander, and 2% were Black or African-American, and 10% of the participants also were of Hispanic, Latino, or Spanish origin.
Overall, participants' plant-related experiences and interests suggest that the target audience was reached.
The average number of years of participant experience with plant-related activities was 25.
About one third of the respondents categorized their agricultural activities as gardening or endeavors related to a state's Extension master gardener program.
Respondents included 61 professional growers and 131 volunteers or staff of public gardens or parks.
The sample also included scientists, researchers, students, consultants, and government employees.
Additionally, nearly half the participants had previously attended programs about invasive species.
Moreover, it is noteworthy that the program reached participants who had worked with plant materials shipped from outside their localities.
About 25% stated that they had received material from outside their states, and 11% stated that they had received material from outside the United States.
Outcomes were evaluated by examining results of paired t-tests of summated Likert scales and observing changes in the preprogram/postprogram distributions of individual items.
Multiple-choice questions also provided informative data.
Responses to a question about how much of the content participants already knew were "none" , "a little" , "quite a bit" , and "most of it".
These results suggest that the material was prepared at the appropriate scope for most participants.
The analysis of scales indicated that participants perceived changes in their knowledge and attitudes related to the learning objectives for the program.
The scales measured the following constructs: knowledge of the roles of government organizations related to invasive species detection, trust in those organizations, knowledge of the benefits of early detection, knowledge needed for detection , and behavioral intent related to scouting for invasive plant pests.
Table 2 shows scale reliability quotients as well as the individual items and their descriptive statistics.
The scales were approximately normally distributed.
As indicated by t-tests for paired samples, significant positive differences existed between the before data and the after data.
The scales were calculated as summated means, so the range of each scale is 1 to 5, as in the original items.
The largest self-perceived changes occurred in participants' knowledge of detection processes , behavioral intent , and knowledge of the roles of government organizations.
The smallest change occurred in participants' knowledge of the benefits of detection.
This circumstance likely was due to perceived high levels of knowledge in this area before the workshop.
Besides perceiving improved understanding of the roles of organizations involved in invasive species detection and tracking, participants had more trust after the workshop that such organizations would be considerate of property concerns .
It is notable that participants most trusted land-grant universities to respect property concerns both before and after the program.
On individual items, about 82% of participants agreed or strongly agreed that after the workshop they could identify the species described in the workshop, and 78% reported that they could identify the pests on the basis of the damage they cause.
When asked whether they were likely to scout for pests, 89% of participants expressed agreement.
Additionally, about 94% agreed that they were likely to report the detection of a new pest species.
Figure 1.Participants' Levels of Agreement Regarding Reporting Pest Detection Before and After First Detector Program
 Response set for 5-point Likert scale: SD = strongly disagree, D = disagree, U = uncertain, A = agree, and SA = strongly agree.
Paired t-tests were run separately for the 23 respondents  who disagreed that they were likely to report a detection to the appropriate agency.
This group experienced no significant changes in knowledge of agency roles, trust of organizations, or knowledge related to benefits of detection.
Significant decreases in knowledge for detection  and behavioral intent  occurred.
Nearly all participants answered multiple-choice questions about the sampling and submission process correctly, except for a question about negative results.
Only 80% of the participants answered that the date, location, and host plant should be reported to the appropriate agency after scouting even if no invasive species were found.
Instructors were asked to emphasize the importance of submitting these negative results in the future to ensure that participants realize the value of negative data.
Negative data provide evidence that certain species are not present in the area of a search.
We used one-way analyses of variance to check for significant differences among means of the Likert scales according to categorical demographic variables.
No significant differences on the outcomes occurred relative to gender, race, education, profession, or the condition of having or having not imported plant material  from another state.
However, those who had imported plant material from outside the country had significantly different preprogram means than those who had not related to intent to scout  and knowledge for detection.
For their before responses, this group expressed having greater intent to scout and rated their knowledge of and ability to identify invasive plant pests higher as compared to those who had not imported plant material from outside the country.
This finding suggests that those who had imported plant material from foreign countries were more attentive to detection before the workshop but that both groups had increased knowledge and intention to scout after the workshop.
Because those who import foreign plant material may be at higher risk for introducing invasive species, we explored the demographics of this group.
No significant differences in age, experience, professional activities, or gender were found that could be used to differentiate this audience segment.
However, a chi-square test of independence showed a relationship between ethnic origin and importing material from outside the United States.
Whereas only 8.9% of 361 non-Hispanic/Latino/Spanish participants had imported material from outside the United States, 31% of 39 Hispanic/Latino/Spanish participants had done so.
However, this finding may be caused by the smaller number of Hispanic, Latino, and Spanish participants or may be more connected to the specific geographical area and agricultural context of the participants.
The evaluation data reported herein already have been used for monitoring and improving the First Detector program.
Some participants' misconceptions about the value of submitting negative scouting data as well as responses to a question about the most difficult pest to identify provided immediately useful insight to instructors.
Participants' indications of trust for land-grant universities support Extension's role in invasive species education and interagency collaborations.
The data also provide support for the idea that participants' trust in government agencies can be improved by learning about their roles in an interagency environment.
As risk assessment techniques and strategies evolve, the complex task of connecting future invaders to likely invasion sites may become easier.
Education efforts could then be more specifically targeted to vulnerable communities and linked to possible future invaders.
Offering voluntary educational services to those likely to import plant material from areas that harbor potentially invasive species could further increase the probability of early detection.
Those conducting future research could seek to better identify audience segments likely to receive plant material from across state or national boundaries.
The decreases in knowledge about detection and behavioral intent experienced by small percentages of participants could be explained in several ways.
These participants may have left feeling confused about which agency to submit results to or lacking confidence in their identification skills.
Or they may have decided that they had limited time for the task or limited access to worthwhile scouting sites.
Although participants' indications of high levels of knowledge regarding the benefits of detection may be linked to attending previous invasive species workshops, the First Detector program built on this foundation by providing participants with scouting, identification, and sample submission skills.
By increasing most participants' knowledge of and intention to scout for potentially invasive species, such educational sessions can lead to earlier detection and better monitoring of target species through networks of volunteers.
Early detection and monitoring provide economic and ecological benefits.
Relative to the study reported here, follow-up contacts will be used for collecting data related to participants' scouting and sample submission behaviors, thereby identifying participants most likely to be effective volunteers.
The project discussed herein was funded by the USDA-APHIS-PPQ Farm Bill Section 10201, Cooperative Agreement Numbers 12-8212-0919 and 13-8212-0919.
The project represented collaborative efforts of the USDA-APHIS-PPQ; the Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services, Division of Plant Industry ; the Cooperative Agricultural Pest Survey Program; the USDA-National Institute of Food and Agriculturefunded National Plant Diagnostic Network; University of Florida; and University of CaliforniaDavis during the 2012 project.
Cooperators from Cornell University were added to the 2014 project.
We gratefully acknowledge the cooperating principle investigator for the University of CaliforniaDavis project, Richard Bostock, and the cooperating principle investigator for the Cornell University project, Marc Fuchs.
Additionally, we gratefully acknowledge the contributions of following staff who were  located in the University of Florida Entomology and Nematology Department, Gainesville, Florida: Gurpreet Brar, Lyle Buss, Jennifer Hamel, Eric LeVeen, Annika Minott, and Stephanie Stocks.
We gratefully acknowledge the following FDACS-DPI staff for their contributions to the educational sessions: Brad Danner, Andrew Derksen, and Greg Hodges.
We gratefully acknowledge the following Florida-based USDA-APHIS-PPQ staff for their contributions: Douglas Restom Gaskill, Catherine Marzolf, Jim Walker, and Eduardo Varona.
We gratefully acknowledge the following University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences  county Extension faculty who hosted educational sessions during the 2012 and 2013 projects: Vanessa Campoverde, Miami-Dade County; Kim Gabel, Monroe County; Yvette Goodiel, Martin County; William Lester, Sumter County; Brooke Moffis, Lake County; and Matt Orwat, Washington County.
We also gratefully acknowledge Marilyn Griffiths, Fairchild Botanical Gardens, and Gregg Nuessly, UF-IFAS Everglades Research and Education Center, for their assistance with workshop coordination and participant recruitment during events at their respective locations.
We also acknowledge the Florida State Park Services biologists for attending workshops and hosting events in three Florida-regional districts.
We acknowledge that a subset of this work was presented by Ashley Poplin in her 2013 master's thesis titled "A Florida Perspective on Host Preference, Early Detection, and Identification of the Brown Marmorated Stink Bug, Halyomorpha halys." Finally, we thank the reviewers for their feedback.
Using volunteer-based networks to track Drosophila suzukii , an invasive pest of fruit crops.
Journal of Integrated Pest Management, 4, 15.
History of biological invasions with emphasis on the Old World.
Williamson , Biological invasions: A global perspective (pp.
New York, NY: Wiley.
Biotic invasions: Causes, epidemiology, global consequences, and control.
Ecological Applications, 10, 689710.
Optimal detection and control strategies for invasive species management.
Ecological Economics, 61, 237245.
Response-shift bias in critical thinking.
NACTA Journal, 57, 7881.
Update on the environmental and economic costs associated with alien-invasive species in the United States.
Ecological Economics, 52, 273288.
August 2019 // Volume 57 // Number 4 // Commentary // v57-4comm1
 Imagine a world unlike anything you know.
One where Extension is not a valued source of scientific information.
Where Extension must operate beyond its traditional boundaries of programs and funding.
Where there is no county fair.
Where there is no physical Extension office.
Where Alexa and Siri are the first places people turn for knowledge.
Where Extension is forced to adopt new ways of operating.
These are not only things worth imagining; these are real possibilities and, in some cases, are already realities in places throughout the United States.
The impacts of accelerated change are all around us.
Adoption of innovative tools and technologies is skyrocketing.
Where it took 50 years for the telephone to reach 50 million users , it took only 19 days for Pokmon to do the same.
In our world, we are more interconnected than ever before  and yet increasingly divided.
We are more educated than ever before and yet need more knowledge or information, and often expect to find it at our fingertips.
There is no question that we are in times where disruption and change are the norm.
This constant shifting affects our role as Extension professionals.
It affects the strength of our ties with long-standing stakeholders and opens doors to potential new partnerships.
To effectively carry out our mission in this ever-changing landscape, it is imperative that Extension leaders rethink the strategic approach to developing and supporting the organization's professionals.
Historically, possession of a graduate degree was required for many Extension professionals.
Graduate majors focused primarily on Extension education, resulting in curricula heavy in program development and teaching pedagogy.
Over time, the graduate majors of potential Extension personnel expanded to include a variety of agriculture, community, family, and health disciplines.
To meet the needs of these individuals with non-Extension-education graduate degrees, Extension assumed the responsibility for training in the foundations of program development and teaching pedagogy.
The diversity of technical expertise, educational backgrounds, and unique issues of local focus have challenged Extension leaders charged with developing comprehensive training and professional development programs for Extension professionals ever since.
A great deal of work has been done to assess competencies deemed essential for successful Extension work.
Table 1 lists those competencies.
Program development and evaluation will always hold a place in Extension work, but it may no longer be the foundation for how Extension work is done.
Recent efforts we undertook support the notion that the context of Extension work in the future requires a different approach and, therefore, requires Extension professionals to think differently about the key competencies needed for professional and programmatic success.
For Extension's centennial, Ohio State University Extension  engaged in a strategic foresight project to envision a dynamic Extension organization for the next century.
We used trend research to develop scenarios of possible futures for Ohio, engaged in broad conversations to discover what residents will need to thrive in 2035, and brainstormed ways OSUE could address those needs.
Through this project, we confirmed that people want to use technology to gain knowledge and information but also value in-person connection and guidance from trusted sources.
We confirmed that the issues individuals and communities are facing are becoming increasingly more complex, requiring more sophisticated solutions.
And we confirmed that Extension is ideally suited to bring people and organizations together to address such complex issues with customized solutions, unique to the needs of those directly affected.
As we looked to make changes in the present to become better prepared for the future, we learned that a few challenging, even nagging, questions remained.
For example, should Extension professionals specialize or generalize?
What does "local" even mean anymore?
And how does the organization best support the well-being and development of Extension professionals facing the wicked problems that exist today?
Historically, skills in program development and evaluation, research expertise, and a fundamental knowledge of Extension served as the cornerstones of Extension work.
Succeeding as Extension professionals in the 21st century requires skills and abilities beyond those on which Extension was formed.
Twenty-first-century challenges are embedded within complex systems in which no single event is the cause of a challenge and no single program can be the solution.
Extension personnel must work within a network of agencies and organizations that are already addressing some of the many factors contributing to complicated challenges.
To work in this way requires competence in high-efficiency teamwork, connecting , convening, adaptability, problem solving, leading change, communication, relationship building, entrepreneurism, and confronting risk.
Our challenge is to cultivate these abilities within an Extension organization very different from the one we have come to know.
On the basis of our strategic foresight findings, we can paint a picture of the Extension organization of the future.
Imagine it as flexible, prepared to meet challenges, and capable of foreseeing opportunities before they arrive.
Imagine an Extension structure comprised of small working groups, or "strategic action teams," of four or five people possessing complementary skill sets that enable them to address issues from multiple perspectives.
Now, imagine these teams working at the highest level of efficiency and effectiveness.
Team members are in possession of the skills and abilities needed to collaborate with technical experts and leaders across various organizations and communities in ways that begin to chip away at some of our most wicked problems.
Imagine the strategic action teams working in partnership to frame issues locally, identify components of an action plan, and marshal the associated relevant resources.
The teams and their collaborators cocreate, coach, and consult to build the capacity of individuals, organizations, and communities to advance positive change.
The concept of strategic action teams is a futuristic model for Extension work, and as suggested by our strategic foresight findings, it is a model the system is moving toward.
This is a gradual evolution, and, in some cases, we in Extension are having trouble letting go of what we know to be.
If the direction we are headed is a place in need of social entrepreneurs, Extension surely has a role to play.
But how do we equip ourselves to succeed in this endeavor?
To support a workforce capable of operating in strategic action teams would require Extension as an organization to think differently about how Extension professionals are prepared.
There would exist the need to reach beyond the original program development, evaluation, and delivery competency framework into a more expansive model of systems leadership and social entrepreneurism.
Building on our efforts to identify widely used competencies in Extension and the strategic foresight work we conducted to envision Extension's future, we suggest that it is time to reevaluate and prioritize competencies that may be more applicable to the context of a highly engaged and collaborative type of work.
Extension professional competencies should be aligned with and operationalized to reflect the future of Extension work.
To achieve the greatest impact, we must understand the reality of the environment in which Extension professionals work.
A common understanding among all partners involved in the process of developing Extension professionals is critical.
Figure 1 illustrates the components required for preparing the contemporary Extension professional and thus serves as a new model for the employee preparation and development process.
This new approach to developing Extension professionals will require a collaborative effort and fresh perspectives.
Fold in forward-focused academic preparation via degree and Extension professional development programs, and you have the key components of a future-oriented approach to professional development in Extension.
This model anticipates future needs of clientele and puts forth an innovative, collaborative approach to preparing Extension professionals for success.
It is time to remove our blinders to the future, to be visionary in forecasting new ways of working, and to be open to seeing necessary competencies from a new perspective.
It is time to challenge our paradigms, to assess how to create greater impact, and to start preparing Extension professionals for it.
It is time to foster an entrepreneurial mind-set among Extension personnel so that we might capitalize on connections and opportunities that otherwise will go unseen.
It is time to engage others in conversations about how best to develop and support Extension professionals for the organization's future.
We are stronger together.
Often our time is spent looking at things that have been and asking why?
Instead, let us now dream of things that have yet to be and ask why not?
Argabright is currently a postdoctoral associate in the Office of Learning and Organizational Development at the University of Georgia in Athens, Georgia.
Stollar is currently a graduate associate in the Department of Agricultural Economics, Sociology, and Education at The Pennsylvania State University in University Park, Pennsylvania.
Argabright first presented this material as a TED style talk at the 2018 North Central Leadership Conference in East Lansing, Michigan.
Extension Committee on Organization and Policy.
Extension Task Force Innovation Report.
Extension Committee on Organization and Policy Innovation Task Force.
Towards a competency-based extension education curriculum: A Delphi study.
Journal of Agricultural Education, 51, 4452.
Competency modeling in extension education: Integrating an academic extension model with an extension human resource management model.
Journal of Agricultural Education, 52 6474.
October 2017 // Volume 55 // Number 5 // Tools of the Trade // v55-5tt6
 Tourism fuels rural economies by creating jobs, fostering economic growth, and improving local living standards.
Often, unique natural and cultural assets of a region drive tourism.
It is important to preserve the landscapes and quality of life that make these communities attractive in the first place.
As Schroeder  highlighted, strong rural tourism economies are heavily reliant on the cultivation of local tourism entrepreneurs.
Entrepreneurs can adopt practices to maximize the cultural, social, and environmental benefits associated with the tourism industry while minimizing potential negative impacts on local social and ecological assets.
Local tourism entrepreneurs also provide and maintain the link between visitors and the local landscape and culture.
As trusted educators, advisors, and facilitators, Extension professionals are uniquely positioned in the communities where they work to guide entrepreneurs interested in adopting sustainable practices and to facilitate strategic coordination among businesses.
The three-phase tourism assessment and planning process outlined in this article is based on the principles of ecotourism and can be used by Extension professionals to facilitate adoption of sustainable tourism practices at the community level.
This tool supplements existing tools available to Extension professionals working in the area of tourism throughout the United States.
A literature review provided the conceptual background for the development of our tourism profiles framework.
The framework identifies four general approaches practiced by tourism enterprises and basic criteria for differentiation.
We used these categories and general criteria as the basis for creating a process of tourism-related community learning and strategic planning.
The process of using community learning and strategic planning to guide tourism entrepreneurs and facilitate coordination among tourism-related businesses in a community involves three phases:
 We created a self-guided tourism assessment using the four tourism profiles presented in Figure 1.
The flow of questions in the assessment tool  reflects a progression from tourism to ecotourism via demonstrable indicators.
An entrepreneur self-assesses according to the current characteristics of his or her business and "lands" in a particular profile on the basis of the responses given.
The landing pad features detailed information about the profile the entrepreneur matches, why he or she is there, and how that profile looks in different industries.
On completing the self-assessment, an entrepreneur receives a detailed explanation of the form of tourism he or she is currently practicing, along with examples in the form of case studies.
This result allows the tourism operator to ensure that the tourism product being offered adheres to uniform standards for reaching the target audience.
The tool also includes information indicating how an entrepreneur might change to a different profile.
In this way, the assessment is both a diagnostic tool and a teaching tool.
The assessment tool addresses the first phase in the larger process of community learning and strategic planning.
A participant can then progress through the alignment and coordination phases, with assistance, on the basis of the tourism profile identified during the assessment phase and the goals the participant has for his or her operation.
During the alignment phase of the process, participants receive guidance as to how they can incorporate more sustainable practices into their tourism operations.
Interested participants can review supplemental information developed through a review of commonly accepted ecotourism certification programs in North America so that they can self-identify what more they need to do to convert their current practices.
Extension professionals can play an important facilitation role during this phase by helping establish groups of tourism entrepreneurs interested in adopting sustainable practices.
Each tourism entrepreneur's actions can positively, or negatively, affect the success of the local tourism industry.
At the same time, natural resource degradation is often not the fault of a single tourism operator.
It is caused by the collective actions of multiple businesses.
For a community to harness the full benefits of sustainable nature-based tourism or ecotourism, it is necessary for stakeholders to engage in a coordinated, strategic, and cooperative effort and have a venue for dialogue and sharing of experiences and ideas.
Extension professionals can play the important role of facilitating this process.
We recommend the four steps outlined in Table 1 for coordinating ecotourism stakeholders.
Extension professionals can use these steps as guidelines while working with stakeholders who fall into any of the tourism profiles from the assessment tool to develop a shared vision and coordinate their actions.
The tool described here could not exist without the hospitality, excitement, and engagement of Erin Meier, University of Minnesota's Southeast Sustainable Development Partnership; Joe Deden and the staff of Eagle Bluff Environmental Learning Center; Fillmore County's tourism-based businesses; and our capstone teammates Kristina Werden and Chou Moua.
April 2005 // Volume 43 // Number 2 // Ideas at Work // 2IAW5
 Abstract Teaching desert-appropriate horticultural techniques to Las Vegas residents may save millions of gallons of water.
Master Gardener volunteers receive such instruction through the Desert Bioscape program.
A survey of Master Gardeners found many of them incorporated the training into their own landscapes and some teach these principles at community classes.
A majority of respondents , do not teach classes, but are neighborhood resources for desert landscape information.
Las Vegas' water comes from the Colorado River and is stored in Lake Mead, whose volume has declined sharply because of drought and the demands of an increased population.
The population of Las Vegas may exceed 2,000,000 by 2005 , a 400% increase since 1980.
New residents usually come from environments dissimilar to Southern Nevada, located in the Mojave Desert.
Driest of the North American deserts, the Mojave receives 10.5 cm rainfall annually.
Precipitation, light intensity, soil characteristics, and native vegetation differ from other parts of the US.
The University of Nevada Cooperative Extension program Desert Bioscape  teaches desert-appropriate landscaping approaches.
It includes 15 hours of classes on native and desert-adapted plants, local wildlife, and integrated pest management.
It is critical that Southern Nevada residents learn water-efficient practices.
Residents use 67% of Southern Nevada's water, with roughly 25% wasted through inefficient landscape irrigation.
Most  Las Vegas homes are owner-occupied, thus outreach to homeowners could have a significant effect on decreasing water waste.
The water authority calculates that appropriate plant selection and landscape design could save approximately 113,000,000 gallons of water annually.
Master Gardeners can both teach and model such water-efficient practices.
University of Nevada Cooperative Extension  established the Southern Area Master Gardener program in 1992.
Master Gardeners receive 70 hours of training in horticultural subjects.
Like much of Southern Nevada's population, most moved to the area from other environments.
Master Gardeners are recruited through mass media and word of mouth.
Teaching water-efficient landscaping in underserved areas is as important as in ones that are more affluent.
In the past 3 years, recruitment from communities of color has been a priority.
The volunteer pool is now more ethnically and economically diverse.
Participants join primarily for horticulture information, but many desire to contribute to the community.
Each trainee pledges a minimum of 50 hours annually, either at the help desk or in a community based project.
Several projects involve teaching at community centers, libraries, club meetings, etc.
A significant portion of the Master Gardener curriculum emphasizes desert ecology, under the title "Desert Bioscape." It is a practical approach to landscape establishment and maintenance.
The standard style for Master Gardener training is to provide functional materials to be used in a home setting.
Desert Bioscape instruction has been delivered to approximately 350 Master Gardener trainees since 1997.
The Water, Horticulture, Environment, and Economics team of Cooperative Extension works closely with the Southern Nevada Water Authority  and the Las Vegas Valley Water District , teaching classes and serving on advisory boards.
Master Gardeners form the docent corps of the LVVWD's Desert Demonstration Gardens and staff SNWA events.
In all situations, they use the information gained via the Desert Bioscape materials of the Master Gardener training.
The goal of the Desert Bioscape program is to encourage local residents to create sustainable, water-conserving landscapes.
To determine whether Desert Bioscape training could effectively affect the public at large, we decided first to ascertain whether Master Gardeners who had already received the training were utilizing this information.
While other Las Vegas residents have taken Desert Bioscape, Master Gardeners have been tracked over several years and were thus more accessible.
They are an important part of UNCE outreach to the community; hence, their incorporation of the program material into their own landscapes seemed a good starting point for taking Desert Bioscape to a wider audience.
A survey containing questions on horticultural/gardening practices as well as questions on general Master Gardener topics was sent to 318 persons who had completed the program and were on the mailing list.
Forty-eight percent  were returned.
Most respondents were currently certified Master Gardeners.
The survey asked about changes in five areas:
 Using Integrated Pest Management 
 Plant selection and health
 Incorporation of non-plant wildlife
 The results, all positive changes, are charted in Figure 1.
Change in Behavior of Master Gardeners
 Two summary questions asked about changes they had made in their home landscapes.
Eighty-two percent replied positively to the statement: "I use fewer chemical fertilizers and pesticides, and have added more desert native or native-like plants to conserve water."
 Furthermore, 88% affirmed that their landscapes are more sustainable as a result of taking the training.
Two questions related to information dissemination.
Although only 18% of respondents had actually taught classes, a large majority  stated they are resource persons for neighbors attempting to make their yards more desert-appropriate: "I now understand that our yards are small ecosystems that we, as well as our neighbors, must interact with.
This knowledge influences what I do and don't do in the yard".
Instructing desert residents about creating a sustainable landscape requires a curriculum and the means to deliver it.
The Desert Bioscape program provides training for the unique conditions of the Las Vegas area.
Master Gardener volunteers are important community educators.
That Master Gardeners have integrated the training into their own horticultural practices indicates that Desert Bioscape can improve public awareness and use of desert horticulture techniques.
It is important that these highly trained volunteers expand their teaching of the program.
This survey will be further developed and sent to rural areas to determine if the results are similar.
The Master Gardener program: Do benefits of the program go beyond improving the horticultural knowledge of the participants?
DESERT BIOSCAPE: A sustainable urban environment UNCE Special Publication.
Reasons for becoming involved as a master gardener.
August 2019 // Volume 57 // Number 4 // Tools of the Trade // v57-4tt6
 Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program Education  is an evidence-based nutrition education and obesity prevention program funded by the U.S.
Department of Agriculture.
Individuals who are eligible for the Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program  or other means-tested federal assistance programs are able to participate in direct education and multilevel interventions designed to educate low-income families about good nutrition, physical activity, and making healthful choices on a limited budget.
University of Minnesota  Extension is one of seven agencies in Minnesota that deliver SNAP-Ed; the others are six of the Anishinaabe Tribes.
The SNAP-Ed team at U of M Extension provides SNAP-Ed programming for low-income individuals and families across the state.
Currently, U of M Extension has 75 educators delivering SNAP-Ed programs, including SNAP-Ed educators, Extension educators, and regional coordinators.
As implementation of SNAP-Ed has increased over time, federal reporting requirements for the program have evolved.
Currently, those involved in implementing SNAP-Ed use the Education and Administration Reporting System  to provide uniform types of data and information about their states' SNAP-Ed activities to the USDA.
The EARS report is a tool used by SNAP-Ed's federal partners to report participant demographics; number of people reached directly and indirectly through direct education and policy, systems, and environmental  changes; types of partners and their contributions; and programming settings.
SNAP Education Evaluation and Database System  is a database system used by Minnesota SNAP-Ed staff for gathering programmatic information for the EARS report and for managing SNAP-Ed activities.
In 2014, federal reporting requirements changed so that unduplicated individuals rather than aggregate data would be reported in EARS.
The custom SNAP-Ed database system used at the time in Minnesota was insufficient for such reporting.
Thus, we worked with a software and database designer and developer to develop SEEDS, a database that captures unduplicated participant information and evaluation data for all SNAP-Ed initiatives executed by U of M Extension.
Extension SNAP-Ed implementing agencies in other states may find it useful to have a centralized database system, similar to SEEDS, to capture their SNAP-Ed data.
SEEDS is both a reporting tool and a management tool.
U of M Extension has used SEEDS data in reporting to funders such as USDA, the Minnesota Department of Health and Human Services Office of Economic Opportunity, county departments, county boards, county Extension committees, and Extension partners.
The data have many uses, including uses related to managing programming efforts and staff at local and regional levels, measuring whether programmatic goals are being met, and helping shape future program goals and direction at the state level.
SEEDS comprises four major interconnected data componentstime, location, program, and people in a Structured Query Language  relational database system.
A relational database is a collection of related data sets.
These related data sets are downloadable in formats readily available for a data analyst.
For example, if a data analyst wanted to create a direct education participant table using data collected on partner, curriculum, educator, and county, a relational database would create the table by combining participant, partner, curriculum, educator, and location data sets.
Similarly, if an analyst wanted to create a table of the number of PSE partners by county and by PSE content area, the relational database would combine partner, county, and PSE content area data sets.
Compared to a static database, which contains data in a fixed format, a relational database provides better flexibility for examining data from different perspectives.
Note: SEEDS = SNAP [Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program] Education Evaluation and Database System.
PSE = policy, systems, and environment.
SEEDS offers several benefits for data analysis and evaluation.
It allows users to acknowledge and analyze the multilevel nature of SNAP-Ed programming.
Users can document and analyze changes at individual, organizational, network, and geographic area levels.
SEEDS also includes data for individual participants across fiscal years.
This feature allows users to analyze the impact of SNAP-Ed direct education course participation across fiscal years on individual behaviors.
In addition, SEEDS provides users with the ability to count unduplicated participants within a fiscal year for the EARS report.
Because location data are connected to the other components of SEEDS, data analysts can conduct location-based analyses of SNAP-Ed programs.
Another benefit of using a relational database in which partner data are connected to program, time, and location data is the ability to conduct social network analyses and visualize SNAP-Ed partner networks.
Within those networks, multiple attributes are mapped, including program type, geographical area, content area, and number of direct education courses and/or PSE projects.
Integral to the effectiveness of SEEDS is a database team consisting of a SNAP-Ed leader, educator supervisors, SNAP-Ed educators, support staff, a software and database designer and developer, a program evaluator, and a data analyst.
Our team meets monthly in order to make improvements and revisions as programming needs evolve.
A documentation subcommittee maintains an online resource containing short videos documenting how to enter data in SEEDS.
The database team continues to advance SEEDS to further facilitate the capture of SNAP-Ed data.
SEEDS was designed through iterative development, and fine-tuning is ongoing.
All six of the Minnesota tribal implementing agencies are now using SEEDS.
U of M Extension is working to discover better ways to share SEEDS-based information with stakeholders and to determine how to use the information more effectively to shape the future of SNAP-Ed programming in Minnesota.
Involving experts in database management and analysis will be key to ongoing and future success.
In addition, U of M Extension is exploring the role data visualization technology can play with regard to a relational database such as SEEDS, perhaps allowing for better communication about SNAP-Ed efforts to SNAP-Ed stakeholders, including participants and the general Minnesota population.
With continued federal funding always a concern for SNAP-Ed implementing agencies, having rigorous and detailed monitoring and reporting tools, such as SEEDS, can help agencies better report the value SNAP-Ed programming adds to the lives of low-income families.
Such tools allow for continuous study and improvement processes, which encourage program personnel not only to maintain effective programming but also to continue to improve their impact and reach.
From farm results demonstrations to multistate impact designs: Cooperative Extension navigates its way through evaluation pathways.
Journal of Human Sciences and Extension, 3, 83107.
February 2016 // Volume 54 // Number 1 // Research In Brief // v54-1rb3
 Operating in one of the few areas in the United States where a wide variety of tropical/subtropical fruits can be grown commercially, South Florida growers battle foreign competition and a host of pests and diseases for their share of the tropical fruit market.
As a result, some growers are diversifying their operations toward more viable alternative commodities.
Although newer commodities have the potential to generate considerable returns in niche markets, they carry significant production and marketing risks.
One commodity that is gaining growers' attention is the Asian guava , or Thai guava, which is easily cultivated under various soil and climatic conditions.
This crop has significant market appeal due to its high nutritional value  and strong demand in Asian American communities.
The downsides are that there is little information about production costs and there has been no systematic assessment of the risks in this niche market.
The small market for this product can easily become oversupplied, causing a downward spiral in market price of Thai guavas.
An analysis of the risks and uncertainties associated with growing Thai guavas needs to be factored into the equation before growers embark on such an investment.
The purpose of the analysis reported here was to assess the profitability of operating a 5-acre Thai guava orchard in South Florida by incorporating yield and price risks.
This article also examines an alternative way for Extension specialists to present findings to help growers better assess the risks associated with alternative crop enterprises.
The analysis presented in this article was based on information collected in 2012 and 2014 from interviews with growers, Extension agents, University of Florida faculty, and industry experts and suppliers.
The main focus was the establishment of production costs for a 5-acre Thai guava orchard in South Florida as a means of determining profitability for growers.
In our analysis, we used certain assumptions.
Although most growers in South Florida own the land they use for production, a rental cost of $525 per acre was used to represent the opportunity cost of using the land for guava production.
The variety chosen was the Thai guava due to interest among growers.
The cost of a new guava plant was $4.
Planting density was estimated at 363 trees per acre, based on spacing of 8 ft between trees and 15 ft between rows.
The groves were mowed 10 times per year.
Fertilizer treatments included applications of 20-20-20 in combination with 6-6-6, 8-16-16, or 8-3-9, depending on the development stage of the plant; chelated iron was also applied.
Weed control methods included various herbicide products for weed resistance management.
Fungicides were applied three times a year.
Insecticides were used more heavily in the first year, followed by a different practice specific to this guava variety in the years that followed.
Each individual fruit was netted and bagged when it reached about 1 in.
in diameter to improve fruit quality.
Depending on rainfall, a microjet irrigation system operated by a 10-hp electric pump located near the power source was used two to three times per week in season.
The hourly wage rate for field workers was $11.00, including employee benefits.
Bagging and harvesting rates supplied by growers were used to calculate labor costs.
It was estimated that a worker could net and bag about 1,000 fruit per day and handpick/sort/pack 500 lb of fruit per day, based on an 8-hr workday.
Also, in our analysis, none of the fruit was sold in the first year.
A pack-out rate of 80% was assumed to account for the mix of number one  and number two  fruit, implying a total marketable yield of 7,841 lb per acre and 31,218 lb per acre in years two and three, respectively.
Marketing prices were also analyzed.
During the analysis period, guava prices fluctuated markedly depending on the harvest season and the quality of the fruit, with prices ranging from $0.50 to $2.00 per pound.
Summer prices were lower than winter prices due to greater supply in summer.
The economic life of a guava tree is generally 20 years , with the first 2 years considered to be establishment years.
Therefore, we amortized  the accumulated cost for the first 2 years over the remaining 18 years of the orchard's economic life and charged this cost to the enterprise as a fixed cost.
In addition to the deterministic  production cost budget , a stochastic  budget  was prepared, using an approach similar to that outlined by Ribera and Cattaneo.
The simulation of the stochastic budget was based on the first full year  production data.
The simulation model was specified as follows:
 NP = net return 
 = stochastic  price
 = stochastic  yield
 V1 = per yield unit variable harvesting cost
 V2 = per acre production cost
 FC = per acre fixed cost
 Both price and yield represented the risky variables in the model.
GRKS distribution  was chosen to model the yield and price variables due to limited information.
To use GRKS distribution, minimum, middle , and maximum values must be defined for price and yield in a deterministic model.
The minimum and maximum prices were chosen based on the observed prices from 2012 and 2014.
The middle price was the estimated average price used in the deterministic model.
Minimum yield was based on discussions with growers and reflected situations in which only one crop rather than two occurs for a given year.
The middle value represented the yield in the deterministic model, and the maximum yield was set at the 95% pack-out rate, rather than the 80% used in the deterministic model.
The stochastic model substituted combinations of yields and prices for the parameters in the equation defined earlier to produce 500 different total revenues, total costs, and net returns.
The net return  data were then analyzed by using stoplight chart/analysis to ascertain the probabilities of attaining various levels of profits as determined by the grower.
Using a stoplight chart is an easy way to demonstrate the level of risk involved in a particular investment without examining all the details.
Moreover, the stoplight chart takes into consideration the risk preference of the grower by allowing the grower to specify an upper  cutoff point and a lower  cutoff point.
The chart then shows the probability of achieving the favorable outcome as green and the probability of experiencing the unfavorable outcome typically as red.
The probabilities of values falling between the favorable and unfavorable outcomes are usually shown in yellow.
To demonstrate the use of a stoplight chart , we analyzed a situation in which a grower wants to know the probability that a net return on investment will be less than $0  or will exceed $8,450.
The latter value corresponds to a 50% return on investment, based on the deterministic model.
This analysis can also be carried out for other possible outcomes of interest to the grower.
Probability of Net Return  Being Less Than $0 and Greater Than $8,450
 Based on the data in the analysis, the estimated cost of establishing a Thai guava orchard  was $8,612 per acre.
Because the orchard would be in full production  from year 3 onward, the establishment cost  was amortized over the remaining 18 years of orchard production at an annual interest rate of 5%, for an annual fixed expense of $737 per acre.
Annual growing costs and returns for the full production years are summarized in Table 1.
In a full production year, the total production cost is estimated at $16,893 per acre.
Harvesting, which is a major component of the total production cost , is estimated at $8,567 per acre.
The preharvest variable cost  is estimated at $6,393 per acre, or $0.54 per pound.
Labor cost is estimated at $3,997 per acre.
Fixed costs are estimated at $1,934 and include the imputed land rental cost of $525 per acre.
Based on an assumed yield of 31,218 lb per acre and an average market price of $0.95 per pound, total receipts were estimated to be $29,657 per acre.
When the total production cost of $16,893 is deducted from the total receipts, the grower earns a profit of $12,764 per acre.
In the real world, prices and yield tend to vary, so the stochastic budget shown in Table 2 reflects variations in prices and yield.
Specifically, Table 2 shows the per-acre mean total revenue , total cost , and net return  for a 5-acre orchard, based on the 500 iterations in the simulation.
The values in Table 2 correspond closely to the deterministic budget figures of $29,657, $16,893, and $12,764 per acre, respectively, shown in Table 1.
However, the stochastic budget provides additional information by showing the maximum and minimum values that could be realized by a grower.
For example, the maximum profit could be as high as $21,989 per acre, and the minimum profit/loss could be as low as $8,578 per acre.
Such information is important for the grower's decision-making process.
On the basis of the scenario referred to earlier, the stoplight analysis chart  was used to shed further light on the risk associated with investing in a guava orchard.
The results from the stoplight analysis suggest that there is a 2% chance of a loss  and a 77% chance of a gain exceeding $8,450.
This finding implies that there is a 21% chance that net returns will be greater than $0 but less than $8,450.
Aided by such information, an Extension agent can better inform a grower of the potential risks associated with investing in the crop.
Based on the analysis, the total cost to establish a 5-acre Thai guava orchard in South Florida was $43,060, or $8,612 per acre.
The total cost of operating a mature Thai guava orchard  was $16,893 per acre.
With an average price of $0.95 per pound and a marketable yield of 31,218 lb per acre, total revenue was $29,657 per acre, and net return  was $12,764 per acre, implying an economically viable investment.
To account for risk in the operation, the deterministic model was converted into a stochastic model by using GRKS distributions.
A stoplight analysis showed that there was a 2% chance of a loss and a 77% chance of net returns exceeding $8,450, or 50% return on investment.
An important aspect for Extension is not to make decisions for clients but to provide them with the necessary tools and information to improve their decision-making skills.
Using stoplight analysis greatly simplifies the complex information Extension agents may present to clients regarding the riskiness of a particular investment.
The concept of "red is bad, green is good, and yellow is okay" makes this analysis easy for clientele to understand and use.
Moreover, presenting the probability  of achieving/not achieving a desired result is superior to presenting idealized figures that are seldom realized.
Studies have shown that growers are more willing to adopt technologies and cultural practices when they understand the risks involved before making an investment.
Although this study deals only with the probability of achieving profits for Thai guava, it has wider implications for how to better present information to clients based on the chance or likelihood of achieving a desired outcome.
Miami-Dade County agricultural land retention study, Appendix B (Vol.
Gainesville, FL: Florida Agricultural Market Research Center, University of Florida.
Guava: An exotic fruit with potential in Queensland.
Queensland Agricultural Journal, 111, 9398
 Simulation for applied risk management.
College Station, TX: Texas A&M University.
Bio-ethanol production from wheat in the winter rainfall region of South Africa: A quantitative risk analysis.
International Food Agribusiness Management Review, 10, 181204.
Ranking risky alternatives: Innovations in subjective utility analysis.
Communications Technology, 39, 213224.
Simetar: Simulation for Excel to analyze risk.
College Station, TX: Texas A&M University.
Recent development in the production of guava.
Acta Horticulture, 735, 161176.
The state of the Florida tropical fruit industry and the challenges growers face.
Proceedings of the Florida State Horticulture Society, 110, 78.
October 2017 // Volume 55 // Number 5 // Tools of the Trade // v55-5tt4
 Since the 1980s, steadily growing interest in local, sustainably raised meat and poultry has prompted a call for more processing facilities.
And that call grows louder in times of low commodity livestock prices, as producers seek higher prices for their animals.
However, unlike other types of local foods, meat and poultry require a significant, highly regulated processing step to turn live animals into packaged, saleable product.
Degrees of processing and regulations vary by product, target market, and other factors, but nonetheless are complex.
Livestock producers, when they experience challenges with processing , often conclude that a new facility should be built.
At the same time, many small-scale processors struggle to stay in business.
Extension professionals, along with public agencies, economic development districts, nonprofit organizations, and similar entities can find themselves in the middle of this complex puzzle, asked to support or lead efforts to build or expand local processing.
They are typically recruited because of their significant expertise in one or more of the links in the local meat and poultry value chain.
Yet the processing link can be a "black box": Without an understanding of the complex economic, regulatory, and operational conditions in which meat processors, especially small-scale facilities, operate, Extension professionals often have difficulty advising their clientele.
In 2008, we created the Niche Meat Processor Assistance Network  as a peer learning forum and information hub focused on meat and poultry processing for local, niche markets.
We explicitly use a value-chain approach to connect those with expertise across all links of the chain.
Our network operates as a community of practice that includes meat processors, butchers, farmers and ranchers, distributors, retailers, public agencies, Extension, nonprofits, and others working to support and strengthen this sector.
NMPAN has become a trusted, credible resource and forum, both nationally and internationally.
Extension professionals regularly assist clientele and communities with challenges, market opportunities, requests for information, and other offerings that require stretching beyond their expertise.
This situation often requires bringing in colleagues and external partners and finding relevant research and other resources to apply locally.
NMPAN provides a link to Extension colleagues and other partners who have expertise related to local meat processing, along with a comprehensive array of applied research, technical reports, case studies, and other education and outreach resources.
However, not everyone can take the time to dig into these resources.
Consequently, we identified a clear need for a concise, user-friendly guide about the basics of local meat processing that Extension professionals and others could use to bring themselves and their clientele up to speed quickly.
After hearing from many Extension professionals, nonprofits, funders, and public agencies, including during a 2014 tour with U.S.
Department of Agriculture  Rural Development western state directors, we conducted a more formal needs assessment to confirm interest and identify priority subtopics.
In October 2014, we sent an online Qualtrics questionnaire to those on a national list that included Cooperative Extension agents, public agencies, nonprofit organizations, and support businesses likely to be involved with some aspect of the local meat value chain.
Thirty-seven percent of respondents  were from Cooperative Extension or other university positions; 13% were in state or federal agencies; 16% were from nonprofits; and 9% were in associated businesses.
The other 25% were producers or processors themselves.
Respondents were based in 32 of the 50 states, from all U.S.
Ninety-six percent of all respondents said they received questions or requests for information related to meat and poultry processing, with 42% of that 96% receiving such requests "all the time." When we asked what type of information would help them answer those questions, providing a list of five topics, respondents essentially said "yes, please": Each of the five was selected by at least two thirds of respondents:
 With our hunch confirmed, we developed a pilot "crash course" in 2015 and field tested it in educational sessions at several national conferences.
We used participant feedback to revise the course into four short, easy-to-read fact sheets, which we then had peer reviewed, for both content and ease of use, by a small group of content experts and practitioners.
We distributed the guide nationally through our network and with help from partner organizations and agencies.
According to web usage data, it is in wide circulation: At this writing, the guide had been viewed nearly 2,200 times in the preceding 60 days, with an average of 1,000 views per month.
Early reactions have been very positive.
An agricultural professional in California wrote, "I wish I had had this when I was first getting started." Additionally, the guide already has been cited in a 2016 feasibility study in California.
We encourage Extension professionals to use the guide and share it with clientele and partners.
NMPAN, as a national forum for peer learning and an information hub, is open and available to those seeking more in-depth information.
Kathryn Quanbeck was NMPAN program manager during the preparation of the Beginner's Guide to Local Meat Processing.
She has since left NMPAN for another position.
We thank the NMPAN advisory board and other peer reviewers for providing critical feedback on the guide, as well as our funders for general support of NMPAN and, therefore, the project described here.
Local meat and poultry processing: The importance of business commitments for long-term viability.
Department of Agriculture Economic Research Service.
Guide to designing a small red meat plant.
Ames, IA: Iowa State University.
June 2017 // Volume 55 // Number 3 // Tools of the Trade // v55-3tt2
 Extension educators are increasingly using online resources in their program design and delivery.
Online educational programming can be as effective as face-to-face instruction , serves a large number of audiences at lower costs (Case, Cluskey, & Hino, 2011; Sutherin, Lombard, & St.
Hilaire, 2015), and can be useful when personnel cuts have occurred.
There is an increasing demand on Extension educators to be cost-effective in their educational programming , and one way to meet this demand is through online programming.
However, online products must still meet learners' needs.
Lambur  asserted that developers of online projects should ensure that usability testing is performed to prevent a mismatch between what program designers intend and what users experience.
Usability encompasses aspects such as learnability, memorability, errors, and satisfaction.
In this article, we describe our experience with a specific usability testing tool that we implemented for our project Useful to Usable : Transforming Climate Variability and Change Information for Cereal Crop Producers.
UserTesting requires application of the following steps in planning and implementing its testing service:
 We negotiated a contract and bought 90 user credits for $4,500 that we could use over a 2-year period.
One user test of up to 15 min equals one credit.
UserTesting emailed feedback videos shortly after we deployed the test.
Tester Feedback from Irrigation Investment Tool Development
 On the basis of our experience, we are able to provide recommendations to others interested in performing user testing of online resources.
We learned about online usability testing services, including UserTesting, during an Extension Education Evaluation Topical Interest Group presentation at the 2011 American Evaluation Association conference.
We adopted this usability testing method for the U2U project and have found it to be cost-effective, convenient, and effective in improving our online Extension programming.
However, in presenting the approach at Extension-related events, we have found that most participants are unfamiliar with it.
Therefore, it is our hope that this article will create greater awareness of online usability testing as an effective tool for Extensionists.
Many of the lessons we learned from our experience with UserTesting should be transferable to usability testing conducted through other companies.
UserTesting works well for any online product.
We used it for testing the U2U DSTs and marketing materials.
On the basis of the testers' feedback, we implemented changes in the layout and design of the DSTs and clarified phrasing across the marketing materials.
Our experience led us to conclude that usability testing has implications for Extension educators, administrators, and program evaluators who design and evaluate educational programming that fully or partially involves web-based or online resources.
Usability testing saves resource development costs.
It prevents unsatisfactory learning experiences that can result from irrelevant, out-of-context, or badly designed educational materials.
Usability testing has other benefits as well.
Extension educators can enhance client learning by making educational resources more usable and, thereby, have a greater likelihood of achieving desired program outcomes.
Evaluators can gather important data during formative evaluation and better explain outcomes and impact during summative evaluation.
The research reported here is part of Useful to Usable : Transforming Climate Variability and Change Information for Cereal Crop Producers and is supported by Agriculture and Food Research Initiative Competitive Grant no.
2011-68002-30220 from the U.S.
Department of Agriculture National Institute of Food and Agriculture.
Special thanks to Will Cushman of the University of Wisconsin Environmental Resources Center's Marketing and Communications Unit for editing the article.
August 2019 // Volume 57 // Number 4 // Research In Brief // v57-4rb5
 Through the master gardener program, which started in Washington State in 1972, experienced gardeners are trained to share their expertise with others in their respective states.
Now present in 49 states, master gardeners are a critical resource in Extension's effort to improve consumer horticulture education.
Once trained, master gardeners constitute a cost-effective means for reaching a wide variety of community members.
However, the initial master gardener training can be expensive to provide.
To defray or cover costs, some state Extension organizations require volunteers to pay for training courses, with published costs ranging from approximately $195 to $450 as of fall 2017.
A strategy for reducing master gardener training costs is to use distance education to reach multiple locations with one face-to-face training, limiting Extension professionals' travel and saving both time and financial resources.
Although measured learning outcomes from remote and face-to-face master gardener training are primarily equivalent, researchers have identified differences and expressed concerns regarding reduced volunteer retention  and technical limitations  associated with distance learning.
An effective master gardener training program requires volunteers not only to be prepared for their work but also to be retained long enough for Extension programs to reap the benefit of investing in their training.
In 2015, master gardener training in Delaware involved a hybrid delivery method comprising face-to-face and remote sessions.
In Delaware, volunteer programs are organized at the county level, but training in 2015 was statewide.
When trainees from one county were in a live session, trainees in the state's two other counties were trained remotely via Zoom, a video web conferencing  platform.
In an initial investigation, we found that master gardener trainees were equally able to answer application questions on session content after face-to-face and remote instruction via VWC when considering all the sessions together.
However, when evaluating each session separately, we identified two sessions for which face-to-face learners outperformed those who were trained remotely.
Both sessions were hosted at a site with particularly low bandwidth, and we postulated that technical difficulties as opposed to the delivery format itself were responsible for the significant learning differences.
Additionally, when asked to evaluate the remote sessions in terms of their similarity to in-person instruction, referred to as media naturalness , participants on average rated the remote sessions poorly.
Alternatively, trainees' overall perceptions of the training were predominantly positive, suggesting that positive aspects of the training outweighed any low technical functionality of the remote environment.
Researchers studying Iowa Master Gardeners found similar results in terms of volunteer preferences, as respondents favored live presentations and workshops over video presentations and webinars.
Given the clear need to maximize master gardener training efforts, it is important to consider the impact of initial training format on volunteer satisfaction and retention in addition to learning and application of knowledge.
Volunteer satisfaction can be associated with the amount of time individuals spend volunteering  or their intentions to remain with an organization.
Decreases in either of these variables undermine the cost savings afforded by distance education in training due to the need to recruit and train additional volunteers to cover responsibilities or replace those who leave.
The purpose of the study we describe herein was to follow up 1 year after the 2015 training to explore volunteer satisfaction and planned tenure of master gardeners who participated in a combination of face-to-face and remotely delivered training  as compared to their peers who participated in earlier fully face-to-face training.
Specifically, we sought to answer the following research questions:
 To evaluate trainees' satisfaction and intent to remain with the master gardener organization after VWC training, we distributed a survey to all current master gardeners that included questions about their participation in the master gardener program, satisfaction as volunteers, and intent to remain with the organization.
We emailed a link to the online survey in January 2017, mailed hard copies to those who did not complete the digital version in February 2017, and closed survey collection at the end of March 2017.
We sent surveys to 282 volunteers.
The survey included six sections: demographics, volunteer participation, volunteer satisfaction, training and learning opportunities, connection to sponsoring organizations, and intent to remain with Delaware Master Gardeners.
Here, we focus on volunteer satisfaction, remote delivery trainees' evaluation of their training and learning opportunities, and intent to remain with the organization.
Demographic information and volunteer participation were covariates in our analyses.
We measured master gardeners' satisfaction by using the Volunteer Satisfaction Index  , considering organizational support , participation efficacy , empowerment , and group integration.
Volunteers indicated their level of satisfaction with each item  on a scale of 1  to 7.
If master gardeners were trained in 2015 and thus received the VWC training, we asked them to rate their experience as a learner on a scale of 1  to 7.
Finally, we asked participants to rate their intent to remain with the organization for 1 year and 3 years, barring unforeseen changes, on a scale of 1  to 7.
To predict master gardeners' volunteer satisfaction, we used robust multiple linear regression models that account for outlier influential data points by weighting observations.
We chose to use this type of model for predicting volunteer satisfaction based on increases in model fit, as measured by adjusted R2 values.
To predict volunteers' intent to remain with the organization, we used a multiple linear regression model with Huber-White robust standard errors to account for possible heteroscedasticity, unequal variance in the dependent variable  across values of the independent variable.
The covariates are consistent across all models: gender, county, education, gardening frequency, years as a master gardener, total number of master gardener activities, and survey response mode.
By including these covariates, we held volunteer characteristics  constant to identify the association between VWC training participation and satisfaction or intent to remain.
We included survey response mode to account for measurement error introduced by two different question display styles, but we did not interpret significance.
We used Stata Version 14 for all analyses.
We received responses from 198 of the 282 distributed surveys , for a 70.2% response rate overall and a 60.0% response rate for the 2015 VWC-trained cohort.
The demographics of our sample are similar to those of the national trends for master gardener volunteers , with majorities of the responding master gardeners being female , White , and college educated  and the mean age being 70.5 years old.
Although the master gardener respondents were overall highly satisfied with the Delaware Master Gardener organization, as indicated by an average total satisfaction rating of 6.00 out of 7.00 , master gardeners who trained via VWC had a significantly lower total satisfaction rating.
In Table 3, each model is a regression of VWC training participation  or VWC experience  on total satisfaction and on satisfaction by subscale.
We found that VWC trainees were 0.17 standard deviations less satisfied than those who had participated in the traditional face-to-face trainings prior to 2015, when all covariates were held at their means.
However, their overall reduced satisfaction was not clearly attributable to one subscale of the VSI.
That is, they were not significantly less satisfied by organizational support , participation efficacy , empowerment , or group integration.
There was a significant positive association between master gardeners' rating of their VWC experience and their volunteer satisfaction.
With every one-unit increase in their rating of their VWC experience, master gardeners' total satisfaction increased by 0.39 standard deviations, with all covariates being held at their means.
Considering the subscales of the VSI, master gardeners' rating of their VWC experience was significantly positively associated with organizational support  and empowerment.
With every one-unit increase in their rating of the VWC experience, their satisfaction in those areas increased by.48 and.62 standard deviations, respectively.
Notably, these models explain a significant amount of the variance in volunteers' satisfaction.
Most master gardeners believed they would still be with the organization within the subsequent 1 year  and the subsequent 3 years .
Although master gardeners who trained via VWC had higher confidence in their intent to remain with the organization for 1 year  and 3 years  , these are not statistically significant differences and are expected given that they are new to the program.
Additionally, we did not identify a significant association between volunteers' ratings of their VWC experience and their intent to remain with the organization.
Although master gardeners who participated in VWC training in 2015 were overall less satisfied as volunteers than those who trained prior to 2015, their decreased satisfaction is not clearly attributable to one satisfaction component.
Additionally, it is important to consider that the majority of master gardeners who trained with remote delivery still categorized themselves as satisfied.
Interestingly, for those who trained with remote delivery, the variation in satisfaction seems to be associated with their perception of the VWC training experience.
Those who perceived the VWC to be more similar to face-to-face instruction rated their volunteer satisfaction higher.
In particular, they felt higher satisfaction in organizational support and empowerment.
These components of volunteer satisfaction include interactions between the volunteer and the organizational structures and personnel.
They did not feel more satisfied with regard to participation efficacy  or group integration.
Although it is possible that individuals who respond positively on one scale simply tend to respond more positively on all scales, the subscale variance suggests that respondents considered and differentiated between the items when responding.
As perception of training experience appears to be important for master gardener volunteer satisfaction in terms of organizational support and sense of empowerment, it is critical for Extension to provide a VWC training experience that master gardeners perceive to be as similar as possible to face-to-face instruction.
Elements of providing such an experience might include
 VWC can be an effective method of delivering master gardener training in terms of knowledge acquisition.
However, it is necessary to pay close attention to the details that affect perception of the VWC experience to ensure volunteers' long-term satisfaction in their role as master gardeners and maximize knowledge to provide consumer horticulture education.
Our research was funded by a Delaware Cooperative Extension grant.
We thank Cooperative Extension personnel  for help in implementing the study during Delaware Master Gardener training.
The study was approved by the University of Delaware and University of Delaware Institutional Review Boards.
Evaluating the implementation of video web conferencing in Delaware master gardener training.
The Washington State University Master Gardener Program: Cultivating plants, people, and communities for 25 years.
Developing a national strategic plan for consumer horticulture.
Extension master gardener volunteers of the 21st century: Educated, prosperous, and committed.
Volunteer satisfaction and volunteer action: A functional approach.
Social Behavior and Personality: An International Journal, 36, 918.
The Volunteer Satisfaction Index: Construct definition, measurement development, and validation.
Journal of Social Service Research, 28, 4568.
Media richness or media naturalness?
The evolution of our biological communication apparatus and its influence on our behavior toward e-communication tools.
IEEE Transactions on Professional Communication, 48, 117130.
Advantages and disadvantages of asynchronous online extension programming for delivering master producer content.
Evaluating long distance delivery of the North Dakota master gardener core course.
In American Society for Horticultural Science, New Orleans, LA.
Interactive television delivers master gardener training effectively.
Motivation and retention of Iowa master gardeners.
Clientele perceptions of master gardener training delivered via interactive television versus face to face.
HortTechnology, 9 , 116121.
June 2013 // Volume 51 // Number 3 // Research In Brief // v51-3rb6
 This article describes the results of a study investigating the use of rain barrels as a tool for encouraging homeowners to adopt best practices for water resource protection in New Jersey and Northern Virginia.
Homeowners normally manage small areas of land, but their voluntary aggregate impacts have the potential to protect and improve local water resources, so they are an important audience for Extension professionals to engage.
Frequently, educational programs targeting residential property owners are implemented in order to improve water resources with varying degrees of success.
Dietz, Clausen, and Filchak  showed that educational workshops and individual consulting in one Connecticut residential neighborhood resulted in only a few behavioral changes and minimal improvement of water quality.
Alternatively, an evaluation of a Maine watershed education program showed that lakefront landowners who participated in the program had a greater knowledge level and were more motivated to take action to protect their lake watershed than non-program participants.
Rain barrels are connected to the downspout of a roof to collect stormwater runoff for later use for outdoor watering needs.
The average rain barrel holds 50 to 90 gallons of water and provides only modest benefits to the environment for stormwater runoff reduction and water conservation.
Regardless, Build A Rain Barrel programs for homeowners are very popular in New Jersey and Northern Virginia and frequently fill to capacity.
The potential exists to build upon the popularity of rain barrels and implement an integrated educational approach that effectively trains residents to install additional best management practices  with a greater potential to improve water quality, reduce flooding, and conserve water.
In 2007, a number of Northern Virginia-based organizations  established the Northern Virginia Rain Barrel program using a model developed by Clean Virginia Waterways.
The organizations began offering Build A Rain Barrel workshops to local residents focused on stormwater management and runoff reduction.
In 2009, Rutgers Cooperative Extension  adapted the program for New Jersey.
New Jersey's large population combined with increasing demand for potable water has left many municipalities vulnerable to water supply shortages, despite receiving on average 45 inches of rainfall per year.
For this reason, RCE added water conservation education to the rain barrel program.
Limited information exists in peer-reviewed literature on the results and impacts of community organized rain barrel programs.
Few studies have examined whether rain barrel programs can act as a catalyst for changing behavioral practices.
The goal of the Build A Rain Barrel program is to enable residents to be water resource managers on their properties through education and training.
This article describes the effectiveness of the program for meeting this stated goal and demonstrates the results of our investigation into whether rain barrels can be used to encourage the adoption of additional practices for water resource protection.
Build A Rain Barrel programs are typically held in the spring and summer and are conducted by Extension agents and staff, and conservation district and municipal employees.
By keeping the program to approximately 2 hours and holding it in the evening or on weekends, the program is designed to appeal to the maximum number of individuals who have limited time to dedicate to a longer course on water resource management.
The program includes information about how residential properties contribute to stormwater runoff and nonpoint source pollution, and in New Jersey, how much water savings can be achieved through indoor and outdoor water conservation practices.
Residents are encouraged to think about changes they could make indoors and outdoors to reduce their environmental footprint.
BMPs such as diverting downspouts to pervious areas and installing low flow water fixtures inside their homes are reviewed.
The second half of the presentation includes demonstrating how to build, maintain, and install a rain barrel.
Fifty-five gallon, plastic, food grade barrels are then retrofitted into rain barrels by program participants.
All materials and tools are provided during the program.
Starting in the spring of 2010, in New Jersey only, a preand post-program survey was used to determine knowledge gained and change in self-assessed skills and abilities by participants.
Survey data was not collected at every program, and therefore, the number of responses is lower than the actual number of program participants.
For questions measuring knowledge gain, McNemar's test was used to compare pooled preand post-test differences for individual questions.
For questions in which participants self-assessed their abilities, one-tailed, paired sample t-tests were used to determine preand post-test differences for individual questions.
A significance level of p < 0.05 for all statistical tests was considered significant.
In both Northern Virginia and New Jersey, an online follow-up survey was sent to all participants who provided contact information to determine program impact for encouraging behavioral changes and adoption of BMPs.
In New Jersey, the survey was sent 3 to 6 months after the program and included additional questions concerning water conservation actions taken by the participant.
In Northern Virginia, the survey was sent approximately one year after the program.
From 2008 through 2010, 36 rain barrel programs were conducted in Northern Virginia with approximately 1,400 residents.
In New Jersey from 2010 through 2011, 42 rain barrel programs were conducted with approximately 777 residents in communities throughout the state.
New Jersey survey participants showed a significant increase in knowledge and abilities from preto post-survey on 14 of the 15 questions.
The results in Table 1 show that before the workshop, participants did not have accurate information about the maintenance and installation of rain barrels.
Additionally, although participants knew before the workshop that rain barrel water should not be used for drinking and cooking , many did not know that the water should be tested before being used to water a vegetable garden.
Participants self-reported an increase in knowledge for understanding how to install a rain barrel at a home or building.
Many participants had prior knowledge of the environmental benefits of rain barrels , methods for saving water in the home garden , and how to reduce rainwater runoff from their home.
Similarly, Table 2 shows participants indicated a prior inclination to take steps at home to save water  and reduce stormwater runoff.
Follow-up surveys showed that 73% of New Jersey respondents and 83% of Virginia respondents installed their rain barrel at home.
Most respondents indicated that their primary reason for having a rain barrel was to save water as opposed to reducing stormwater runoff or reducing wet areas on their property.
Respondents also indicated that they use their barrel at least weekly and that their primary use was to fill up a watering can.
Fifty-eight percent of New Jersey respondents and 48% of Northern Virginia respondents indicated they had adopted at least one BMP learned from the program.
Table 4 shows the most frequently adopted practice was to re-direct existing downspouts to a garden or mulched area , which New Jersey respondents indicated on the pre-program survey as a strong likelihood that they would adopt.
Other actions that respondents took at home were to reduce lawn areas , apply mulch to garden areas , or install a low-flow showerhead.
Not surprisingly, these are the most low cost, simplest actions to adopt.
Interestingly, although many New Jersey participants indicated on the program survey that they had plans to install a rain garden on their property , few individuals actually had adopted this practice.
It is possible that the rain garden requires more labor, money, and technical skill and would require further training for residents to install at home.
It is also possible that additional time is needed to document rain garden installations, as indicated by the higher adoption rate in Virginia verses New Jersey for this practice.
Virginia allows at least an additional 6 months to send out the follow-up survey than New Jersey.
More of an effort should be made to connect participants with available rain garden trainings since many indicated an interest in this area.
Few times a week
 Other practices respondents indicated they have adopted at home are as follows.
New Jersey respondents were asked to estimate the number of gallons of water they had used from their rain barrel by considering the number of times the 55 gallon barrel had been emptied since installation.
On average, respondents estimated using 352 gallons of water , with 70% of respondents reporting using less than 300 gallons from their rain barrel.
There was no significant difference in estimated water use between 2010 and 2011, despite the fact that 2011 was the wettest year on record in New Jersey.
Extension agents are currently working with residents to monitor water levels in their barrels for more accurate estimates of water use.
Regardless, this information is useful for initiating studies of water savings achieved through small scale rainwater harvesting.
Histogram of the Estimated Number of Gallons Used by Survey Respondents from Their Rain Barrel 
 Results showed that the enthusiasm generated by rain barrel programs can be used as an effective means for encouraging adoption of additional BMPs that protect water resources.
Admittedly, a substantial number of respondents did not take any additional action at home  to reduce stormwater runoff or conserve water.
Some respondents indicated that they had previously installed many of the water saving devices indicated on the survey.
Others indicated they had future plans to install a rain garden, plant native plants, or reduce lawn area.
Future surveys should include questions about why additional actions were not taken and differentiate between actions taken before attending the program.
Additionally, we cannot state definitively that rain barrels can act as a catalyst for changing behaviors without collecting data on a control group that did not participate in the program.
Future research should compare program participant results to those of non-participants to determine whether there is a significant difference between BMP adoption rates.
Last, an effort should be made to follow up with survey non-respondents to account for their actions after participating in the program.
Results also showed that the program participants already have a high degree of understanding of how their actions at home affect the environment and were already inclined to take action to reduce their impact.
Despite these results, the authors feel this program has much value.
Considering the training is only 2 hours long, during which little time exists to review each BMP in detail, results are positive for using rain barrels as a hook for encouraging homeowners to adopt additional practices that reduce stormwater runoff, conserve water, and improve local water resources.
Future programs should attempt to increase the technical information given at the program because attendees already seem to have a basic understanding of the environmental issues.
Additionally, current programs are open to all geographic areas.
A more focused approach in specific watersheds is needed that can better quantify the environmental impacts of an integrated rain barrel educational program on water quality and stormwater runoff volume.
Consumer demand for green stormwater management technology in an urban setting: The case of Chicago rain barrels.
Water Resources Research, 47.
Education and changes in residential nonpoint source pollution.
Environmental Management, 34 , 684-690.
Attempts to promote residential water conservation with educational, behavioral, and engineering strategies.
Population and Environment, 6, 96-112.
Performance of rainwater harvesting systems in the southeastern United States.
Resources, Conservation and Recycling, 54, 623-629.
Education campaigns to reduce stormwater pollution in commercial areas: Do they work?
Journal of Environmental Management, 84, 323-335.
Using a reverse auction to promote household level stormwater control.
Environmental Science and Policy, 13, 405-414.
October 2015 // Volume 53 // Number 5 // Tools of the Trade // v53-5tt4
 In fall 2014, we designed an online survey to evaluate the newsletter/blog.
Nine questions gathered feedback on user characteristics, general reactions, knowledge gains, impacts on action/behavior, and suggestions for improvement.
The project was submitted to the University Research Compliance Office and was designated exempt from further review.
We designed the survey using Qualtrics  and made it available via an anonymous survey link.
The link was distributed through the email, Facebook, and Twitter.
Several reminders were also sent to help increase participation.
We received 94 responses.
Respondents were primarily based in Kansas , with some in Missouri  or other states.
Our audience represented a broad array of the turfgrass and landscape industries, with golf course management and lawn care as the largest sectors.
One objective was to determine how users access the information.
Most  prefer to receive the weekly newsletter for blog links, but others prefer using social media or other methods.
Another key objective was to learn about knowledge gains and application of that knowledge.
Most respondents indicated that the newsletter/blog aided them in the identification of diseases, weeds, and insects.
Many respondents use the information to implement cultural practices and select and use pesticides.
Another goal for the newsletter/blog is to raise awareness of trainings, publications, and other resources.
Respondents indicated that they learned about these resources.
We asked if users share information from the newsletter/blog.
The majority of respondents, 87%, responded "Yes" to the question, "Has the K-State turf and landscape newsletter/blog helped you better communicate about turf or landscape topics with others ?"
 We solicited general assessments of the quality and usefulness of the newsletter/blog, and average scores were high.
We asked two open-ended questions: "How can we improve the K-State turf and landscape email newsletter/blog?
Please type your comments" and "Please provide any additional comments you would like to make." There were many generic positive comments about the information, like "keep it coming" or "we appreciate this resource" and a few comments on specific topics to cover.
General suggestions included the following.
As highlighted by Jones, Kaminski, Christians, & Hoffmann , blogs provide a way to deliver timely content while facilitating conversation and development of relationships with end-users via comments and/or connections with other social media outlets.
We have experienced similar advantages.
also list challenges, including the necessity of frequent updating, availability and speed of Internet access, and user preference for other delivery methods.
We have experienced the first challenge, but having two dedicated contributors helps overcome this, along with soliciting guest posts.
We received no comments about the second challenge, regarding availability and speed of Internet access.
Several users indicated a preference of an e-newsletter format over a blog, but none preferred traditional print delivery.
In the future, we will analyze metrics related to top search hits as well as monthly, weekly, and time-of-day views to optimize delivery.
Other Extension blog authors have reported variation based on season or time of week (Stafne 2012; Jones et al.
We will use the metrics to optimize engagement.
Based on the open-ended questions, we will send the email earlier in the week and explore the possibility of a more printable format.
We will increase our coverage of lawn care, athletic fields, and lower-budget sites, along with the specific topics that respondents suggested.
This manuscript is contribution no.
15-400-J from the Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station.
October 2017 // Volume 55 // Number 5 // Ideas at Work // v55-5iw2
 Nitrogen fertilizer is invaluable to Midwest crop production, but it is very mobile and easily lost from fields, with negative consequences for the environment.
University researchers and Extension program personnel have created tools to help farmers manage nitrogen efficiently.
However, recent research indicates that many farmers seek information on farm decisions, including those involving nitrogen rates, from private sector retailers and advisors outside the university.
These advisors are heavily influenced by Extension.
Both private sector farm advisors and Extension play key roles in the network of information for farmers , but in ways that may be changing from historical patterns of interaction.
To date, little is documented on effective ways for Extension to interact with private sector advisors who are critical actors in farm decision making.
We held a Sustainable Nitrogen Roundtable workshop to bring together important groupsprivate sector farm advisors, Extension educators, scientists, and farmersto discuss challenges to and opportunities for research, education, and outreach initiatives aimed at increasing sustainable nitrogen use in midwestern cropping systems.
Roundtables can be effective for bringing together diverse groups to discuss important issues.
Central to the nitrogen roundtable was a project funded by the National Science Foundation.
Led by a team of Michigan State University  social and biophysical scientists, the project focused on integrating the biophysical, sociological, and economic aspects of nitrogen fertilizer for the purpose of informing management and policy decisions.
Across the Midwest, the team conducted field experiments, measured nitrogen loss, surveyed thousands of farmers, and conducted in-depth interviews with over 100 farmers about nitrogen use.
We designed the roundtable to share and discuss these results with practitioners.
We invited Extension educators and private sector farm advisors and nitrogen dealers from Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, and Michigan.
The 1.5-day workshop was held June 12, 2016, at the Kellogg Biological Station Long-term Ecological Research site in Michigan.
The workshop began with an overview of the nitrogen cycle in agroecosystems, which was followed by presentations by the MSU research team.
Presentations by researchers highlighted farmer decision-making processes that may be of use for practitioners when promoting new or innovative practices.
Next, invited speakers shared applied research on decision-support tools and applied nitrogen management.
We had a diverse mix of participants, although most farmer panelists could not attend due to delayed field activities resulting from an unusually wet spring.
It was relatively easy to recruit Extension educators through university and U.S.
Department of Agriculture networks; nearly all invited Extension educators agreed to attend, and those who could not generally expressed enthusiasm for the event.
Finding ways to tap into private sector networks was more challenging, and some private sector representatives canceled at the last minute due to pressing job duties.
Participants had varied expertise in the aspects of farm management on which they provide recommendations, with the majority  reporting that they advise farmers on nutrient management.
Ninety-six percent of participants said that the mix of presentations and discussions provided an effective means for learning about nitrogen management.
Ninety percent stated that they improved their understanding of varied viewpoints on nitrogen management, and there was improved knowledge and understanding of nitrogen dynamics.
Fifty-five percent reported being somewhat likely and 45% reported being very likely to connect with other workshop participants for future collaborations.
Importantly, 90% said they would recommend the workshop to a colleague.
A rising global population, climate change, and societal demands for environmentally friendly farming bring significant challenges to agriculture.
Recent budget reductions in Extension exacerbate these challenges, and new partnerships are needed to meet them.
Through our nitrogen roundtable, we gained insights that may inform Extension programming that relates to seeking new partnerships:
 We are grateful to the participants, panelists, and speakers of the roundtable for sharing their expertise, time, and experiences.
MSU Extension educator Marilyn Thelen provided valuable planning advice, and we are grateful for the support of North Central Region Sustainable Agriculture and Research Education coordinators in helping recruit Extension educators to participate.
Sarah Hanks was invaluable in organizing the event.
Our work was funded by NSF's Dynamics of Coupled Natural and Human Systems program , NSF's Kellogg Biological Station Long-term Ecological Research program , and MSU AgBioResearch.
Iowa farmers' nitrogen management practices and perspectives.
Ames, IA: Iowa State University Extension.
Extension's role in disseminating information about climate change to agricultural stakeholders in the United States.
Climatic Change, 130, 261272.
Nitrogen in agriculture: Balancing the cost of an essential resource.
Annual Review of Environment and Resources, 34, 97125.
Concepts and rationale for regional nitrogen rate guidelines for corn.
Ames, IA: Iowa State University Extension.
The need for a coupled human and natural systems understanding of agricultural nitrogen loss.
L., & McDermott, M.
Reducing nitrogen fertilizer application as a climate change mitigation strategy: Understanding farmer decision-making and potential barriers to change in the US.
Land Use Policy, 36, 210218.
Corn Irrigation Timing and Water Use Efficiency Crop water use is influenced by atmospheric conditions, crop growth stage, planting date and planting density.
Substantial reductions in yield potential can occur if corn does not receive enough water to meet evapotranspiration demands during peak water use in the reproductive growth stages.
Irrigation management usually schedules an application of water before the crop reaches a state of severe water stress.
Understanding how corn water use changes throughout the season can help guide more efficient irrigation applications.
Evapotranspiration Crop water use, consumptive use and evapotranspiration  are all terms used interchangeably to describe the water consumed by a crop.
1 Evapotranspiration  is used to describe the movement of water through evaporation  from the soil and plant surfaces and transpiration  through the plant.
Transpiration is the movement of water from the soil into plant roots, through plant stems and leaves, and back out into the atmosphere.
Transpiration is an important concept because yield is related to the amount of water a plant transpires.
Understanding corn water use and the factors that affect it can help guide more efficient irrigation applications.
Factors that Influence Evapotranspiration Factors that affect ET and irrigation scheduling decisions include: Crop growth stage.
Corn water requirements change throughout the season.
Young plants transpire less than larger plants due to a smaller leaf surface area.
Corn requires the most water just prior to and during the early reproductive growth stages.
A full-season corn product will use more water over the course of the season compared to a shorter-season product grown in the same location.
While longerseason corn products use more water, they may also have a higher yield potential if heat units and adequate water are available.
The ability of the atmosphere to evaporate water is the driving force for soil water evaporation and transpiration.
Daily ET is influenced by solar radiation, air temperature, relative humidity, and wind.
High air temperatures, low humidity, clear skies, and high winds cause a large evaporative demand that can exceed 0.50 inches of water per day in some areas when the corn crop is in the early reproductive stages.
1 Soil water holding capacity and soil water content.
Soil type dictates the maximum amount of water a soil can hold and how much of that water will be available to plants.
Fine textured soils can hold more water than coarse textured soils.
As the soil dries, it becomes more difficult for plants to extract water.
When the soil water profile is full , plants use water at the maximum rate.
As the water content of the soil drops, plants are less able to extract the water.
Soil water begins to limit transpiration when the soil dries below a threshold generally halfway between field capacity and wilting point.
Corn water use fluctuates throughout the season depending on weather conditions and crop growth stage.
Example of long-term daily average  and individual year  corn water use with select growth stages.
Irrigation management for corn.
University of Nebraska-Lincoln Extension.
Corn Water Use and Irrigation Requirements by Growth Stage High yielding corn requires approximately 22 to 30 inches of water per year depending on planting date, planting density, maturity group, location, and weather conditions.
2 Corn requires the most water during the early reproductive growth stages , which are also the most sensitive stages to water stress.
Substantial reductions in yield can occur if corn does not receive enough water to meet ET demands during this critical water use period.
Example of crop water use  by growth stage for 113-day maturity corn.
Irrigation management for corn.
University of Nebraska-Lincoln Extension.
Early Growth Stages Corn uses very little water during the seedling stage.
If early season precipitation and stored soil moisture are adequate for seedling emergence and early plant development, irrigation is not recommended immediately following planting.
Without the plant canopy to shade the soil surface, much of the irrigation could be lost to evaporation.
However, there are two scenarios where overhead sprinkler irrigation is recommended just after a corn crop is seeded.
If after planting the surface soil moisture has dried to the point where there is not enough moisture to meet the germinating seed requirement for uniform germination and emergence, then an irrigation application or two , depending on soil type, is recommended.
This is to ensure uniform emergence and reduce the occurrence of late emerging seedlings or skips in the stand due to seeds in dry soil, delayed germination, or failure to germinate at all.
If pre-emergence herbicides are applied just before or after planting, a light irrigation  is often used to incorporate these herbicides into the top two inches of the soil profile to position the herbicide in the soil zone of germinating weed seeds.
Producers should rely on stored soil moisture and natural precipitation as much as possible during the early growth stages as an early irrigation can also cool the soil and delay seed germination and early growth.
Vegetative Stages The vegetative stages of corn are often considered the least sensitive stages to water stress yield loss.
If irrigation supplies are limited, the vegetative stages may provide an opportunity to conserve irrigation for the reproductive stages where it will have the most impact on yield potential.
Corn plants at six leaf vegetative growth stage under heat and moisture stress.
Early Reproductive Stages Corn water use peaks during the early reproductive stages.
Water stress should be avoided during tasseling, silking, and pollination.
Water stress during silking can have the greatest impact on yield potential due to desiccation of the silks and pollen grains, which can result in poor pollination.
1 Corn water demands often exceed precipitation amounts during these critical growth stages.
It is important to plan ahead by knowing the capacity of the irrigation system to ensure that adequate water is available to the crop through these growth stages.
Effects of irrigation on corn yields, Scandia Experiment Field, 1980-1991.
Average Yield  Irrigation Timing 1991* 1980-1991 1991 Irrigation Dates No Irrigation 3 56 None Tassel 124 141 7/8 Tassel and 1 Week After Tassel 148 159 7/8, 7/15 Tassel and 1 and 2 Weeks After Tassel 155 164 7/8, 7/15, 7/25 65% Depletion 159 172 7/1, 7/23 Table modified from Corn Production Handbook C-560 2007, Kansas State University Extension.
*1991 demonstrates a year of severe drought prior to pollination.
Dough through Dent Stages Corn water use rates steadily decrease from the dough stage through maturity due to a lower evaporative demand , a loss of transpiring leaf area as lower leaves begin to die, and changes in plant physiology.
1 Corn continues to require roughly 30% of its seasonal water requirement at the beginning of the dough stage.
For optimal grain development and maximum yield potential, corn requires water right up to physiological maturity.
Water stress during the dough through dent stages can accelerate maturity, prohibiting kernels from reaching their full potential size and weight.
Example of water requirements for corn during the late reproductive stages through maturity.
Predicting the last irrigation of the season.
University of Nebraska-Lincoln Extension.
Maturity Water is no longer needed for kernel growth after physiological maturity  and no yield benefits can be achieved with additional irrigation.
Allowing soils to dry at maturity is a good strategy for avoiding compaction that can be caused by harvesting machinery on wet soils.
Water Use Efficiency Water use efficiency  is defined as the amount of grain produced per unit of water used by a crop.
The concept of WUE has been around for a long time but research is ongoing to help determine what can be done to grow more crop with less water.
Enhancing WUE at the canopy level can be achieved by adopting practices that reduce the soil water evaporation component and divert more water into transpiration which can be achieved through crop residue management, mulching, row spacing, genetic response, and irrigation system efficiency.
4 Residue Management and Tillage System Response The soil water evaporation component of ET can be reduced with conservation tillage and strip tillage which can be increased with surface crop residue.
Adding crop residue to the soil surface has shown benefits in decreasing soil water evaporation and increasing WUE in semi-arid regions.
4 Tillage increases the exposed surface area of the soil which increases evaporation and runoff, destroys crop residue that can catch rain and snow, and may reduce water infiltration rate because of compaction that can be created during the tillage process.
Surface residue also helps increase infiltration rates by limiting the amount of surface sealing  created by rainfall and irrigation droplets.
When a droplet hits a bare soil surface there is a physical disintegration of soil aggregates and their compaction, caused by the impact of raindrops, which can cause soil surface sealing and result in poor water intake rates.
The residue is a physical barrier that does not allow the droplet to impact the soil surface.
Surface residue also helps reduce runoff by creating obstructions that limit water movement and allow more time for water to percolate into the soil profile.
Row Spacing Response Narrow rows can help reduce the time the soil is not covered and may increase WUE by decreasing soil evaporation.
This may be a potential water management tool to increase WUE especially for water limited environments or under rainfed environments with variable rainfall during the growing season.
Evaporation can be suppressed in irrigated fields by increasing planting density to encourage rapid ground cover.
In general, more of a yield response to narrow rows is expected to occur in northern production states, likely due to their shorter growing seasons.
There is an advantage to narrow rows for yield increase in a high-yield environment and no advantage in the midto low-yield environments.
5 Genetic Response The concept of WUE has been proposed in plant breeding to help identify water use efficient genotypes under changing climate regimes, heat and water-deficit stress, and interactions among them.
It has been demonstrated that apparent photosynthesis and transpiration under water-deficit conditions were related to WUE and could be used as tools to assess comparisons in genetic material.
The resilience of genetic material to stress, e.g., temperature or water, will provide the newer genetic material with greater WUE.
4 Irrigation Response The type of irrigation and irrigation system design can drastically affect the WUE of a corn crop.
No irrigation system is 100% efficient but converting a flood or furrow irrigation system to overhead sprinkler irrigation or even realizing more efficiency by converting to a subsurface drip system, can drastically increase irrigation efficiency.
Furrow or flood  type irrigation may only be 50% efficient when you consider the potential for run-off and application rate variability.
Excessively long irrigation runs result in water being lost to the crop by deep percolation on the upstream end of the field by the time the downstream end is adequately irrigated.
And by the time the downstream end is adequately irrigated there is the potential for excessive runoff.
WUE is negatively affected by both potential water losses to the crop.
Overhead sprinkler irrigation WUE can be drastically affected by the height of the irrigation nozzle above the canopy and the water droplet size created by the nozzle package.
The wind velocity along with small irrigation droplet size can reduce the irrigation efficiency by increased evaporation before the water droplet hits the soil surface.
Another area of poor WUE is the area watered by the end gun on many systems.
Many systems have had the end gun removed because the WUE for the area irrigated by the end gun is often the least efficient area irrigated under the overhead irrigation system.
Remote system monitoring can now be used to check on a system's function and even start or stop a system which can have a positively effect on the WUE.
Subsurface drip-irrigation  is a way of irrigating crops through plastic tubes placed under the soil surface.
These systems reduce the soil water evaporation, from between the plant rows, early in the season and limits almost all the evaporation component from the canopy.
Using an SDI system can help provide high WUE and potential savings of 25-50% compared to flood irrigation.
Using SDI also has a positive effect on the environment through reduced nitrate leakage in the lower soil layers, unlike other irrigation systems especially flood or furrow irrigation systems.
One of the reasons that SDI is not used on more acres is the initial cost of installation.
The investment to install this type of the system can range from $2,000 to $4,000 per acre.
6 When considering an irrigation system for corn production any system or nozzle package that can shift more of the water use from evaporation to transpiration can positively affect the WUE.
2 Cover Crop Response Cover crops have the potential to reduce soil erosion and compaction, increase water holding capacity, soil organic matter, and suppress weeds which can all have a positive effect on the WUE of a corn crop.
Different cover crop species and different cover crop planting dates may have specific effects on cropping systems especially in semi-arid areas where the moisture available to grow a crop has a substantial effect on corn yield potential.
Timing of cover crop termination is key to avoiding excessive cover crop growth, water use, and nitrogen immobilization, and consequently potentially reducing corn grain yield.
7 WUE has increased over time because the grain yields have increased while water use has remained relatively constant.
Irrigation Management for Corn, NebGuide G1850.
Corn irrigation macromanagement at the seasonal boundaries initiating and terminating the irrigation season.
Proceedings of the 2009 CPIC.
Colby, Kansas, Feb 24-25.
Water-Use Efficiency: Advances and challenges in a changing climate.
National Laboratory for Agriculture and the Environment, Agricultural Research Service, United States Department of Agriculture, Ames, IA.
Efficient crop water use in Kansas.
2020.The advantages of subsurface drip irrigation in corn production.
Impact of cover crop management on rainfed corn production in western Nebraska.
Assessing the Culture of Fresh Produce Safety Within a Leafy Green Producing Community Kurt D.
As the new procedures require assessments of physical intrusion and excrement in fields, outreach was initiated to educate adult  Yuma, Arizona residents about these guidelines and animal  stewardship.
Preand post-assessments revealed that while sensitivity to fresh produce safety improved, adults over 35 years were more industry responsive.
Citizen-based outreach programs, in communities where fresh produce is grown, could benefit field-level safety mitigation.
Introduction Due to its warm winter climatic conditions, Yuma, located in the Southwest portion of Arizona, is one of the few agricultural regions in the nation where field production of vegetables is possible during the period between November and April.
The region represents the bulk of the state's $3.2 billion vegetable industry, providing food, income, and revenue for a state that ranks second nationally in the production of fresh produce.
Since the 2006 Escherichia coli outbreak in spinach, virtually all Arizona leafy Assessing the Culture of Fresh Produce Safety Within a Leafy Green Producing Community 12/19/11 09:02:57 greens  are being produced following an unparalleled collection of safety practices outlined under the Arizona Leafy Green Productions Shipper Marketing Agreement.
In addition to monitoring soil amendments, irrigation water quality, worker hygiene, and field sanitation, producers are now required to routinely assess physical and animal intrusions, and their excrement in fields.
As a result, it is now essential to educate residents in crop production areas to the reality that minimizing microbial risk is an important issue for all stakeholders, including the general public.
As public cooperation with growers in and around production areas has been recently heightened , the objectives of this effort were to  determine the necessity to educate citizens about their responsibility to minimize microbial risk in and around produce fields and  identify potential target groups that could benefit from a greater understanding of enhanced agricultural practices and public diligence.
Methods Assessment Demographics Baseline assessments were conducted before the launch of a 2-year fresh produce safety campaign.
A 14-question pre-appraisal was administered to 359 Yuma residents.
The number of YA, MMA and MA who participated in the assessment was 122, 120, and 117, respectively, equally divided among males and females.
The same assessment tool was administered to 135 YA, 126 MAA, and 128 MA following the outreach campaign, with respondents divided equally among gender.
Educational Outreach The AZLGMA public relations campaign informed Yuma consumers and residents that leafy green products were grown in accordance with the best food safety practices available today to minimize food-borne illnesses.
The outreach campaign provided simple, public-friendly prevention strategies in which residents, youth, and homeowners could participate.
A series of 10, 30-second public service announcements were broadcast on local area television stations  and popular radio stations  for an 8-month period.
A series of five timely newspaper articles completed the media delivery schemes to the public.
Assessing Outreach Campaign Impacts A four-option, forced Likert scaling method   was used to measure either positive or negative responses to a series of statements concerning fresh produce safety.
Because it was not assumed that respondents perceived the difference between adjacent levels as equidistant, Likert responses were treated as ordinal data and analyzed using the non-parametric Mann-Whitney two-sample and Kruskal-Wallis analysis of variance tests at the 0.05 level of significance.
After post-survey screening, 62 respondents were eliminated from the study because they were unaware of the awareness campaign.
Analyses of gender and ethnicity were not statistically significant.
Selected Survey Categories and Questions Used to Assess1 the Perceptions of Fresh Produce Safety by Residents in a Leafy Green Production Area Specific Assessment Areas and Questions Used in Preand Post-Campaign Assessments Awareness I am aware of the economic impact that agriculture has on the general economy of Yuma.
I am aware of the recent interest in the production of safe leafy greens.
Guidelines which reduce microbial risk in leafy green production raise my confidence.
I am specifically aware of the Arizona Leafy Green Marketing Agreement.
I am confident in the safety of Yuma grown leafy greens.
Confidence I am more confident when purchasing leafy greens when growers adhere to the AZLGMA.
I will change my buying habits as a result of the new leafy green production guidelines.
Likert scale; 1, strongly disagree; 2, disagree; 3, agree; 4, strongly agree Major Results Improved Fresh Produce Safety Awareness In general, older adults seemed to have a greater appreciation of agriculture in the area than YA, even prior to the outreach campaign.
However, in most cases, the outreach campaign produced increased levels of food safety awareness, but not specifically AZLGMA understanding, based on the four categories of food safety knowledge and comprehension.
The Sensitivity of Fresh Produce Safety in Response to a Public Relations Campaign That Focused on Awareness of Current Field Production Practices Relative Age1 Assessment Young Middle-Age Mature OSL Period2 Adults Adults Adults Overall Ag Pre 3.284 4.79  4.86 0.000 Understanding 5  Post 4.09 4.93  4.85 0.002   OSL 0.043 0.249 0.541 Assessing the Culture of Fresh Produce Safety Within a Leafy Green Producing Community 12/19/11 09:02:57 Produce Safety Pre 2.97 4.01  4.23 0.000 Awareness   Post 3.84 4.96   OSL 0.001 0.032 0.049 Production Pre 2.68 3.54  3.88 0.000 Guideline   Knowledge Post 3.32 4.14  4.34 0.000   OSL 0.032 0.021 0.015 Specific AZLGMA Pre 1.82 2.11  2.15 0.091 Awareness   Post 2.08 2.31  2.34 0.122   OSL 0.15 0.24 0.64 Confidence Level Pre 3.22 3.86  4.32 0.010   Post 4.70 4.44  4.32 0.047   OSL 0.000 0.000 0.000 Purchasing Behavior Pre 3.74 3.58  3.79 0.122   Post 3.94 3.81  3.85 0.297   OSL 0.265 0.457 0.651 1Young Adults, 20-40; Middle-Age Adults, 40-65; Mature Adults, >65 2Pre, Pre-assessment period; Post, Post-Assessment Period 3SSL: Observed Significance Level 4Mean Likert scale score 5Mean ranking score Challenges Influencing Younger Adults By far, age had the largest influence on food safety appreciation.
YA seemed to have less awareness and understanding of the new production protocols than MAA and MA, as similarly suggested by Guion, Simonne, and Easton.
Relationships Between Consumer Confidence and Purchasing Behavior While post-assessment evaluations showed enhanced consumer confidence in the production of leafy greens, the campaign did not significantly affect consumer buying habits.
Post-campaign analyses indicate that the purchasing behavior among all respondents, regardless of age, were similar.
People Perceive Fresh Produce Safety Differently A series of paired Mann-Whitney two-sample tests reveal that for the sample as a whole, people perceive fresh produce safety differently.
For instance, respondents perceive "Overall Ag Awareness" and "Fresh Produce Safety Awareness"  and "Produce Confidence Level" and "Purchasing Behavior"  as being equally difficult to understand.
For all other resource pairs, there are statistically significant differences in the perception of fresh produce safety within a people that live in and around leafy green production.
Paired Mann-Whitney Two-Sample Tests Used to Evaluate the Perception of Fresh Produce Safety Within a Rural Population Having Close Ties to the Production of Leafy Greens Fresh Produce Production Specific Produce Overall Ag Safety Guideline AZLGMA Confidence Purchasing Understanding Awareness Appreciation Knowledge Level Behavior Overall Ag Understanding Fresh Produce 0.62 Safety 3 Awareness Production -0.76 -0.18 Guideline   Appreciation Specific 0.86 0.09 0.15 AZLGMA    Knowledge Produce 0.36 1.02 1.31 1.25 Confidence     Level Purchasing -0.23 -0.17 -0.41 -0.16 -0.86 Behavior      1The Arizona Leafy Greens Products Shipper Marketing Agreement 2Mean differences among matching pairs 3Mann-Whitney test p-value at the 0.05 level of statistical significance Implications Although fewer YA became more knowledgeable about the AZLGMA by name, area residents appeared more sensitive to the new production standards.
Results suggested that adults over the age of 35 years are more responsive to the needs of the produce industry than younger adults and that specific outreach programs that target a younger adult population would be beneficial to the produce industry.
While the overall confidence in leafy green production protocols improved during the study, there appeared to be a level of disconnect in the perception of production safety guidelines and public purchasing behaviors.
In work presented here, people did not tend to associate minimizing risk in leafy green production practices to enhanced buying habits.
This is similar to results shown by Parez and Howard  in which consumers are motivated to minimize or at least reduce any expected negative utility  associated with purchase behaviors.
The effort reported here suggests that educational outreach and Extension programming involving specific food system issues that encourage public involvement can be effective within an agriculturally based community.
As suggested by Jayaratne, Harrison, and Bales , carefully reminding residents of their critical contribution in minimizing microbial risks could effectively mitigate their influences on production safety.
Acknowledgements The authors are grateful for funding provided by Arizona Department of Agriculture, Specialty Crop Block Grant Program and express appreciation for the assistance from Ms.
Rachel Palumbo in coordinating the assessments.
Food industry needs assessment survey: A case study.
Building a modern food safety system: For FDA regulated foods.
Center for Science in the Public Interest  White Paper, Washington, DC.
Youth perspectives on food safety.
Impact evaluation of food safety self-study extension programs: Do changes in knowledge relate to changes in behavior of program participants?
An alternative evaluation method for Likert type attitude scales: Rough set data analysis.
Scientific Research and Essays, 5: 519-528.
Consumer interest in food systems topics: Implications for educators.
Published estimates database files, National Archives and Records Administration.
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Winter 1993 // Volume 31 // Number 4 // Research in Brief // 4RIB1
 Abstract To help farmers evaluate economic and environmental tradeoffs of alternative crop and livestock production systems and practices, the PLANETOR software package was developed...PLANETOR require users to enter detailed data on crop production practices and rotations, costs of production levels and variability, and farm financial transactions and status.
To help farmers evaluate economic and environmental tradeoffs of alternative crop and livestock production systems and practices, the PLANETOR software package was developed by the Center for Farm Financial Management, University of Minnesota, in cooperation with the USDA Farm Resource Management System Task Force.1
 PLANETOR requires users to enter detailed data on crop production practices and rotations, costs of production, production levels and variability, and farm financial transactions and status.
The software calculates the potential consequences of production practices for soil erosion, water quality, and pesticide toxicity and provides output on net farm income, net worth change, and income risk.
Little information has been published about farmer reaction to PLANETOR.
The objective of this ES-USDA funded study2 was to evaluate PLANETOR from the perspective of both farmers and Extension specialists.
Farm-Level Applications of PLANETOR
 During mid-1992, four farmers from Oklahoma and five farmers from Pennsylvania tested PLANETOR  for their farms.
Six of the farmers had written production records and financial records and statements.
The other three relied on invoices, farm tax records, and their memories to provide the necessary data.
Two of the participating Oklahoma farmers grew primarily dryland and irrigated winter wheat, with some irrigated corn, soybeans, and grain sorghum.
Of the other two farmers, one raised peanuts and corn, with some pasture and hay and the other grew vegetables.
In Pennsylvania, all five farms were geared primarily for the production of feed crops for livestock enterprises.
The dominant crop enterprises on these farms were corn and hay, with some soybeans, small grains, and forage sorghum grown.
Each cooperator completed a 17-item evaluation of PLANETOR.
Each item used a six-point scale.
The cooperators didn't feel strongly about the accuracy or value of the environmental output.
Soil erosion and water quality output were judged by the farmers to be generally inaccurate and not valuable.
Many changes in tillage practices, irrigation management, or pesticide application rates didn't have the expected impact on environmental results.
Pesticide toxicity results were judged not valuable , primarily because this information is available in greater detail on the pesticide label.
The economic output of PLANETOR was judged to be of somewhat greater value.
Resource availability output was judged to be fairly accurate  and valuable , while profitability output was deemed to be slightly less valuable  and accurate.
In general, Oklahoma farmers were more favorable about PLANETOR  than the Pennsylvania farmers.
Oklahoma farmers found it slightly less difficult to provide the information required by the software.
The integration of crop and livestock enterprises is somewhat awkward in PLANETOR.
This also made it more difficult for Pennsylvania farmers to apply the program.
The time specialists spent with the farmer running the program and interpreting the results was minor compared to time spent collecting, interpreting, and entering data into the program.
On average, almost 17 hours, or 74% of the specialists' total time per farm, was spent collecting and entering data.
Given the large amount of data analysis, manipulation, and entry required by the program, specialists didn't perform these steps in the farmer's presence.
Oklahoma specialists spent the majority of time on data manipulation and entry following initial farm visits.
Because of the prior availability of some production records, Pennsylvania specialists spent much time evaluating rotations and livestock operations before making the first visit with the farmer.
This preparation was necessary because of the complexity of the rotations and livestock operations and to reduce the amount of time required of each cooperator.
Specialists spent an average of six hours working directly with the farmers.
More time was spent gathering data from the farmers in Oklahoma  compared to Pennsylvania , but this reflects the lack of prior farm data in Oklahoma.
More time was spent in Pennsylvania  than in Oklahoma  demonstrating the program and interpreting the results because of the more complex rotations and greater number of fields.
PLANETOR makes a credible attempt to combine many different aspects of a farm operation into a single piece of computer software.
For the cooperating farmers, the primary lesson learned was the importance of comprehensive, up-to-date farm production, and financial records.
Even for farmers who maintain production and financial records, the data collection phase indicated gaps and additional uses of their records.
The program also forced farmers to consider both the economic and environmental consequences of alternative production scenarios.
This experience was undermined, however, by the insensitivity of the environmental section of PLANETOR.
Building a computer program that analyzes the economic and environmental tradeoffs of agriculture is difficult.
An easy-touse program risks oversimplifying or overlooking important economic or environmental relationships.
One that uses sophisticated environmental and economic models is less suitable for most non-research users.
The marriage of economics and the environment in PLANETOR poses additional problems.
To revise the input and interpret the output, the specialist or other facilitator must be comfortable with economics and all aspects of agricultural production, including soils, crops, livestock, nutrient management, and pest management.
One question continually asked by specialists and cooperators was whether the value of the output from PLANETOR was worth the time involved.
A major institutional obstacle to adopting and using the software is identifying likely facilitators.
Admittedly, some of the time spent to apply PLANETOR could be attributed to learning the program and correcting mistakes.
But even for an experienced user, it would still be a time-consuming process.
With funding flat or dwindling and the service attributes of Extension being deemphasized in favor of educational objectives, it's unlikely many Extension specialists or agents will be able to devote the time required to conduct many PLANETOR runs.
Ikerd, "A Decision Support System for Sustainable Farming," Northeastern Journal Agricultural Research Economics, XX , 109-13 and R.
This research was supported, in part, by Cooperative Agreeement 91-EXCA-3-0144, between USDA Extension Service, Oklahoma State University, and Penn State.
June 2017 // Volume 55 // Number 3 // Tools of the Trade // v55-3tt3
 Literacy is an important issue in Nevada.
Nevada is ranked 43rd in the nation for elementary school reading proficiency (U.S.
Department of Education Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics, 2013), and research strongly indicates a direct relationship between grade-level reading proficiency and high school graduation (Annie E.
Little Free Libraries  provide opportunities for increased access to books and reading material for children.
LFLs are small custom-built free-standing boxes that house 20 to 100 books.
Over 32,000 officially registered LFLs exist; they are in all 50 states and over 70 countries worldwide.
LFLs embody the "take a book, leave a book" philosophy.
They are placed in neighborhoods and are accessible to anyone who wants to stop, browse, and select books.
Increased access to books for youths can have a direct impact on literacy rates (Annie E.
Extension personnel and others involved in addressing community needs can use LFLs as the basis for a project that effectively promotes community pride and encourages literacy.
A first step in starting an LFL project is finding a suitable location for each LFL.
Determining the locations of LFLs is an important decision that can have a positive impact in the community and provide increased access to books.
In this article, we explain how we used geospatial analysis in one community to foster stronger awareness of literacy issues and identify strategic potential locations for LFLs.
Geographic information system  technology and geospatial analysis are tools frequently used by Extension professionals and others to identify and visualize spatial data.
Typically these spatial technologies are associated with natural and environmental sciences, such as landscape design, agricultural sciences, forestry, wildlife, geology, and so on.
However, location-based data tools, such as geospatial analysis, can be effectively used in the social sciences as well.
If one has location data, one can use geospatial analysis to map social issues and help residents gain a bigger picture of a community issue.
Given today's increasing reliance on geo-reference data, and open access databases, an endless supply of data is available on a variety of issues.
As part of a collective impact approach to the issue of literacy, a partnership involving University of Nevada Cooperative Extension, United Way, and the Department of Geography at University of Nevada, Reno was formed.
Through this partnership, we conducted a community-based research project that examined reading proficiency test scores and public access to reading materials.
We used the information we collected to identify strategic future locations for LFLs to provide increased access to books for youths in the community who might benefit the most.
Three sources of data were explored and analyzed.
We determined a limit of "casual access"how far an individual might casually travel to obtain reading materialfor each of three types of sites offering public access to books.
Casual access was calculated as 1 mi for a public library, 2,400 ft for an elementary school, and 1,200 ft for an LFL.
Casual access to reach a community LFL was assumed as a leisurely neighborhood walk.
After we plotted locations of public libraries, elementary schools, and existing LFLs and the limit of casual access for each on a GIS map, an image unfolded that depicted the limit of casual access to reading material for elementary school students in the community.
Casual Access to Reading Material
 Next, we conducted a geospatial analysis to examine fourth-grade reading proficiency test scores by elementary school.
Each elementary school is required by the Nevada Department of Education to administer standardized reading proficiency tests.
The resulting data are freely available and located on the department's website.
On a GIS map showing these data, reading proficiency test scores were color-coded and displayed in a progression from blue to red to reflect reading proficiency.
Blue spheres identified schools that had obtained an average score of 70% or above, with brighter blue reflecting higher scores.
Schools that had obtained an average score below 70% were noted by gray to red spheres, with darker red reflecting lower scores.
We overlaid the map showing access to reading materials  and the map showing reading proficiency test score data to create a color-coded map that depicted community zones according to reading proficiency levels and residential areas targeted for potential LFL placement.
On that map, geographic zones colored blue are areas in which students have higher reading proficiency test scores.
Geographic zones colored pink to red are areas in which students have lower reading proficiency test scores.
By including locations of existing LFLs, we were able to plot suggested LFL locations.
Suggested LFL sites are potential locations where stewards or hosts, such as businesses in the area, could consider placing an LFL to most effectively benefit struggling readers in the community.
We have shared the information from our analysis with targeted schools and other stakeholders working on literacy issues.
Reading Proficiencies and Strategic Potential Locations for LFLs
 Extension professionals, and in particular community development Extension professionals, can use geospatial analysis such as the example described in this article to help align community actions with felt needs.
Geospatial analysis presents data in a context that is visually appealing and understandable to decision makers and community groups.
The method described herein highlighted a community need and provided information for strategic action community members could take to help address that need.
In our case, the intent was to identify one action that could help get more books into the hands of the young readers who would benefit most in the community.
However, the potential applications of geospatial analysis are wide ranging.
Extension professionals can use geospatial analysis across a range of social issues to educate, inform, and spur effective community actions.
Geographic information systems and science 3e.
Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
Department of Education Institute of Education Sciences, National Center for Education Statistics.
Nation's report card: mathematics and reading assessments.
August 2019 // Volume 57 // Number 4 // Tools of the Trade // v57-4tt7
 Most forestry economic contribution reports vary greatly with regard to IMPLAN modeling method used, results presentation, and interpretation of estimated numbers.
These reports often gloss over needed details such as IMPLAN sectors included, economic contribution method employed, and explanation of inputoutput terminology.
Without these details, readers and practitioners, especially those not familiar with IMPLAN and inputoutput modeling, struggle to comprehend economic contribution reports.
This article provides practical guidelines on how to interpret forestry economic contribution reports for Extension professionals who frequently use the reports to justify forestry and natural resources programs.
We discuss eight strategies that can help report users better understand economic contribution analysis.
These strategies represent answers to frequently asked questions and comprise a list of key considerations for interpreting economic contribution reports.
Readers and users of forestry economic contribution analysis reports should be familiar with the basics of inputoutput modeling and related terms and with IMPLAN software, its sectors, and its data set.
It is particularly important to understand the difference between contribution and impact analysis.
For authors of economic contribution reports, we recommend specifying the IMPLAN sectors included in an analysis and describing the method of economic contribution analysis used so that the results can be replicated and are easier for readers to follow.
Recommendations for Further Reading
 A regional assessment of wood resource sustainability and potential economic impact of the wood pellet market in the US South.
Biomass Bioenergy, 105, 421427.
Standard procedures and methods for economic impact and contribution analysis in the forest products sector.
Journal of Forestry, 115, 112116.
Inputoutput modeling of wood-based bioenergy industries in Mississippi.
Forest Products Journal, 62, 528537.
A synopsis of methodological variations in economic contribution analyses for forestry and forest-related industries in US South.
Journal of Forestry, 115, 8085.
Economic contribution of the forest sector in North Carolina, 2016.
Raleigh, NC: North Carolina State Extension.
Economic contribution analysis of the forest-product industry: A comparison of the two methods for multisector contribution analysis using IMPLAN.
Journal of Forestry, 116, 513519.
Small community level social accounting matrices and their application to determining marine resource dependency.
Marine Resource Economics, 24, 253270.
Determining economic contributions and impacts: What is the difference and why do we care.
Pedagogy in Regional Studies, JRAP, 37, 140146.
June 2017 // Volume 55 // Number 3 // Ideas at Work // v55-3iw2
 Extension has a history of addressing natural disasters with programming that facilitates prevention and recovery , including programming focused on wildfire risk.
The extent and severity of wildfires have increased dramatically in recent years, especially in the West, with more acres burned in 2012 in the 11 western states  than in any year since 1916.
In 2015 a new record was set for total acres burned in the United States, at 10.1 million, and federal firefighting costs exceeded $2.1 billion, also a record.
Specifically, over 800,000 ac burned in Idaho in 2015.
The winter of 2015 provided little snowpack for much of Idaho.
By late spring, much of the state had progressed from being classified as abnormally dry to being classified as in severe drought, according to the U.
Drought Monitor, and by August most of the state was classified as in extreme drought.
Given the extremely dry fuels, and low humidity, conditions were ripe for wildfire starts when storms in August produced multiple lightning strikes in the north-central part of the state.
Subsequent extreme wind events caused rapid fire spread, burning over 280,000 ac in the region, including over 60,000 ac of nonindustrial private land; additionally, dozens of homes were lost.
Due to circumstances that were previously atypical in Idahothe threat and eventual reality of destruction of large amounts of private land and impacts on small communitiesinnovative action was needed.
Extension responded to the wildfire threat in 2015 by conducting programming that addressed the evolving nature of the situation, before and after the fires.
The efforts by Extension contributed to the formation of an interagency organization to address short-term and long-term fire recovery.
Extension's having a flexible and strategic programming emphasis allowed for an effective and timely response to the needs of landowners affected by this natural disaster.
This approach could serve as a model for Extension response to similar natural disasters in other settings.
Extension's response to the 2015 fire season in Idaho included three major components:
 Given the 2015 wildfire forecast, Extension offered the program Reducing Fire Risk in the Wildland-Urban Interface, developed in 2013, at two north-central Idaho locations in spring 2015.
After the fires came in August, Extension took on the tasks of interagency coordination and information sharing for post-fire assessment and recovery.
This coordination and information sharing was accomplished through the maintenance of an electronic mailing list that included approximately 100 addresses of county, state, and federal agency representatives.
Multiagency technical meetings on coordinating a post-fire assessment also were held.
In addition, Extension conducted five landowner assistance meetings that brought together representatives from agencies involved in fire recovery assistance to explain to landowners what programs were available.
Extension also assembled and distributed over 500 fire recovery information packets that included publications on how to recover wildfire-damaged lands as well as which agencies to contact for assistance.
A special "fire recovery" edition of the Extension Fall Newsletter was published and mailed directly to over 2,600 rural landowners in the fire-affected areas.
Further, Extension conducted several educational workshops focused on fire recovery topics for landowners.
Topics included salvage logging, erosion control, grass seeding, property and income tax implications of fire loss, pasture and rangeland rehabilitation, bark beetles and fire-damaged trees, and weed management following fire.
Finally, a jointly sponsored conference was held in spring 2016 to present the results of the post-fire assessment to landowners.
Altogether, Extension held 18 public events in north-central Idaho in 2015 and 2016 in response to the fire season.
Agency and government leaders and landowners conveyed numerous positive comments regarding the value of Extension's role in responding to the wildfires.
The interagency coordination efforts conducted by Extension contributed to the development of the North-Central Idaho Wildfire Restoration Group, led by the North-Central Idaho Division of Soil and Water Conservation Districts.
Forest Service, soil and water conservation districts, county commissioners, county emergency management coordinators, Clearwater Basin Collaborative, Idaho Department of Lands, Idaho Department of Fish and Game, and Extension.
This group received support from Idaho's senior U.S.
senator and is being held up as a model for use elsewhere in the state.
The goals of the group include using post-fire assessment data  to acquire additional resources for helping hard-hit private landowners and  to prioritize resources on the basis of need and natural resources damage.
Additionally, the group not only is looking at long-term recovery but also is focusing efforts and resources on land management that will reduce the risk of catastrophic wildfire in the future.
In 2016, the Idaho legislature appropriated $100,000 to fund efforts of the group, including completion of the fire-assessment report and the beginning of recovery projects.
The University of Idaho College of Agricultural and Life Sciences produced a video of Extension's wildfire recovery effort to communicate to the Idaho legislature the value of Extension's work to rural landowners.
The events of the 2015 wildfire season in Idaho argue for development and/or maintenance of a strategic posture by Extension faculty to quickly respond to new circumstances, whether they are natural disasters such as wildfires or major economic changes that affect rural communities.
Extension's reputation as a neutral and reliable third party encouraged multiple agencies and governmental bodies at various levels to accept Extension's lead in an agency coordination and information sharing effort in responding to this disaster.
Wildland fire management: Are actively managed forests more resilient than passively managed forests?
Moscow, Idaho: University of Idaho College of Natural Resources Policy Analysis Group.
June 2013 // Volume 51 // Number 3 // Ideas at Work // v51-3iw2
 Interests and activity devoted to democratizing the U.S.
agriculture and food  system is growing.
However, they need education to understand the complexity of the food system and its organization in local communities  if they are to grow into responsible food citizens.
Food citizenship is "the practice of engaging in food-related behaviors that support, rather than threaten, the development of a democratic, socially and economically just, and environmentally sustainable food system".
It is not only about food tastes and preferences, but a set of rights as well as responsibilities.
Food citizenship should instill a sense of belonging and participation, moving individuals from the role of passive consumer to active citizen.
Youth are the most important target for food system education and action  because adolescence is where humans begin to form their belief systems.
Youth also have a "unique concern for ecological integrity and food security, as they will inherit the systemic problems of environmental degradation and food insecurity".
Yet still needed are efforts to help youth "develop schemata on which to build more complex understandings required for democratic reform of the agrifood system".
The challenge becomes how to help youth understand the complexity of the food system and develop the skills to assume rights and responsibilities to food and their community.
This was our objective.
Committed to using participatory action research , we designed a research/engagement protocol that would allow educators and youth to co-construct a food system curriculum.
First we identified a community with a vibrant organization working with low-income youth.
We refer to this community as "Riverton".
We developed a food system curriculum and presented it to nine Riverton youth, aged 13-16, who were paid $100 for their participation.
Payment of research subjects is typical protocol for many funded initiatives.
Youth were recruited as research assistants, stressing they would be collecting data to learn more about the Riverton food system.
Parents/guardians granted participation permission by signing consent forms.
The curriculum was presented to the youth over 2 1/2 months, meeting at the community center.
We launched the curriculum introducing youth to the concepts of community food security, food environments, and food desserts through presentations, visuals, and hands-on activities.
We used the Inquiring Minds List  to describe the different nodes in the food system, including growing, processing, packaging, retailing, and consuming.
Thematic GIS maps of Riverton, which included ethnic composition, home ownership, and retail food outlets, were used to introduce food disparities.
We instructed the youth on how to create maps using Google Maps and had them identify the retail food outlets in Riverton.
Later, we used this map as we surveyed each store.
Next, the youth surveyed adult friends and family to identify the top 11 fresh produce items routinely purchased.
We used these 11 items to create The Fresh Produce Survey and collected data on the availability and cost of these foods at each of the 19 area supermarkets and convenience stores.
In addition, a list of questions was developed to guide our data collection:
 To this list the youth added:
 The group split into two, each led by a university facilitator, to survey each store.
Upon completion, facilitators compiled the data and created displays for the youth to analyze.
We employed concept mapping and a sticky wall exercise  for organizing data and drawing conclusions.
From this, youth created displays to summarize findings and present to the community.
Youth showed enthusiasm about food system issues and responded by asking stimulating questions.
Many of their contributions eluded facilitators, but turned out to be valuable, such as when the youth taught facilitators that those having the longest travel to food were those in low-resource communities.
Also important to youth were variables related to the aesthetics and environment of retail stores.
Youth recounted strategies for avoiding some markets because "men hang out there"  or where they had to bypass alcohol aisles to access food.
They also described what appealed to or offended them, such as the physical appearance of a store or if it "smelled bad" and "had leaking trash" by the entrance.
Quality was also a concern; they quickly pointed out when produce looked "nasty," rotten, or moldy.
They also documented instances where produce was "well stocked." In short, image mattered to these youth, but these variables were overlooked by facilitators.
This suggests that youth have valuable knowledge critical to understanding how to construct an environment conducive to responsible food citizenship.
Preventing the development of youth as food citizens was the lingering effect of individualism.
Youth continually attributed personal eating habits and the food environment to issues of personal choice.
They had difficulty seeing correlations between diet-related health disparities, differences in food cost and availability, and differences in the local environment that might shape life chances.
Our experience with the lack of civic responsibility among youth aligns with other studies that demonstrate declining levels of civic participation.
Such perceptions may be due to an over-emphasis in civic curricula on freedoms and rights to the exclusion of social obligations.
To replicate this work, consider enhancing a sense of community responsibility by taking the following steps:
 Youth understand the importance of food systems and bring considerable knowledge to the study of food environments.
There remains room for developing a sense of social responsibility to exercise food citizenship.
Educating youth about the structure of their food environment must be accompanied by efforts to build citizenship skills.
Civic life as conveyed in United States civics and history textbooks.
International Journal of Social Education, 15, 105-30.
Adolescents' perspectives and food choice behaviors in terms of the environmental impacts of food production practices: Application of a psychosocial model.
Journal of Nutrition Education, 33, 72-82.
Youth, urban governance, and sustainable food systems: The cases of Hamilton and Victoria, Canada.
Mougeot, & J.Welsh , For hunger-proof cities: Sustainable urban food systems (pp.
Ottawa, Canada: International Development Research Centre.
Place, work, and civic agriculture: Common fields for cultivation.
Agriculture and Human Values, 19, 217-224.
Democracy and civic engagement: Civic education and political participation.
The Phi Delta Kappan, 85, 1, 29-33.
Assessing food system attitudes among youth: Development and evaluation of attitude measures.
Journal of Nutrition Education, 38, 91-95.
Practicing food democracy: A pragmatic politics of transformation.
Journal of Rural Studies, 19, 77-86.
A qualitative study of agricultural literacy in urban youth: Understanding for democratic participation in renewing the agri-food system.
Journal of Agricultural Education, 52, 151-162.
Responsibility and agency within alternative food networks: Assembling the 'citizen consumer.' Agriculture and Human Values, 26, 193-201.
Three approaches to participative inquiry.
Lincoln , The handbook of qualitative research.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
The facilitator excellence handbook.
San Francisco, CA: Pfeiffer.
The Pendleton community garden projectMore than just planting seeds.
Eating right here: Moving from consumer to food citizen.
Agriculture and Human Values, 22: 269273.
The fight over food: Producers, consumers and activists challenge the global food system.
University Park, PA: Pennsylvania State University Press.
June 2017 // Volume 55 // Number 3 // Ideas at Work // v55-3iw8
 Experiential learning has been an effective way for Extension educators to teach youths and adults.
Richardson  identified that learning opportunities that allowed for "doing" and "seeing" were preferred by Extension clients.
Looking beyond learning preferences to adoption of practices, we evaluated the effectiveness of a demonstration-based agriculture education tool, called the rainfall simulator, in changing producer behavior related to conservation practices.
Research has shown that no-till farming techniques, the use of cover crops, and rotational grazing practices improve effects of the water cycle.
Yet implementation of these land-use practices remains relatively low in the United States.
Those who work closely with farmers and ranchers recognize the desire of producers to "do the right thing" when it comes to environmental stewardship.
However, there sometimes are legitimate barriers to adopting certain sustainable agriculture practices.
Nevertheless, it is important for Extension and conservation groups to continue educational programming regarding the use of no-till, cover crops, and rotational grazing practices because policies and incentives will continue to fluctuate but sound science will not.
Since 2009, the U.S.
Department of Agriculture's Natural Resources Conservation Service , the South Dakota Grassland Coalition , and South Dakota State University  Extension have partnered to deliver educational programming on the effects of the water cycle on managed lands in South Dakota by using a mobile rainfall simulator developed by the NRCS.
The rainfall simulator demonstrates the water cycle by showing runoff, infiltration, and soil particle dislodging.
Prior to the demonstration, the presenter collects intact soil from fields managed by a variety of practices  and then applies a 30-min rainfall simulation.
During the simulation, the presenter explains how the water cycle works and encourages the audience to make observations, comment, and ask questions.
After the simulation is completed, the presenter dumps the soil containers to reveal how wet or dry the soil is and discusses the water-holding capacity for plant growth.
The main goals of the simulation are to demonstrate relative differences among management practices, rather than to collect quantitative data, and to encourage discussion around the practices of no-till, cover crops, and rotational grazing.
These demonstrations have occurred about a dozen times annually as part of various tours, pasture walks, field days, and farm shows since 2009.
Over the years, we have observed that some producers attending these events have seen the demonstration before.
Thus, our team was curious about whether producers who had seen the demonstration before had implemented conservation practices and taken action to monitor relevant changes on their farms and ranches.
In addition, we wanted to know whether we were continuing to reach new audiences, thereby justifying the need to continue the demonstrations.
We conducted a survey  of event participants watching the rainfall simulator demonstration at five events in the summer of 2015.
These events included two annual tours, a pasture walk, a field day, and a regional farm show.
We distributed a one-page survey  to event participants watching the demonstration.
The survey took less than 5 min to complete.
We collected 169 surveys from about 350 participants  at the five demonstrations; survey participation rate across the events ranged from 29% to 56%.
Of the respondents across all events, 62% were producers and 38% were nonproducers.
Fifty-eight percent of the respondents had seen the demonstration before.
Of the 98 respondents who had seen the rainfall simulator demonstration before, the majority had seen it at an NRCS event.
Additionally, the total number of responses relating to whether participants had seen the demonstration before was 172, indicating that some had seen the demonstration more than just one other time.
Because our focus was on addressing the impact of the rainfall simulator demonstration on producers, we isolated this group's responses to questions about changes in practices.
Producers who had seen the demonstration before were asked whether they had made changes to their operations as a result.
Seventy-six percent  reported having made changes because of watching the rainfall simulator demonstration, and of these, most indicated having made multiple changes.
The most frequently implemented practices were leaving more residue on cropland , planting cover crops , incorporating livestock grazing on cropland , diversifying crop rotation , switching from season-long continuous grazing to rotational grazing , and switching to no-till .
We also were interested in whether producers who had made changes to their farms or ranches had taken it upon themselves to monitor effects of the water cycle on their properties.
Sixty percent  had recorded monthly rainfall, and 25%  had measured infiltration rates on their fields or pastures using an NRCS single-ring infiltration kit.
We also found that 68%  had noticed less water erosion in general and 47%  had observed less gully formation on cropland and pastures.
Previous research has shown that simulations and active participation techniques can be effective tools for adult learning.
Our findings corroborate these results.
The rainfall simulator demonstration discussed herein involved observation, discussion, and questioning in a group learning setting, and producers reported adopting conservation practices because of this learning experience.
According to the results of our survey, the rainfall simulator demonstration is an effective educational outreach tool relative to the adoption of conservation practices on managed agricultural lands.
Others in Extension can take this "idea at work" and apply it to their program areas.
Why farmers adopt best management practice in the United States: A meta-analysis of the adoption literature.
Journal of Environmental Science, 96, 1725.
Land use effects on soil carbon fractions in the southeastern United States.
Management-intensive versus extensive grazing.
Biology and Fertility of Soils, 38, 386392.
Modeling the impacts of no-till practice on soil erosion and sediment yield with RUSLE, SEDD, and ArcView GIS.
Soil and Tillage Research, 85, 3849.
Farmers' adoption of conservation agriculture: A review and synthesis of recent research.
Food Policy, 32, 2548.
Soil carbon dynamics in cropland and rangeland.
Environmental Pollution, 116, 353362.
Evolution of the plow over 10,000 years and the rationale for no-till farming.
Soil and Tillage Research, 93, 112.
Influence of intensive rotational grazing on bank erosion, fish habitat quality, and fish communities in southwestern Wisconsin trout streams.
Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, 55, 271276.
Estimating water quality effects of conservation practices and grazing land use scenarios.
Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, 69, 330342.
June 2017 // Volume 55 // Number 3 // Ideas at Work // v55-3iw7
 Extension has long labored to connect small-scale farmers with commercial markets through various efforts.
Gao and Bergefurd  surveyed chefs about demand for high-value herbs to determine the income potential for small-scale farmers on limited acreage.
Middendorf  assessed information needs in the organic sector through focus group discussions and interviews with growers and retailers.
Curtis, Cowee, Havercamp, Morris, and Gatzke  implemented a multiple-method assessment to examine the gourmet restaurant market for local agricultural products.
compared survey results to explore supply and demand for local food products across producers, restaurateurs, and consumers.
Munden-Dixon, Furman, Gaskin, and Samples  conducted surveys of food hub personnel and a needs assessment of farmers to connect hubs with farmers.
In 2011, Extension began an effort to assist a cooperative of small-scale farmers in supplying fresh produce to a major grocery retailer.
In cooperation with the U.S.
Department of Agriculture, Extension initiated the effort on behalf of the cooperative by approaching the grocery retailer directly.
Details and implications of the effort are described herein.
Much of the effort involved helping the cooperative's members follow industry standards for supplying fruits and vegetables.
Over several years, Extension personnelthrough meetings, conference calls, and correspondence with the commercial buyerdetailed these standards, translated them into practices suitable for small-scale farmers, and provided applicable training to the cooperative's members.
This process involved identification of five pertinent issues: capability, quality, food safety, consistency, and sustainability.
The issues stemmed from the commercial buyer's questions and were addressed in part through the use of available Extension materials.
In Table 1, the issues and associated commercial buyer questions are identified, Extension's response is summarized, and examples of relevant Extension resources are provided.
Small-scale farmers want to sell what they can reliably grow.
Commercial buyers want to buy what they can ultimately sell.
These objectives are not always congruent.
For example, many small-scale farmers can easily grow watermelons, and their local customers usually want large-sized  seeded watermelons.
However, commercial buyers typically prefer a medium-sized watermelon, about 20 lb, that sells easily.
Also, seedless watermelons are better sellers, but planting and cultivation are more expensive and involved.
Myriad resources available through Extension provide information on the potential of a certain crop in a particular area.
Often, opportunities to supply commercial buyers may have to be foregone because growing a crop is not feasible or profitable for small-scale farmers.
For crops that can be grown profitably, Extension can provide guidance in selecting varieties, training on production, and other forms of assistance, depending on the needs of the small-scale farmers.
Small-scale farmers typically have limited control over product quality and may have certain customers for which quality is not a major concern.
Commercial buyers, particularly in the retail realm, require the highest standards of quality, related not only to marketing aesthetics but also to preservation.
Typically, small-scale farmers can sell most of what they grow to various customers at various prices, but commercial buyers will buy only the best possible product with the highest sell-through potential.
Information about direct and indirect produce quality control is available in Extension production, packing, and pest management bulletins.
Any commercial buyer likely has product specifications, and Extension can provide training and technical assistance on how small-scale farmers can best meet those specs on the farm and in the packinghouse.
Extension also can assist small-scale farmers with establishing best quality practices and obtaining resources for risk management measures, such as spray programs, irrigation, and refrigeration.
Small-scale farmers may think their produce is generally safe.
However, they may be unaware of the genuine risks of food-borne illness and the potential liabilities commercial buyers face.
Food safety audits of on-farm practices, based on globally recognized standards and carried out by third-party certifying organizations, satisfy commercial buyers' need to provide the safest food possible and minimize their exposure.
Extension resources on produce food safety good agricultural practices  are numerous and continuously being updated.
Providing GAP training for both small-scale farmers and their employees is a way that Extension can introduce these groups to practices that minimize the risks of contamination from water, workers, wildlife, and wastes.
Usually, a GAP standard operating procedures manual must be developed, and technical assistance can be provided to assist small-scale farmers with improving their practices and preparing them for audits.
Small-scale farmers are suppliers of produce; commercial buyers are intermediaries between suppliers and consumers.
When circumstances arise that cause delivery to be interrupted, small-scale farmers may suffer minor losses but commercial buyers may incur severe penalties.
Commercial buyers commit to delivering certain quantities on a schedule; they need produce at predetermined times and in predetermined volumes.
Delays or shortfalls in deliveries from small-scale farmers can be mitigated by commercial buyers, but at a cost to both profits and reputation.
Extension production bulletins are useful in projecting harvest yields and timing, facilitating thoughtful scheduling of plantings and labor needs.
Extension resources also can assist small-scale farmers in working and producing together to minimize the risk of delays and shortfalls in deliveries to commercial buyers.
Farmer group or cooperative training assists with management of the group and of the supply to commercial buyers.
Extension also can provide assistance with obtaining needed infrastructure.
For stability, commercial buyers seek long-term relationships with, ordinarily, larger producers.
However, large producers operate differently from small-scale farmers.
For many small-scale farmers, production costs and markets change every season on the basis of factors such as input availability, weather, market prices, predation, and transportation costs.
With larger producers, these factors are mitigated by practices such as sales and input agreements, irrigation, and pest management.
Commercial buyers expect that all suppliers assure perpetual supply through such practices.
National, state, and county Extension entities offer tools such as enterprise budgets, production guides, and market information that can help small-scale farmers plan how to sustain their commercial supply on long-term bases.
These tools provide industry information and standard measures for maintaining the production of many crops.
Extension can help small-scale farmers incorporate similar, scale-appropriate practices from these tools.
Extension also can assist small-scale farmers in communicating to commercial buyers how their use of these practices validates building a long-term supply relationship.
The effort described herein can be applied in other similar situations.
By identifying pertinent issues based on buyers' questions, Extension can provide resources and training needed to assist small-scale farmers in becoming suppliers in commercial markets.
October 2017 // Volume 55 // Number 5 // Tools of the Trade // v55-5tt3
 Annie's Project Level 1 is a course developed by the Annie's ProjectEducation for Farm Women organization to address five areas of risk .
The course is traditionally delivered through face-to-face classes and has been successfully adapted in many states.
In 2011, this multiple-week 18-hr course was offered regionally in three locations in New Jersey.
Challenges to implementing Annie's Project programming statewide were identified and included a small educational team and farmers' lack of time for "traditional" classroom workshops.
To address these issues, the Annie's Project New Jersey  team implemented the following modifications to the basic course delivery from 2011 through 2016: use of synchronous learning, recording of sessions for widespread dissemination, development of 1-day topic-specific workshops, development of national webinars, and expansion of outreach to international audiences.
In 2011, live webinar technology was used to broadcast APNJ sessions from an originating site to two off-site locations.
The site with live speakers rotated among locations from session to session.
Each location had a site facilitator who communicated with the other two site facilitators by using the chat feature of Blackboard Collaborate and cell phone texting.
The result was a seamless experience for participants and successful "behind-the-scenes" management by site facilitators.
A technology team ensured that audiovisual communication was successful.
In 2011, APNJ team member Dr.
Robin Brumfield exported the program concept to a village in Turkey, where it became Suzanne's Project.
An assessment of women farmers' learning needs led to development of a course that addressed business management assistance, technical and computer training, a Facebook page, and a website.
All participants completed a business plan, and a survey of participants 18 months posttraining indicated that the training had lasting positive effects.
Suzanne's Project was repeated in other Turkish villages and in 2013 was offered in Guyana.
A successor program, Empowering Women Farmers with Agricultural Business Management Training, is a European Unionfunded train-the-trainer program provided in English, Turkish, Spanish, and German.
Farmers and educators in each state encounter unique challenges.
In New Jersey, implementing multiple synchronous classes eased workloads on a small educational team.
Video recording these classes for asynchronous learning allowed the team to reach a larger audience and enabled busy farmers to learn at their own pace.
One-day workshops and webinars on supplemental topics were more convenient for farmers who could not attend a traditional Annie's Project program, and they allowed the APNJ team to cover poorly understood topics such as estate planning in greater detail.
Annie's Project content and principles were also successfully applied to women farmers around the world.
In summary, the Annie's Project curriculum can be modified and supplemented to address learning needs that are unique to farmers in a specific location.
Educators around the globe can use the ideas presented here to better serve women farmers.
This material is based on work supported by the U.S.
Department of Agriculture  National Institute of Food and Agriculture under award number 2012-49200-20031, the Northeast Extension Risk Management Education program, Farm Credit East, and Rutgers Cooperative Extension.
Cooperating agencies include Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey; USDA's Farm Service Agency; USDA; New Jersey Department of Agriculture; New Jersey Farm Bureau; and County Boards of Chosen Freeholders.
Usability testing is essential for ensuring that these resources are relevant and useful to learners.
On the basis of our experiences with iteratively developing products using a testing service called UserTesting, we promote the use of fee-based online usability testing services as an easy and efficient method for improving online resources.
We present steps for conducting usability testing and recommendations for best practices.
This approach has implications for Extension educators, administrators, and program evaluators who design and evaluate educational programming that involves web or online resources.
Online educational programming can be as effective as face-to-face instruction , serves a large number of audiences at lower costs (Case, Cluskey, & Hino, 2011; Sutherin, Lombard, & St.
Hilaire, 2015), and can be useful when personnel cuts have occurred.
There is an increasing demand on Extension educators to be cost-effective in their educational programming , and one way to meet this demand is through online programming.
However, online products must still meet learners' needs.
Lambur  asserted that developers of online projects should ensure that usability testing is performed to prevent a mismatch between what program designers intend and what users experience.
Usability encompasses aspects such as learnability, memorability, errors, and satisfaction.
In this article, we describe our experience with a specific usability testing tool that we implemented for our project Useful to Usable : Transforming Climate Variability and Change Information for Cereal Crop Producers.
U2U is a research and Extension project that was funded by the U.S.
Department of Agriculture and designed for the purpose of improving the resilience and profitability of U.S.
farms in the Corn Belt in the face of a variable and changing climate.
Our team works with members of the agricultural community to develop online decision support tools  and educational materials that can lead to effective decision making and the adoption of climate-resilient practices.
Using an iterative usability testing approach, we developed five DSTs: AgClimate View, Corn Growing Degree Days, Climate Patterns Viewer, Corn Split N, and Irrigation Investment Tool.
Usability Testing Several private companies now offer fee-based online usability testing services that connect their clients with video and audio feedback from representative users.
We chose UserTesting because the pricing and scope of the available tests were most aligned with our needs.
serTesting requires application of the following steps in planning and implementing its testing service: 1.
Develop a mock or draft version of the product to be tested.
Draft and thoroughly review tasks and/or questions for testers.
Decide on the number of people who will complete the test.
Develop screener questions to ensure that testers will be representative of actual users.
5.
Click URLs received via email from UserTesting to access feedback videos of testers performing the assigned tasks and talking aloud.
Watch and respond to each feedback video.
Enter your comments on the "Annotations" tab ; save individual clips from the video by accessing the "Clips" tab; watch any particular task from the "Tasks" tab; and view answers to any open-ended questions on the "Answers" tab.
Rate each test to provide feedback to UserTesting.
This step includes rating bad tests poorly so that UserTesting can contact you for additional information and then replace any bad test with a new one.
We negotiated a contract and bought 90 user credits for $4,500 that we could use over a 2-year period.
One user test of up to 15 min equals one credit.
UserTesting emailed feedback videos shortly after we deployed the test.
Screener Question # 1 Are you a corn/soybean grower OR do you advise farmers related to any aspect of corn/soybean production?
Multiple Choice Options: Yes  No None of the above Screener Question #2 In what state do you primarily work?
Multiple Choice Options: Illinois  Indiana  lowa  Kansas  Michigan  Minnesota  Missouri  Nebraska  North Dakota  Ohio  South Dakota  Wisconsin  None of the above Recommendations On the basis of our experience, we are able to provide recommendations to others interested in performing user testing of online resources.
Carefully select representative testers by developing appropriate screener questions.
The more specific you are, the better feedback you will get.
However, if you are too specific, testers may be unavailable.
Also consider wording screener questions in a nonleading way because testers are paid and, therefore, might try to qualify for a test for which they are not suitable.
For example, if you want testers who work in the agriculture field, instead of asking a question such as Screener Question #1 shown in Figure 1, you could ask "For what industry do you work?" and include agriculture as one of several response options.
Then only those who select agriculture in response to the question would qualify as testers.
Start by administering tests to four or five users.
Nielsen  suggested that best results come from running tests with no more than five users as saturation is typically reached by the fifth user.
Have testers respond to no more than six or seven tasks/questions as there is not enough time for too many tasks/questions within the 15-min user-test window.
Frame the tasks/questions to elicit descriptive answers.
Do not ask yes-no or agree-disagree questions.
If the online usability testing service you are using allows you to do so, be sure to rate each test.
A testing service uses these ratings to improve its user pool, and if you have a poorly conducted test, the company likely will offer a free replacement test.
Implications We learned about online usability testing services, including UserTesting, during an Extension Education Evaluation Topical Interest Group presentation at the 2011 American Evaluation Association conference.
We adopted this usability testing method for the U2U project and have found it to be cost-effective, convenient, and effective in improving our online Extension programming.
However, in presenting the approach at Extension-related events, we have found that most participants are unfamiliar with it.
Therefore, it is our hope that this article will create greater awareness of online usability testing as an effective tool for Extensionists.
Many of the lessons we learned from our experience with UserTesting should be transferable to usability testing conducted through other companies.
UserTesting works well for any online product.
We used it for testing the U2U DSTs and marketing materials.
On the basis of the testers' feedback, we implemented changes in the layout and design of the DSTs and clarified phrasing across the marketing materials.
Our experience led us to conclude that usability testing has implications for Extension educators, administrators, and program evaluators who design and evaluate educational programming that fully or partially involves web-based or online resources.
Usability testing saves resource development costs.
It prevents unsatisfactory learning experiences that can result from irrelevant, out-of-context, or badly designed educational materials.
Usability testing has other benefits as well.
Extension educators can enhance client learning by making educational resources more usable and, thereby, have a greater likelihood of achieving desired program outcomes.
Evaluators can gather important data during formative evaluation and better explain outcomes and impact during summative evaluation.
Acknowledgments The research reported here is part of Useful to Usable : Transforming Climate Variability and Change Information for Cereal Crop Producers and is supported by Agriculture and Food Research Initiative Competitive Grant no.
2011-68002-30220 from the U.S.
Department of Agriculture National Institute of Food and Agriculture.
Special thanks to Will Cushman of the University of Wisconsin Environmental Resources Center's Marketing and Communications Unit for editing the article.
The effectiveness of distance education, using blended method of delivery for limited-resource audiences in the nutrition education program.
Online nutrition education: Enhancing opportunities for limitedresource learners.
Revising an Extension education website for limited resource audiences using social marketing theory.
Cost effectiveness ratio: Evaluation tool for comparing the effectiveness of similar Extension programs.
EEE week: Michael Lambur on affordable website online usability testing [Web log post].
Why you only need to test with 5 users.
Usability 101: Introduction to usability.
Christine Paulsen on usability testing [Web log post].
One group's experience developing and comparing urban landscape water conservation digital outreach resources.
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February 2016 // Volume 54 // Number 1 // Ideas at Work // v54-1iw4
 Over the past 5 years, North Texas parks departments have endured budget and staffing reductions  while also facing issues related to growing populations , increased park usage , and environmental issues, such as drought , West Nile virus , tree damage , flooding , and wildfires.
Park employees must be trained to manage these matters in addition to maintaining the knowledge needed for their regular duties, such as custodial work, tree care, mulching, irrigation, pesticide management, and attending to safety issues.
Training is necessary to keep staff up-to-date on best practices and changing regulations as well as to improve employee retention and provide opportunities to identify potential managers.
Current budget and staffing situations, coupled with the need to keep staff proximate to work sites, limit opportunities for park employees to attend regional, state, and national programs.
Furthermore, most training topics require tailoring to meet specific local operational needs.
In 2006, Tarrant County's horticulture agent worked with the parks and recreation departments of the cities of Arlington and Fort Worth to provide employee training in horticulture.
Committee members expressed interest in further developing the training, and in 2008, it evolved into the Pros in Parks program.
Primary goals included increasing job knowledge, professionalism, safety, environmental practices, and job satisfaction.
Topics for instruction were expanded beyond horticulture basics to include land management issues and trends and to emphasize career development related to parks, communications, community development, and management and personal development.
Initially, topics were chosen and evaluated by the Tarrant County Commercial Horticulture Advisory Committee.
Over time, a Pros in Parks Task Force was developed, and it currently comprises park operations managers from four local municipalities, urban foresters, the county horticulture agent, and the municipal parks specialist.
A task forcedriven approach allows for topics and trends to be identified with input from stakeholders , expands access to trainers on interdisciplinary topics and skills, and creates an unbiased, evidence-based curriculum.
The task force devises a list of issues facing frontline staff; the specialists and agent identify emerging practices and research relevant to land management, parks, and career and personal development; and attendees provide topic suggestions through previous session evaluations.
The result is a program series covering horticulture and land management basics, emerging land management and parks practices, and relevant topics for career and personal development.
Pros in Parks is a series of regularly scheduled educational events.
Employees attend the entire series or specific sessions.
Each topic is offered once a week in two cities, Arlington and Fort Worth.
Training space is provided by the host parks department.
Operations staffs from other communities are welcome to attend when space is available.
Trainings are offered during the winter months, the best time for attendees.
A small educational fee is paid by each city.
Extension specialists and agents in pesticide, turf, water, forestry, entomology, and horticulture serve as the core group of instructors for land management topics.
The municipal parks specialist, other Extension subject matter specialists, or experts from local parks departments, universities, and businesses are used for the related career and personal development topics.
It is crucial to understand the culture of the audience  and use a balance of teaching and hands-on or action-based activities.
Assessments indicate that attendees are accustomed to active workdays, so a variety of teaching methods are used for Pros in Parks.
In the classroom, computer-generated presentations are most common, but these are enhanced with activities such as working in small groups, participating in question-and-answer sessions, and using classroom response systems.
Such activities engage participants and ensure that important concepts are understood.
When appropriate, longer segments of time are spent on outdoor activities, such as surveying urban streams, participating in photo scavenger hunts, pruning trees and shrubs, rebuilding a pitcher's mound, conducting inspections, evaluating hazards, mapping, and practicing safety activities.
Because some park employees have limited English proficiency, a translator is available on-site.
To determine program effectiveness, retrospective postsession surveys are administered after each session.
Select examples of learning outcomes and self-reported knowledge gain and intentions to adopt are shown in Table 3.
Supervisors from participating cities indicate that although reported increase in knowledge is inconsistent, intention to adopt practices is consistently high.
From their perspective, the sessions serve as knowledge gain opportunities for newer employees and skill enhancement for long-term employees.
They also indicate that the program serves as a team-building exercise and contributes to staff morale, in addition to helping them identify future managers.
As municipalities continue to work with constrained budgets, changing environmental impacts, increases in density and park use, and a high number of retirements, trainings will grow in need and demand.
Data from previous participants' feedback indicate a need to further develop the program by offering a certification and by placing additional emphasis on topics that can support attendees' career retention and advancement.
Feedback also emphasizes a need for the program to incorporate more hands-on and interactive learning opportunities and sessions offered in various languages, particularly Spanish.
Pros in Parks is replicable for urban audiences throughout Texas and nationally.
By using a committee-driven approach to select and package Extension expertise, agents can offer an impactful educational and personal development program for urban parks operations staff.
Pros in Parks strengthened the partnership between Texas AgriLife Extension in Tarrant County and the participating parks departments.
Furthermore, many of the participants  indicated that they were not aware of the breadth of Extension services.
Thus, by using an integrated Extension planning approach, the program serves as a way to introduce this urban audience to broader Extension programs and resources.
Park and recreation maintenance management.
Champaign, IL: Sagamore Publishing.
August 2019 // Volume 57 // Number 4 // Ideas at Work // v57-4iw4
 Natural resources Extension programs educate the public about forest ecosystems and related benefits.
Research has suggested that experiential learning outside the classroom greatly affects knowledge and values, making local outdoor environmental education workshops and other such events a priority for natural resources professionals.
But determining the best locations for these outdoor activities, which may occur in remote locations, can be time-consuming.
Geographic information system  technology can improve a natural resources Extension professional's ability to evaluate forest sites for hosting workshops, field days, field tour stops, and so on.
Although not all Extension professionals may be proficient with or have access to a GIS , many are interested in this technology.
Herein we outline how one can use GIS technology to determine the best location for a natural resources outdoor education event, using our exploration of Tuskegee National Forest  in Alabama as an example.
TNF was established in 1959 and is located in Macon County, Alabama (U.S.
Forest Service [USFS], 2014).
The region in which TNF is located was once covered by approximately 90 million ac of longleaf pine  forests.
This ecosystem is of interest because it provides habitat for many threatened and endangered wildlife species.
Today longleaf pine forests cover an estimated 23 million ac.
This situation makes determining a suitable location for a longleaf pine restoration and education site within TNF a real-world, relevant example for Extension professionals to follow when trying to determine locations for their own natural resources outdoor education field sites.
For our project, we first identified criteria for usable field sites in TNF.
We determined that field sites in TNF must have the necessary biological component , must be accessible by vehicle, and must be physically accessible to all participants (i.e., have a slope of less than 4.8 degrees [U.S.
Department of Justice, 2010]).
We used ArcGIS Desktop   and data sets that included forest types in TNF to locate longleaf pine forests in the area.
Additionally, we used National Agriculture Imagery Program aerial imagery and digital elevation model  data (U.S.
Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service, 2018) to estimate site elevation, site proximity to roads, and site slope percentage.
Following the steps below, we determined the optimal locations for potential forestry field tour stops.
Extension educators can choose from a variety of technologies to accomplish timely and budget-efficient selection of candidates for outdoor education sites.
Beyond the technologies we applied, other sources of low-cost geospatial data and programs Extension educators can use include the following options:
 Using the process outlined in this article, we were able to select an outdoor education site that could be used for an upcoming natural resources Extension event.
Although a site visit is still necessary, implementation of a GIS assessment potentially decreases time spent searching for appropriate field sites.
By applying techniques outlined herein, Extension educators familiar with this technology can supplement traditional assessment methods to achieve a more holistic planning process.
A walk in the forest: Elementary students' perceptions and knowledge of forestry principles.
Journal of Park & Recreation Administration, 34, 6273.
June 2013 // Volume 51 // Number 3 // Research In Brief // v51-3rb5
 According to a 2008 survey of lowand middle-income households conducted by Demos, a non-partisan public policy research and advocacy organization, Americans age 65 and older are taking on more debt as they increasingly use credit cards to finance necessary costs of living.
From 2005 to 2008, there was a dramatic increase of 26% in the use of debt by this age group, the largest increase of all age groups surveyed.
Further, this population reported the highest amount of credit card debt due to medical expenses.
The two most cited reasons for using credit cards to pay for out-of-pocket medical expenses were for prescription drugs and dental expenses.
The increase in the use of credit cards by this age group to finance basic living expenses is not surprising given recent economic conditions.
While Extension is well positioned to teach credit card management skills to this population , it is important to assess local and statewide curriculum needs.
Research on financial literacy in the older population has shown that a one-size-fits-all financial education program is unlikely to be successful.
Older adults with low levels of financial literacy will never develop the financial sophistication needed to understand today's complex financial products targeted to this population.
Lusardi, Mitchell, and Curto  measured financial sophistication in the older population by looking at five areas: knowledge of capital markets, risk diversification, knowledge of fees, financial savvy, and attitudes towards investing and risk.
They found financial sophistication to be rare within their sample of older respondents over age 55, and if sophistication was demonstrated, it was limited to only one of these five areas.
The research reported here assessed the financial literacy of Oklahomans age 65 and older, their current use of and attitudes towards using credit cards, and the consequences of increased debt for this population.
Because those living in more rural communities likely have less access to financial education than those living in more urban settings, the research focused on reaching older Oklahomans in rural counties.
This assessment is necessary in order to develop and deliver a targeted Extension financial education curriculum to this segment of the population in Oklahoma.
The long-term goal of the research is to improve financial literacy among older Oklahomans so that they can become more informed consumers and understand the risk/return tradeoff of using consumer debt.
This is important to all Extension educators, including those working with older farmers and ranchers who struggle to pay bills during periods of extreme weather conditions and volatile commodity prices, and 4H youth who witness firsthand the consequences of poor family financial decision-making.
This pilot research was funded by a Donna Cadwalader Research and Development Grant from the Oklahoma Home and Community Education, Inc.
Men and women age 65 and older from rural Oklahoma counties were recruited to participate by Oklahoma Cooperative Extension Family & Consumer Science educators via fliers, news releases, and personal invitation.
Oklahoma counties with estimated 2008 populations under 15,000 were considered for the study.
The survey collection period was from September 2010 to January 2011.
There were 12 counties sampled and 106 survey participants.
As shown in Figure 1, participants were recruited from all across that state.
Geographic Dispersion of Oklahoma Counties Surveyed
 An in-depth questionnaire based on a family process model of economic hardship  was administered at designated locations in each chosen county.
It consisted of five parts:
 Table 1 contains a summary of survey characteristics.
An overwhelming majority  were not financially responsible for anyone else besides themselves and their spouse.
According to the Center on Aging and Work , 17.8% of Oklahomans age 55 and older have a college degree, 23.8% have some college, and 58.5% have a high school diploma or less.
Survey participants closely mirror these statewide statistics, with more only having some college and less with college degrees.
Table 2 displays the results of the financial literacy quiz, which consisted of 14 questions, 12 of which were taken from the Jump$tart Coalition's 2008 Personal Financial Literacy Survey Among College and High School Students.
The last column contains the corresponding question number on the Jump$tart Survey.
Some of these 12 questions were rewritten to reflect scenarios older adults would experience, but the answers to the questions remained the same.
Older adults should have much more experience in dealing with life and health insurance issues, so questions 17 and 26 from the Jump$tart Survey were not used to assess literacy in these two areas.
Because older adults are prone to pressure from life insurance salesmen to purchase inappropriate products, they were asked which type of life insurance did not contain a savings component.
With regards to health insurance, respondents were asked to select the best definition of a health insurance deductible.
The overall mean score was 62%.
Most respondents understood the concepts of inflation, compounding of interest, and a health insurance deductible.
Over half were able to perform a simple savings calculation and understood the concept of liquidity.
Only half understood the concept of investment growth; over a quarter  confused growth with interest payments.
This lack of financial literacy in understanding investments is consistent with Lusardi and Mitchell.
While only 51% correctly identified types of auto insurance, older Oklahomans scored better on this question than the national sample of high school and college students that took the 2008 Jump$tart Survey.
While only 51% of respondents correctly answered the life insurance question, 25% did not answer the question.
Of those who did answer, 68% were correct.
Since "I don't know" was not an available answer, it is assumed that a quarter of survey participants did not know enough about the subject to even guess.
This result is consistent with Lusardi and Mitchell.
A targeted financial curriculum for this segment of the population should include basic information on life insurance products.
Respondents displayed strong credit card knowledge.
Most knew they could receive a free credit report annually and understood the type of help provided by the Consumer Credit Counseling Service.
They appeared to understand the risk faced by credit card companies, how much access lenders have to their credit history, and the concept of finance charges.
While only about a quarter of respondents knew the maximum liability if their card is stolen is $50, 61% said zero, which reflects current policy by many credit card companies.
Figure 2 displays data regarding credit card usage.
The majority has either no or just one major credit card and does not have a non-major credit card.
Over the past year, 82% of participants have not missed a payment and 77% have never made a late payment.
Table 3 contains data on credit card behavior by survey participants.
Percentages may not total 100% due to missing data.
Those who carry multiple cards do so primarily for everyday purchases.
This survey population does not appear susceptible to mail solicitations from credit card companies because only 5% of participants carry multiple cards because they were offered to them.
Over half of participants reported having a credit limit below $10,000.
Most  owe less than $10,000 on their credit cards, with 37% reporting a zero balance.
The overwhelming majority pay off their balance each month, while only 1% make just the minimum payment.
According to Demos , the national average amount of credit card debt held by adults age 65 and older was $10,235 in 2008, up from $8,138 in 2005.
Nationally, older adults age 65 and older reported an average of $3,988 in credit card debt due to medical expenses, the highest amount of any group.
The older Oklahomans in the research reported much lower credit card use for this purpose.
Two-thirds of participants never use their credit cards for medical and dental expenses, while only 13% use them for these expenses on a regular basis.
Almost half never use their credit cards for essentials, like food and gas, but almost a third uses them for essentials on a regular basis.
When asked how their level of debt has changed over the past 3 years, the results were mixed.
Almost the same percentage of respondents increased their level of debt as those who paid down debt, and 40% saw no change in their debt levels.
Table 4 contains data on participants' debt pressures.
Overall, those surveyed are not currently experiencing financial distress.
Over the past 12 months, only 15% felt they could not cut back on expenses if they had to and only 8% felt they did not have enough money left over at the end of each month.
Most felt they were the same or better off this year than they were three years ago.
Those surveyed have never gone without meals because of a shortage of money.
Very few have had to pawn/sell something, forgo medical care or medications, or ask for help.
The vast majority seldom or never argues with family members over finances and feel little to no stress over their financial situation.
The majority of older Oklahoman survey respondents were happy, healthy, satisfied with life, and enjoy strong social support.
Most of the participants reported they were satisfied or very satisfied with their marriages , relationships with other family members , and life in general.
When asked questions about the level of social support they receive, most strongly agreed with the following statements.
Overall, the financial situations and psychosocial well-being for older adults in the research are quite positive, but those with financial pressures face some negative outcomes.
Increasing financial literacy and teaching basic budgeting to a targeted segment of older adults have the potential to increase individuals' well-being and their relationships with their family members.
Creating partnerships with local community organizations and public advocacy groups that serve the older adult population can help identify those older adults experiencing financial pressures who may benefit from financial education.
The population sample is not representative of all older adults in Oklahoma.
Future research can extend these findings to larger, more representative studies including older adults from more urban areas and minority populations.
Because the survey results rely on self-reported data, the results likely underestimate credit card usage and debt pressure.
The research can also be extended across different segments of the entire adult population to get a more complete picture of the effect of debt pressures on family and life satisfaction.
For example, adults in their fifties and early sixties who are approaching retirement may not have saved enough and thus may have to rely more on credit cards to meet retirement expenses.
Adults from the "sandwich generation" currently raising their own families while caring for aging parents already face unique pressures, which may be intensified by the over-reliance on credit cards.
The pressures experienced by military families, from military spouses of soldiers facing multiple deployments having to manage family budgets by themselves to returning soldiers who find themselves unemployed, make them especially vulnerable to the overuse of credit cards.
This line of research can assist Extension educators in the development and implementation of more effective and holistic debt management programs that can truly benefit families.
A family process model of economic hardship and adjustment of early adolescent boys.
Child Development, 63, 526-541.
Financial literacy and retirement preparedness: Evidence and implications for financial education.
Business Economics, 42, 35-44.
Planning and financial literacy: How do women fare?
American Economic Review: Papers and Proceedings 98, 413-417.
Financial literacy and financial sophistication in the older population: Evidence from the 2008 HRS.
Working Paper 2009-216, University of Michigan Retirement Research Center, Ann Arbor, Michigan.
August 2018 // Volume 56 // Number 4 // Tools of the Trade // v56-4tt8
 Nearly half of Nebraskan producers who irrigate rely on Extension for information on managing irrigation, reducing irrigation costs, and saving water (U.S.
Department of Agriculture, 2013).
One perhaps often overlooked resource available to Extension professionals for disseminating this and other information is university student interns.
The use of student interns to extend the ability of Extension professionals and programs to provide direct education to Extension clientele has been shown to be effective and successful.
Therefore, we identified student interns as a potential resource for extending the outreach efforts of Nebraska Extension.
In the study reported here, we examined the efficacy of using engineering student interns, supported by Extension educators and specialists, to provide on-site assistance to  agricultural irrigators, with the goal of facilitating changes in the irrigators' practices.
Initially the students received 2 weeks' training in preparing reports for irrigators, using Extension guides, evaluating irrigation and pumping systems to reduce water and energy use, and using evapotranspiration  gauges and soil water sensors.
Each student was assigned to an Extension office and received day-to-day assistance by an Extension educator who was located at the office and had expertise in ET gauges and soil water sensors.
The participating educators had received relevant training as part of the Nebraska Agricultural Water Management Network program, which was started in 2005 to promote water conservation among irrigators through education and demonstrations of innovative irrigation techniques and use of soil water sensors.
Over the five summers during which the project occurred, 18 students participated.
The students worked in six Extension offices, with three to five students participating each summer.
All irrigators involved in the program used center pivot systems to irrigate maize and were located in a region of Nebraska where the farms share similar climatic conditions and an average growing-season precipitation range of 15 to 18 in.
.
Each student assisted 10 irrigators with soil water probe installation and interpretation, assessed the irrigators' pumping and irrigation systems, and made recommendations for improvements of irrigation system components.
Soil water sensors and ET gauges usually were supplied at no charge or a nominal cost  by the local natural resources district or Extension office and became the property of the irrigators.
The main "cost" to an irrigator was the time required to interpret the sensor's data, remove the sensor at the end of the season, and install it the next growing season.
Data students obtained from the irrigators included water used per irrigation event, pumping plant efficiency, fuel/energy type and consumption, and cost to pump irrigation water.
The students prepared an economic analysis for each irrigator related to the benefits of soil water sensor use and other irrigation system improvements.
To quantify fuel use reductions and cost savings associated with the program, we interviewed irrigators by phone 1 to 3 years after the student assistance had occurred.
Of 52 irrigators randomly selected from those who participated in the first four summers of the program, we successfully interviewed 43.
After the interviews, we sent irrigators a survey by mail, and 44% responded.
Respondents selected from a list of potential motivations to indicate why they had or had not implemented each recommendation.
Of the 40 irrigators who received the recommendation to implement soil water sensors, 39  did so.
The interns also had made 22 suggestions to irrigators regarding improvements other than implementation of soil water sensors, typically related to replacing inefficient engines and aging sprinkler packages.
The irrigators implemented only five  of these "other suggestions." Compared to the implementation rate  revealed in a 2014 survey of Nebraska manufacturers who received similar student assistance , the implementation rates by participants in our study were extremely high for soil water sensors and low for the other suggested improvements.
Every interviewed irrigator who implemented the water sensors reported a reduction in water use.
The average water use reduction for the irrigators was 1.86 in.
of water for maize.
Yearly, irrigators reduced water application by an average of about 6.60 million gal per irrigation system, with an average yearly water use of 47,800 gal/ac.
This result is comparable to the water reduction rate associated with soil water sensor education provided by Nebraska Extension educators.
The interns inspected irrigation water pumps and collected energy use data.
The observed variability in fuel use  reflects differences in pump efficiencies, field elevations, and well depths.
Though diesel was the most expensive fuel used, it is commonly used by irrigators for pumping water in the region because it is readily available and does not require electric lines or gas lines to each pump.
Table 1 lists the greenhouse gas emissions from each fuel type based on the combustion at the pump for diesel, natural gas, and propane and the combustion at the power plant for electricity.
The three nonelectric fuels resulted in similar emission values.
The high proportion of fossil fuels used to power the electric grid in eastern Nebraska influenced the higher value for electricity.
The main motivations for implementing the recommendations were financial .
A secondary driver was reduction of "business risk," indicating a desire to lessen the potential of decreased production rates or increased cost.
The survey results are comparable to other work indicating that irrigators are motivated to adopt new technology by financial drivers and the desire to produce higher quality crops.
The results from our survey suggest that financial considerations, especially long payback periods, were the major reasons for nonimplementation.
Trained student interns working together with local Extension educators can help irrigators implement positive changes in their irrigation system management to reduce water use, fuel use, and greenhouse gas emissions.
This information may be useful for Extension specialists and educators to justify using financial resources to hire student interns to extend their program's reach.
We are grateful to the 43 irrigators who participated in this assessment and the University of NebraskaLincoln Extension educators Aaron Nygren, Wayne Ohnesorg, Jenny Rees, Ron Seymour, Amy Timmerman, and Brandy VanDerWaals that provided extensive support of student interns at their local offices.
Environmental Protection Agency Region VII's Pollution Prevention Incentives for States grants program provided direct funding support for the student interns.
The adoption of improved irrigation technology and management practicesA study of two irrigation districts in Alberta, Canada.
Agricultural Water Management, 96, 121131.
Principles and operational characteristics of Watermark granular matrix sensor to measure soil water status and its practical applications for irrigation management in various soil textures [Extension Circular EC783].
Lincoln, NE: University of NebraskaLincoln Extension.
Nebraska Agricultural Water Management Demonstration Network : Integrating research and extension/outreach.
Applied Engineering in Agriculture, 26, 599613.
Implementation of sustainability improvements at the facility level: Motivations and barriers.
Journal of Cleaner Production, 139, 15291538.
June 2013 // Volume 51 // Number 3 // Feature // v51-3a1
 Effective and efficient Extension programs are based on accurate information about client assets and needs, while credible accountability reports depend on reliable measurement of outcomes.
In both cases, surveys are often used to collect this information.
The challenge facing Extension professionals is how to maximize the amount and quality of the data collected while minimizing the cost.
Sending survey invitations via email is inexpensive, but this methodology can exclude clients who lack Internet access, and it suffers from comparatively low response rates.
Consequently, this approach introduces significant biases in the collected data.
This article builds on previous studies  to identify survey strategies that can represent all segments of a program's target audience, encourage a high response rate and answers to all questions on the survey, and keep out-of-pocket printing and postage costs to a minimum.
An earlier study compared three experimental groups.
One group, the Web preference group, in which clients received a letter in the mail with the URL and PIN first  and then the paper survey later, had a significantly lower response rate than the second group with the standard mail only method.
Similarly, the third group, which was offered a choice of responding via the Web or by mail, had a lower response rate than the mail only group.
One reason the mail only group had a higher response rate is that this mode puts the survey "in the hand" of the respondent  and accessibility encourages survey completion.
An important finding was that differences were found for a number of client demographics and service utilization measures between those responding by mail and on the Web.
On the other hand, the combined set of mail and Web responses for the Web preference group and the Web/mail choice group were similar to the traditional mail survey.
The same findings have been reported by other researchers for other populations.
A follow-up study was conducted to explore the utility of collecting email addresses for use in mixed-mode procedures for delivering survey invitations.
Three experimental groups of clients who provided both mail and email addresses were compared.
An email preference group, which used an email invitation and email reminder after a postal pre-letter, was found to have a higher response rate than the previously described Web preference and mail only groups.
However, the small sample size prevented a rigorous test, and the results, while promising, were not significantly different.
That exploratory study demonstrated the feasibility of obtaining both mail and email contact information.
Consequently, the purpose of this article is to further examine the feasibility of mixed-mode surveys using email and mail modes to contact clients.
Several studies suggest that substantial savings can be achieved over that of mail surveys while obtaining high quality data.
In addition, the study assessed the strengths and weaknesses of these methods with regard to response rates, similarity of client attributes and answers, and item nonresponse.
Data collected for the annual survey of Florida Cooperative Extension's  customers in 2011 were used for the study.
The survey was sent to a sample of clients who were selected from the population that had attended a workshop or seminar, called the Extension office, visited the office, or exchanged emails with an agent in order to solicit feedback about their experiences.
The survey included questions on: overall customer satisfaction with the services provided by Extension, clientele's satisfaction on four dimensions of quality, outcomes of the use of Extension service, and demographic attributes of the respondents.
The customer satisfaction survey has been conducted annually since 1997 using telephone , mail , Web-hosted, and mixed-modes .
As with previous studies, the data were collected after the protocol was approved by the institutional review board at the University of Florida.
For the 2011 survey, a random sample of 1,939 was selected from lists of Extension clients in 11 of Florida's 67 counties.
The list of clients was obtained from registration lists of scheduled educational programs, as well as sign-in sheets at county Extension offices, phone logs, and email logs from each member of the professional staff during a 30-day period.
Selected clients were sorted into three strata: those providing both an email address and a postal address, those providing a postal address only, and those providing an email address only.
Clients in the first strata , were randomly assigned to three experimental groups:
 The second and third strata, clients who provided only a postal address or only an email address, respectively, were designated as groups 5, Mail only , and 6, Email only.
Thus, comparisons among the groups within the first strata are experimental, while all other comparisons reflect selection processes that affect the collection of postal and email addresses.
The mail and Internet surveys were constructed to follow Dillman et al.'s  unified mode design principles.
These principles included using the same questions and question order and, more important, working to minimize differences in visual design.
The two-page mail questionnaire had 21 items and utilized gray shading to distinguish blocks of related questions.
Similarly, the Internet survey presented questions in groups or singly on a separate screen.
The Web survey used Qualtrics survey software.
Clients who had received the invitation via email could click on the link to access the URL and then enter the personal identification number.
Upon entry, the informed consent information was presented.
When the "Agree to participate" button was selected, the screen containing the initial questions was presented.
The invitation letters and reminders were constructed to provide the same verbal and visual presentation to clients.
A series of contacts were used to implement the survey, as shown in Table 1.
Some clients in groups 2 and 3 did not receive the email invitation and were excluded from the results reported below.
Data were analyzed using SAS for Windows, version 9.3.
The z statistic was used to test for differences between proportions, while the Chi-square test for independence was used for differences in demographic attributes, use of Extension, and satisfaction/outcomes by treatment for categorical and ordinal variables.
Analysis of variance was used to test for differences for interval variables by treatment group.
Using email reduces the number of clients who receive the invitation to answer the questionnaire.
Between 14.6% and 17.6% of clients' email addresses failed to work.
Undeliverable emails might have resulted from incorrectly deciphering clients' writing or typing them into the contact database, or becoming obsolete as clients changed email service providers between collecting the contact data and initiating the survey.
Fewer postal addresses were undeliverable, between 1.3% and 4.2%.
For mixed-mode surveys, a mail questionnaire can quickly be substituted when an email "bounces."
 Unreachable Rate by Contact Mode
 Comparison of the final response rate for the experimental groups in Figure 2 shows that the two mixed-mode treatments  had statistically equal response rates.
The two mixed-mode groups also had significantly lower response rates than the mail only treatment.
Clients who provided only a postal address  had a response rate similar to the two mixed-mode groups, while those who provided only an email address  had the lowest response rate.
Total Response Rate by Treatment Group
 It is noteworthy that the final contact for both Groups 2 and 3 resulted in a substantial number of mail surveys.
This suggests that many clients who have access to the Internet continue to prefer paper-and-pencil surveys delivered via the mail.
Response Rate by Treatment Group and Response Mode
 Analysis revealed differences between the three experimental groups  on educational attainment and the number of CES contacts.
The email then mail treatment  had more respondents with some college and fewer with a college degree than the other two treatment groups.
On the other hand, respondents in the email preference treatment  had a higher number of contacts during the past year than did respondents in the other treatments.
Responses to substantive items concerning customer satisfaction did not differ significantly between the three treatments.
Despite the differences noted above, there was no clear pattern distinguishing the responses of the three groups.
Additional analysis showed that there were numerous differences between the three strata of extension clients , mail only , and email only ).
Comparisons of the three strata can be found in Table 3.
One key difference was that clients in the mail only stratum had a significantly higher average age, had a higher percentage with a high school diploma or less education, and were less likely to live in an urban area than were the other two strata.
Additionally, a majority of responding clients in the email only stratum were male, while more females responded in the other two strata.
Because of the age difference, the mail only stratum had the highest average number of years using Extension's services, and this stratum was much less likely to have sought information through the Web portal.
Finally, respondents in the mail only stratum were significantly less likely to rate their overall satisfaction as "very satisfied" and share information with other persons in comparison to those in the other two strata.
Although not statistically significant at the a priori.05 level, those in the mail only stratum also showed a pattern of a lower percentage with a very satisfied rating ranging from 59.6% to 65.6% for the four service quality items  than the other two strata, ranging from 64.5% to 75.3%.
In terms of the postage cost using first class mail, the email then mail  treatment was the least expensive , followed by the email preference  treatment , and finally the mail only  treatment  for clients who provided both postal and email addresses.
The mail only treatment for clients without email addresses was the most expensive , while clients who provided only their email address had no postage cost per return.
In short, using email invitations in mixed-mode surveys can reduce postage costs as compared to mail only surveys.
Item nonresponse is used as a measure of data quality.
Of the questionnaires completed on the Web, 57.1% had answers for every item, while 39.5% of paper questionnaires  were completely answered.
Overall, Web surveys had a lower item nonresponse rate than did mail surveys , but item nonresponse differed for some question types.
Item nonresponse was higher on open-ended question for the mail mode than for the Web mode.
In comparison, the mail mode had a lower item nonresponse for the demographic questions than did the Web mode.
Differences on other types of questions  and screened questions were not statistically significant.
Item Nonresponse Rate by Question Type and Response Mode.
When conducting a needs assessment survey or follow-up survey to evaluate a program, Extension professionals should consider their options.
This article reaffirmed the results from previous studies that mail surveys typically have higher responses rates (Israel, 2010; 2011; Manfreda et al., 2008; Smyth et al.
Because mail surveys continue to generate high response rates and, as seen above, have limited item nonresponse, they can be very effective when the funds are available to cover postage and printing costs.
Mixed-mode surveys using available email addresses were also found to provide substantively similar information at a lower cost.
This finding was especially true for the email then mail strategy.
It is also clear that from the study reported here, as well as earlier ones , that using only email results in lower response rates and introduces bias in the data.
This bias occurs because people who do not have email and those who prefer paper surveys will not respond to the email request and these groups have different characteristics from those who do complete surveys via email and the Web.
In addition, the results for the data quality analysis were mixed.
Web responses were more complete and item non-response was lower for open-ended questions than for surveys completed on the paper forms.
Item nonresponse on the demographic items was, however, lower for paper surveys.
Overall, item nonresponse is a smaller problem for surveys completed on the Web than using paper forms.
This finding was consistent with other recent studies.
This research is part of Florida Agricultural Extension Station project FLA-AEC-004832.
Internet, mail, and mixed-mode surveys: The tailored design method.
Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley and Sons.
Contact strategies to improve participation via the Web in a mixed-mode mail and Web survey.
Journal of Official Statistics, 26, 465-480.
Assessing hunters' opinions based on a mail and a mixed-mode survey.
Human Dimensions of Wildlife, 16, 164-173.
Web surveys versus other survey modes: A meta-analysis comparing response rates.
International Journal of Market Research, 50, 79-104.
Using address-based sampling to survey the general public by mail vs.
Public Opinion Quarterly, 75, 429-457.
Use of a Web-based questionnaire in the Black Women's Health Study.
Practice of Epidemiology, 172, 1286-1291.
Using the Internet to survey small towns and communities: Limitations and possibilities in the early 21st century.
American Behavioral Scientist, 53, 1423-1448.
December 2011 // Volume 49 // Number 6 // Ideas at Work // v49-6iw4
 Due to its warm winter climatic conditions, Yuma, located in the Southwest portion of Arizona, is one of the few agricultural regions in the nation where field production of vegetables is possible during the period between November and April.
The region represents the bulk of the state's $3.2 billion vegetable industry, providing food, income, and revenue for a state that ranks second nationally in the production of fresh produce.
Since the 2006 Escherichia coli outbreak in spinach, virtually all Arizona leafy greens  are being produced following an unparalleled collection of safety practices outlined under the Arizona Leafy Green Productions Shipper Marketing Agreement.
In addition to monitoring soil amendments, irrigation water quality, worker hygiene, and field sanitation, producers are now required to routinely assess physical and animal intrusions, and their excrement in fields.
As a result, it is now essential to educate residents in crop production areas to the reality that minimizing microbial risk is an important issue for all stakeholders, including the general public.
As public cooperation with growers in and around production areas has been recently heightened , the objectives of this effort were to  determine the necessity to educate citizens about their responsibility to minimize microbial risk in and around produce fields and  identify potential target groups that could benefit from a greater understanding of enhanced agricultural practices and public diligence.
Baseline assessments were conducted before the launch of a 2-year fresh produce safety campaign.
A 14-question pre-appraisal was administered to 359 Yuma residents.
The number of YA, MMA and MA who participated in the assessment was 122, 120, and 117, respectively, equally divided among males and females.
The same assessment tool was administered to 135 YA, 126 MAA, and 128 MA following the outreach campaign, with respondents divided equally among gender.
The AZLGMA public relations campaign informed Yuma consumers and residents that leafy green products were grown in accordance with the best food safety practices available today to minimize food-borne illnesses.
The outreach campaign provided simple, public-friendly prevention strategies in which residents, youth, and homeowners could participate.
A series of 10, 30-second public service announcements were broadcast on local area television stations  and popular radio stations  for an 8-month period.
A series of five timely newspaper articles completed the media delivery schemes to the public.
A four-option, forced Likert scaling method   was used to measure either positive or negative responses to a series of statements concerning fresh produce safety.
Because it was not assumed that respondents perceived the difference between adjacent levels as equidistant, Likert responses were treated as ordinal data and analyzed using the non-parametric Mann-Whitney two-sample and Kruskal-Wallis analysis of variance tests at the 0.05 level of significance.
After post-survey screening, 62 respondents were eliminated from the study because they were unaware of the awareness campaign.
Analyses of gender and ethnicity were not statistically significant.
In general, older adults seemed to have a greater appreciation of agriculture in the area than YA, even prior to the outreach campaign.
However, in most cases, the outreach campaign produced increased levels of food safety awareness, but not specifically AZLGMA understanding, based on the four categories of food safety knowledge and comprehension.
By far, age had the largest influence on food safety appreciation.
YA seemed to have less awareness and understanding of the new production protocols than MAA and MA, as similarly suggested by Guion, Simonne, and Easton.
While post-assessment evaluations showed enhanced consumer confidence in the production of leafy greens, the campaign did not significantly affect consumer buying habits.
Post-campaign analyses indicate that the purchasing behavior among all respondents, regardless of age, were similar.
A series of paired Mann-Whitney two-sample tests reveal that for the sample as a whole, people perceive fresh produce safety differently.
For instance, respondents perceive "Overall Ag Awareness" and "Fresh Produce Safety Awareness"  and "Produce Confidence Level" and "Purchasing Behavior"  as being equally difficult to understand.
For all other resource pairs, there are statistically significant differences in the perception of fresh produce safety within a people that live in and around leafy green production.
Although fewer YA became more knowledgeable about the AZLGMA by name, area residents appeared more sensitive to the new production standards.
Results suggested that adults over the age of 35 years are more responsive to the needs of the produce industry than younger adults and that specific outreach programs that target a younger adult population would be beneficial to the produce industry.
While the overall confidence in leafy green production protocols improved during the study, there appeared to be a level of disconnect in the perception of production safety guidelines and public purchasing behaviors.
In work presented here, people did not tend to associate minimizing risk in leafy green production practices to enhanced buying habits.
This is similar to results shown by Parez and Howard  in which consumers are motivated to minimize or at least reduce any expected negative utility  associated with purchase behaviors.
The effort reported here suggests that educational outreach and Extension programming involving specific food system issues that encourage public involvement can be effective within an agriculturally based community.
As suggested by Jayaratne, Harrison, and Bales , carefully reminding residents of their critical contribution in minimizing microbial risks could effectively mitigate their influences on production safety.
The authors are grateful for funding provided by Arizona Department of Agriculture, Specialty Crop Block Grant Program and express appreciation for the assistance from Ms.
Rachel Palumbo in coordinating the assessments.
An alternative evaluation method for Likert type attitude scales: Rough set data analysis.
Scientific Research and Essays, 5: 519-528.
August 2019 // Volume 57 // Number 4 // Feature // v57-4a1
 Professional development is integral to the advancement of Cooperative Extension's human resources.
Extension often uses competency development models to focus training activities around core competencies.
Lucia and Lepsinger  defined competency as
 a cluster of related knowledge, skills, and attitudes that affects a major part of one's job , that correlates with performance on the job, that can be measured against well-accepted standards, and that can be improved via training and development (p.
The original use of competencies was devised by McClelland  as an alternative to intelligence tests.
He argued that intelligence tests were not valid for measuring knowledge and skills for the workplace.
According to Harder, Place, and Scheer , McClelland's competency approach was underpinned by four primary assumptions:
  performance measures should be observable,  criteria should relate to life outcomes such as occupations and education,  competencies should be described and defined realistically, and  clearly articulated information on how to develop competencies should be made public (p.
Program evaluation is a core competency needed by Extension agents.
For improvement and accountability purposes, Extension educators are expected to evaluate the process of education delivery and measure the learner's ability to achieve intended outcomes.
The challenge for those who design and deliver professional development for Extension educators is that no two Extension educators are the same.
They are professionals with varied areas of subject matter expertise and experiences that determine their individual training needs.
Radhakrishna and Martin  conducted a survey in South Carolina to understand program evaluation and accountability in-service training needs of Extension agents.
They found that the biggest areas of need surrounded the topics of developing evaluation plans, focusing and organizing evaluations, designing questions and surveys, preparing evaluation reports, and using evaluation results.
Typically, program evaluation is a skill set that many Extension educators build once hired, making it important to understand what program evaluation challenges persist following onboarding and new hire training to inform in-service trainings.
McClure, Fuhrman, and Morgan  also assessed the evaluation competency needs of Extension educators, in Georgia, and later segregated the needs according to years of Extension experience.
For newer Extension agents , the greatest areas of need related to writing clear questions for a questionnaire intended for youths younger than 12 years old, analyzing questionnaire data collected, and writing about evaluation findings in an impact statement.
More recently, Kumar Chaudhary's  study of natural resources management educators in Florida showed that only limited numbers of Extension educators are able to differentiate short-, medium-, and long-term outcomes; identify indicators; design and deliver follow-up surveys; and conduct data analysis.
There have been multiple studies focused on identifying key evaluation competencies needed by Extension agents , but the most robust taxonomy for evaluation competencies is from Rodgers, Hillaker, Haas, and Peters.
They used the taxonomy developed by Ghere, King, Stevahn, and Minnema  to organize Extension evaluation competencies.
This taxonomy includes 41 specific evaluation competencies in the three domains of situation analysis, systematic inquiry, and project management.
Lamm, Israel, and Diehl  discussed practical consequences resulting when program evaluation competencies are not developed.
They explained that most Extension agents only use posttests administered after an educational activity to evaluate success.
According to Lamm et al.
, Extension agents may lack the competency to develop plans that measure long-term change or conduct advanced statistical analysis, resulting in evaluative focus on participation and participant reaction.
Currently, the research that exists on program evaluation challenges for Extension agents does not consider challenges based on tenure within the organization  or is restricted to a single state , meaning that a critical gap exists in the literature.
The challenge that manifests from the combination of a new agent's lack of program evaluation expertise and the difficulty and time requirements of program evaluation represents an important area of exploration for professional development.
As a result, it is necessary to understand the most pervasive challenges that newer agents, in particular, face in evaluating their programs to ensure that onboarding and in-service trainings can be tailored to effectively develop their evaluation competencies.
Our purpose with the study described in this article was to identify and describe the most pervasive challenges and obstacles newer Extension agents face in their program evaluation efforts.
The objective was to develop consensus regarding those challenges and obstacles so that Cooperative Extension organizations can provide appropriate support and training.
We used a modified Delphi study approach comprised of three distinct rounds  to identify and describe the most important program evaluation challenges and obstacles faced by early-career Extension agents.
The study was approved by the University of Florida Institutional Review Board for Human Subjects Research and was conducted in the spring and summer of 2018.
We used the Delphi approach because it provides a structured process for developing consensus and identifying educational priorities across a large geographic area.
For the study, we operationalized new Extension agent as someone who had been employed for at least 1 but not more than 3 years.
We developed an expert panel of county Extension educators  with 1 to 3 years of experience working in various program areas in three Eastern states.
We selected the states on the basis of our work in the states and the fact that educators from the states would represent three distinct and large Extension systems, a factor that would help us obtain diverse perspectives.
The expert panel members were selected by Extension district directors and program leaders representing various program areas.
Table 1 shows demographics of the panel with regard to program area and highest level of education achieved.
The first round of the Delphi study consisted of two open-ended questions asking the participants to list the program evaluation challenges and the program evaluation obstacles they faced as newer Extension agents.
All 30 expert panelists responded to the first-round survey.
We used a three-step constant comparative method  to analyze the responses from the first-round survey to develop items for the second-round survey.
First, we assessed the data line by line and assigned codes with temporary categories, and then we recoded until categories became well defined.
We examined the individual categories to establish meaningful relationships with other categories.
Through this process, we generated a list of challenges and a list of obstacles.
We used group coding throughout the process, with three researchers coding together to develop the initial themes.
The results of analysis were then disseminated to a researcher external to our research team for review and feedback.
This process resulted in the identification of 36 challenges and 13 obstacles from the first round of responses.
In the second round, we provided the lists of challenges and obstacles to the expert panel members and asked them to rate the importance of addressing each challenge and obstacle on a 5-point Likert-type scale.
We defined consensus a priori as two thirds of the group's identifying a challenge or an obstacle as extremely important or very important.
For the second round, we obtained a response rate of 93% , and the expert panel demonstrated agreement on 29 challenges and eight obstacles.
The group also identified one new challenge and one new obstacle to be included in the third round.
In the third and final round, we provided the shortened lists of challenges and obstacles to the expert panel members and asked the panelists to rate each item as they had done in the second round.
According to Hsu and Sanford , this is an important part of the Delphi process because it allows for the opportunity to record changes in perception.
With a response rate of 97% , we achieved consensus on 27 challenges and seven obstacles in the final round.
Because the panel did not include Extension agents from all states, the reader should consider the panel members' contexts when making judgments of the applicability of study findings.
All expert panelists indicated that determining program impacts and how to measure those was an extremely or very important challenge for newer Extension agents.
Additionally, the panel agreed that the following four challenges were next most important to address, as indicated by the percentages who agreed that they were extremely or very important:  development of accurate evaluation instrument for a given situation,  evaluating newly developed programs,  management and analysis of data collected, and  evaluating long-term impacts of Extension programming.
The panel indicated that lack of evaluation mentorship was the most important obstacle faced by newer Extension agents.
Additionally, over 70% of the panel agreed that the following obstacles were extremely or very important to address:  lack of clear expectations and guidance from supervisor  for evaluation,  lack of evaluation training,  lack of data to translate impact from behavior change, and  lack of good validated and standardized evaluation tools.
Some of the challenges we identified mirror those found by Radhakrishna and Martin , Lamm et al.
, and Kumar Chaudhary  in their respective studies.
Accordingly, our findings confirmed that some of the program evaluation challenges faced by new Extension agents have remained as persistent concerns for approximately two decades.
In general, Extension agents struggle with developing evaluation plans and instruments to assess outcomes and analyze long-term impacts of their programs.
It is not surprising, then, that the expert panel of newer Extension educators in our study unanimously ranked determining and measuring program impact as their most important program evaluation challenge.
Our project resulted in consensus on the most pervasive challenges that exist across multiple states and broadened the bounds of initial claims that may have been limited in scope.
In addition, our process built consensus on evaluation obstacles new Extension agents face.
These two facts highlight the unique contribution of our study in addressing the program evaluation issues faced by new Extension agents.
Newer Extension agents are concerned with both evaluating new programs and evaluating impacts of existing programs.
Both tasks require development of a good evaluation plan, identification of indicators, design of surveys, and collection and analysis of data.
All of these are major evaluation challenges that Extension professionals struggle to overcome.
As Extension agents strive to meet the need of providing higher level impact data to fulfill the accountability requirement of federal and state reporting, new agents are compelled to evaluate their new programs for higher levels of outcomes and thus face these challenges.
This situation highlights the need for helping new Extension agents learn how to plan evaluations, develop survey instruments, and analyze data.
The challenges identified through our study can be used to guide the development of program evaluation training in new-hire onboarding programs.
The study results can be used to make refinements to existing approaches but also may inform supplemental in-service training to fill any gaps.
The consensus achieved among the study panel members reinforces the need to prioritize these challenges during professional development planning.
The obstacles revealed by the study indicate structural and system-level impediments that may prevent newer Extension agents from developing necessary evaluation competencies.
Because Extension agents typically are hired with immediate program evaluation training needs , there is a need to provide an adequate system of support and guidance initially as the agents build their confidence and skills.
Lack of good validated and standardized evaluation tools is a considerable barrier impeding new agents' ability to document impacts.
The finding reaffirms the need to facilitate the collection of long-term impact data with validated and/or standardized tools to overcome the initial lack of expertise outlined by Lamm et al.
There is also a need for clear communication from supervisors regarding their evaluation expectations.
It is possible that this obstacle is the result of somewhat of a paradox.
Extension agents typically have unlimited freedom to develop creative programs that meet the needs of the communities they serve, yet at the same time they need to evaluate their programs in ways that contribute to standardized reporting formats.
There may be perceptions among newer agents that there is only one right way to conduct program evaluations.
This paradox reveals opportunities to showcase program evaluation strategies in the same way that creative programs are celebrated.
Perhaps evaluation specialists could design local, regional, or national evaluation expos or conferences.
Additionally, newer agents could be given access to a catalog of sound program evaluations that demonstrate the breadth of potential approaches.
The challenges we identified correspond with findings from previous studies, highlighting the significance of addressing such challenges in building the evaluation capacity of new agents.
One may point to the structural and systematic obstacles that exist for Extension agents as a starting point for change.
Our findings should serve as a foundation for taking practical measures to overcome challenges and obstacles faced by new agents when planning new-agent training programs.
Also, the findings can be used as a guideline for individual Extension professionals in determining professional development plans for themselves.
In addition to these implications, the process we used can be adapted locally for identifying any programmatic competency and subsequently creating needs-based professional development.
A professional development unit for reflecting on program evaluator competencies.
American Journal of Evaluation, 27, 108123.
The constant comparative method of qualitative analysis.
Social Problems, 12, 436445.
Towards a competency-based extension education curriculum: A Delphi study.
Journal of Agricultural Education, 51, 4452.
The Delphi technique: Making sense of consensus.
Practical Assessment, Research & Evaluation, 12, 18.
The adult learner: The definitive classic in adult education and human resource development.
The effects of county and state faculty networking on the attitude toward evaluation and evaluation practices.
University of Florida, Gainesville, Florida.
Art & science of competency models.
San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Program evaluation competencies of extension professionals: Implications for continuing professional development.
Journal of Agricultural Education, 53, 8597.
October 2012 // Volume 50 // Number 5 // Research In Brief // v50-5rb10
 The Snake River is a 1,078 mile-long river stretching from Wyoming through southern Idaho and Washington, where it empties into the Columbia River.
The Snake River is the largest tributary to the Columbia River, draining parts of six states.
The Snake River is a working river used for irrigation, recreation, hydropower, and aquaculture.
Agricultural activities are primary non-point source pollution contributors to the Snake River.
The growing dairy industry in southern Idaho during the 1990's and the associated increased manure applications are a major concern as they potentially contribute phosphorus  to surface water through soil erosion and surface runoff.
The P contributes to eutrophication in surface waters, which increases algae growth, clogs waterways and irrigation systems, reduces oxygen in the water, and can cause fish die offs.
In the early 1990's, a local working group was formed to address water quality problems within the Middle Snake River reach in south central Idaho.
The working group contributed to the design of Idaho's Nutrient Management planning process  which requires an approved Nutrient Management Plan  for each licensed confined animal feeding operation, or CAFO.
Nutrient management is managing the amount, source, placement, form, and timing of nutrient and soil amendment applications to ensure adequate soil fertility for plant production while minimizing detrimental environmental impacts.
Nutrient Management Plans document the management decisions and serve as an operational action plan.
All licensed dairies and beef cattle feedlots in Idaho are required to have a Nutrient Management Plan.
Manure application rates in the plans are subject to the USDA Natural Resources Conservation Service , Conservation Practice Standard Code 590.
If Olsen soil test P  is above 40 ppm in the first foot, manure P applications are limited to the crop P uptake and removal with harvest.
For planning purposes, estimates for crop specific P uptake are taken from the NRCS CP 590 Standard.
Because P uptake estimates frequently dictate manure application rates in southern Idaho, growers need to be confident that the estimates for specific crops are accurate.
Silage corn is of particular interest, because it is produced by many dairies for feed and likely receives more dairy manure than other crops in Idaho.
Nutrient Management planners and NRCS staff in Idaho have questioned established P recovery rate recommendations, especially since silage corn whole plant P concentration estimates were lowered in 2007 by the NRCS from 0.26% to the national database value of 0.185%.
The value was lowered because the NRCS was required in 2007 to use national database values unless credible local data was available (D.
Johnson, personal communication, September 14, 2011).
Because most P recovery estimates are based on data from crops grown in the Midwestern and Eastern regions of the United States, it is not known how appropriate the values are for irrigated production in arid regions and specifically the calcareous soils in southern Idaho that in some cases have been highly enriched with manure P.
The objectives of the study reported here were to survey 1) irrigated silage corn P concentrations and P removal in southern Idaho manured soils with variable soil test P concentrations and 2) Natural Resources Conservation Service adoption of Idaho-specific P removal rates for silage corn, based on the survey findings.
Soil samples, whole plant tissues, and yield measures were collected from 21southern Idaho irrigated silage cornfields in 2008 and 21 fields in 2009.
Fields were selected to represent predominate corn growing areas in southern Idaho.
The fields, located in eight counties across 360 miles of the Snake River Plain, ranged from approximately 2,350 to 4,715 feet in elevation.
Fields sampled in 2008 were not resampled in 2009.
Fields were selected to provide wide-ranging soil test P levels by asking growers and dairymen about their manure application histories.
A small percentage  of the fields did not have a history of manure applications, allowing the inclusion of lower and possibly limiting P soil test levels in the study.
Soil samples, whole plants, and yield data were collected within a week of harvest to approximate as close as possible actual harvest conditions.
For consistency, fields were sampled once the kernels had reached the 1/2 2/3 milk line stage , the optimal dryness for southern Idaho silage storage systems.
Each field was sampled at three random plot locations throughout the field, summing to a total of 63 samples for each year of the study.
Each plot was 10 ft.
long by 2 corn rows wide.
Soils were sampled by compositing ten 12 inch-deep soil cores from each plot.
Soils were air dried and analyzed for extractable P using the Olsen  method.
All stalks in each plot were cut at a 4-inch stubble height, counted, and weighed fresh in the field.
The total fresh weight was used to estimate harvested tonnage.
Three individual stalks were sub-sampled, weighed fresh, and put in the dryer the day they were cut.
The plants were dried to 100% dry matter, re-weighed, ground, and analyzed for nutrient content using nitric acid digestion and Inductively Coupled Plasma analysis.
Using the SAS software, the PROC Surveymeans procedure was used to determine mean, standard error, and 95% confidence interval for yield, soil test P, dry matter content, P tissue concentration, and P uptake.
Using the SAS software, the PROC Surveyreg procedure was used to perform a linear regression analysis between soil test P and corn plant tissue P concentration.
Corn plant and soils were sampled over a two-year period as a method for increasing sample size and not to determine correlations between years.
The effect between years is irrelevant to the study.
Average P concentration in the whole plant dry tissue at harvest was 0.208 % , with 39 of the 42 fields  sampled between 0.15 and 0.25 %.
The NRCS staff has agreed to change the values based on the survey findings.
With more accurate silage corn P uptake estimates, higher and more realistic manure application rates can be planned and used by producers with more recent plans.
However, producers with a NMP written before June 2007 have been grandfathered in with P uptake based on a tissue P of 0.26 %.
As tissues from only three of the 42 fields measured at or above 0.26 % P, most producers using this estimate for P removal are likely overestimating P uptake by silage corn, over-applying manure, increasing soil test P, and the risk of higher runoff P.
Producers with an older NMP should consider using 0.208 % as the value for tissue P when estimating P removal by silage corn.
For the most accurate estimates of silage corn P uptake and removal, producers should analyze chopped corn samples from each harvest for nutrient content, and adjust manure applications accordingly.
The data in Figure 1 shows tissue P concentrations were not significantly correlated  to Olsen P soil tests ranging from 8 to 297 ppm.
While there was some variability in tissue P for reasons that are not clear, there is little if any corn luxury consumption of P.
Corn uses the amount of P necessary for growth and production but corn doesn't accumulate excess P simply because it is in the soil.
Whole Plant Corn Tissue Total P Concentration as Related to End of Season Olsen Soil Test P in Southern Idaho
 The impact for Extension clientele can be shown in the following example.
Using the survey's average corn silage yield of 11.2 dry tons /A, 58 pounds of P/A are removed using the pre 2007 P concentration value of 0.26%, only 41 pounds of P/A are removed using the post-2007 changed value of 0.185%, and 47 pounds are removed using the survey's 0.208% P average.
An additional 90,000 tons of manure could be applied in a given year for 100,000 silage corn acres.
Assuming each lactating dairy cow produces 20.4 tons of manure a year  the increased application equates to an additional 4,400 cows.
For Idaho dairymen operating under a NMP written before June 2007, using the original plan default of 0.26% P has enabled over application of 1.9 tons/A, which equates to 190,000 excess tons of manure, applied each year for 100,000 acres, or that equal to about 9,300 additional dairy cows.
The higher manure rates and imbalance of P removed with that higher rate has likely caused soil test P to continue to increase with the increased potential for P runoff.
Idaho dairy producers already are permitted for far more dairy cows than are in production, and producers as an aggregate could expand by several thousand head without going through any additional permitting or planning requirements.
If manure application is increased, there is a greater potential for P runoff because fields are not a closed system and the P recovery efficiency by corn is not 100%.
Conversely, reduced manure application will reduce the potential for P runoff.
The aggregate impact on potential P runoff of using improved estimates of P removal is difficult to determine.
The percentage of NMPs written before or after June 2007, the acreage involved, and the allowed manure application rates on that acreage are not known.
Idaho privacy laws protect NMP information from public scrutiny.
Clearly, using more accurate P removal estimates, 11 lb P/A less  than that estimated in older plans  could make a substantial difference in P runoff potential from those acres without affecting corn P removal.
Increasing corn P removal estimates by 6 lb P/A  from estimates in the post 2007 plans would increase the risk of P runoff, but this would be mitigated somewhat by increased corn P uptake and removal.
If nothing else, the survey results indicate where educational efforts should be focused for reducing the greatest risk of higher P in runoff to water resources.
Furthermore, applying less P than removed is not sustainable in the long term for maintaining or increasing yield and would require purchased P fertilizer.
A positive impact of enabling higher manure application rates for a post-2007 NMP is the reduction in the mineral nitrogen  producer's purchase to supplement manure applications.
The manure N from P removal based applications typically falls short of meeting the N requirements for optimal corn production.
Producers with plans written before June 2007 are encouraged to reduce the amount of manure applied to their fields while those with plans written since June 2007 will be able to apply additional manure to their fields.
More balanced manure P applied and crop P removal should decrease the P runoff potential from the 11,000,000 tons of Idaho dairy manure generated each year.
Modified nitric acid plant tissue digest method.
Communications in Soil Science and Plant Analysis, 31, 2473-2482.
Boise, ID: Idaho Association of Soil Conservation Districts.
SAS Institute   [computer software].
Spring 1991 // Volume 29 // Number 1 // Ideas at Work // 1IAW3
 Abstract The program's intent is to encourage agricultural producers to voluntarily implement Best Management Practices  through education, cost-sharing incentives, and technical help.
And, the Virginia Cooperative Extension Service is playing an important role in this pollution control effort.
In Virginia, nonpoint source  pollution has been identified as the major cause of declining water quality in the Chesapeake Bay.1 As a result, the Virginia Agricultural Pollution Control Program was developed to reduce loadings of agricultural NPS pollutants in the bay and its tributaries.
The program's intent is to encourage agricultural producers to voluntarily implement Best Management Practices  through education, cost-sharing incentives, and technical help.
And, the Virginia Cooperative Extension Service is playing an important role in this pollution control effort.
Implementation of BMP programs hasn't always been successful because farmers and other landowners are often unaware of the extent and impact of NPS pollution.
If Virginia's voluntary approach is to be effective, land managers must be sufficiently convinced of the need for and benefits of BMPs to change their traditional methods.
Although extensive pollution research using conventional water quality monitoring techniques has been conducted in recent years, this information has limited educational benefit because collected water quality data are generally difficult to interpret and relate to specific field situations.
To educate people about NPS pollution, it would be desirable to have people out in the field when rainstorms occur so they could observe this pollution phenomenon firsthand.
Unfortunately, this isn't acceptable to most people nor is it possible to schedule storms for educational purposes.
So, we investigated the use of rainfall simulation in demonstrating the causes, effects, and control of NPS pollution.
Rainfall simulation applies artificial rainfall to desired areas to study erosion, infiltration, runoff, and water quality.
We do this by using a rainfall simulator or modified irrigation system specifically designed to reproduce the characteristics of a storm.
The advantages of using rainfall simulation includes cost effectiveness, control, portability, and educational opportunities.
Rainfall simulators allow controlled rainstorms to be applied when and where they're desired.
Consequently, a research/demonstration project entitled, "Rainfall Simulation for BMP Effectiveness Evaluation"2 was developed to educate the public about agricultural NPS pollution and demonstrate how it can be controlled through BMP implementation.
We construct two or more adjoining runoff plots to which artificial rainfall is applied.
The field plots are uniform in crop, soil, and topography, while one has a less desirable practice such as conventional till and the others include one or more BMPs, such as no-till, grass filter strips, etc.
Since the outlets of the plots are adjacent, observers can readily see differences in the quantity and quality of surface runoff.
While collecting water quality data to use in evaluating the effectiveness of agricultural BMPs, the rainfall simulator can also be used as an educational tool to visually demonstrate the effectiveness of BMPs for NPS pollution control to the farmers, general public, government officials, and news media.
During a given demonstration, initiation of runoff is generally delayed in the BMP plots.
Data collected during past no -till versus conventional till demonstrations indicated that the no-till plots produced up to 87% less surface runoff than paired conventional till plots.
Discharges from the plots using the nonrecommended practices are generally turbid, due to high soil losses, while those from the BMP plots are noticeably clearer.
Measured sediment yield from no-till corn and soybean plots in previous demonstrations was 82% to 99% less than the yield from paired conventional till plots.
Differences of this magnitude are visually obvious and make the soil conservation and water quality benefits of BMPs readily apparent to anyone seeing the demonstrations.
Furthermore, we can readily explain how reductions in surface runoff and soil loss can also reduce nutrient and pesticide losses associated with the runoff and transported soil particles.
Since 1985, over 35 rainfall simulator demonstrations have been done to demonstrate the effectiveness of BMPs for NPS pollution control in Virginia.
Nearly 5,000 people have seen the demonstrations, and thousands more have learned about NPS pollution and BMPs through dozens of newspaper and magazine articles, television reports, and documentaries on the rainfall simulator project.
While the direct benefits of this and other efforts are difficult to document, indications are that agricultural producers are becoming more receptive to adopting BMP technology.
If "seeing is believing," this project has been successful in visually showing the significance of the agricultural NPS pollution problem and the contribution that each individual can make towards a solution.
Environmental Protection Agency, Chesapeake Bay: A Framework for Action.
This project was conducted by the Department of Agricultural Engineering, VPI & SU and supported by the Virginia Agricultural Experiment Station through funds provided by the Virginia Division of Soil and Water Conservation.
Rainfall simulator demonstrations were co-sponsored by the Virginia Cooperative Extension Service, USDA Soil Conservation Service, and Virginia's Local Soil and Water Conservation Districts.
June 2017 // Volume 55 // Number 3 // Research In Brief // v55-3rb3
 The number of farmers' markets in the United States increased significantly from 1,755 in 1994 to 8,268 in 2014 (U.S.
Department of Agriculture Agricultural Marketing Service, 2014).
Despite this explosive growth, national research on farmers' market consumers is still in its infancy.
Of the consumer research available, most involves data drawn from county, state, or regional samples, making it difficult to extrapolate findings to broader geographies and markets.
Researchers such as Byker, Shanks, Misyak, and Serrano , Freedman et al.
, and Tropp and Barham  have pointed to the need for farmers' market and local foods studies based on national samples of consumers.
Studies involving county, state, or regional samples have been conducted for the purpose of better understanding aspects of farmers' market consumers, including their demographics , their motivations for shopping at farmers' markets , and their definitions of what constitutes "local".
Yet despite these efforts, a clear understanding of the demographic factors characterizing farmers' market consumers, means by which farmers' market consumers define the term local food, and characteristics these consumers expect from local foods remains elusive.
Involving a national sample of farmers' market consumers, the study discussed in this article addressed these gaps in the extant research.
Specifically, the objectives of the study were as follows:
 Although the very nature of local foods necessitates a connotation based on geographic distance, such distance is not easy to conceptualize.
Two predominant means of conceptualizing geographic distance include geopolitical boundaries  and driving distance.
The use of one conceptualization over another has varied across studies and consumer groups.
The complexity in defining the term local food is compounded by additional characteristics consumers ascribe to local foods.
According to Darby et al.
such characteristicscalled credence attributesinclude freshness, quality, healthfulness, and variety.
In spite of consumers' inability to definitively verify such characteristics, they have been found to be important in influencing purchasing intentions.
Additionally, these characteristics are important to farmers' market vendors and managers relative to the development of stronger production plans  and targeted marketing efforts.
Research offers little conclusive evidence characterizing the farmers' market customer.
Although studies have shown farmers' market customers to be predominantly White non-Hispanic/Latino females , the extant research offers a less clear picture regarding age, income, and educational attainment.
Several studies have shown that on average farmers' market customers have a household income of $50,000 per year.
Yet other studies, such as that by Zepeda , have shown farmers' market customers to have lower incomes than customers who shop at other food outlets, such as supermarkets or grocery stores.
Moreover, whereas some studies point to farmers' market customers as well educated, other studies offer contradictory findings, pointing to no educational differences between those who do and those who do not shop at farmers' markets.
A national sample of consumers who had purchased local foods at a farmers' market during the preceding 12 months was obtained through a partnership with the online marketing research company Qualtrics.
A web-based, self-administered survey was developed.
The survey was composed of three sections.
For the first section, respondents were asked to select the option best reflecting their definition of local food.
Six options were provided, three based on geopolitical boundaries  and three based on distance.
These response options are similar to those used in other studies.
For the second section, respondents were asked to select characteristics they expect local foods to have.
Questions soliciting demographic information comprised the final section.
The study was approved by the University of Tennessee's institutional review board.
To test for content validity, the survey was reviewed by five subject matter experts.
Pilot testing with a convenience sample of 40 consumers occurred before the full study was launched.
For the purpose of ensuring that responses were not duplicates, a personalized link to the survey was emailed to each recipient.
Only one use per individual link was allowed.
A total of 515 surveys were returned; 30 were incomplete.
An examination of the incomplete surveys revealed data missing at random.
On the basis of guidance from Schafer and Graham , incomplete surveys were excluded.
A total of 485 surveys were submitted for analysis through SPSS version 20.
Frequencies were computed for demographics, definitions of local food, and characteristics of local foods.
For determining whether relationships existed among respondents' definitions of local food and the demographic variables of gender, ethnicity, income, level of education, and area of residence, a Pearson's chi-square test was performed and the adjusted residuals examined.
An analysis of variance was performed for examining differences between respondents' ages and definitions of local food.
Binary regression was used for determining whether differences existed in the characteristics respondents expected from local foods relative to the demographic variables.
For each characteristic, respondents' selections were coded as yes or no.
With the answers coded as dichotomous variables, the binary regression model was run.
Table 1 contains a breakdown of respondents by state.
Table 2 summarizes respondent demographics.
Over half the respondents  were female, 69.9% were White , and 26.6% were between 25 and 34 years of age.
Over one quarter  reported having an annual income between $50,000 and $74,999.
Slightly over 8% reported an annual income over $150,000.
Respondents were well educated, with slightly over half  reporting attainment of a bachelor's, graduate, or professional degree.
Finally, respondents tended to reside in urban clusters , urbanized areas , and metropolitan statistical areas with a population above 250,000.
Almost equal percentages of respondents identified local foods as those produced within 10 mi of their residence  or those produced within 50 mi of their residence .
"Within my county"  and "within my state"  were the most frequently used geopolitical definitions.
From a list of six characteristics, respondents were asked to select the characteristics they expect from local foods.
Among the most frequent responses were that local foods be environmentally safe  and produced in a socially responsible manner .
In addition, 65.8% expected local foods to be produced and distributed in a sustainable way.
At the.05 significance level, no significant relationships were found between respondents' definitions of local food and gender , ethnicity , income , level of education , or age.
However, a significant relationship was found between respondents' definitions of local food and their areas of residence.
For respondents residing in small cities or towns, a greater number than expected were likely to identify local foods as those produced within 50 mi of their residence.
Alternatively, for respondents residing in the largest metropolitan statistical area, a greater number than expected were more likely to identify local foods as those produced within 100 mi of their residence.
Significant differences were found in the relationships of the local foods characteristic "produced by my neighbors" and the demographic variables of age and area of residence.
Additionally, significant differences were found in the relationships of the local foods characteristic "produced and distributed in a sustainable way" and age and the characteristic "organically grown" and age.
Older consumers as well as those residing in communities with populations less than 100,000 were more likely to expect local foods to be produced by their neighbors and to be produced and distributed in a socially responsible way.
Younger consumers were more likely to expect local foods to be organically grown.
No other significant differences were found.
As indicated by data from the U.S.
Census Bureau , study respondents differed in some ways from the U.S.
A larger proportion of respondents identified as White non-Hispanic/Latino (69.9% compared to 63.7% of the U.S.
Fewer respondents identified their ethnicity as African American (5.4% compared to 13.3% of the U.S.
population) or Hispanic (8.9% compared to 17.6% of the U.S.
Over half  had obtained a bachelor's degree or higher, almost twice the proportion of the U.S.
population reporting the same educational obtainment.
Finally, a greater proportion of respondents were female (63.9% compared to 50.8% of the U.S.
Strategies aimed at increasing access to farmers' markets among limited-resource and minority consumers have gained traction in recent years.
Yet the limited diversity among farmers' market consumers shown by the results of the study indicates that continued focus on strategies for fostering increased patronage by minority and limited-resource individuals is warranted.
In the study, respondents were more likely to use driving distance  in comparison to geopolitical boundaries  when defining the term local food.
A clear consensus, however, on the length of the driving distance did not emerge.
Thus, in light of previous research, one can conclude that "local" remains a fluid concept, with consumers employing a variety of reference points when describing it.
Producers selling local food items directly to consumers must remain keenly aware of this lack of consensus.
To simply label an item as "local" may not be enough.
Instead, as producers craft marketing messages for their products, they may find benefit in explicitly stating the parameters by which they are defining the term local.
Consumers expect a lot of local foods.
More than half of the study respondents expected local foods to have at least five of the six characteristics listed on the survey instrument.
For respondents in the study, local foods represent more than simply food items grown nearby.
Instead, these consumers endowed local foods with a variety of characteristicscharacteristics that local foods may or may not actually have.
Given the importance placed on these characteristics, farmers' market vendors would be well served to offer descriptions, pictures, and stories that speak to the safe, responsible production of their local food items.
Sixty percent of respondents expected local foods to be organically grown.
This association of organic and local is a concerning misconception that provides impetus for additional research.
Additionally, such a misconception points to the need for consumer education regarding local foods.
Such education could include research-based explanations of local foods, including explanations of how local is defined and what the similarities and differences are among local, organic, sustainable, and conventionally produced foods.
The study did not examine the bases for the expectations consumers have of local foods.
Therefore, the means by which consumers have come to hold their expectations of local foods is worthy of additional study.
Additionally, research examining the extent to which those who shop for local foods via other channels, such as grocery stores, hold similar expectations is warranted.
In the study, no relationships were found between respondents' definitions of local food and demographics of ethnicity, income, level of education, and gender.
A significant relationship was found between respondents' definitions of local food and their areas of residence.
Respondents living in small cities and towns were more likely to use restrictive parameters, identifying local foods as those produced within 50 mi of their residence.
Respondents living in large metropolitan statistical areas were more likely to define local food broadly, using the term local to describe those foods produced within 100 mi of their residence.
In light of these differences, practitioners  whose work relates in some way to local foods must give careful consideration to the audiences with whom they are engaging.
Practitioners may find it advisable to tailor definitions of the term local to match those used by such groups.
For example, practitioners may find that a narrower view of what is local resonates best with clients residing in smaller communities whereas a broader view is best suited for clients residing in larger metropolitan areas.
Practitioners should be mindful of younger consumers' expectation that local foods be organically grown.
Practitioners can use this expectation as an opportunity to educate consumers on regulations that govern local and organic foods.
Finally, differences among consumer groups in how they define local and the characteristics they expect of local foods hinders the adoption of a nationally recognized definition of the term local food.
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Journal of Rural Social Sciences, 26, 74100.
From value to values: Sustainable consumption at farmers' markets.
Agriculture Human Values, 25, 487498.
Characterizing farmers' market shoppers: A literature review.
Journal of Hunger & Environmental Nutrition, 7, 3852.
Locally grown foods and farmers markets: Consumer attitudes and behaviors.
Decomposing local: A conjoint analysis of locally produced foods.
American Journal of Agricultural Economics, 90, 476486.
Consumer choice and farmers' markets.
Journal of Agricultural and Environmental Ethics, 27, 397416.
Consumer segments in urban and suburban farmers markets.
International Food and Agribusiness Management Review, 13, 118.
Systematic review of factors influencing farmers' market use overall and among low-income populations.
Journal of the Academy of Nutrition and Dietetics, 116, 11361155.
Who attends farmers' markets and why?
Understanding consumers and their motivations.
International Food and Agribusiness Management Review, 17, 6582.
Local food systems: Concepts, impacts and issues.
Economic Research Report, 97.
Kaw Valley focus groups on local and organic produce.
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Consumer preference for local food products in North Carolina.
Journal of Food Distribution Research, 45, 4146.
An analysis of the determinants of farmer-to-consumer direct-market shoppers.
Journal of Food Distribution Research, 36, 132134.
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Missing data: Our view of the state of the art.
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Consumer food safety risk perceptions and attitudes: Impacts on beef consumption across countries.
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Which little piggy goes to market?
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December 2015 // Volume 53 // Number 6 // Tools of the Trade // v53-6tt10
 California represents the top U.S.
producer of agricultural products, generating roughly $37.5 billion , with greenhouse, floriculture and nurseries accounting for $3.8 billion.
In 2010, greenhouses and nurseries represented approximately 8.3% of total energy sales within the agriculture sector, with the floriculture sector alone representing 35% of all agricultural energy use, mostly as natural gas.
Concerns over long-term sustainability of irrigated agriculture in arid regions are growing , and technologies are developed to implement water and energy conservation in greenhouse production systems , which are of special concern.
For energy providers, growers and post-harvest processing  in Southern California represent a well-defined sector with unique needs and requirements, as emerged from a large-scale interview-based study conducted by Navigant Consulting, Inc.
in 2012-2013.
This article reports on a study of Southern California small growers' and PHPs' attitudes and perceptions concerning best practices  in gas and water usage and their relationships with energy providers and their Ag segment peers.
Representatives of the California Sustainability Alliance and faculty from Whittier College organized two separate 1-day sustainability forums, one on November 6th, 2013, and the second on August 21st, 2014.
The forums targeted local growers in the Southern California coastal region and growers and PHPs from the Central Valley, all customers of the same energy utility.
The 14 participants of the 2013 forum represented 12 growers in the floriculture, nursery, and horticulture sectors.
The 27 participants of the 2014 forum included 18 growers and PHPs, five PHP associations, and four SCG account executives and CSU-Fresno speakers.
Both workshop-style forums opened with BP presentations followed by a discussion of best methods to conserve gas and water, and potential improvements, with the goal to assess the current level of acceptance of energy efficient practices among growers and PHPs, and to provide growers a platform to share their BP.
The second half of the workshops focused on pre-determined discussion questions administered to small groups.
The goal of this second portion was to identify growers' pressing concerns regarding the adoption or implementation of best management practices to conserve water and gas.
Some of the questions included the following.
Participants were also administered an exit survey that had the goal to evaluate their overall impressions concerning the usefulness of the forum.
All participants claimed to include sustainability in their management practices and emphasized how sustainable practices to them correspond to maximization of resources, in particular water and power, which consequently translates in larger profit.
Two of the growers had implemented cogeneration systems that were planned with and received incentives from the local utility company.
One grower shared his approach to maximizing water recycling and reuse systems that were developed to help address water shortages due to the continuing drought in the area and the expense associated with drilling deeper to tap the local aquifer.
Participants were uniformly aware of the consumers' increasing demand for sustainable products and unanimously they pointed at water demands, use, and recycling as main driver of energy-related costs.
Some of the growers and PHPs noted that high-efficiency technologies exist in Europe that the local utilities support through incentives and demonstration projects.
These technologies include heat exchangers, micro-climate control, and advanced drip irrigation systems.
Several growers lamented the lack of specific programs that take into account the individual, precarious, and quickly changing nature of growers' needs.
Eighty-three percent of the growers expressed intention to implement some of their practices in the next 5 years to improve sustainability.
However, major roadblocks to implementations were identified as well as the need for specific support.
Factors that hinder California small growers are not uncommon in the agricultural sector.
A study conducted in Utah among farmers and ranchers pointed at high initial investment and maintenance costs as major limitations to implementation practices.
Similarly to our study, cattle ranchers lamented lack of support and need for more streamlined procedures to facilitate adoption of conservation practices.
Growers and PHPs place great value in rebates and incentives on energy efficiency products and on streamlined application process.
Yet both groups called for more support in designing, permitting, and financing cogeneration plants, establishment of alternative energy sources, and water recycling.
Participants pointed at the need for improved and more advanced water conservation programs and longer natural gas pricing options that would allow for better financial planning.
Growers value cooperation with the gas company, and 92% of the 2103 participants and 100% of the 2014 participants expressed interest in working with the gas company to pilot new programs that would benefit the sector.
California growers and PHPs fit a very important niche in the U.S.
Yet their survival and competitive edge are challenged by high-energy costs and water scarcity.
Sustainability is at the core of the production system, and optimal use of resources is key to maintain yield and reduce costs, leading to long-term profitability.
The forums showed that heterogeneity among growers is key in developing sustainable plans.
There is the need for gas and water providers to create targeted programs and solution that the individual grower can relate to.
Research funding for the workshop and study reported here was provided by The California Sustainability Alliance.
Program Managers include Navigant Consulting.
Engaging Farmers and the Agriculture Industry Through the Testing Agricultural Performance Solutions Program Abstract The University of Nebraska-Lincoln Testing Agricultural Performance Solutions  program involves use of farm management competitions to increase engagement across producers, industry, and universities.
Participants make several management decisions throughout the growing season in a controlled field trial held at the university research station.
Results are analyzed, and awards are presented for most profitable farm, most efficient farm, and farm with the greatest grain yield.
The TAPS program involves several techniques for facilitating participatory assistance, including two-way communication and transformational learning.
It has resulted in participants' questioning their past management decisions and realizing that they need to improve their marketing skills to improve profitability.
Keywords: farm management, competition, transformational learning Charles A.
Burr Extension Educator Krystle Rhoades Testing Agricultural Performance Solutions Program Manager Daran R.
Rudnick Irrigation Management Specialist Nebraska Extension University of Nebraska-Lincoln Matt C.
Stockton Agricultural Economist Robert Tigner Extension Educator Introduction The world is a much different place than when Cooperative Extension began to deliver research-based information to local farmers.
Extension began as a top-down process  wherein scientists developed answers to pertinent questions and Extension staff delivered them to end users.
Shroyer and Sullins  described traditional Extension as on-farm demonstrations.
However, an increased desire for two-way communication between Extension and end users was evident through the expansion of on-farm research.
Shroyer and Sullins  described this type of study as action research in which farmers' suggestions, observations, and conclusions are incorporated into the management solutions tested by scientists.
described the addition of on-farm research to traditional research as a continuum rather than a substitute.
Overall, farmers have evolved into very astute innovators capable of conducting applied research.
Extension programming has developed into a farmer-centered participatory assistance process for determining technical knowledge needed for adoption of an innovation.
Lanyon  described participatory assistance as a series of repetitive experiences by a farmer during research, development, and implementation.
As Vanclay and Lawrence  explained, the lack of adoption of research findings by farmers, what Extension personnel might call best management practices, is part of the disconnect in the traditional Extension programming model.
This circumstance is evident in the 2018 Census of Ag Irrigation Survey, which showed that only 31% of Nebraska irrigators used soil moisture monitoring to schedule irrigations whereas 48% used the older and less accurate method of determining hand feel of soil water.
It was these challenges that led to creation of the University of Nebraska-Lincoln  Testing Agricultural Performance Solutions  education and extension program.
Faculty at the West Central Research, Extension, and Education Center , including members of our author team, in cooperation with members of the Nebraska Water Balance Alliance conceptualized, planned, and implemented the program.
TAPS Creation and Overview We established the TAPS program in 2017 at the WCREEC, which is in North Platte, Nebraska.
Although the TAPS program is ongoing and expanding, we have chosen to focus herein on the first 2 years of the project.
The two primary agricultural production challenges in the area were and continue to be limited water resources and increasing levels of nitrate in the groundwater.
In addition, crop prices at the time were at economically challenging levels for agricultural producers.
To address the aforementioned issues, our TAPS team focused on profitability and input use efficiency when developing the TAPS program.
Primary goals of the program were to increase adoption of practices to reduce cost of production, increase use of marketing tools to improve profitability, and increase adoption of best management practices to improve water and nitrogen efficiency.
With the many challenges related to agricultural production, a deeper level of engagement among stakeholders was needed.
Thus, we designed the program to incorporate and engage agricultural researchers, technology providers, and industry personnel along with farmers.
UNL's TAPS team and research technicians formed the foundation of the program, and the TAPS program was hosted at UNL facilities.
The land-grant structure allowed for the oversight and neutrality needed to maintain a safe environment for producers, researchers, and industry suppliers to innovate, develop, test, learn about, and adopt new technologies; try new management practices and techniques; and make needed adjustments to achieve efficient, environmentally responsible, and profitable production of a crop.
Furthermore, inclusion of local businesspersons, technology providers, farmers, and researchers in the program allowed a learning community to develop.
The TAPS program engages this learning community via farm management competitions held at research sites such as the WCREEC.
Unlike with a simple yield contest where competitors' costs and revenues are ignored, the objectives of the TAPS farm management competitions relate directly to real farm management and the relationships of resource allocation to profitability and sustainability.
The competitions occur in real time and include information regarding field conditions, market conditions, and regulatory constraints.
Also unique to TAPS is the communication among participants, technology providers, and the university.
As part of their participation, competitors use a web-based portal to access new and emerging technologies such as aerial imagery and sensor data for their specific plots at the research site.
Several opportunities for stakeholders to meet and discuss outcomes and challenges and to share their experiences are a large part of the program.
Communication, learning, and innovation are enhanced through continuous communication and direct yearlong interaction among those involved in the program as well as through sharing of the competition results and findings via publications, presentations, and news media outlets.
The TAPS design used during the program's first 2 years had many benefits: University researchers and Extension professionals competed against growers, using UNL recommendations.
This scenario provided the opportunity for the university to prove research results and earn credibility.
Farmers were able to use new and emerging methods and tools.
This opportunity provided participants a safe place to familiarize themselves with and test technologies, systems, and methods.
Such experience can lead to increased adoption of innovations, reduced risk, and increased productivity.
Industry personnel became observers of application of their technologies and associated interactions, leading to clearer understanding and further development of their products.
Other stakeholders, including those involved in regulation or advocacy, were able to participate and observe firsthand grower responses to various issues, such as changes in irrigation water value or availability, nitrogen fertilizer limitation, and so forth.
Participants The TAPS program is based on a competitive model whereby participants  compete in the management, production, and marketing of a crop.
In other words, we host farm management competitions in which teams compete for specific awards and through the process are exposed to new technologies and experiences that will lead to efficient and profitable agricultural production.
In the first year of the program, UNL Extension and/or Nebraska Natural Resource Districts personnel recruited participants.
In the second year, and subsequent years, prior participants recruited others to compete, or individuals volunteered to compete after learning about the program through various media outlets.
Although most participants in those first 2 years were farmers, student groups and state/local agencies also competed.
Contest Outline In the first 2 years, each competition occurred on a single field  to reduce variation in soil and weather conditions across the competitor sites, a factor that is often observed in on-farm research comparisons.
In addition, this approach allowed for an experimental environment where statistical inferences were possible.
The university's specialists and educators were treated as any other competitor; however, to prevent any claims of favoritism or biased accounting, they were not eligible to win awards.
Although the actual land area for the competition was limited to three plots  per team, each team's plots were amplified on paper to represent a 3,000-ac or 1,000-ac harvested farm depending on the competition.
All field operation and equipment costs were held the same for each team within a competition.
The farm sizes we used were adequate for showing the impact of minor differences in management and sufficient quantities of grain to market.
TAPS Competition Management Decisions Participants in the first and second years had control over six elements of farming operations/decisions Crop Insurance.
Participants were able to select any of the major types of yield and/or revenue protection crop insurance, including supplemental hail and wind damage insurance.
The area covered by crop insurance and/or damage included five fields in close proximity to the competition site.
Crop damage reports on these fields were used to determine yield loss and indemnity claims.
Hybrid and Seeding Rate.
Soil samples were collected and sent to a commercial laboratory for analysis, with the resulting data provided to participants.
Each team selected a hybrid and seeding rate for their farm.
A precision planter sowed the seeds at the rate selected by the team.
Cost information was obtained from the selected seed companies' district sales managers.
A team's cost per acre was determined according to planting population, per-acre equipment costs, and seed costs.
Seed costs were adjusted for early season purchase and the appropriate volume discounts based on the size of the simulated farm.
Five marketing methods were available for competitors to use to market their grain production from mid-March to mid-November; these were cash sales, forward contract, basis contract, simple hedge to arrive, and futures contracts.
This setup provided adequate information for validating each transaction.
Any grain not priced by each participant by the marketing deadline  was "sold" at the local North Platte, Nebraska, grain elevator at the cash price.
Each team had the opportunity to apply 0 to 1 in.
of water twice a week throughout the growing season.
Doing so required accessing a form through the TAPS website and submitting it by 10 a.m.
Monday and/or Thursday prior to the requested irrigation application.
A proportional amount of irrigation water was applied during scheduled fertigation operations at a maximum rate of 0.30 in.
with 30 lb of nitrogen in the form of urea ammonium nitrate  32%.
The variable cost to pump an acre-inch of water was $7.80.
Participants were given the opportunity to decide on nitrogen application scheduling and amounts.
Nitrogen fertilizer was applied in the form of UAN 32% with opportunities for application using three methods:  preplant,  side-dress, and  fertigation.
Participants could choose to apply nitrogen using any number of applications and could choose the amount applied during each application.
Preplant and side-dress applications allowed up to 120 lb of nitrogen per acre.
The four fertigation application options  allowed up to 30 lb per acre per application.
All other production and management decisions  were the same for all plots.
WCREEC staff and employees conducted physical management of the plots, including machinery and irrigation system operation, application of chemicals, and harvesting.
Participants were provided soil water data from a capacitance probe installed in one of their three replicated plots.
In addition, aerial and satellite imagery, weather station data, plant growth parameters, and other data sources/information were provided to all participants to help in the management of their plots.
Description of Awards The participants competed for three awards: most profitable farm, highest input use efficiency, and greatest grain yield.
The most significant award was established for the most profitable farm to emphasize that profit is one of the primary drivers in the business of farming and that without it, sustainability is unlikely.
The TAPS team determined profitability by calculating the difference of revenue  minus costs.
Revenue was determined according to each team's grain sales, quantity of production, and insurance indemnity payments.
The Nebraska Crop Budgets for irrigated corn production were used to estimate a typical machinery complement, a set of crop inputs, and land expenses  in the calculation of profitability.
However, costs for harvest, irrigation, grain drying, hauling, and fertilizer were adjusted to yields and use in the competition.
For the highest input use efficiency award, we used the Water Nitrogen Intensification Performance Index.
The award for greatest grain yield was initially called into question in that yield should not be a primary goal of crop production.
However, further discussion revealed that greatest grain yield was too important to ignore and that the opportunity to discover and learn about the yield-to-profit and yield-to-efficiency relationships was too great to neglect.
Timeline During the first 2 years, the TAPS farm management competitions began with a kickoff meeting in March of the respective year.
Participants were provided a project description and introduced to the TAPS webpage.
Participants were required to submit their crop insurance decision by the end of March and their hybrid selection, seeding rate, and preplant nitrogen decisions by mid-April.
Subsequent nitrogen, irrigation, and marketing decisions were made throughout the growing season.
Marketing was closed mid-November, and the awards banquet occurred in mid-December.
Two major education and engagement events occurred during the growing season.
The first was a field tour held in June, where participants could view their plots and reflect on their management decisions to date.
The second was the annual August Water and Crops Field Day, which included a TAPS update, a participant panel discussion, and an industry fair of the latest technology and services in crop production.
Results and Impact TAPS Competition Results Selected results from the 2018 corn farm management competition held at the WCREEC are shown in Table 1.
The wide range in profitability showed that there were improvements to be made by reducing input costs and improving marketing strategies.
Furthermore, the results showed that several contestants had similar yields with varying levels of irrigation and nitrogen fertilizer amounts, highlighting the importance of efficiency and cost of production concepts.
Farm 12 served as a control plot with no irrigation or nitrogen applied.
Several key takeaways have resulted from the competitions.
The winners of the award for highest input use efficiency in the first 2 years  had the highest and second highest yields, respectively.
Price received and marketing proved to be one of the key drivers of profitability.
Most teams that achieved a significant profit did some forward contracting or sold on the futures market during the growing season.
Sample Results and Selected Inputs for the 2018 Testing Agricultural Performance Solutions  Corn Farm Management Competition Farm # Nitrogen, Ib/ac Irrigation, in.
Yield, bu/ac Efficiency rank Profit, $/ac 1 210 11.7 275 16 179 2 200 8.0 256 14 227 3 190 9.2 262 12 185 4 215 5.6 249 15 205 5 180 9.0 247 18 149 6 165 5.1 234 13 159 7 200 9.6 289 6 276 8 205 6.0 241 19 133 9 225 6.6 270 11 201 10 195 8.2 274 8 215 11 180 6.6 257 9 186 12 0 0.0 138 N/A N/A 13 140 6.2 258 2 278 14 190 4.6 261 5 217 15 195 4.7 279 1 261 16 155 9.1 240 17 161 17 130 1.1 222 3 138 18 175 9.7 264 10 232 19 190 5.0 256 7 176 20 200 5.3 272 4 195 Note.
The TAPS competition was held at the University of Nebraska-Lincoln West Central Research, Extension, and Education Center in North Platte, Nebraska.
Several journalists attended the TAPS educational events and provided positive feedback and media coverage.
One media outlet represented was a regional publication, Nebraska Farmer, which printed several stories after staff interviewed participants and contest award winners.
In addition to these media releases, social media posts and stories, including in UNL's CropWatch newsletter and Cornhusker Economics website, were completed, all of which contributed to sharing the successes of the TAPS program.
Participant Survey Results Preliminary impacts were documented through two tools: a follow-up survey with the participants after competing and an awards banquet participant survey.
Follow-Up Survey After the competition, participants were given a written survey to complete.
The survey focused on the TAPS program in general and on possible changes in thinking or behavior.
The survey results indicated that 39% of the participants were recruited by UNL, 33% by a friend, and the remaining 28% in some other way.
Thirtyfour percent of the participants joined TAPS to learn from other competitors, 31% to test new technology, 14% to help someone who asked them to participate, and the remaining 21% for other reasons.
Seventyseven percent of participants found that TAPS met or exceeded their expectations.
Seventy-four percent of the competitors indicated that if asked by a neighbor about TAPS they would rate it as being a great program, and 26% indicated that they would rate it as good.
The remaining portion of the survey documented changes in thinking or behaviors.
Findings regarding respondents' greater likelihood of taking certain actions are as follows: 73.5% were more likely to look for more early or preharvest sales of their crops; 73.5% were more likely to use the futures market in some way; 67.6% were more likely to use soil water status as measured by technology to schedule irrigation; and 67.6% were more likely to use soil analysis for determining the amount of nitrogen fertilizer to apply.
Respondents also provided additional comments.
Examples are as follows: On participant said, "I've really learned a lot by participating in the UNL-TAPS competition.
There were a lot of really cool tools at our disposal and we had the opportunity to see if they can add value to our operation without risk." Another participant stated that looking at the results had made him "question every management decision" he had ever made on his own operation.
A 2017 participant who admitted having conducted no marketing during the growing season on his own operation proclaimed that he had already forward contracted grain for his operation for 2018.
Banquet Participant Survey Among banquet participant survey respondents, 89% indicated high agreement with the statement that they had been rewarded for their invested efforts and participation in the program.
Additionally, 89% indicated high agreement with the statement that having ag technology and service providers involved in the competition added positively to the experience.
Overall, findings suggested that the TAPS program increased stakeholder engagement and interest, making it another tool in the university's arsenal for fulfilling its landgrant objectives.
Growth of Program The TAPS competition began with 15 teams comprising 18 contestants in a single competition in 2017.
The program expanded, not only with other competitions, but also in number of participants.
In 2019, the TAPS program hosted five competitions in two states, using three crops and two irrigation application methods.
Fifty-eight teams comprising 160 individuals competed in those events.
Conclusion We submit the TAPS model of hosting farm management competitions as a new method of Extension programming.
The TAPS farm management competition model included several of the 10 steps outlined by Franz  and originally referenced by Mezirow  in the process of transformative learning.
Notably, several participants experienced a disorienting dilemma when they realized that their performance was less than expected compared to their peers.
This caused them to undergo a self-examination of their decisions and has caused them to look more critically at how they are running their own operations.
The process of engaging with other participants and university and industry partners further encouraged them to consider potential changes in their management strategies.
Author Note Correspondence concerning this article should be addressed to Charles A.
Adult education theories: Informing Cooperative Extension's transformation.
Participatory approaches to program development and engaging youth in research: The case of an inter-generational urban community gardening program.
Participatory assistance: An alternative to transfer of technology for promoting change on farms.
American Journal of Alternative Agriculture, 9, 136-142.
Approaches to evaluating grower irrigation and fertilizer nitrogen amount and timing.
Agricultural Water Management, 213, 693-706.
Learning as transformation: Critical perspectives on a theory in progress.
Agricultural research in developed JOE 58 countries: Past, present, and future of farming systems research and extension.
Journal of Production Agriculture, 7, 124-131.
Action research: A pilot program.
Farmer rationality and the adoption of environmentally sound practices: A critique of the assumptions of traditional agricultural extension.
European Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension, 1, 59-90.
Articles appearing in the Journal become the property of the Journal.
Single copies of articles may be reproduced in electronic or print form for use in educational or training activities.
If you have difficulties viewing or printing this page, please contact JOE Technical Support
June 2017 // Volume 55 // Number 3 // Ideas at Work // v55-3iw9
 Entrepreneurship and sustainable business creation are crucial to the economic vitality of all communities, especially those in rural locations.
Business growth, including both new business creation and existing business expansion, can mitigate population outflow, wage inequality, and a shrinking tax base.
Rural entrepreneurs often face unique challenges beyond those encountered by urban business creators.
Due to lower population densities, rural businesses are often further from customers and suppliers and experience difficulty attracting and retaining skilled workers and support services.
As a result, entrepreneurship remains an important but challenging goal for sustaining rural communities.
Interest in entrepreneurship as a driver of economic growth has generated assorted entrepreneurship curricula for adults and youths.
Education has been used to introduce transdisciplinary skills frequently employed in new business creation and to influence perceptions of careers in entrepreneurship.
Although entrepreneurship education can be impactful at all ages, it can be particularly beneficial when delivered to youths because noncognitive entrepreneurship skills are best taught at an early age.
Further, entrepreneurship education varies significantly on the basis of students' interests and educational objectivesthere is no "one size fits all" approach.
Accordingly, there is a need for youth-directed entrepreneurship curricula that can be adapted for local audiences and business conditions.
EntrepreneurShip Investigation  is an entrepreneurship curriculum developed by Nebraska Extension and its partners.
Designed for youths aged 10 to 19, ESI consists of three units.
Discover the E-Scene  helps youths understand entrepreneurship and leads them in exploring extant entrepreneurship within their families and communities.
Unit 1 has the additional option for students to assess their signature strengths through the Clifton Strengths Explorer tool.
The Case of Me  has students explore their individual values, ethics, professionalism, and other noncognitive skills necessary for successful entrepreneurship careers.
Your Business Inspection  walks students through the nuts and bolts of developing a business and marketing plan.
Each unit covers material aimed at increasing students' knowledge and entrepreneurship skills.
Units can be used together or separately, depending on educational objectives and available time.
The ESI curriculum can be taught in classrooms or as an out-of-school or summer camp program.
Since its inception in 2008, it has been taught in 48 states and at least eight countries.
It has been used by 4-H clubs and youth and community organizations, and in state fair competitions.
It also has been integrated into middle and high schools as a formal classroom curriculum.
In 2015, 1,229 students received over 20,500 hr of ESI instruction.
All units of the curriculum, including an educator's guide, are available for purchase online.
We conducted a limited study to preliminarily understand the impact of the ESI curriculum and determine whether more comprehensive research was justified.
The University of Nebraska Bureau of Sociological Research provided an external evaluation of the curriculum.
We conducted focus group sessions with ESI teachers and with students from multiple locations.
Teachers were asked about topics related to ESI programming, including setting, student interest, and perceived curriculum utility.
Students were asked about content learned and attitudes toward careers in entrepreneurship.
Focus group data provided insight regarding implementation of the curriculum and were used to develop survey instruments for further assessment.
Next, survey instruments for both students and teachers were created and distributed with educational materials in print form.
The surveys included questions related to participant response to the curriculum, self-assessment of entrepreneurship skills, and intent for future entrepreneurial actions.
For some questions, we wanted to measure participant changes resultant from instruction and used a retrospective "post-then-pre" format to maximize response rate and data consistency.
After responses were mailed back to us, we sorted responses by curriculum unit and analyzed them to evaluate curriculum efficacy.
Students were asked to rate the usefulness of curriculum received by curriculum unit and, as applicable, a curriculum used at camp that included content from multiple units.
For all categories, more than 90% of students found the curriculum somewhat or very useful.
To further evaluate perceived utility, we included a question on the teacher survey asking teachers how many times they taught ESI.
Seventy-five percent of teachers surveyed had taught ESI more than once, with 57% having used the curriculum more than five times.
Thus, our results confirmed that ESI was well received by students and teachers.
Students also were asked to assess their entrepreneurship knowledge and perceptions before and after instruction.
They responded to statements using a 5-point scale with the response options 1 = definitely no, 2 = no, 3 = maybe, 4 = yes, 5 = definitely yes.
Their responses to nearly all survey questions indicated statistically significant  improvements.
Student Self-Assessment of Competencies
 To further validate student responses, we also surveyed teachers regarding their students' knowledge and perceptions on similar topics.
Once again, responses to nearly all questions indicated statistically significant improvements.
Teacher Assessment of Students' Competencies 
 Finally, students were asked their likelihood of taking future action related to entrepreneurship.
A majority planned to pursue further programming, mentorships, and internships to gain additional entrepreneurship competencies.
According to Kantor , youths' developing relationships with community members and exploring local business opportunities may lead to increased business creation.
When asked about starting a business, about 77% of respondents indicated that they planned to start a business or had already done so.
When compared to results from Thompson and Walstad , which indicated that 69% of young adults  in Nebraska were interested in starting a business, this finding suggests that the curriculum can increase the likelihood of future entrepreneurial actions.
ESI introduces entrepreneurship to youths aged 10 to 19 and has been successfully implemented in formal and informal educational settings.
Preliminary survey data collected from students and teachers show positive learning of entrepreneurship skills and increased intentions for further entrepreneurship education and career pursuits.
These findings indicate that the ESI curriculum may be effective for promoting community entrepreneurship and that communities that provide entrepreneurship education might ultimately see business creation by student participants.
However, additional research is needed to comprehensively evaluate the link between entrepreneurial intentions and future entrepreneurial actions.
The relationship between entrepreneurship education and entrepreneurial intentions: A meta-analytic review.
Entrepreneurship Theory and Practice, 38, 217254.
Community matters: Successful entrepreneurship in remote rural US locations.
The International Journal of Entrepreneurship and Innovation, 14, 1527.
The effect of early entrepreneurship education: Evidence from a field experiment.
European Economic Review, 72, 7697.
Entrepreneurship in Nebraska: Conditions, attitudes, and actions.
New York, NY: Gallup Press.
Entrepreneurship and local economic development.
Lanham, MD: Lexington Books.
June 2013 // Volume 51 // Number 3 // Feature // v51-3a6
 For over two decades, Mississippi's broad network of county forestry associations  has been an important target audience of Extension forestry educational programming.
CFA members are critical in the recruitment of family members and peers in their communities to Extension programming and in the adoption of new technologies and ideas.
As well, they act as the "voice of forestry" in local communities, advocating stakeholders' positions on local natural resource issues and promoting responsible resource management among the general public.
Many CFAs have strong leadership and participation.
However, like volunteer groups across the nation, other CFAs struggle to remain viable and are in need of assistance in organizational development.
Encouraging participation is often a challenge regardless of the factors involved.
In response, the authors provided leadership training to CFA members and other groups with natural resource missions to enable them to better address issues and concerns within their organizations.
Specific goals of the programming included:
 This article addresses participants' attitudes towards a leadership development model grounded in community developmentand action-based value learning.
We describe the methods and tools to implement the model as well as evaluation responses.
The research provides understanding about stakeholders' needs, opinions, opportunities, and challenges towards improving leadership in grassroots natural resource organizations.
Results are useful to natural resource managers and community leaders who would like to adapt this leadership model to specific local contexts.
Prior leadership workshops in Mississippi have been limited to teaching the "nuts and bolts" of collaborating with a statewide forestry lobbying association.
By contrast, the program and study presented in this article applied a community development perspective and action-based values approach.
Leadership development is based on the perspective of "bottom-up transformation fueled by shared power and community building".
This perspective emphasizes leadership in community whereby individuals are empowered to take leadership roles by thinking about local assets, building partnerships, and taking actions towards addressing issues not only affecting a particular interest group, but that affect local society.
This process is known as "generalization".
According to Theodori, (2006, p.
665), "Generalization gives structure to the whole of community as an interactional field by linking and organizing the common interests of the various social fields." Specific to the study reported here, the community social fields were represented by groups that shared a common interest in natural resources and could potentially improve natural resource management by improving the community generally.
An Example of a Community Field
 Source: Theodori 2006, p.
In turn, six action-based values anchored in the community development literature shaped the framework and methods used to implement the program.
Based on Sandmann & Vandenberg , action-based values include:  developing a shared vision that builds on the group's strengths and gives purpose to the group;  creating a sense of trust, honesty, and open communication in the group;  sharing local knowledge;  appreciating diversity when dealing with conflict;  promoting a collective ownership in decision-making; and  encouraging a willingness to distribute power.
These values were incorporated into an action-oriented focus on the issues that the groups faced.
As described in Workshop Format, action-based value learning occurred through experiential processes and group reflection.
The following sections describe the community action-oriented focus in detail.
In 2011, workshops were designed and conducted by Mississippi State University faculty and staff to target organizations in 20 counties of northwest Mississippi.
A flier describing the workshops was sent to county Extension directors to notify the officers of potential participating organizations.
The same flier was posted to the Extension forestry website and emailed to natural resource management agencies in the area, including the Natural Resource Conservation Service; Soil and Water Districts; U.S.
Fish and Wildlife; Mississippi Department of Fisheries, Wildlife, and Parks;, and the Army Corps of Engineers.
In addition, the president of each county forestry association was contacted with a phone invitation.
The president was asked to bring other officers of his or her organization.
Two and a half continuing education credits were extended to professional foresters  and loggers.
There was no fee to participate.
Each workshop lasted approximately 3 hours and occurred during weekday evenings.
The program format consisted of the following topics and presenters:
 Each topic was interactive; that is, one of three facilitators delivered a brief introduction to the topic, which was followed by breakout sessions with activity worksheets.
Because a community approach to leadership development promotes social interactions among individuals and groups, facilitators engaged participants in class-wide discussion so they could share experiences and ideas.
Each segment lasted between 20 and 30 minutes.
Workshop attendance was purposefully limited to small groups to encourage interaction among participants and between participants and instructors.
Course materials were distributed to each individual at registration.
Materials consisted of a spiral bound notebook containing five sections:  lecture handouts and activity worksheets;  literature on leadership qualities and development;  literature on how to manage an organization;  project and activity ideas; and  information on state legislative and economic issues in natural resources management.
The literature on leadership qualities and development consisted primarily of Extension bulletins ; articles from The Leaderful Institute ; and chapters from the Community Forestry Guidebook.
Evaluations are a "tried and true" method for gathering baseline data on programming preferences and needs assessment.
Like mail surveys, evaluations can employ a number of measures testing the effectiveness of a community developmentand action-based value learning approach to leadership development.
Additional benefits of evaluations include high response rates and the ability to capture the opinions of participants immediately following the workshop.
Despite this, West  noted "the paper evaluation sheets all too often reside on a shelf or in a briefcase without being compiled or analyzed.
Frequently, evaluation results are not communicated to interested parties."
 In response, this article describes evaluation results addressing participants' attitudes towards  the usefulness of the program and topics using a 5-point Likert scale;  usefulness of the material using a 5-point Likert scale;  perceived value of the program in dollars using 6 possible responses;  important issues for their organization using open-ended response;  needed topics for future leadership workshops using a list of topics and a 5-point Likert scale;  open-ended comments; and  individual background information.
The evaluation data serves as the basis for the results presented in the following section.
In total, five workshops were conducted for 43 stakeholders and 12 agency personnel.
CFAs were a primary target audience, and leaders from seven of nine CFAs attended four different workshops in northwest Mississippi.
A fifth workshop was requested by the Mississippi Department of Wildlife, Fisheries, and Parks.
The agency is involved with numerous stakeholder groups  and requested the workshop so employees could better facilitate stakeholder group organization and help leaders direct group activities.
Table 1 contains the workshop attendance information.
Participants included CFA officers, urban foresters, officers of "Friends" groups, officers of natural resource professional organizations, and leaders of wildlife management organizations.
Participation was nearly evenly distributed across workshops.
Consistent with leadership roles in many natural resource organizations in Mississippi, 35 white males, 11 white females, 5 African American males, and 3 African American females attended the workshops.
A total of 46 evaluations  were obtained from participants.
Participants indicated they owned or managed 15,332 acres.
Conversations with participants revealed that, although regional leadership workshops had been conducted in the past, they were unfamiliar with the content and structure of the current curriculum.
In particular, they enjoyed the worksheet activities and peer discussions, which were not a component of the lecture-based leadership programs previously conducted.
Table 2 contains data from an evaluation question asking participants if they found the workshop useful.
Overall, 41 of 46 respondents  found the workshop very useful overall.
Participants added written comments such as:
 Participants were most likely to consider useful the topics "asset and resource identification" and "engaging local leaders".
Other topics were considered only slightly less useful.
Participants' comments suggested the need for more detail on some topics, particularly conflict resolution.
The course materials received the most responses in the "useful" category, suggesting a lower level of satisfaction than with the other aspects of the course.
This may be because, other than the activity worksheets, the program did not directly use the materials.
They were designed as supplementary to the overall program.
As a result, we indicated that participants could read through the materials at their own pace following the workshop.
In addition to assessing the program's usefulness, MSU Extension Forestry program evaluations traditionally contain a question addressing the perceived value of the information provided.
The question asks participants to "please indicate the value you place on this course with a general estimate that will help us in justifying programs such as this.
." Most  were willing to pay at least $25, nine were willing to pay up to $50, eight indicated $75, seven would pay up to $100, and two would have paid $200.
Unsurprisingly, agency personnel were willing to pay less than landowners.
The perceived value of the program totaled $2,650.
The workshop was designed around a community-based, issueand goal-oriented approach.
To this end, participants discussed important issues to their organizations during the workshop and were asked to list these issues in the evaluation.
In this way, program organizers had an idea about what to focus on for future programming development.
The question was open-ended: "What is the most important current issue or project for your organization?"
 The most common responses addressed communication and interactions with the membership  and the broader community.
Participants explained that their organizations were in need of better communicating and engaging members, including delegating responsibility and involving members in group activities.
They also indicated a need to be more active in community affairs rather than programming educational lectures only for members.
Many of the CFAs suggested they should more actively sponsor local students and teachers in statewide natural resource educational events.
Finally, participants indicated the need to better publicize the organization in the community.
Unsurprisingly, an additional issue was membership recruitment.
This was especially important for CFAs that tended to be composed of members above the age of 60.
An environmentalist organization said recruitment was important to diversify its membership in addition to promoting organizational growth.
Other important issues included inter-agency communication , focused and accountable partnerships, and a need to identity clear goals.
As well, the state agency requested more information on conflict resolution.
Several of the other needs addressed natural resources and were unrelated to organizational issues.
Action plans were a further result of the workshops.
After discussions on each of the substantive topics, each organization developed an action plan containing a vision and mission statement, important issues and goals, and a timeline.
Facilitators worked individually with each group on their action plan in breakout sessions.
Following the breakout session, the particular action plan component was shared with the entire workshop group, and facilitators encouraged participants to comment and make suggestions.
Organizations took the action plan with them at the conclusion of the workshop.
All action plans included details regarding individual responsibilities and accountability procedures to increase the rate of implementation.
At the conclusion of the program, participants indicated a newfound enthusiasm for addressing challenges and opportunities regarding their organizations.
The action-based, community-oriented framework allowed us to communicate ways of initiating projects such as fundraising and membership recruitment within the broad context of the places where participants lived.
Future programming will focus on improving communication with membership, conflict management, and improving the organization's involvement in the community.
In agreement with the framework's focus on actions, a major benefit of the program was the action plan designed by each participant group.
The exercise provided opportunities for group interaction and the application of lecture concepts to the specific needs and cultures of the organizations.
In addition, action plans provided tangible products for participants to show their memberships.
Follow-up evaluation regarding behavioral change is needed for future leadership programs.
This includes assessment on implementation of goals in the action plan in addition to continuing assistance and support.
Although the authors informally discussed the organizations' progress on their action plans several months following the workshops, measurable indicators of advancement are needed as well.
One easy strategy is to collect copies of the organizations' lists of issues and goals during the workshop, then return the lists by mail several months later.
Accompanied by a letter, the copied lists may help advance a faltering project by reminding leaders of their goals.
Follow-up workshops are another option; however, difficulties in maintaining continuity of information between workshops and changing participants would have to be addressed.
It is worthwhile noting that the study reported here described a program that provided a generalized "overview" of leadership development.
However, leadership development is an ongoing process of community building and, as indicated by these findings, specific aspects of leadership  should be continuously addressed following the initial workshops.
Two important outcomes of the overview program are  an improved understanding of stakeholders' leadership development needs and  application of evaluation data towards subsequent programming.
The model for this leadership workshop has implications across the South and nationally.
While leadership development receives widespread attention in the political and economic spheres of Extension activities, leadership in natural resource organizations has tended to be overlooked.
This is unfortunate given the importance of natural resources to community well-being.
Evaluation data underscore the need for such programming in natural resource Extension and decision-makers' need to improve their leadership skills with a focus on action-based values of community development.
Successful natural resource and environmental initiatives at multiple levels of society require stakeholders skilled in managing local organizations.
Further, community-based leadership Extension programming increases the likelihood of widespread adoption of sustainable resource management tools when local groups work towards the betterment of the community at large.
Interest based problem solving: The key to addressing public disputes.
Rural and Economic Development Program, University of Kentucky Cooperative Extension Service, No.
Community and community development in resource-based areas: Operational definitions rooted in an interactional perspective.
Society and Natural Resources, 18, 661-669.
The community in rural America.
Middleton, WI: Social Ecology Press.
August 2019 // Volume 57 // Number 4 // Research In Brief // v57-4rb2
 The Cultivating Success program offers educational programming to provide beginning and existing farmers with the planning and decision-making tools necessary to develop and manage a sustainable small-acreage farm.
The program was developed in 2000 with funding from the W.K.
Through collaboration by the University of Idaho , Washington State University, and Rural Roots, Inc., Cultivating Success has served the educational needs of over 3,500 adult learners across Idaho and Washington.
Although each state offers Cultivating Success programming, course delivery modes differ between the states.
One Cultivating Success signature offering is a whole-farm planning  course, "Starting Your Sustainable Small Farm".
Herein we discuss the WFP course's evolution in Idaho from an in-person course offered by a single instructor in one location to a hybrid learning course that combines online self-directed learning with in-person and webinar components offered simultaneously at multiple sites across the state.
The term hybrid learning  is used to describe educational programs offered through a combination of in-person and online delivery modes.
The potential for hybrid learning to meet the needs of academic students in higher education was well established by 2002.
By 2012, an estimated 79% of public institutions of higher education were offering hybrid courses, and the model also was being used in the private sector.
Diem, Hino, Martin, and Meisenbach  found that while demand for online education is growing, Extension is not keeping up with the required technologies and innovation.
They argued that adopting online technology for educational program delivery to reach new audiences is vital to "the future viability of the Extension system" ("Summary and Conclusions" section, para.
Hino and Kahn  highlighted the role hybrid learning can play in Extension program delivery and emphasized the importance of developing a literature of best practices for the use of hybrid learning in Extension.
While the literature on hybrid learning in Extension is still limited, many in Extension have begun to embrace technology to reach new audiences through a variety of hybrid learning programs.
In 2013, University of Minnesota Extension pilot tested a public health leadership academy using the hybrid model and found that learning for students in the hybrid leadership academy was comparable to learning for students in the face-to-face academies.
Additionally, the leadership academy experienced increased enrollment in the hybrid version due to reductions in program duration and cost.
In 2014, University of Florida converted a training for conservation land managers from a face-to-face course to a series of hybrid workshops.
Surveys indicated that the hybrid format was more effective in providing participants with the benefits they most desired from workshop participation.
Washington State University Extension has developed a hybrid conference delivery format that connects multiple sites across the state through an interactive webinar while providing in-person discussions and activities led by local facilitators.
This format allows rural communities to engage with national experts and develop important local and regional networks.
Silkwood, Young, Dolecheck, Hamilton, and Kinder  demonstrated the ability of Extension to use the hybrid model to connect multiple locations across Idaho and reach rural audiences of all ages.
This article contributes to the literature on hybrid learning in Extension in that we describe the evolution of an Extension-led WFP course from a traditional model to a hybrid model and the rationale behind that evolution; compare the implementation strategies, reach, and select learning outcomes of the traditional, online, and hybrid versions of the course; and identify effective components of the hybrid course.
From 2000 to 2010, the Cultivating Success WFP course was offered as an 8to 12-week in-person series of evening classes that emphasized experiential learning through farm tours and face-to-face interaction with farmer mentors and agricultural service providers.
Evaluations showed that the course was successful at increasing beginning farmers' knowledge and skills and establishing beginning farmer support networks.
However, in Idaho, a state with approximately one third of its residents living in 32 nonmetropolitan, rural counties , there were significant barriers to participation, including long travel distances, adverse winter travel, work and familial commitments, and the limited number of offerings around the state.
To address these challenges, the Cultivating Success Idaho team, of which our lead author was a member, redesigned the course in 2011 and offered it as a self-paced, online course using UI's Moodle platform for sharing presentations, readings, and assignments and conducting weekly live chats between students and course instructors.
End-of-course evaluations for the 2011 online course indicated slightly lower levels of knowledge gain and similar percentages of participants' developing a whole-farm plan as compared to outcomes of the 2010 in-person courses.
The online discussion forum, intended to foster participant interaction with experienced farmers and instructors, was rated low in the evaluations, whereas the instructional material was rated highly.
After comparing the learning outcomes of both delivery modes, the Cultivating Success Idaho team began exploring ways to increase in-person interaction and the experiential learning aspects of the course as well as the number of locations where it was offered.
Washington State University Extension's design of the 2014 Western Women in Agriculture Conference, which involved the use of live webinars interspersed with facilitated in-person group discussion and assignments to connect multiple conference locations , inspired reformatting of the WFP course into a similar hybrid model.
With the newly inspired format and funding from the U.S.
Department of Agriculture National Institute of Food and Agriculture Beginning Farmer and Rancher Development Program, the Idaho Cultivating Success team created a hybrid course wherein online aspects could make it possible to reach a greater number of students with a high-quality, standardized curriculum, and the in-person components could facilitate experiential learning and decentralized engagement with local farmers, educators, and other professionals.
Redesigning the WFP course began with a team of 23 UI Extension educators and staff, Rural Roots staff, experienced farmers, and a nonprofit technical advisor reviewing and updating the WFP course materials.
The course curriculum was repackaged as a monthly series of three full-day in-person workshops to be offered simultaneously at nine sites across Idaho connected by live presentations using GoToWebinar.
The Extension Moodle platform was used for delivering course assignments, educational materials, and postwebinar recordings and providing an online, asynchronous discussion forum.
Practice sessions and contingency plans resulted in a well-orchestrated program.
During the workshops, two sitesone urban and one rurallost connectivity.
Local site facilitators stayed on the workshop schedule while connections were reestablished.
The team recorded the webinar presentations using the central computer, posted them on YouTube, and linked the videos to the Moodle classroom for optional later viewing by course participants.
As part of the collaborative effort, each Cultivating Success team member learned how to design and implement a hybrid course.
We compared design components and implementation strategies across the three course delivery modes, and we evaluated differences in short-term outcomes in students' knowledge and skill gains by comparing results from end-of-course surveys.
Students in the 2010 in-person WFP course completed paper surveys during the last class meetings, and students in the 2011 online and 2016 hybrid versions of the WFP course completed surveys online via SurveyMonkey web-based survey software.
Twenty out of 24 students  in the 2010 in-person course, 40 out of 65 students  in the 2011 online course, and 57 out of 141 students  in the 2016 hybrid course completed the survey.
The course content and corresponding survey content and question wording varied somewhat across course models.
However, most of the course content was the same, and several evaluation questions were consistently asked.
Herein, we share the results of evaluation questions that were consistent across delivery modes.
Most questions were closed ended, asking respondents to rate knowledge gain and preparedness outcomes on a scale from 1 to 5.
All three course designs incorporated presentations by Extension and other agricultural service providers and experienced farmers.
Courses also allowed for discussion among instructors and students; however, the online course limited discussion to online forums and chats.
The 2016 hybrid course incorporated all the components of the in-person and online course designs except the printed materials and the notebook on CD.
Table 1 compares the course components included in the three course types.
The newly designed hybrid learning model allowed for offering the WFP course at nine sites throughout Idaho with live webinar presentations and facilitating the in-class curriculum for 141 participants.
The hybrid course had the benefit of reaching more beginning farmers throughout the state: 117 more than the in-person course and 76 more than the online course.
In comparison to the 2010 in-person course, the 2016 hybrid course rated lower in all measures except preparedness to evaluate farm, market, human, and financial resources.
When compared to the 2011 online course, however, self-reported knowledge gains and preparedness levels were all higher for participants in the 2016 hybrid course.
Differences in learning outcomes may have been influenced by changes in instructors and course content.
However, the ratings across courses were similar, indicating a consistent learning experience for participants.
Table 2 shows evaluation survey results by course delivery mode.
The majority of survey respondents from all courses indicated having taken action toward creating a whole-farm plan.
Eighty-nine percent of the 2010 in-person course participants had developed or improved a whole-farm plan as had 86% of the 2011 online course participants.
As well, 85% of the 2016 hybrid course participants said they had started or completed a whole-farm plan.
The 2016 hybrid WFP course evaluation asked participants to rate, on a scale from 1 to 5, the usefulness of the various course components at helping them learn the course content.
While most components rated highly on average, the course components with the highest average ratings were all in-person aspects of the hybrid course.
The course components with the lowest average ratings were all online aspects of the course.
These results suggest that the hybrid learning model maintains the most important components of the in-person course  and indicate the limitations of the online-only version.
Figure 1 shows how respondents rated the usefulness of each hybrid course component at helping them learn the course content.
Note: Values shown are percentages; n = 53.
The hybrid learning model adopted by the Cultivating Success Idaho team involved sharing educational content via a series of live webinars at designated sites with facilitated in-person activities and face-to-face interactions, supplemented with farm tours and web-based reading materials and assignments.
This format allowed for increasing the number of participants and locations where the course was offered while maintaining in-person interactions and experiential learning.
Additionally, the decision to offer the hybrid course led to building a stronger team of Extension educators and developing a hybrid course delivery model that is now being used for other UI Extension programs.
The hybrid learning model also allowed for the development of relationships at the local level and shared learning across all course locations, addressing the weaknesses of the other two course delivery modes.
The increased number of course participants, connected through a common learning experience, resulted in a larger network of beginning farmers across the state.
The work described herein was supported by U.S.
Department of Agriculture National Institute of Food and Agriculture award number 2015-70017-23932.
Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this publication are those of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the view of the U.S.
Additional team members include Ariel Agenbroad, Janie Burns, Greg Freistadt, Samantha Graf, Diane Green, Melissa Hamilton, Jennifer Jensen, Melissa Lines, Jessica McAleese, Teri McKenzie, Marci Miller, Kate Painter, Catherine Perillo, Rikki Ruiz, Amanda Snyder, Eileen Stachowski, Jennifer Werlin, Cinda Williams, Keri Wilson, and Montessa Young.
June 2013 // Volume 51 // Number 3 // Ideas at Work // v51-3iw7
 Concern over the contribution of residential fertilizers to nutrient loading in waterways has spurred a recent focus on the impact that homeowners' lawn care practices have on water resources , particularly in the Gulf of Mexico.
Fertilizers applied at the wrong time may result in nutrient runoff to water bodies, contributing to the formation of hypoxic zones.
Hypoxic zones negatively impact the ecological and economic wellbeing of the Gulf of Mexico.
Community-based social marketing seeks to influence social behavior to benefit a target audience as well as society as a whole.
Social marketing focuses on influencing attitudes and values of a target audience through education and experiential activities.
A social marketing plan  conducted by the University of South Florida's  Center for Social Marketing was developed for the Gulf of Mexico Alliance , a state-led, non-profit organization in the Gulf of Mexico whose aim is to improve the ecological and economic health of the region.
The SMP outlined the steps GOMA would need to take in developing a successful nutrient-reduction campaign aimed at changing the way Gulf of Mexico homeowners fertilized their lawns.
The USF SMP identified the USDA Cooperative Extension System as a trusted source for educating the public on lawn care and landscape practices and recommended establishing a strong partnership with Extension's Master Gardener Programs in all five U.S.
The USF SMP identified this as an integral step in developing a nutrient-reduction campaign for the Gulf of Mexico region.
The USF plan also recommended developing a brand that the target audience, Gulf of Mexico homeowners who maintain their own lawns would recognize and understand.
Through a series of workshops and focus groups, a short list of 20 brands and 35 messages was generated.
Eventually, the list of brands was narrowed down to two that emphasized fertilizing "smart" and keeping the Gulf of Mexico "healthy." The two brands that were tested at all four focus groups were: 1) Healthy Lawn, Healthy Gulf and 2) Gulf Smart Yard.
During one focus group, a participant recommended combining the two aforementioned brands to form a more cohesive brand, Smart Yard, Healthy Gulf.
This brand was subsequently tested at two more focus groups.
It tested the highest among all focus group participants and therefore became the brand for the GOMA nutrient-reduction campaign.
Two initial logos were created to illustrate the Smart Yard, Healthy Gulf brand.
The words "Smart Yard" and "Healthy Gulf" were linked by two individual swooshes in the colors green and blue, to signify grass and the ocean.
Both logos were tested among focus group participants and program sponsors, including Extension agents and Master Gardener volunteers.
Participants were asked to pick their favorite logo color and font, and comment on their likes and dislikes about each logo.
Most comments were received via email and were simple to tally.
The logos were modified based on feedback received from these groups.
The majority of the project participants preferred the upper case lettering.
Several participants suggested adding waves to the blue swoosh and grass to the green swoosh to simulate waves found in the Gulf of Mexico and grass on home lawns.
These comments were incorporated into the final logo.
Final Version of the Smart Yard, Healthy Gulf Logo
 In addition to brand testing, the focus groups were successful in determining which messages best resonated with the target audience.
Social marketing attempts to use messages that are both appealing and memorable.
The messages for the Smart Yard, Healthy Gulf campaign focus on the issue of proper timing of fertilizer applications for the Gulf of Mexico coastal region, where the appropriate season to fertilize home lawns is in the summer.
The series of workshops and focus groups led to the development of the following two messages.
The first message, "If you're going to fertilize, summertime is the right time," is used during the spring and summer seasons, while the second message, "Why feed your lawn when it's sleep?" is used during the fall and winter seasons.
Each message was paired with a photograph that depicts the goal of the message.
The message "If you're going to fertilize, summertime is the right time" illustrates a male homeowner fertilizing his yard using an appropriate method, a drop spreader, and links an image of the Gulf of Mexico to the fertilization activity.
Message Number One Demonstrating the Proper Time and Method of Lawn Fertilization for the Gulf of Mexico Region
 The second message, "Why feed your lawn when it's asleep?" is paired with a picture of a male participating in an activity other than fertilizing, fishing from a dock.
This message and image seek to influence the homeowner to refrain from fertilizing during the fall and winter seasons by promoting a recreational activity, fishing, instead of fertilizing.
Message Number Two Demonstrating the Time of Year to Participate in Activities Other Than Lawn Fertilization
 The Smart Yard, Healthy Gulf campaign was successfully launched March 2011 in three coastal counties in Mississippi and Alabama.
Master Gardeners and Master Naturalists have promoted the Smart Yard, Healthy Gulf campaign through hundreds of volunteer hours spent handing out materials at local farmers markets, plant sales, garden clubs, and one-on-one interactions with homeowners.
Similar programs in other regions of the country could be established by developing comparable partnerships with local Master Gardener and Master Naturalist Programs.
Challenges exist for Extension educators even when their audience consists of homeowners who possess environmentally conscious knowledge and attitudes because even environmentally minded homeowners may need further motivation to translate their beliefs into actions.
Extension educators may need to incorporate creative measures into future programs to ensure that homeowners adopt the appropriate lawn-care actions.
Social marketing: Improving the quality of life.
Gundlach , Handbook of marketing and society.
Newbury Park, CA: Sage Publications.
June 2013 // Volume 51 // Number 3 // Feature // v51-3a10
 Very few studies of Extension agent perceptions of their performance appraisal system have been completed.
Performance appraisal has received only a peripheral glance, being mentioned briefly in studies of job satisfaction, management, and employee retention.
Clearly, more understanding is needed.
Of these eight studies, only one  was exclusively from the agent's viewpoint.
Davis and Verma  compared Extension agents' views of their numeric performance appraisal to the agents' perception of the ideal performance appraisal system in a seven-state study of 602 agents.
The study found that agents perceive the ideal performance appraisal as one in which their appraisers had adequate instruction and plan of work  incorporated into the appraisal.
Research has suggested that agents prefer a performance appraisal system in which a team of appraisers is used rather than a single appraiser.
Davis and Verma  suggested that the trio of appraisers be the county directors, regional director, and state/regional specialist.
In Tennessee, both the University of Tennessee  and Tennessee State University  use the same appraisal system for Extension agent and county director positions.
The performance appraisal system includes a rubric delineating 27 criteria in the broad categories of program development, program accountability and professionalism.
County directors have an additional category of nine criteria describing administrative performance, such as guidance of personnel and financial management.
For each criterion, except those relative to program development, the rubric delineates performance as exemplary , achieves expectations , and unsatisfactory.
The ratings on the program development section are either achieves expectations  or unsatisfactory , with the exemplary rating not used.
Program Accountability Impacts/Outcomes/Goals from Plan Effectively Marketed Programs Teaching Method Effectiveness Utilized Planned Evaluation Methods Reported Program Progress Reported Accomplishments Networking Utilized Available Funding Sources Civil Rights Parity and Diversity
 County Directors Total County Program Leadership Guidance of Personnel Evaluation of Personnel Financial Management Management of Facilities/Equipment Public Relations Communications/Office Management Knows Policies/Meets Deadlines EEO/CR/AA/ADA Policy and Implementation
 In November, the Extension agent prepares materials to demonstrate competence and performance in the criteria during the past 11 months.
The Extension agent may attach any number of documents or any amount of text to his/her electronic appraisal form.
The appraisal form is due to the county director on or about December 1 of every year.
The county director completes the rating form in a one-on-one meeting with the Extension agent.
The county director then forwards the rating form and materials prepared by the Extension agent to the regional director, who makes the final rating in one-on-one consultation with the county director.
The exception is that every third year, the regional director meets directly with the Extension agent.
The purpose of the study reported here was to determine Extension agents' perceptions of their performance appraisal system.
Specific research questions were:
 The population of Extension agents employed by the UT Extension and TSU Extension in January 2010 was 312.
A simple random sample of 39 agents  was drawn for the pilot test.
The pilot test survey was available for 4 weeks in early 2010.
Of the 39 pilot test members, 28 completed the survey, for a 72% response rate.
The researcher noted no problems in survey completion.
The responses to the question "Is there anything else you would like to share about the performance appraisal system, please type it in the box below" were analyzed.
Because no common statements were made by the pilot test respondents, the comments were not incorporated into the survey items.
The instrument was sent to the study population  in spring 2010.
It was available for 4 weeks.
The data were combined into a single data file for analysis.
The total completed responses were 218 for a completed response rate of 69%.
The data set was constructed and analyzed using the Statistical Package for the Social Sciences.
The researcher ignored missing values through pairwise deletion, deleting only missing values for a case rather than excluding the case from the entire data set.
Descriptive statistics used were mean, mode, range, and percentage.
Because the study was a survey of a population, inferential statistics were not used for data analysis.
The average years of employment for respondents in the study were 16.7 years, with a range of less than 1 year to 38 years; one in five respondents  had worked 5 years or less.
The mode was 2 years of employment for 15  respondents.
Regarding institutional status, 202  respondents were employed by UT, and 12  respondents were employed by TSU, while one  was employed exclusively  by a Tennessee county government.
The instrument had a total of 14 items targeting perceptions of the current appraisal system representing fairness, job description, multiple appraisers, professional development, and overall effectiveness.
Percentages for item responses are shown in Table 1.
For the purpose of this discussion, the data have been collapsed, so that disagreement is represented by strongly disagree and disagree responses, and agreement is represented by strongly agree and agree responses.
A sixth answer category for "don't know" was provided on the instrument.
Respondents were also allowed to skip questions.
In calculating the percentage of responses, the "don't know" and no answer responses were collapsed and included.
The item with the strongest agreement among all items regarding satisfaction with the current appraisal system was, "the performance appraisal system needs to be improved".
The majority of respondents disagreed that the performance appraisal system is "close to ideal".
The majority of respondents  expressed approval for having the county director as an appraiser by disagreeing that the appraisal system "would be more accurate if county directors did NOT serve as raters." For the item, "would be more accurate if a subject matter specialist served as a rater," 49.1% disagreed; and for the item, "would be more accurate if a team of the county directors, regional director and subject matter specialist served as raters," 42.4% disagreed.
Regarding fairness, 49.1% agreed that the performance appraisal system "is fair," and 43.1% agreed that the appraisal system "is implemented fairly." Conversely, four in 10 respondents  disagreed that the appraisal system "is unbiased."
 Regarding job description, four in 10 agreed that the appraisal system "reflects my major job responsibilities"  and "helps me understand my job duties".
About equal numbers of respondents agreed  and disagreed  that the appraisal system "represents what I do on the job."
 Four in 10 respondents  agreed that the performance appraisal system "has helped me improve my professionalism."
 The percentage of respondents who neither agreed nor disagreed with the statements regarding their perceptions of the current performance appraisal system ranged from 15.6% to 28%.
More than one-fourth of respondents neither agreed nor disagreed that the appraisal system "causes me confusion about job responsibilities" , "is unbiased" , and "is close to ideal".
The last open-ended question on the survey asked, "If there is anything else you would like to share about the performance appraisal system, please type it in the box below." Of the 218 respondents, 96  provided written comments.
Of these 96 commenters, 68  of 218 respondents suggested improvements.
In coding, 126 different comments were noted, and 72 comments fit six major themes.
Analysis of the written comments revealed the following key themes relative to an improved performance appraisal system.
Seventeen respondents noted that the current appraisal process is too time-consuming and inefficient.
Some respondents felt that the appraisal process required the agent to compile too much information.
Others felt that they were not provided adequate time to discuss the ratings received from the appraisal interview between regional directors and county directors.
They indicated that they were asked to sign their appraisal, yet there was not a formal interview scheduled in which they could receive feedback and understand how to improve.
Twelve respondents described the need to make the rubric more representative of the job.
The most common need identified was to expand recognition for work, as one respondent described, "beyond the priority program area".
Another respondent described the need this way:
 Eleven respondents noted that Extension agents should have a direct appraisal interview with the regional director, rather than being represented by the county director at this appraisal interview.
Respondents indicated that the county directors could not be knowledgeable about all Extension programs conducted in the county.
Some respondents noted that UT Extension formerly used direct appraisal interviews between regional directors and Extension agents.
One respondent described the following:
 Twelve respondents described the need to improve performance of the county directors in conducting the appraisal.
The respondents expressed that the role of the county directors should focus on improving performance, especially in encouraging high -quality performance, yet they felt that many times the county directors place emphasis on finishing the appraisals.
Representative comments included the following:
 Eleven respondents described the need to implement, improve, and/or strengthen merit pay raises.
Some described the need to implement a merit pay system that would recognize performance with pay, as one respondent described, "Receiving an E on the performance appraisal offers the same opportunities as receiving a U." Respondents also questioned the fairness of past merit pay implementations.
One respondent described the past implementation this way:
 Nine respondents wrote about the need to allow Extension agents to have input into the appraisal of the county directors.
Extension agents reported both positive and negative aspects to the Tennessee Extension Agent Performance Appraisal System.
The vast majority of Extension agents  agreed that "the performance appraisal system needs to be improved," and the majority disagreed  that the present system is "close to ideal".
In contrast, respondents also perceive the most positive aspects of the current performance appraisal system to be the involvement of county directors as appraisers, fairness, and the improvement of the Extension agents' professional development by having participated in the appraisal system.
The majority  expressed approval for having the county director as an appraiser by disagreeing that the appraisal system "would be more accurate if county directors did NOT serve as raters." The respondents disagree with using subject matter specialists as appraisers.
This is inconsistent with previous research by Zoller and Safrit  and Davis and Verma , which found Extension agents favor a team of appraisers that includes a subject matter specialist.
Nearly one-half of respondents  agreed that the appraisal system is fair.
Four in 10 respondents  agreed that the performance appraisal system "has helped me improve my professionalism." Extension may be able to capitalize on this perception by setting employee development as an organizational goal.
Doing so may improve both the employee performance and organizational effectiveness , and this emphasis may lead to greater satisfaction with the appraisal system.
Employees who feel that performance dimensions used to assess their job are relevant to their actual job responsibilities have a more positive perception of their performance appraisal system.
Onethird  of the participants in the reported here study disagreed that the appraisal system reflected their major job responsibilities.
The number of respondents who neither agreed nor disagreed with the statements regarding their perceptions of the current performance appraisal system ranged from 15.6% to 28%.
While the reason for this is not known, this is an interesting finding.
It may be due to the fact that one in five respondents  had worked 5 years or less, and these respondents have had limited experience with the performance appraisal system.
The following recommendations should be viewed with a caveat.
The key themes from the written comments represent a relatively small group of respondents.
In addition, one in five respondents  had worked 5 years or less under this appraisal system, and their perceptions may represent limited experience with it.
Valid, reliable performance appraisal systems are important to any profession.
They should be the basis for professional development of individuals, improvement of the services rendered, and summative decisions made with regard to an employee.
However, the steps necessary to ensure valid, reliable performance appraisal systems are often overlooked when a system is initially developed, and regular review of a system by those subject to it and those charged with implementing it is not conducted often enough.
We in Extension can do better, as can professionals in most fields.
Designing and constructing instruments for social science research and evaluation.
San Francisco: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Performance appraisal in the public sector: Techniques and applications.
Westport, CT: Quorum Books.
Correlates of employee reactions to performance appraisals and appraisal systems.
Journal of Applied Psychology, 66 248-251.
A survey of Tennessee Extension agents' perceptions of the Tennessee Extension agent performance appraisal system.
University of Tennessee, Knoxville.
Developing performance evaluation systems for career ladders.
Thresholds in Education, 13 16-19.
Measuring the performance of extension educators.
Managing teacher appraisal and performance: A comparative approach.
Employee fairness perceptions of performance appraisal: A Saint Lucian case study.
The International Journal of Human Resource Management, 19, 1152-1169.
August 2019 // Volume 57 // Number 4 // Feature // v57-4a4
 Approximately 18.5% of children in the United States are obese.
This obesity epidemic continues to grow exponentially due to insufficient nutrition and lack of activity.
While children's waistlines continue to grow, concerns surrounding food insecurity and hunger are becoming major threats to children's health in the United States.
To combat both obesity and food insecurity among children, the U.S.
Department of Agriculture established the national Farm to School  program in 2009 (U.S.
Department of Agriculture Office of Communication, 2014).
The idea behind F2S programming is that both children's health and local economies can be improved through the introduction of local food in school cafeterias and the delivery of related education.
Schools participating in the F2S program purchase produce from local farms and provide educational opportunities via school gardens, cooking lessons, and farm field trips.
Previous research has indicated that logistics are a challenge in F2S endeavors.
Ideally, application of the F2S concept should involve schools' procuring food directly from local producers, but as Guthman, Morris, and Allen  have discussed, procurement is complex.
Often, a middleman is needed for procurement to work effectively.
Cost is another documented challenge.
Schools and other institutions that serve food to those vulnerable to food-borne illnesses must maintain higher food safety standards than other buyers (U.S.
Food and Drug Administration, 2017).
The costs associated with implementing more intensive food safety practices on the farm can inhibit small-scale producers from participating in F2S programming.
Involvement with the F2S movement makes sense for Extension.
For example, University of Florida Extension F2S programming is intended to meet strategic priority goals such as empowering individuals and families to build healthful lifestyles and increasing the profitability of agricultural enterprises.
Moreover, Extension professionals from varied program areasagriculture, community development, family and health sciences, youth developmentall can play roles in the F2S movement.
Despite the seemingly logical fit of F2S programming, Benson  found that although Extension professionals had interest in exploring and supporting F2S activities, their involvement in such endeavors did not align with that expressed interest.
Lack of experience with F2S efforts separated those who expressed interest in F2S initiatives and those involved in such initiatives.
Therefore, identifying the needs of those involved in the F2S program can provide Extension professionals insight regarding potential trainings and outreach strategies that can enhance the F2S program.
We undertook a study to identify perceived barriers and potential enhancements related to the Florida F2S program from the perspectives of producers and school food service directors.
Our intent was to help clarify the role of Extension in F2S efforts and inform the incorporation of F2S initiatives into Extension programming across the country.
We sought as participants both producers and SFSDs involved in the F2S program and those not yet involved in the F2S program.
The participants were to represent various geographic locations throughout Florida as determined by Extension districts.
We first identified potential participants according to the said criteria for the population.
Next, we chose a group of producers representing various types of crops grown across Florida and SFSDs representing Florida school districts of various sizes and demographic makeups.
We used snowball sampling, whereby we asked recruited participants to name additional potential participants who met the selection criteria.
We stopped recruiting participants when "new data repeat[ed] what was expressed in previous data," indicating a point of saturation (Saunders et al., 2018, p.
We conducted semistructured interviews to collect data.
The use of interviews allowed us to "understand the social actor's experience and perspective" (Lindlof & Taylor, 2017, p.
We interviewed a total of five producers and seven SFSDs.
We gathered preliminary data on the occupations of the participants, , and we used an interview guide with initial questions about local food to build rapport.
The interview guide then focused on questions to meet the study objectives.
At the end of each interview, we summarized the conversation and asked the interviewee to confirm and verify the summary, thereby applying member checking.
Data collection occurred between September 2013 and May 2014.
We audio recorded and transcribed verbatim all the interviews.
We compared the interview data with transcripts, handwritten notes, and audio recording for triangulation.
Our principal researcher analyzed the transcripts and performed constant comparative analysis.
The principal researcher also kept an audit trail, detailing theme formation and definitions, thus increasing confirmability and dependability of the results.
Analysis included open coding, followed by axial coding and, lastly, selective coding.
Our principal researcher discussed the audit trail and final themes with the rest of the team to ensure accuracy and trustworthiness.
We assigned pseudonyms to each participant for participant confidentiality before data analysis.
The principal researcher and one coresearcher were graduate students studying agricultural communications who had previously been trained in qualitative data collection and analysis.
The other coresearcher was an assistant professor in agricultural communications.
We acknowledge the limitations of our study, including the small number of interview participants and the types of commodities produced by the farmers in the study.
We chose to conduct interviews because we were undertaking an exploratory study with our objective being to understand the baseline perceptions of the benefits and barriers of the F2S program.
Although there are constraints on generalizability beyond Florida, the findings may be useful for those incorporating F2S efforts in other states.
Tables 1 and 2 display interviewees' background information relevant to participation in the F2S program.
We made efforts to select participants from diverse operations.
In one school district, three SFSDs participated in the interview.
The participating producers represented different regions of the state, different crops, and different statuses in the F2S program.
The SFSDs represented diversity in location and size of school district.
We asked the producers to identify the barriers they faced when working with the F2S program.
Three major themes were identified: distribution challenges, limited produce, and food safety requirements.
Many producers discussed the expense and labor of delivering produce to schools.
"Tyler" was unable to deliver food to multiple schools.
He said, "I can't afford to go to one school and another school and deliver two boxes here and two boxes here.
It's not feasible." "Joe" was surprised by the intensity of the labor.
He said, "If we had warning about how labor intensive it is to deliver to all those schools, that might have helped.
It can be overwhelming when you are responsible for delivery."
 Producers found that selling produce to schools was not as profitable as selling to other market outlets, with some small-scale farmers being unable to provide a reliable and long-term supply to meet school needs.
"Phil" said, "The amount of produce schools require doesn't ever amount to anything.
It's not much for producers to consider selling."
 Producers rely on distributors for the distribution of produce.
However, the producers interviewed indicated that distributors are not interested in handling small quantities of produce.
Tyler explained that distributors want larger amounts of product to fill their trucks.
He said, "When we contact a broker, they want to know how many semi loads we have.
I probably have five, six semi loads.
They are talking about 40, 50, 100, 200 semi loads."
 Higher standards for food safety maintained by schools created a barrier that kept many of the producers from participating in the F2S program.
Joe expressed his discontent with the food safety inspection requirements for schools: "If my Extension agent comes out here and knows that I have good agriculture practices, that should be enough for my produce to qualify for school safety requirements." Phil discussed the prohibitive costs of food safety inspections for small farmers, saying, "Schools require a tremendous amount of insurance and different safety requirements that would not be cost effective for various producers [to execute]."
 We asked producers what could be done to enhance the F2S program and to facilitate the transition for producers entering the program.
Four themes emerged: cooperatives, efficient communication, school access, and education.
Working in cooperatives, or co-ops, would allow producers, especially small-scale producers, to share responsibilities and lower costs.
Being involved in a co-op gives producers the opportunity to supplement one another's products, purchase supplies collectively, and fill in for members' crop failures.
Tyler said, "The way to go is through co-ops.
We are losing out by not all combining and having a central location to carry our product and sell the product for us.
We could also get into brokers if our produce was all combined because then we would have the number of semi loads to interest a broker." "Melody," who was considering participating in the F2S program, said, "Cooperatives can help on a lot of levels.
In a co-op, you can trade equipment and maybe even boxes.
You just got to work together."
 Producers noted that better communication between producers and the schools would lead to mutual understanding of concerns.
Better communication was critical, they emphasized, especially when an immediate opportunity for buying or selling arose.
Tyler explained that a middleman should connect the producers to the schools, saying, "What is missing is that person who knows the farmer and knows the school, to be able to match them up."
 Producers discussed the difficulty of getting their product into schools.
Because producers did not have sufficient knowledge or resources to initiate conversations or contracts, they suggested that school personnel should initiate contact with them.
"Ethan" believed F2S was a good program, but he wanted SFSDs to select farms and say "you are the selected farmers for the F2S program in Putman County." Tyler also identified the need for help.
He said, "To help farmers get into the schools is where the help is needed.
Once I'm in there, you can leave me alone; we'll get along fine."
 Producers discussed the limited knowledge school personnel had about their work.
Educating school personnel about farming by hosting field trips or speaking in the classroom could build trust and understanding between producers and schools.
Joe said, "Educating schools about producers' work would help them have faith in what we do in that they're getting something healthy and safe." Ethan also wanted to help the school districts understand farm processes.
He said, "We would like to teach teachers what goes on on the farms.
It should be in the education system."
 SFSDs discussed barriers they had faced associated with the F2S program.
Four themes emerged: cost, inconvenience, perishability, and lack of communication.
Purchasing fresh food costs schools more than purchasing other forms, such as frozen or canned food.
"Janet" explained, "I have got to balance it with cost.
Fresh green beans are about 32 cents a portion; my commodity frozen green beans are around 9 cents." As well, "Becky" said, "When we evaluate the cost of the fresh produce, it's much more expensive than the frozen or canned item.
Cost is a huge barrier."
 The modern school food system has been set up to serve students in a quick and convenient manner and includes the use of precut and prepackaged food items.
"Tiffany" discussed the challenges of getting a product straight from the farm.
She said, "These smaller farms wouldn't be able to package the produce the way that we [want] it.
We don't get product coming in that's not cleaned or packaged the way we want.
We used to [receive] cases of lettuce, [and we had to] clean it and cut it ourselves, but now we want value-added product that [is] already chopped for us.
Farmers that do not offer the type of convenience the schools are looking for [will find it] hard to sell their products to the schools." The SFSDs explained that the convenience-based processes used in schools do not require employees to know how to work with fresh produce.
Fresh food requires storing and handling processes that differ from those used for canned or frozen food.
Therefore, the perishability of fresh food makes storage more challenging.
Tiffany explained, "The shelf life for fresh food is short.
If you are looking at frozen food, you can store that for a long time.
Fresh you can't." "Sarah" said, "When you're dealing with produce, the big challenge is you've got to get it out to the schools in a timely manner, or it's rotten."
 SFSDs repeatedly identified a lack of communication across schools, producers, and other stakeholders.
Sarah said, "Making contact with the local farmers is not easy because we don't know who they are.
The local farmers don't know how we do business." "Haley" addressed a misunderstanding stakeholders had about school food service staff because of a lack of communication.
She said, "The relationships with stakeholders require clarifying our responsibilities and our capabilities."
 We asked SFSDs what could be done to enhance the F2S program and to facilitate a better transition of entities into the program.
The themes emerging from this discussion included distributor support, improved communication, and education.
Many SFSDs expressed the need to have more distributors involved in the school food business.
Janet explained the barrier associated with perceptions of produce distributors, saying, "I wish more of the produce vendors would see us as a viable business segment that they would want to compete for and that could be a steady business for them."
 SFSDs repeatedly mentioned the importance of designating a "middleman" who would understand both school business and the producers' businesses as well as the distribution process.
They suggested that a middleman could be a distributor who would conduct communications between SFSDs and producers or another type of individual who could communicate across SFSDs, producers, and distributors.
"Angie" said, "It's important not to leave our distributor out because he's the middleman here.
I don't want to deal directly with the farmers.
The distributor is the one who makes sure that the produce has been grown properly and been handled properly." Additionally, Sarah said, "Perhaps, we need someone else doing one-on-one conversation with my produce distributor.
It would be helpful."
 SFSDs discussed the necessity of producers' understanding school business to enhance the F2S program.
Sarah said, "We need to put together F2S meetings and invite local growers to educate them about our business and how we need them to do business." "Emma" shared a similar thought: "Educating farmers on how school business works would enhance the program.
Getting the producers familiarized with how school business works and how the contracts are set up would be helpful too."
 For the purpose of understanding how F2S programming could be enhanced in Florida, we interviewed producers and SFSDs to identify the main barriers they had faced related to participation in the F2S program.
Both producers and SFSDs identified cost as a main barrier prohibiting them from participating.
For producers, the cost of addressing school food safety requirements was prohibitive.
This finding aligns with previous studies of F2S programs in Michigan and California.
Producers in our study believed their profits would be minimal due to the added costs of implementing food safety procedures.
Our interviews also revealed the perception that smallto mid-scale producers would have difficulty sustaining the amount of produce required for schools on a day-to-day basis.
This finding resonates with results of a similar study conducted in Minnesota.
Furthermore, participants expressed the need to improve communication between the groups and the need for each group to educate the other about their businesses and thus enhance the effectiveness of the F2S program.
Although existing literature has not specifically recommended educating both parties as a solution, several studies have indicated the benefit of a middleman to keep both parties informed.
However, adding a middleman adds costs, and conflicts with the ideal direct-local-procurement component of the F2S initiative.
In this case, a "middleman" could be a distributor, a co-op, or an Extension agent who could facilitate communication between producers and SFSDs.
The F2S program allows for a collaboration between local producers and school systems, and it provides a new opportunity for Extension.
To develop effective F2S-related Extension programming, Extension professionals should explore how to improve communication between producers and schools.
Nonformal education through Extension can facilitate knowledge and opinion exchange.
Inviting producers to schools and inviting SFSDs to farms, as part of Extension programming, could provide opportunities for communication about procurement and business procedures, discussion of concerns, and establishment of mutual understanding.
Extension also may play a role in creating relevant nonformal training programs.
For producers, educational programming could relate to preparing for and participating in higher levels of food safety evaluations and requirements.
Another opportunity lies in educating small-scale producers on how to create a cooperative that would allow them to combine yields to sell products to schools in larger quantities.
For SFSDs, Extension could develop educational programs focused on the use of fresh products in school food preparation.
These educational programs could focus on food safety, cutting and preparation techniques, storage and handling, and food preservation.
Both groups in our study indicated a lack of knowledge about how to make connections to get started in the F2S program.
To connect producers and schools, Extension professionals could assist by keeping a list of producers and schools within a county that may be interested in participating in the program.
Promotional materials explaining F2S policies and procedures, how to get involved in the F2S program, and F2S tips and tricks also could provide basic information to producers and SFSDs.
Additionally, those working in program areas across Extension could learn from the challenges and successes of F2S initiatives and apply new knowledge to related programmatic areas.
The F2S program is unique in that it naturally offers a collaborative environment in which different types of Extension agents can engage.
Collaborative teams of family and consumer science, 4-H, agriculture, and horticulture agents should be formed to work on F2S programming.
We sought to identify our study participants' thoughts and perceptions regarding the Florida F2S program.
The qualitative nature of the study allowed for exploratory research; however, researchers conducting future studies should aim to solidify perceptions across a state through survey items.
Further, once Extension programming has been implemented in an area, program evaluators should implement pretest/posttest study designs to understand how attitudes and knowledge change as a result of Extension programming.
Author affiliations have changed since the study reported herein was conducted.
Shuyang Qu is an assistant professor of agricultural communication in the Department of Agricultural Education and Studies at Iowa State University.
Laura Fischer is an assistant professor in the Department of Integrated Strategic Communication at the University of Kentucky.
Joy Rumble is an assistant professor in the Department of Agricultural Communication, Education, and Leadership at The Ohio State University.
Funding for our study was provided by a U.S.
Department of Agriculture/Florida Department of Agriculture and Consumer Services specialty crop block grant.
Breaching the wall: Interviewing people from other cultures.
Journal of Transcultural Nursing, 18, 150156.
Social relationships and farm-to-institution initiatives: Complexity and scale in local food systems.
Journal of Hunger & Environmental Nutrition, 8, 397412.
Qualitative inquiry and research design: Choosing among five approaches.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Viewing agricultural education research through a qualitative lens.
Journal of Agricultural Education, 48, 3242.
Doing naturalistic inquiry: A guide to methods.
Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
Qualitative researching with text, image, and sound: A practical handbook.
London, UK: Sage Publications.
Heart disease and stroke statistics2013 update: A report from the American Heart Association.
How many interviews are enough?
An experiment with data saturation and variability.
Field Methods, 18, 5982.
Squaring farm security and food security in two types of alternative food institutions.
Rural Sociology, 71, 662684.
Results from the 2004 Michigan farmtoschool survey.
Journal of School Health, 76, 169174.
Qualitative communication research methods.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage Publications.
Codebook development for team-based qualitative analysis.
Cultural Anthropology Methods Journal, 10, 3136.
Saturation in qualitative research: Exploring its conceptualization and operationalization.
Quality & Quantity, 52, 18931907.
Basics of qualitative research: Grounded theory procedures and techniques  Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
P89: Perceived barriers and proposed solutions to farm-to-school programs in California.
Journal of Nutrition Education and Behavior, 38, S50.
October 2006 // Volume 44 // Number 5 // Feature Articles // 5FEA4
 Abstract Increasing environmental regulatory pressure on agriculture is stimulating increased attention to integrated farming systems and more participatory forms of Extension.
Agro-environmental partnerships, which have become the primary strategy for agricultural pollution prevention strategies in California, demonstrate the potential of alternative pest management strategies.
We argue that the organizational structure of these partnerships, which facilitates co-learning strategies and greater participation, has been key to their success.
The shift from a "transfer of technology" model to participatory co-learning and decision-making making support could improve Extension's service delivery and serve as an important strategy for Extension to engage a broader client constituency.
The 1996 Food Quality Protection Act  brought the most dramatic changes to pesticide regulation since the creation of the US Environmental Protection Agency , including the cancellation or partial ban of several economically important organophosphate  insecticides.
Numerous alternative pest management strategies have been advanced by researchers, some new and some pre-dating the invention of OPs.
Pheromone mating disruption, novel and narrow-spectrum insecticides, and biological control  have been demonstrated for many crops.
In theory, the elimination of OP pesticides should not economically disrupt agriculture , but these alternatives challenge conventional transfer-of-technology Extension pedagogies.
Whereas OP insecticides are remarkably simple to use, alternative pest management strategies are more complicated and rely more heavily on expert, ecologically based knowledge.
Inserting system-oriented, ecologically based practices into conventional transfer-of-technology Extension programs has a poor record of user adoption.
In this article, we situate these alternative pest management strategies within the context of the extension of integrated farming systems while specifically analyzing Extension activities of agro-environmental partnerships in California.
We argue that their organizational structure, which facilitates greater participation, has been key to their success.
The shift from a "transfer of technology" model to one that includes more co-learning, facilitation, and emphasis on decision-making making can help all Extension stakeholders and improve Extension's service delivery.
This article draws from a major study of California's agro-environmental partnerships, based on 3 years of field work interviewing over 230 growers, consultants, Extensionists, scientists, regulators, and grower organization staff , to highlight implications for University of California  Extension practices as California agriculture moves "beyond organophosphates".
Agriculture is the greatest source of non-point water pollution in the U.S.
Geological Survey, 1999), and it is under significant political pressure to address this problem, especially in highly urbanized states like California.
In response, Extensionists are paying increased attention to helping growers reduce the environmental impacts of agricultural production.
In 1993, the National Research Council's Soil and Water Quality: An Agenda for Agriculture recommended that integrated farming system plans should become the basis of federal, state, and local soil and water quality programs.
It argued that in "systems-level approaches to analyzing agricultural production systems.
inherent links exist among soil quality conservation, improvements in input use efficiency, increases in resistance to erosion and runoff, and the wider use of buffer zones." Alternative soil, water, and farmscape management strategies have the potential to reduce the need for and environmental impact of insecticides, but an integrated systems approach places greater demands on Extension practice and grower learning.
California uses about 25% of the nation's pesticides , so the FQPA posed a particularly serious threat to agricultural production here.
In the immediate aftermath of its passage, federal, state, and private foundation dollars funded agro-environmental partnerships in California, defined as: a multi-year collaboration between scientists, growers, and a growers' organization to research and implement innovative, field-scale, agroecologically informed practices.
These funding agencies created semi-privatized Extension projects to develop and extend alternative, integrated farming system practices.
Grower organizations  have had an active interest in Extension practice for decades, but the threat of OP loss stimulated many of them to become more active partners with Cooperative Extension to develop and promote alternatives to conventional pesticides.
Over the past 15 years, 32 partnerships have emerged to develop alternative practices in 16 California commodities, engaging over 500 growers and 92 University of California scientists, Extension specialists, and farm advisors.
Agro-environmental partnerships do not seek to eliminate agrochemical use, but rather to rationalize it according to ecological principles and help growers gain confidence in OP alternatives.
Participating growers avoid ecologically disruptive pesticides to prevent pollution by using pheromone-based mating disruption; novel, narrow-spectrum insecticides; and biological control strategies to the extent economically possible.
Farm advisors deploy some traditional Extension practices, such as field days and newsletters, but place additional emphasis on co-learning models, fostering social networks of innovation to do research on and exchange information about ecologically based alternative pest management strategies.
Farm advisors educate growers about the rapidly developing regulatory requirements associated with pesticides and facilitate field-derived knowledge exchange about agroecological pest management techniques among growers and consultants.
More important than individual alternative pest management techniques is the emphasis partnerships place on alternative decision-making rules.
Partnerships engage growers and consultants in learning more about the ecological relationships in farming systems, how to integrate the components of their farming system , and how to make decisions according to environmental as well as economic criteria.
This strategy requires greater participation by growers and their consultants in the educational activities of Extension than is common with the transfer-of-technology model.
Techniques to Reduce & Replace Pesticides
 Biocontrol & Cultural Techniques
 Walnuts & Pome Fruit
 Pheromone-based pest  traps; agroecological monitoring protocols; assess beneficial insects
 Pheromone mating disruption; foster biocontrol by eliminating OPs from orchard; precise timing of pesticide applications; reduced rates of application
 Orchard sanitation; beneficial insect releases; bird/bat boxes;
 Grapes 
 Agroecological monitoring protocols; assess beneficial insects; insect ID sheets; computer monitoring data software
 Decision rules and treatment thresholds; softer pesticides; precise timing of pesticide applications; reduced rates of application
 Leaf pulling; beneficial insect releases; cover crops to moderate vigor
 Almonds & Stone Fruit
 Agroecological monitoring protocols; pheromone-based traps; assess beneficial insects; insect ID sheets; computer monitoring data software;
 Develop specific economic thresholds; pesticide use decision rules; softer pesticides ; precise timing of pesticide applications; reduced rates of application
 Early harvest; orchard sanitation; beneficial insect releases; cover crops
 Agroecological monitoring protocols; assess beneficial insects
 Beneficial insect releases; irrigation management
 Agroecological monitoring protocols; assess beneficial insects
 Avoiding early season pesticide application; softer pesticides
 Insectary crops; releasing beneficials; optimizing plant nutrition; resistant varietals; trap crops
 Leaders of these partnerships perceive that by participating in field-based research, growers and their consultants will receive more decision support and experience greater success with new technologies  and ecologically based pest management strategies.
The first efforts to develop partnership-based Extension practices took place in pears , almonds , and winegrapes .
When these early experimentations in agro-environmental partnerships indicated their potential for pollution prevention, the USEPA, the California Legislature, and the Department of Pesticide Regulation  created programs and dedicated funding to expand the number of partnerships.
The California legislature created the Biologically Integrated Farming System  program, based at the UC Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education Program.
DPR created the Pest Management Alliance.
These are the best-known agro-environmental partnerships, with 10 and 8 funded respectively for more than one year.
These programs provided different programmatic incentives for alternative Extension practices.
In general, BIFS funded local networks of UC farm advisors and growers  to conduct integrated farming system research on a field scale; the PMA program relies heavily on commodity organizations to engage growers.
BIFS constitutes local, place-based communities of growers who learn about farming systems together, led by an Extensionist who can draw in contributions from outside providers of scientific knowledge.
This approach facilitates growers exercising leadership and the development of innovative practices to take advantage of managing the interaction between components of farming systems.
It seeks to foster change by facilitating a local network of innovative growers that will develop and demonstrate a suite of integrated farming system practices.
Farm advisors created local networks of on-farm experimentation and innovation; received technical support from the Sustainable Agriculture Research and Education Program
 Commodity board worked with Farm Advisors to coordinate their efforts and progress toward pesticide reduction goals
 Used as consultants and resources for local networks of experimentation and innovation
 Commodity boards draw from their research, and seek to accelerate the diffusion of its practical implications
 Created opportunities for growers to share their field-based experimentation; co-learning from Farm Advisors and other growers
 Assumes growers' leadership is through commodity board
 Most management teams included roles for them
 Often targeted for outreach
 Greatest programmatic emphasis on building commodity board capacity for promoting alternative practices
 Scale of Extension Activities
 Local; working intensively with local growers and consultants to develop innovative farming practices
 Statewide; sharing research findings with all growers
 Helping growers integrate their farming systems to achieve multi-media pollution prevention
 Pesticide pollution prevention and avoiding regulatory conflict
 PMA partnerships have strengthened the ties between commodity board leaders and Extensionists to promote eco-rational pesticide use.
PMA partnerships have only been effective among perennial crop commodity organizations.
This strategy has effectively stimulated interest on the part of these organizations in environmental regulatory issues and they have recruited prominent growers to demonstrate alternative practices.
In commodities where less hazardous pest management techniques already exist, PMA grants accelerate the extension of knowledge more broadly.
This overall strategy does not appear to be able to capture benefits from local grower leadership in mentoring other growers, nor to assist growers in the integration of their farming systems.
In addition, the Pew Charitable Trust funded partnerships in California and elsewhere, and later established the Center for Agricultural Partnerships that funded projects in California and many other states.
Yet growers or growers' organizations  initiated 12 partnerships, independent of these major funding programs, indicating the degree of grower interest in alternative practices.
The most successful agro-environmental partnerships have differed qualitatively from conventional Extension practice by: 1) incorporating greater participation of the full range of people shaping farm management decisions and 2) focusing less on transfer of technology and more on learning about the integration of farming system components.
Extension strategies to prevent pollution require a different approach to pest management as well as an alternative pedagogy.
Three quarters of all partnerships have been in perennial crops, and only perennial crops have been targeted by multiple partnerships.
Several factors favor partnership development in permanent crops: a farming system more amenable to agroecological strategies, greater reliance on OPs, a history of social relations within these commodities favoring collaboration, and the economic advantage of perennial crops relative to other commodities.
Through informal local networks and statewide organizations, growers have actively shaped agro-environmental partnerships to help them develop and exchange pollution prevention practices.
These partnerships have been most active--and had greatest impact--on three crops with highly organized growers.
The California almond industry has documented the greatest volume reduction of OP use, from almost 500,000 pounds in 1992 to just over 100,000 pounds in 2000.
Much of this reduction is attributed to growers switching to pyrethroids pesticides ; however, partnership activities have also played an important role.
Pear growers reduced OP use faster than any other commodity in the history of California agriculture by substituting pheromone mating disruption products, from over 110,000 pounds in 1998 to 25,000 pounds in 2002.
When codling moth resistance to OPs began to appear in the Sacramento region in the early 1990s, it gave a strong impetus to develop the ecological knowledge necessary to make this new pest management strategy effective.
Partnerships fostered networks of expert scientific knowledge critical to the successful use of pheromones necessary to support this OP reduction.
These networks also allowed participating growers to take advantage of biocontrol opportunities in less disrupted farming systems (Welter et al.
Winegrape partnerships have been very active in some regions of California, especially those of premium winegrape production, and these have shown declines in FQPA priority pesticides.
A statewide winegrape organization has developed partnerships to further help extend these practices.
Furthermore, partnerships have facilitated the development of farm management plans that are helping growers both recognize the value of monitoring data and incorporate it into decision making.
Eleven partnerships have developed manuals to help growers assess their farming systems and optimize the relationships between farming components.
Examples of manuals with decision rules that emerge from partnership activities include The Integrated Prune Farming Practices Decision Guide , The Code of Sustainable Winegrowing Practices Self-Assessment Workbook , and A Seasonal Guide to Environmentally Responsible Pest Management in Almonds.
Even though these partnerships have been among the most active and highly publicized Extension initiatives in the state, it is not possible to claim that they alone caused these declines in pesticide use.
Nevertheless, they have played critical roles in demonstrating the value of more participatory Extension practice as well as integrated farming systems for pollution prevention.
While co-learning strategies provide additional resources for Extensionists, they require them to share the agenda for Extension activities with other participants eager to agricultural prevent pollution.
By shifting Extensionists' roles from industry wide-leadership to facilitating grower learning and providing technical support, partnerships have enabled Extensionists to reach more growers more efficiently and help them negotiate new environmental regulatory pressures.
As Extension budgets continue to decline, agro-environmental partnerships present Extensionists with a trade-off.
Partnerships require Extensionists to assume a diminished leadership role, but provide them with new strategies and resources for expanding their professional impact.
In fact, research into European Extension practice suggests that facilitation and technical support may be the most effective strategies for extending agroecological strategies.
PMA Partnerships have allowed Extensionists to reach all the growers in the state through the commodity board, to increase their contact hours without having to organize additional events, and to receive positive coverage in local media.
Grower participants in winegrape partnerships persuade their reluctant neighbor growers to attend field days, and they do so because in counties with significant opposition to agriculture, they recognize that growers must work together to improve their public image.
In spite of these demonstrated successes and results, many farm advisors report ambivalent views toward partnerships.
While they appreciate the extra resources partnership funding provides, they are wary of any further intrusion into their Extension education priorities when the professional incentive structures within Cooperative Extension do not explicitly reward such activities.
Extensionists are already being called upon to do increasingly more with fewer staff and shrinking budgets, and partnerships require them to develop co-learning facilitation skills as an alternative to conventional transfer of technology pedagogies.
Extension services nationwide are in crisis.
On the surface these are the result of state budget shortfalls, but a more complete analysis reveals that the taxpaying public does not recognize the value Extension offers society.
George McDowell  argues that for Extension services to survive, they must be able to deliver a product that no other institution can and then cultivate more political support from their client base.
Technology transfer to private parties only cannot engender sufficient political support, but conservation of environmental resources, because they represent action on behalf of the common good, might.
The goals and activities of agro-environmental partnerships clearly benefit society as a whole and, as such, could be the basis for engaging a broader base of clientele.
Especially in highly urbanized states like California and other coastal states, environmental resource protection initiatives by Extension could result in greater programmatic support.
Agricultural pollution challenges both agriculture and Extension practices.
Viable alternative pest management practices, using integrated farming systems approaches, will not be realized without greater participation in Extension activities and the development of appropriate decision-making support for growers.
Thirty-two agro-environmental partnerships in California over the past 15 years have conducted farming systems research and Extension to prevent agricultural pollution.
These partnerships explicitly help growers develop ecologically based understanding of their farming systems and optimize the relationships between components.
Through agro-environmental partnerships, farm advisors have demonstrated alternative Extension practices, such as co-learning, collaborative decision-making, and facilitation of farming system integration, yet the transfer-of-technology model continues to be the dominant operative Extension paradigm.
The dearth of incentives within the professional reward structure of Extension services for co-learning strategies has meant that Extensionists participate without receiving adequate recognition for this form of service.
Creating appropriate professional incentives for participating in partnerships will be critical to capturing the full potential of this emerging model of Extension.
Such partnerships are an Extension strategy that deserves continued and increased programmatic and financial support within Cooperative Extension.
The second author acknowledges with gratitude support from the National Science Foundation , the Biologically Integrated Farming Systems Work Group, the UC Santa Cruz Department of Environmental Studies, and the UC Santa Cruz Center for Agroecology and Sustainable Food Systems.
California Association of Winegrape Growers, & The Wine Institute.
Code of sustainable winegrowing practices self-assessment workbook.
San Francisco: CAWG & TWI.
Overview of area wide programs and the program for suppression of codling moth in the western USA directed by the USDA-ARS.
Pest Management Science, 59, 601-604.
Progress toward reduced-risk pest management.
Practical Winery & Vineyard, March/April, 1-6.
Various novel insecticides are less toxic to humans, more specific to key pests.
California Agriculture, 59, 29-34.
Almond growers reduce pesticides in Merced county field trials.
California Agriculture, 49, 5-10.
Influence of farm management style on adoption of biologically integrated farming practices in California.
Renewable Agriculture and Food Systems, 19, 237-247.
Land-grant universities and Extension into the 21st century: Re-negotiating or abandoning a social contract.
Ames: Iowa State University Press.
Nonpesticide alternatives can suppress crop pests.
California Agriculture, 59, 23-28.
Integrated prune farming practices decision guide.
Oakland, California: UC ANR.
Mapping the road for voluntary change: Partnerships in agricultural Extension.
Agriculture and Human Values, 18, 209-217.
A seasonal guide to environmentally responsible pest management in almonds.
Oakland, California: UC DANR.
Facilitating sustainable agriculture: Participatory learning and adaptive management in times of environmental uncertainty.
Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.
Growth predicted in biologically integrated and organic farming.
California Agriculture, 54, 26-36.
The quality of our nation's waters: Nutrients and pesticides.
Reston, Virginia: USGS Circular 1225.
Food quality protection act launches search for pest management alternatives.
California Agriculture, 59, 7-12.
Agroecology in action: How the science of alternative agriculture circulates through social networks.
A dissertation in the Department of Environmental Studies: UC Santa Cruz.
Agroecology in action: Social Networks extending alternative agriculture Cambridge: MIT Press.
Extending agroecology: Grower participation in partnerships is key to social learning.
Renewable Food and Agriculture Systems, in press.
Pheromone mating disruption offers selective management options for key pests.
California Agriculture, 59, 16-22.
December 2002 // Volume 40 // Number 6 // Feature Articles // 6FEA4
 Abstract 4-H traditionally focuses on positive youth development, but adult volunteers are the mainstay of the programs.
We evaluated the effectiveness of 4-H new leader education and its influence on the skill development of adult volunteer leaders.
Using a retrospective pretest method, we found that participants in 4-H new leader training increased their knowledge and readiness to be 4-H leaders.
Skills gained from new leader education were also being applied outside of the 4-H context.
Planning and carrying out yearly club programs was identified as an area in which current training could be improved.
The motivation and retention of volunteers are increasingly important to organizations that depend on adult volunteers.
Effective training programs enable volunteer leaders to develop sets of skills, receive rewards, and experience social affiliation.
These are all key motivators for adult volunteer leader participation and retention.
4-H youth development programs within Extension depend heavily on adult volunteers and provide extensive training to volunteer leaders.
4-H traditionally focuses on positive youth development, but adult volunteers are the mainstay of the programs.
A study of Ohio 4-H agents revealed that they believed orienting volunteers is important but lack information on whether their training programs or teaching strategies are effective.
Non-systematic training and the lack of volunteer recognition are two problems identified as crucial to the management of Extension volunteers.
Although the training received by Extension volunteers has been rated as "quality" when compared to other organizations , the need to strengthen the design and implementation of 4-H training programs is ongoing.
Some studies have shown that adult volunteer leaders appreciate and recognize their need for effective training programs  and value the opportunity to develop skills and knowledge relevant both within and outside the context of 4-H.
Specific evaluations of new leader training enable 4-H staff to assess the knowledge and skill base of new volunteers and measure particular training outcomes.
Effective leadership training can be an important mechanism for strengthening 4-H organizations.
Evaluation of training programs can influence future outcomes and activities as well as aid in program accountability by determining if leadership development among adult volunteers makes a difference to individual leaders, the organization, and surrounding communities.
A pilot evaluation study was developed to examine the effect of training on the adult volunteers engaged in 4-H new leader education.
Strengthening future training programs and establishing statewide evaluation standards were part of the rationale for the pilot study.
The purpose of the project was to examine the effectiveness of 4-H new leader education and its influence on the skill development of adult volunteer leaders.
The objectives were to evaluate 4-H volunteer leader readiness, and assess whether adult volunteers would utilize the knowledge and skills gained in training sessions, both within and outside of the 4-H context.
It is important to measure how well adult volunteers are prepared and what impact the volunteer leader experience may have on the lives of 4-H adult volunteer leaders.
All potential volunteers are required to complete 4-H new leader education as part of the application and screening process.
In order to measure the outcomes of new leader training, seven 4-H field faculty members from seven rural counties in Oregon were recruited.
The counties in the sample contain towns ranging in population size from 2,000 to 50,000.
The 4-H clubs in these counties primarily serve white and Latino youth.
During the 1999-2000 program year, the numbers of 4-H leaders in the sample counties ranged from 68 to 357.
In general, the volunteer base of the Oregon 4-H program is predominately female and white.
Each county in the study held training sessions for adult 4-H volunteers.
The content of these new leader education sessions was uniform, although different trainers delivered the materials.
Training session content contained these modules:
 Depending on the county, length of training varied from 2 to 6 hours and incorporated a variety of teaching techniques such as lecture, discussion, video presentations, and group activities.
The numbers of new leaders trained ranged from 2 to 30 participants in a training session.
Two questionnaires were developed to evaluate adult volunteer leadership during the 1999-2000 4-H year beginning October 1 and ending September 30.
The initial questionnaire was designed to measure three critical training areas in the 4-H Staff Handbook on Volunteer Development:
 The questionnaire used two retrospective pretest questions and quantitative rating scales.
The questionnaire was distributed immediately following the new leader education sessions between October 1, 1999 and May 15, 2000.
A total of 228 volunteers completed the training sessions.
Two hundred eight volunteers completed and returned questionnaires, resulting in a response rate of 91%.
The initial questionnaire was administered directly following the new leader training, so the response rate was very high.
The follow-up questionnaire was designed to assess adult volunteer leaders' perceptions of their progress towards:
 Two other important questions were:
 An average of 6 to 9 months after completing the new leader education training, volunteers from the seven sampled counties who enrolled as new 4-H leaders during the 1999-2000 4-H year were sent follow-up questionnaires.
Each county was responsible for designing and disseminating packets that included cover letters, questionnaires, and return envelopes.
Of the original 208 volunteers who were trained, 20 volunteers did not enroll as new 4-H leaders.
Questionnaires were mailed to 188 respondents between October and December 2000.
A total of 74 volunteer leaders completed and mailed in the follow-up questionnaires, resulting in a response rate of 39%.
The response rate for the mailed follow-up questionnaire was low, partially due to the method itself.
Another factor was that the degree of follow-up varied between counties.
Four counties sent follow-up postcards, one county did follow-up telephone calls, and two counties did not do any follow-up activities.
The county field staff were responsible for collecting the completed questionnaires and entering their results in an EXCEL table, according to instructions from the authors.
These results were compiled and analyzed centrally using the Statistical Program for Social Sciences.
Each county received a summary of county and statewide results.
The results of the initial questionnaire indicated that volunteers increased their knowledge and developed skills as a result of new leader training.
Using a retrospective pretest method, 4-H new leader training participants were asked to rate their knowledge and readiness to become a 4-H leader before and after the session.
In the retrospective pretest method, respondents were asked to report on their current knowledge and where they perceived themselves to have been before the training.
The retrospective pretest method was appropriate in this circumstance because of the possibility that some new volunteer leaders would overestimate their capability as a leader before the training.
4-H Knowledge Before Class
 Participants also reported that training sessions increased their knowledge in a number of areas and aided in their preparation for leadership responsibilities.
Participant responses indicated that training sessions increased their understanding of 4-H organizational structures in counties  and 4-H's relationship with county and University Extension.
Participants also said that training sessions prepared them for leadership responsibilities, particularly club start-up activities, including project books for leaders and members  and youth and self-enrollment in 4-H clubs.
Ninety-eight percent of participants rated it likely or very likely that they would apply what they learned in 4-H new leader training.
Almost all participants  rated the teaching as "above average" or "excellent."
 Relationship of 4-H to county Extension and university
 Planning and conducting club meeting
 Matching activities to age of 4-H members
 Techniques for teaching 4-H members
 Organizational structure of county 4-H program
 Preparation for 4-H leader responsibilities
 Enroll self and youth in 4-H club
 Obtain 4-H project books for leaders and members
 Plan yearly 4-H programs
 Follow-up questionnaires were completed by 74 new 4-H volunteer leaders.
Their responses indicated that certain teaching techniques, club management responsibilities, and age-appropriate activities were utilized more often than others.
Have Not Used Yet
 Plan and conduct 4-H education activities using "learn by doing" philosophy
 Use variety of teaching approaches
 Plan and use variety of teaching tools
 Ensure members have role in club meetings
 Plan club meeting ahead of time
 Plan yearly club program
 Encourage older 4-H members to explore leadership roles
 Plan additional time to support younger members
 Adjust activity if not working for group
 Allow enough time for members to plan and carry out activities
 As a result of 4-H new leader education, participants reported that they have planned and conducted 4-H educational activities using the "learn by doing" philosophy  and use a variety of teaching techniques.
Regarding club management responsibilities, they are more likely to have planned club meetings ahead of time  and less likely to have planned a yearly program.
Participants also indicated that they have allowed enough time for members to plan and carry out activities  and adjust activities if not working for the group.
Other data from this questionnaire revealed that 83% of respondents indicated that involvement as a 4-H leader helped contribute to their personal growth.
They gained teaching skills , organizational or planning skills , and leadership and/or cooperation skills.
Participants also indicated that they have applied new or improved skills in other arenas such as school  or family  settings.
Results of the initial questionnaire showed that 4-H new leader education increased the knowledge and preparedness of volunteers to be 4-H leaders.
Furthermore, volunteer leaders are likely to utilize the information gained during the training.
We also found that while the mean ratings of knowledge and preparedness to be a 4-H leader increased as a result of training, the standard deviations went down.
For "increased knowledge," the standard deviation dropped from 1.08 to.59, and for "increased preparedness," the standard deviation dropped from 1.06 to.65.
One might expect the standard deviation to be high for "before class" responses because participants come to 4-H new leader education with a wide variety of experience with 4-H.
Some participants have been 4-H members themselves or are parents of 4-H members, and others come to the class with no experience at all.
The fact that the mean increased while the standard deviation went down shows that the session is bringing everyone closer to the same knowledge and preparedness level.
In the identified training area, "plan a yearly club program," training did not lead to the expected outcome that 4-H leaders would set yearly goals and carry out pre-planned activities with 4-H members.
This was apparent in the results of both the initial and follow-up questionnaires.
Although the mean rating of knowledge gained to plan a club program was 3.87 and preparedness to plan a club program was 3.97, only 49% of club leaders indicated that they "plan a yearly club program" on the follow-up questionnaire.
These results suggest the need to develop educational materials and leader support to help volunteer leaders meet this goal.
More information is needed to determine whether participants are meeting other 4-H goals.
The follow-up questionnaire results indicate that new leaders understand the goal expectations but may not have had enough time or the opportunity to meet the behaviors for each goal.
For instance, one participant commented that she had only been a leader for a short time, "but there are a lot of things that we learned at new leader education that we are hoping to bring to our club." In some cases, new leaders reported that they did not have the opportunity to pursue activities in selected goal areas.
They also indicated that they:
 In addition, the follow-up questionnaire results showed that skills gained from new leader education were also being applied outside of the 4-H environment in family and school settings.
These skills included planning/organizing , teaching , and leadership and teamwork/cooperation.
Seventy-eight percent of respondents were applying their new skills in non 4-H roles.
Finally, 83% of new leaders on the follow-up questionnaire reported that 4-H new leader education and being a 4-H leader had contributed to their personal growth.
While the results of our study were positive, further evaluation and research are needed in this area.
Readers should use caution in interpreting the findings from this study.
This project would have been strengthened by:
 A longitudinal design that followed the same leaders over time would have been ideal for this project.
It would be instructive to interview the volunteer leaders who drop out to discover their motivations for doing so.
Despite these limitations, the purpose of this pilot project was to determine whether the new leader training was accomplishing the objectives envisioned by the instructors.
The results will be very useful in improving the program and moving to statewide collection of evaluation data.
4-H new leader education benefits adults preparing to serve as 4-H leaders.
Adult volunteers find these sessions to be relevant, increasing their knowledge and preparedness for their volunteer roles.
Highlighting our results may help promote the benefits of volunteering to potential leaders and other stakeholders.
Our results also indicate some areas where we can continue to strengthen the link between new leader training and volunteer effectiveness.
First, it is critical to provide more support to 4-H leaders in the area of planning and carrying out yearly club programs.
Second, a continued focus on the effect of 4-H new leader education on adult volunteer personal development is also warranted.
Finally, efforts to develop evaluation instruments for existing leaders should be expanded in order to gauge their progress towards 4-H new leader education goals.
Ohio 4-H agents' perceptions of the level of importance and frequency of use of the eighteen components of the GEMS model of volunteer administration.
Journal of Agricultural Education, 42, 32-42.
Investing in volunteers: A guide to effective volunteer management.
C.: Offices of the National Trust for Historic Preservation.
Developing leadership among Extension clientele.
(ERIC Document Reproduction Services No.
Management of Extension volunteers.
(ERIC Document Reproduction Services No.
Measuring program outcomes: Using retrospective pretest methodology.
American Journal of Evaluation, 21, 341-349.
Evaluation: A systematic approach.
Newbury Park, CA: Sage.
June 2017 // Volume 55 // Number 3 // Ideas at Work // v55-3iw6
 Oregon's rate of food insecurity is higher than the national average.
Efforts to address this problem involve not only providing food assistance to meet emergency needs but also teaching skills for self-sufficiency, such as food gardening and healthful cooking.
Home vegetable gardening is known to be cost-effective  and can help supplement grocery buying or food assistance efforts.
Beginning gardeners often look to county Extension offices for assistance in learning how to grow a home garden.
Extension's flagship gardening program, the master gardener program, provides a wealth of local information and resources.
However, many beginners find the program's participation fee, volunteer hour requirements, and intensity as hurdles to using the program to meet the gardening goal of increased food production.
The Seed to Supper gardening program was developed in 2007 to fill gaps in educational offerings for adult beginner gardeners.
The program specifically targets adults on limited incomes interested in developing food gardening skills.
Withers and Burns  conducted a study of Seed to Supper participants in the Portland, Oregon, metro area and noted an "overall positive impact of the Seed to Supper program impact on food literacy and self-reliance" ("Results" section, para.
In the past few years, the program has expanded beyond the Portland metro area.
The Seed to Supper program is administered by the Oregon Food Bank  in collaboration with Oregon State University  Extension.
In the Portland metro area , the Oregon Food Bank coordinates the delivery of the program.
Outside the Portland metro area, local organizations  in Oregon and in Clark County, Washington, apply to become satellite partners in local program delivery.
The Seed to Supper program is a 6-week classroom-based course.
The curriculum covers garden planning, planting, managing soils, growing season maintenance, and harvesting.
The curriculum is flexible to meet participants' needs.
For example, there is a presentation on container gardening that may be useful to urban gardeners.
Classes are taught by volunteers who are local OSU Extension master gardeners and community members with gardening experience.
All educators attend an initial training that includes information on food insecurity and approaches for teaching diverse learners.
Educators are provided with prepared slide sets, teaching kits , and access to an online educator support community.
For the purpose of reaching the program's target audience, participants are recruited through local food share organizations, emergency food providers, and area low-income housing authorities.
When participants register, they are asked to indicate whether they are in low-income households.
Participants are provided with a booklet  plus additional resources the educators use to supplement their teaching.
For determining the effectiveness of the Seed to Supper classes, a preand postprogram knowledge survey is administered.
Results of the preand postprogram knowledge survey have indicated that participants are gaining horticultural knowledge from the program.
Questions remained, however, as to whether participants were experiencing behavior change and integrating the knowledge gained into their gardening practices.
For examining such outcomes, an institutional review boardapproved survey instrument was developed.
The instrument consisted of items involving a 4-point Likert-type agreement scale and open-ended items.
The survey was sent electronically to 302 participants in five Oregon counties  at the end of the 2015 growing season.
Of the 302 survey recipients, 78 responded.
Respondents expressed high levels of personal benefit and increased awareness of community resources resulting from participation in the Seed to Supper classes.
For example, they indicated that the food they grew helped offset their grocery bills and that they ate more fruits and vegetables than usual during the growing season.
They also reported increased awareness that Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program benefits can be used to purchase seeds or plant starts.
In the future, formally incorporating information on local resources into the curriculum could strengthen this outcome.
Answers to the open-ended survey questions indicated that participants also gained confidence in their gardening abilities and were introduced to resources in local gardening communities.
Anecdotal answers to the open-ended question "What impact has the Seed to Supper program had on your life?" included the following remarks:
 The Seed to Supper program reaches audiences not typically served by existing Extension gardening programs.
There are few barriers to participationit is offered at no cost, has no volunteering requirement, and focuses on beginning-level material.
Participants are reporting positive changes in behavior related to vegetable consumption and knowledge of community resources to support their gardening efforts.
Seed to Supper is also acting as a transition program, with several participants going on to successfully complete the master gardener program.
OSU Extension and the Oregon Food Bank are building a long-term support network for participants that involves social meet-ups during the growing season, hands-on classes at community gardens and master gardener demonstration gardens, food preservation classes, and a garden mentor program.
These follow-up programs are tailored to specific community needs (urban vs.
rural, available gardening sites, etc.).
August 2019 // Volume 57 // Number 4 // Research In Brief // v57-4rb8
 In 2017, the nonfatal injury and illness rate for dairy cattle and milk production workers was 5.5 cases per 100 full-time workers, and the rate across all industries was 3.1 cases per 100 workers (U.S.
Department of Labor Bureau of Labor Statistics, 2018).
Because livestock handling is the second or third most common cause of farm worker injuries , dairy operation leaders pursue opportunities to redesign facilities and educate workers to minimize injuries.
Dairy producers surveyed in Colorado listed human safety  and animal safety  as the two most important considerations when designing cattle facilities.
They placed safety as a higher priority over facility cost.
Facility design helps minimize injuries, but it is only one aspect of cattle handling.
Over 60% of surveyed Minnesota dairy producers listed cattle handlers as the most important factor for good cattle flow.
Educators teach dairy workers about handling practices through cattle handling programs and typically measure a program's effectiveness by assessing worker knowledge gained while overlooking the animal training component of efficient cattle handling.
For example, one popular cattle handling training method, watching videos , includes no animal training component.
Individual animals respond differently to human interactions , but certain age groups of animals may be more difficult to handle.
In a 2014 survey, Minnesota dairy producers identified milking postpartum heifers and moving calves as challenges when handling dairy cattle.
The techniques dairy workers use to handle animals are crucial to minimizing human and animal injuries.
For example, educators train workers to handle cattle slowly to promote walking behavior and reduce the risk of slipping in cattle.
Workers who use forceful physical interactions to move cows have a greater risk of being kicked or head-butted by cows.
Cattle that approach a handler are more likely to head-butt a handler.
Whether cows perceive interactions with humans as positive or negative also affects cow conception rates and milk yield.
A cattle handling training program focused on training both workers and cattle could minimize injuries and improve cow production.
The objectives of the study described in this article were to  measure young dairy heifer behavioral responses toward handlers who received different types of training;  evaluate relationships among the percentages of heifers that walked, slipped, faced the handler, and approached the handler; and  document whether training conditions  affected heifer training.
We hypothesized that heifers handled by participants with hands-on training, as compared to those handled by participants with non-hands-on training, would walk more often, slip less often, and approach the handler less often during handling tests.
Our team predicted that the number of heifers that slipped, faced the handler, and approached the handler would decrease with repeated handling within a day and across multiple days.
Extension educators can use the information presented herein to facilitate dairy cattle handling programs that incorporate animal training in addition to worker training.
Our study adhered to all animal care and use guidelines enforced by the University of Pennsylvania.
A 500-cow dairy housed the animals used in the study.
Thirty-six weaned Holstein heifers, 98132 days of age, were housed in six pens in groups of six per pen.
All pens were inside an open-sided barn with 4.5 m2 of space per heifer.
Heifers acclimated to their pens and groups prior to the study.
One male and five female adult handlers  participated in one of three training programs:  a face-to-face classroom lecture only ,  a face-to-face classroom lecture and hands-on workshop , or  an automated video-based lecture only.
Group A handlers were taught dairy cattle handling skills by an experienced instructor (Dr.
Don Hglund from Dairy Stockmanship) during a 1.5-hr face-to-face classroom lecture.
Hglund also taught Group B handlers during the 1.5-hr face-to-face classroom lecture, followed by a 1-hr hands-on workshop.
Group C handlers watched a series of commercially available automated video-based lectures ("Introduction to Dairy Stockmanship" by Dr.
Paul Rapnicki and Dr.
Don Hglund, "Moving Cows to the Milking Parlor" by Dr.
Paul Rapnicki and Dr.
Don Hglund, and "Handling Dairy Calves and Heifers" by Dr.
After the first handling test on the morning of Day 1 , handlers from Group A and Group C also received the hands-on workshop training with Dr.
We randomly assigned each heifer pen to one of the handler groups.
All handlers were similar in height and wore similar clothing.
Handlers participated in tests over 2 days; all groups participated in two tests  on Day 1, and all but one group participated in two tests on Day 2.
Group A handlers were not available for tests on Day 2.
We did not conduct simultaneous tests in adjacent pens.
Each handling test comprised a series of six sets of herding  and holding.
At the beginning of each test, a team member instructed the handler to enter the assigned pen from the back of the pen  and herd heifers toward the front of the pen, toward the feed bunk.
The handler had 2 min to complete the herding and then stood in the center of the pen, holding his or her position for 2 min.
After the 2-min hold, the handler herded the heifers toward the back of the pen.
The handler repeated this pattern of a 2-min herding followed by a 2-min hold six consecutive times.
A video camera  located in the front of each pen recorded continuously, and a trained researcher analyzed all footage.
The researcher recorded the number of heifers that walked , slipped , faced the handler , or approached the handler  during each handling test.
To evaluate the primary effect of different handler training methods on heifer behavior, we analyzed data from the first handling test separately using the MIXED procedure in SAS.
We used Pearson's correlations to analyze relationships among the percentages of heifers that walked, slipped, faced the handler, and approached the handler.
We analyzed data from all handling tests to evaluate the effects of training conditions  on heifer training using the MIXED procedure.
A negative correlation existed between the percentages of heifers that walked and slipped.
During the first test, a greater percentage of heifers in Group B tended to walk compared to heifers in Group A .
When we compiled the data from all test sessions, we found that a greater percentage of heifers in Group B walked compared to heifers in Group A .
During the first test, Group B heifers tended to slip less often than Group A heifers , and when we compiled the data from all test sessions, we found that Group B heifers tended to slip less often than Group A and Group C   heifers.
The percentage of heifers observed facing the handler was positively correlated with the percentage of heifers that approached the handler  and negatively correlated with the percentage of heifers that walked  or slipped.
During the first handling test, a smaller percentage of heifers in Group B faced handlers as compared to heifers in Group A  or Group C .
When we compiled the data from all test sessions, we found that a smaller percentage of heifers in Group B faced handlers as compared to heifers in Group A  or Group C .
Treatment groups did not differ in the percentage of heifers that approached handlers.
When we compiled the data from all test sessions, we found that herding number  did not influence the percentage of heifers that walked, slipped, faced the handler, or approached the handler.
A higher percentage of heifers walked   and a smaller percentage of heifers faced the handler   on Day 2 than Day 1.
A greater percentage of heifers walked   and a smaller percentage of heifers slipped   or faced handlers   in the afternoon than the morning.
Time of day did not affect the percentage of heifers that approached the handler.
Our findings have implications for Extension educators involved with dairy cattle handling programs.
We acknowledge that our study involved a fairly low sample size and suggest that our work also can provide a foundation for future studies.
We trained the heifers in our study over 2 days and found that they faced the handler less and exhibited more walking behavior during herding on the second day of training than on the first day.
Heifers faced the handler less, exhibited more walking during herding, and slipped less during the afternoon than morning.
On the basis of our results, we recommend offering hands-on dairy cattle handling Extension programs over at least 2 days and during the afternoon hours.
Handlers who received the hands-on training at the study's beginning had fewer heifers face them and, in turn, more heifers walked and fewer heifers slipped.
No differences existed in heifer behavior between pens with handlers who received the lecture only or video-based lecture only trainings.
Livestock producers appreciate hands-on trainings for animal handling , and Extension educators should consider this type of training for future programs.
Respondents from a survey of dairies identified on-farm training with an educator or watching videos as preferred methods of training, but they did not list videos as the greatest influence on how they actually handle cattle.
Although some researchers have suggested that videos provide sufficient training for a stockperson , we found that the hands-on component of training is vital to support the melding of worker and cattle training.
Traditionally, avoidance behavior in dairy cattle is a measurement of humananimal interactions on dairies, and a small avoidance distance of cows toward an unfamiliar handler is desired.
These small avoidance distances are helpful when workers need to capture and handle an individual animal, but a lack of distance between workers and animals could impede cattle flow when handling a group of cattle.
It is more efficient to handle a group when all animals face toward the destination and away from the workers.
Based on our results, we suggest that when heifers face a worker, they are more likely to approach the worker and less likely to walk during handling.
Cattle handling Extension educators should teach workers how to train cattle to face toward the destination to promote walking behavior and prevent injuries.
Repeated hands-on training had a greater influence on cattle training than the type of training the handler received; however, hands-on handler training was most effective.
Training cattle to face away from handlers increased heifer walking behavior and decreased slipping during handling.
In conclusion, dairy cattle handling Extension programs should focus on training not only the workers but the animals as well.
We did not receive any specific grant from funding agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors for the research described herein.
We thank our cooperating dairy and volunteer handlers for assisting with our study.
We also extend many thanks to Dr.
Don Hglund for teaching the proprietary face-to-face classroom lectures and hands-on proprietary workshops used in his Dairy Stockmanship employee handling training program.
Our team sends a special thank you to Allison Grove for her advice and assistance with editing.
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Training to improve stockperson beliefs and behaviour towards livestock enhances welfare and production.
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The effects of social contact and milk allowance on responses to handling, play, and social behavior in young dairy calves.
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Responsiveness of dairy cows to human approach and novel stimuli.
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Humanlivestock interactions: The stockperson and the productivity and welfare of intensively-farmed animals.
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Relationships between humananimal interactions and productivity of commercial dairy cows.
Journal of Animal Science, 78, 28212831.
Livestock handlingMinimizing worker injuries.
Journal of Agromedicine, 15, 226235.
Humananimal interactions and safety during dairy cattle handlingComparing moving cows to milking and hoof trimming.
Journal of Dairy Science, 99, 21312141.
Inconsistency in dairy calves' responses to tests of fearfulness.
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Impact of Crop Management Diagnostic Clinics on Advisors' Recommendations and Producer Practices Charles S.
Respondents reported significant gains in skills because of CMDC, but the gains were similar across skill areas.
Adoption was affected by compatibility with the cropping system, relative advantage, complexity, and trialability of practices.
Diagnostic skill was stronger for more observable and frequently occurring problems.
Hands-on exercises and talking to agricultural professionals were more effective learning methods compared with radio or television messages.
Satisfaction with the current CMDC format was high, but bringing in more outside resource people was suggested.
Introduction Producers and industry professionals who manage or influence 1 500 000 ha cropland attend Crop Management Diagnostic Clinic  training by University of Nebraska-Lincoln  Extension.
From 2003 to 2007, 47 CMDC field days were held in which in-field problem solving exercises were used to teach a systems approach to crop management and diagnostics.
The subject matter included 141, 137, 72, and 38 sessions on crop protection, crop production, soil and water management, and nutrient management, respectively.
Most attendees were agribusiness personnel who are a major source of advice for crop producers.
Many other advisors and producers also attended.
Most were experienced and working with already fine-tuned production systems.
Thus, adoption of new practices and improvement in skills can only be modest for such people.
However, modest changes over much production area can have significant impact.
Some practices are more readily adopted than others.
Rogers  reported that relative advantage, compatibility with the farming system, complexity, trialability, and observability of practices affect their adoptability.
Cost of adoption is also important.
Adoption typically occurs in an "S-curve" because of early adoption by a few, followed by a period of rapid adoption, and then a reduced rate of adoption.
An on-line survey was conducted to address four objectives: 1) determine if respondent characteristics were related to the impact of CMDC on skill gain and change in behavior; 2) evaluate the roles of relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, cost, trialability, observability, and newness of practices in adoption or skill gain; 3) access the economic impact of CMDC; and 4) determine opportunities for improving CMDC.
Methods In February to March 2008, requests to participate in the on-line survey were emailed to 652 attendees of one or more CMDCs held since 2003.
The response rate was 23%.
Respondents provided information about themselves and their operations, including profession, level of education, years of farming, area of row crops, and frequency of attending CMDC.
They were asked to answer questions relating to all subject matter areas addressed at the CMDC, even if they did not attend an event addressing a specific topic.
Respondents estimated the value of the CMDC training specifically for the area farmed or influenced; economic impact was calculated after halving the land area influenced by advisors, realizing that land typically is influenced by several advisors, although not all participated in CMDC.
Suggestions for improvement of CMDC were requested.
The authors subjectively characterized management practices for the importance of seven factors that may affect adoption: relative economic or yield advantage; compatibility with the cropping system and available equipment, skills, and services; complexity to understand and manage for good implementation; trialability or ease of verification that the practice is effective; observability or ease of observing the benefits of the practice; newness or novelty; and implementation cost.
In relating diagnostic skills to crop production problems, the problems were similarly characterized for: relative economic or yield advantage; observability or ease of observing the benefits of the practice; newness or novelty; and frequency of occurrence.
Means, 95% confidence limits, and Pearson correlation coefficients were calculated using Statistix 8.
Pearson correlation coefficients were considered significant at P < 0.1.
Results and Discussion Respondent Characteristics The respondents included 21 producers, 95 agribusiness sales and advisory personnel, seven independent consultants, and 25 who selected "other" for profession.
The non-producers, considered advisors in this study, reported that they influenced production practices on an average of 10 900 ha each.
Producers farmed an average of 458 ha of row crops.
Respondents were generally well educated and experienced in crop production.
Advisors were 45% more likely to have an associate or higher college degree in agriculture compared with the producers.
Characteristics of Agricultural Advisor and Producer Respondents to a Survey to Evaluate CMDC; Means and 95% Confidence Limits Respondent Characteristics Advisor Producer Row crop land influenced or farmed  11 033+1 586 458+213 CMDC attendance, yr 2.4+0.2 2.7+0.6 CMDC attendance, clinics yr  1.6+0.2 1.4+0.4 Years in advising  19.9+1.9 27.6+4.6 Post high school education, yr 4.5 3.0 Degree in agriculture, associate or above 63% 43% Use of recommendations pre-CMDC was greater if farming or advising on more acres.
Those who attended CMDC more frequently had less adoption before attending CMDC , but pre-CMDC adoption was not related to other characteristics.
In contrast, Alexander and Mellor  found that producer age was important to adoption of corn rootworm resistant hybrids with adoption peaking at 48 years of age but that farm size was not important to adoption.
Education level often is important to respondents' perception of their knowledge and use of technology prior to training.
Only years of attending CMDC was related to change caused by CMDC.
Payback on investment, such as in the use of guidance systems and yield mapping, is expected to be greater with more land farmed resulting in increased adoption , but this was not the case in the study reported here.
Responding CMDC attendees, however, may not fully represent Nebraska's producer and advisor population and may have a greater than average interest in alternative production technology.
Agricultural Advisors and Producers Already Well-Skilled  in Identification of Crop Production Problems and Soil Fertility Management Before CMDC and Skill Gain Attributed to CMDC for Those Not Highly Skilled Advisor Producer Skill Skill Pre-CMDC+ Gain: Pre-CMDC+ Gaint Diagnostic skills Disease 12 2.3 24 2.2 Insect 24 2.0 32 2.0 Growth stage 39 1.9 36 1.9 Weed 38 1.9 40 1.7 Herbicide injury 16 2.3 24 2.0 Disease injury 14 2.4 16 2.3 Impact of Crop Management Diagnostic Clinics on Advisors' Recommendations and Produce/8P2actices :54:17 Insect injury 27 2.0 28 1.9 Nutrient deficiency 25 2.0 16 2.2 Growth and development problems 18 2.2 12 2.4 Soil fertility management ability Timing of nitrogen application 32 2.3 39 2.0 Use of UNL N rates 30 2.2 26 2.3 Use of UNL P rates 34 2.2 38 1.9 Sampling for residual nitrate 36 2.2 40 2.0 N inhibitors 31 2.2 47 2.1 N credits 33 2.2 50 2.0  +The confidence limit  for the mean percent of advisors and producers who reported being highly skilled before CMDC was 4.9 and 6.4, respectively.
:The mean gain in all skills attributed to CMDC, based on a subjective qualification of 1 to 5, was greater than zero but gains were similar for all topics at P = 0.05.
Impact on Knowledge and Skills Over a third of the respondents reported being capable in identification of crop growth stages and weeds.
Many were relatively weak in identification of problems associated with growth stages and disease injury.
Pre-CMDC, advisors were relatively unskilled in diagnosis of diseases, herbicide injuries, and nutrient deficiencies compared with other skills, and producers were weakest in diagnosis of nutrient deficiencies.
Producers expressed 22% more confidence than advisors in soil fertility management.
Most respondents reported a slight to moderate increase in all diagnostic and soil fertility management skills as a result of attending CMDC, with no significant difference by topic in gain in skill.
Most respondents expressed confidence in identifying bean leaf beetle and corn rootworm adults pre-CMDC.
Respondents reported the greatest gain  in identification skill for soybean aphid, spider mites, and soybean defoliating insects.
Respondents  Who Could Identify Insect Pests Before and After Attending CMDC Advisors Producers Insect pest Pre-CMDC Post-CMDC Pre-CMDC Post-CMDC Soybean aphid 48.0 55.1 57.1 66.7 Bean leaf beetle 54.3 55.9 61.9 66.7 Soybean defoliators 20.5 35.4 14.3 28.6 Impact of Crop Management Diagnostic Clinics on Advisors' Recommendations and Produce8Practites :54:17 Grasshopper 38.6 39.4 47.6 47.6 Western bean cutworm 49.6 52.8 47.6 61.9 Corn rootworm adults 56.7 51.2 52.4 61.9 Alfalfa weevil 36.2 42.5 28.6 28.6 Potato leafhopper 38.6 41.7 14.3 14.3 Spider mite 40.9 51.2 28.6 38.1 +The confidence limit  for the mean percent of advisors and producers who could identify insect pests pre-CMDC training was 8.5 and 16.4, respectively.
The respective CI post-CMDC were 5.8 and 15.0.
The CI for mean change because of CMDC was 4.5 for both advisors and producers.
Impact on Behavior and Adoption Both producers and advisors reported >50% adoption or recommendation of genetically modified varieties pre-CMDC.
Both advisors and producers used genetically modified  resistance more in corn borer compared with rootworm management pre-CMDC, probably because of earlier availability of the resistance for corn borer management.
Respondents had less adoption of guidance systems for spatially accurate equipment operation and yield mapping for spatially variable crop management compared with GM varieties , possibly because many seed dealers attend CMDC.
Producers did not attribute a significant increase in the use of guidance systems to CMDC but use of yield variability data increased by 35%.
Advisors reported a gain of 21% for use of guidance systems and 23% for use of yield variability in crop management as a result of CMDC.
Adoption of Crop Management Practices Before CMDC and Increase in Adoption Resulting from CMDC Training Advisors Producers Pre-CMDC Gain Pre-CMDC Gain Management Practice Meant Meant Percent recommended or adopted GMO hybrid/variety selection GMO selection to increase + 53.0 17.9+10.2 yield GMO selection to manage 43.6 4.6+2.5 44.6 9.5+6.7 corn rootworm GMO selection to manage 53.1 6.4+3.2 51.8 9.5+8.4 corn borer Impact of Crop Management Diagnostic Clinics on Advisors' Recommendations and Produce8P2actites:54:17 Precision agriculture Use of guidance systems 41.9 8.8+2.7 38.7 7.1+7.3 Management according to 43.6 10.5+3.4 38.7 13.7+9.6 yield variation Alignment with UNL nutrient management recommendation Soil N management 50.8 4.7+2.6 47.0 8.3+8.2 Soil P management 52.7 3.9+3.0 49.4 9.5+6.7 Soil K management 52.3 2.5+2.2 55.4 4.7+5.8 Soil pH management 54.0 3.5+2.4 50.6 7.1+6.3 Micro-nutrient management 50.8 5.1+2.8 44.6 9.5+6.7 Tillage and water management  No-till and conservation 51.9 4.1+1.9 62.5 8.1+8.3 practices Monitor crop water use and 38.8 12.4+3.4 50.7 14.2+9.4 soil water Weed management Non-herbicide strategies 43.0 9.2+2.7 49.4 6.0+6.1 Select the most appropriate 57.7 7.9+5.0 60.1 11.9+6.8 herbicide Timing of herbicide 58.7 8.7+2.9 66.1 9.5+5.6 application#: Reduce potential for development of herbicide resistance Use of tillage 30.8 4.3+4.5 30.4 1.2+7.6 Rotate herbicides modes of 58.8 9.7+2.9 64.9 10.7+9.2 action Rotate crops 55.8 5.5+2.8 79.2 2.4+6.3 Timely herbicide 63.8 9.6+3.2 72.0 4.8+9.9 application to kill weeds when small + Cells are blank because the question was not asked for agricultural advisors.
The confidence limit  for the mean percent of time when a crop management practice was advised or used before CMDC was 3.50 and 5.10 for advisors and producers, respectively.
Respondents were managing soil fertility according to UNL recommendations and practicing no-till or other conservation practices >50% of the time pre-CMDC.
Respondents reported mean increases in use of UNL recommendations for nutrient management of 8% for advisors and 16% for producers.
The mean CMDC impact on soil K management was not greater than zero for producers and small for advisors but this topic was not much addressed in CMDC; soil K availability is generally not yield limiting in Nebraska and application typically is not profitable.
Increases in adoption of reduced tillage and other conservation practices of 8% for advisors and 13% for producers were attributed to CMDC.
Advisors reported less monitoring of crop water use and soil water pre-CMDC compared with producers but adoption of monitoring crop water use and soil moisture increased by 32% for advisors and 28% for producers as a result of CMDC.
Respondents reported mean gains of 16% in adoption of weed management practices as a result of CMDC.
Advisers reported high gains in frequency of advising on the use on non-herbicide weed management strategies and producers reported a large gain in applying information on the selection of herbicides.
Respondents credited CMDC for adoption of management practices for reducing the potential of developing weed resistance to herbicides, including rotation of herbicide modes of action.
The impact of CMDC was relatively great for improved irrigation scheduling and nozzle performance and less for use of soil moisture sensors and surge valves.
Adoption  of Irrigation Management Practices by Agricultural Advisors and Producers Resulting from CMDC Irrigation Management Practice Advisor Producer Use of soil moisture sensors 33.9 9.5 Use of ET gauges 21.3 19.0 Irrigation scheduling 52.0 47.6 Improving sprinkler nozzle performance 48.0 28.6 Use of surge valves 15.7 4.8 +The confidence limit  for the mean adoption by advisors and producers of irrigation management practices was 19.8 and 21.1, respectively.
All practices had significant adoption pre-CMDC, but CMDC resulted in increased skills and adoption for all but a few practices.
The significant adoption pre-CMDC may suggest that CMDC is not sufficiently at the cutting-edge and fails to introduce new practices for the early adopters.
This would probably be a misinterpretation, however, because many topics addressed in CMDC were not specifically addressed in the survey.
Also, the survey questions were generally broadly stated, encompassing numerous, and often novel, elements of a practice, such as N management.
Adoption rates indicate that priority topics for future events appear to be GM technology for pest management, yield map and other spatial information, development of weed resistance to herbicides, improvement of disease diagnostic skills, N use, and irrigation.
Factors Affecting Knowledge and Adoption Producers and advisors adopted similar production practices pre-CMDC.
Compatibility of a production practice to the cropping system was important to pre-CMDC adoption by producers  : and advisors.
The impact of CMDC on producer adoption was related to the relative agronomic or economic advantage of a practice.
Impact of CMDC advisors' recommendations was related to practice complexity , trialability , and compatibility with the system.
Adoption by producers resulting from CMDC was less with more pre-CMDC adoption , indicating that newness of the practice was important.
With these exceptions, changes in practices or recommendations as a result of CMDC were not related to relative advantage, compatibility, complexity, cost, trialability, observability, newness, or cost of the practice.
Other factors may affect adoption.
Changing situations may affect adoption; e.g., higher energy costs and increased concern for water and N use efficiency may have contributed to the relatively high adoption of monitoring of crop water use and soil water.
Some practices, such as surge valves to improve irrigation efficiency, become less relevant with time, while many shifted from furrow to sprinkler irrigation.
Some practices have trade-offs that affect adoption; e.g., no-till was promoted for numerous benefits, and respondents reported little use of tillage in weed management to avoid development of herbicide resistant weeds as a result of CMDC.
Observability was important to ability to diagnose crop problems  pre-CMDC for producers  and advisors.
Observability was, however, negatively correlated to gains in diagnostic ability resulting from CMDC; this was an indirect relationship because gain was negatively correlated to pre-CMDC ability, and the gains in diagnostic ability were similar for the different crop problems.
Observability was likely related to knowledge level pre-CMDC and important to impact attributed to CMDC.
For example, respondents were very familiar with bean leaf beetle, grasshoppers, and corn rootworm adults before CMDC, but CMDC most affected skills in identifying soybean defoliators, which many did not know pre-CMDC.
Common occurrence of the problem was correlated to producers' pre-CMDC diagnostic ability.
Relative importance and newness of the problem were not related to diagnostic ability.
Producers and advisors had similar strengths and weaknesses in diagnosis as indicated by a high correlation coefficient.
Observability was also important to producer ability to diagnose insect pests  pre-CMDC.
Advisors were better able to identify insect pests of greater agronomic or economic importance  and less able to identify newer pests.
The pre-CMDC skills of producers and advisors for diagnosis of insect pests were similar.
The gain in pest identification skill due to CMDC was not related to commonness, observability, agronomic or economic importance, or newness of the pest, except that advisors gained less skill for newer pests.
Compatibility with the cropping system, economic or agronomic advantage, and other characteristics of management practices were related to adoption.
These characteristics, however, failed to account for much of the variation in adoption of different practices.
These characteristics should, therefore, be considered in prioritizing practices to promote, but the balance of other characteristics is also important.
Impact on Production and Income The best integrator of CMDC impact was the effect on gross annual production and income.
Producers reported that CMDC resulted in mean yield increases of 0.26 Mg ha-Superscript yr1 corn and 0.17 Mg ha-Superscript yr soybean.
The mean production increase per producer was 59 and 37 Mg yr  of corn and soybean, respectively, which gives a total mean gross income increase of $19 950 yr  assuming corn and soybean values of $150 and $300 Mg-1.
Advisors reported mean yield increases due to CMDC of 0.30 Mg ha-1 yr 1 corn and 0.12 Mg ha-Superscript yr  soybean for land that they influence, but many appeared to over-estimate their influence, and CMDC impact was capped at 0.25 Mg yr  corn and 0.12 Mg ha-Superscript yr  soybean.
The value of production increases resulting from CMDC was $17 500 000 yr for the 127 advisors and 21 producers who responded.
Assuming this annual impact is good for a mean of 5 years, the total impact for the respondents was about $87 000 000.
If impact was similar for the remaining 77% of attendees, total CMDC impact on production may be $76 000 000 yr  equivalent to 1.2% of the value of Nebraska's corn and soybean production.
Impact of CMDC on Corn and Soybean Yields  and on Gross Income of Advisors' Clients and of Producers, Assuming Grain Prices of $150 Mg-1 for Corn and $300 Mg-1 for Soybean and That All Row Crop Land Use Was in Corn-Soybean Rotation Yield Total impact Advisors Mg ha-1 yr-Superscript Mg person-1 yr-Superscript $ yr-1 Corn 0.30+0.05 814 15 500 000 Soybean 0.12+0.25 330 12 500 000 Advisors: impact capped to  a 0.25 Mg ha-1 yr-Superscript corn and  a 0.12 Mg ha-1 yr-Superscript soybean Corn 0.15+0.02 416 7 900 000 Soybean 0.09+0.01 242 9 200 0 000 Producers Corn 0.26+0.14 59 186 000 Soybean 0.17+0.08 37 235 000 Learning Method Effectiveness The most effective learning methods were hands-on experiences and talking to agricultural professionals.
Least effective were the press and other media.
Most suggested that the CMDC format should not be changed, but some suggested having more outside speakers.
More networking time and having 2-hour in-depth presentations were least suggested.
Respondents' Ratings of Different Learning Methods for Effectiveness in Increasing Adoption or Changing Recommendations Learning method % of total Hands-on in-field experience 15.0 Talking to ag professionals 13.7 Hands on classroom experience 13.0 Impact of Crop Management Diagnostic Clinics on Advisors' Recommendations and Produce8P2actites:54:17 Talking to other producers 11.9 Lecture presentations 10.9 Reading articles 10.6 Internet 10.5 Press 7.4 Radio, TV 7.1 Figure 1.
Respondents' suggestions for improvement in CMDC Conclusions Adoption of most management practices and skill levels were significantly increased because of attending CMDC.
Producers and agricultural advisors have similar interests, but factors affecting adoption differ.
Producer adoption was most affected by the agronomic or economic advantage of a practice.
Advisors tended to gain most from CMDC in advising on relatively complex practices, practices that were relatively difficult to verify and practices that were not highly compatible with existing cropping systems and available skills.
The impact of CMDC on production and gross income was tremendous.
The hands-on experiences of CMDC are very important, and the field day format may be improved by having more outside speakers.
Acknowledgement We are grateful to Mark Bernards, Paul Hay, Tamra Jackson, Paul Jasa, and Lowell Sandell for their contributions to the design of this survey.
Determinants of corn rootworm resistant corn adoption in Indiana.
The development of American agriculture: A historical analysis.
University of Minnesota Press, Minneapolis MN.
Factors influencing the adoption of a nitrogen testing program.
Changes in cultural practices of farmers in southeast Nebraska as a result of their adoption of transgenic crops.
New York: Free Press.
Impact assessment and participant profiles of extension's education programs for agricultural chemical/seed retailers and crop advisors.
The agricultural innovation process: research and technology adoption in a changing agricultural sector.
High yield corn response to applied phosphorus, potassium, and sulfur in Nebraska.
Articles appearing in the Journal become the property of the Journal.
Single copies of articles may be reproduced in electronic or print form for use in educational or training activities.
Irrigating Soybeans Diana G.
Helsel and Zane R.
Helsel Department of Agronomy Editor's note The PDF version of this publication includes illustrations.
Missouri's growing season is characterized by excessive moisture in the spring followed by inadequate moisture during the middle of the growing season.
Because of the lack of moisture during the crops' peak demand, some producers have invested in irrigation systems.
The cost of maintaining and using these systems is high, SO it is imperative to manage moisture in the most efficient way possible.
The following discussion should help Missouri soybean producers understand the crop's need, the soil's ability to hold and supply water, and the agronomic practices that can result in maximum economic yields under irrigation.
Soybean response to irrigation Irrigation usually improves soybean yields on drought-prone soils and in exceptionally dry seasons.
The amount of increased yield  fluctuates, depending on variety, geographic location, soil type and fertility.
An eight-year study of irrigated VS.
nonirrigated soybean yields in southeast Missouri indicates yield increases are greater for short-season varieties under irrigation.
Full-season varieties show almost no yield response, and medium-season varieties show an intermediate response to irrigation.
Table 1 Responses of soybeans to irrigation in southeast Missouri, 1967-1974 Maturity Average of three sites Non-irrigated Irrigated Difference Early 27.1 bushels per acre 33.8 bushels per acre 6.7 bushels per acre Medium 32.0 bushels per acre 35.7 bushels per acre 3.7 bushels per acre Late 32.9 bushels per acre 33.7 bushels per acre 0.8 bushels per acre Adapted from Shannon and Duclos.
In central Missouri, a survey indicates that over a 10-year period, soybean growers obtained an average increase of 13 from irrigating full-season soybeans.
In research sponsored by the grower check-off program, yields of 10 varieties grown in southwest Missouri during the dry years of 1983 and 1984 averaged 29 and 13 bushels more per acre respectively under irrigation.
In 1985, when plentiful rains occurred during the seed-fill period, yields increased by only about 1 bushel per acre.
The economics of achieving these yield increases are of paramount importance.
The type of irrigation system and the water source greatly affect cost.
Flood or furrow irrigation with a cheap water source may cost as little as $25 per acre per year, while a center pivot system with a deep well could cost as much as $100.
Prospective irrigators should weigh potential costs against returns they can expect from the increased yields and reduced risks created by irrigation.
In addition to influencing yields, irrigation may alter other characteristics of importance to soybean growers, such as maturity and lodging.
Irrigation delays the maturity of shortor midseason varieties only a few days.
Full-season varieties usually show no difference in maturity unless extended drought or charcoal rot infection occurs.
Plant height normally increases under irrigation, which increases the chance of lodging.
However, proper variety selection may reduce this problem.
Weather patterns and crop water use Missouri rainfall patterns are characterized by sufficient winter and early spring rainfall that maintains the soil at or near saturation capacity until almost the first of June.
During late June, July and August, the crop's need for moisture usually exceeds that available from either the soil or rainfall.
Water requirements are a function of the plant's metabolic needs, the quantity needed for transpiration , and the quantity lost by evaporation from the soil.
This combined demand is called "evapotranspiration." The peak water use period for soybeans occurs during reproductive growth, when they may need as much as 2.5 inches of water per week.
The average rainfall during this period is less than 0.6 inches per week.
Available soil moisture is depleted by the time reproductive growth begins, so unless you provide supplemental irrigation, the plant will be subjected to moisture stress.
Short-season varieties complete flowering and pod filling during the period of greatest evapotranspiration.
This results in decreased yields if you don't irrigate.
Full-season varieties normally reach their critical growth period after the period of the highest evapotranspiration passes.
Soybeans are most sensitive to moisture deficits during the late pod development/early bean filling periods.
Figure 1 depicts the yield response of northern soybeans relative to the time at which moisture stress develops.
Lack of water during flowering and podding causes flower and pod abortion.
Stress during pod development and early seed fill reduces the number of seeds per pod.
Drought conditions during seed fill reduce seed size and thus final yield.
The critical period of water need for indeterminate varieties occurs from late flowering through mid pod fill.
For determinate varieties, such as those grown in the Bootheel, the period of greatest water need begins earlier in flowering.
The new determinate semidwarf  varieties often show critical water needs through most stages of growth.
Figure 1 The effect of a moisture stress on soybean yield at various growth stages.
From Shaw and Laing, 1966.
lowa State University Availability of soil moisture Specific soil types have varying abilities to hold moisture.
The available soil moisture, in terms of inches of water held per foot depth of a soil, is described in Table 2.
Sandy soils retain the least amount of water, while silt loam and clay loam soils hold the most.
Note that clay soils have less available water than do clay loam soils.
Clay soils hold more water, but less of that water is available for plant growth because water adheres strongly to the clay particles.
Table 2 Potential available water storage capacity for various soil types Soil type Available soil moisture per foot of depth Sands 0.5 inch Loamy sands 1.0 inch Sandy loam, clay loam 1.5 inches Loams, silty clay loam 1.8 inches Silt loams 2.5 inches Silt 3.0 inches Clays 1.0 inch Adapted from Kiniry, Scrivner, and Keener, 1983.
You must also consider the rooting depth of the crop in a particular soil.
The effective rooting depth of soybeans ranges from a few inches after emergence to 2 to 3 feet during the early reproductive stages.
However, some Missouri soils are compacted and some acid sublayers restrict the effective rooting depth to that depth of topsoil above the compacted layer.
In these soils, it is wasteful to supply more water than is necessary to wet the upper zone.
You can measure or estimate soil moisture by a variety of methods.
Each has its advantages and limitations.
Irrigators who use soil moisture measurements for scheduling purposes usually establish an allowable soil moisture depletion level.
For soybeans, the limit is about 70 percent depletion in the vegetative stages and 50 percent for reproductive stages.
You should irrigate if you reach these levels.
To maintain the soil moisture content above the allowable depletion level, you should start irrigating sooner on sandy soil, which has a lower moisture storage capacity.
Feel method One of the quickest and most popular methods of determining soil moisture is based on feel and appearance of the soil.
Charts to aid inexperienced irrigators are available.
The method is not quantitative and requires individual judgment.
Thus, it lacks the precision of other methods.
Moisture blocks Electrical resistance instruments, commonly called moisture blocks, measure the moisture content of the soil indirectly.
They sense a change in electrical properties of the blocks which correlates with block moisture content and, in turn, the soil moisture.
These devices consist of two electrodes mounted in blocks made of plaster-of-paris, fiberglass, gypsum or other materials.
Wires from the electrodes attach to a meter that measures electrical conductivity, a function of the water content of the soil.
To install moisture blocks, dig a hole with a soil auger and place the block in it.
Pack soil around the block to ensure good capillary action between the sensor and the soil.
Calibrate blocks in each field to ensure accurate prediction.
Moisture blocks are not recommended for sandy soils.
Tensiometers Tensiometers are well adapted to sandier soils.
Tensiometers measure the soil moisture tension how tightly the soil particles hold the water.
This is directly related to the tension required for plant roots to extract water from the soil.
Tensiometers consist of a tube with a porous ceramic cup at one end and a gauge at the other.
To install, place in the soil to the depth of plant rooting.
The water will move from the cup into the soil until the water content reaches equilibrium.
As the soil dries, the tension increases, indicating water is more difficult to extract from the soil.
Although tensiometers indicate when you should begin to irrigate, they do not indicate how much water you should apply.
Missouri irrigation scheduling charts MU Extension centers can provide irrigation scheduling charts for soybeans and other crops.
A computer develops a customized chart  for each field depending on crop, soil type, planting date, variety , location in the state, and any moisture deficit at planting time.
Figure 2 Use this chart to develop an irrigation schedule The chart projects the cumulative minimum and maximum amounts of water you should provide  to optimize crop yield, assuming average weather conditions for the site.
You use the scheduling chart to maintain the total water added  during the season between the minimum and maximum water needs.
Usually, a 1to 2-inch range exists between the minimum and maximum cumulative totals of needed water application, depending on the available water holding capacity of the soil.
Thus the chart is well suited for sprinkler irrigation because sprinklers usually apply less than 2 inches of water per application.
A planned linear depletion of two-thirds of the total soil moisture storage by crop maturity is planned with a starting date of June 1, at which time the profile is assumed full.
For years when temperatures exceed the normal, you can modify charts to account for increased evapotranspiration.
The charts should minimize irrigation operating costs and water use and reduce runoff and leaching.
Plant response to timing of irrigation If you can irrigate only once during the growing season, do so during the late pod development to early seed-filling period if soil moisture levels are low.
This timing maximizes seed yield and seed size and minimizes lodging problems and maturity delays.
A detailed study of irrigation timing with indeterminate soybeans was conducted in Nebraska.
Irrigation was applied in single applications  and in split applications.
Researchers evaluated plants and their responses in height, lodging, and yield.
Plant height and, in turn, lodging increased the most by multiple applications of water.
The addition of water allowed the plants to prolong their vegetative growth, thereby increasing plant height.
Delays in maturity were progressively longer as the frequency of irrigation application increased.
The greatest maturity delay, however, was six days, which is unlikely to cause crop loss from early frost.
Figures 3 through 8.
These charts show the response of various soybean plant and seed characteristics to timing of irrigation application.
Figure 3 shows plant height; 4, lodging; 5, maturity; 6, seed yield; 7, seeds per plant; and 8, 100-seed weight.
Several irrigation treatments produced comparable yield.
Irrigating at flowering did not result in optimum water use.
At flowering, soybeans use water to produce flowers which they usually abort.
They don't use the water to fill the beans.
In the Bootheel where determinate varieties are grown, however, adequate water during flowering is important because of the shorter duration of this initial reproductive period.
Seeds per plant were greatly enhanced with all irrigation treatments.
However, the greater numbers of seeds did not result in higher yields for some treatments.
This component of yield indicates irrigation promotes the retention of pods and perhaps increases the number of seeds per pod compared to a nonirrigated situation.
The recommendation to irrigate during late pod development and early seed filling is largely based on its impact on seed size.
Seed sizes resulting from irrigation during seed-filling were clearly superior to those achieved when water was supplied at other times during reproductive development.
This occurs because of the plant's enhanced ability to completely fill the seeds with photosynthetic products.
Maximizing irrigated yields When attempting to maximize yields under irrigation, consider four factors.
Because lodging is frequently a problem, you should select genetically lodging resistant varieties.
In the north, the new determinate semi-dwarf varieties are useful for high-yielding environments, such as those that exist under irrigation where lodging is a severe problem.
Second, consider reducing plant populations by 10 to 15 percent.
This allows the plants to develop more branches and sturdier stems which reduces lodging.
Again, the goal is to reduce yield losses associated with down plants at harvest.
Less seed also reduces seed cost per acre.
Third, because yields are higher with irrigation, the soil needs more fertilizer to accommodate the greater demands plants make on it.
On average, increase fertility to about 20 percent more than the amount you would apply under nonirrigated conditions.
You can get more specific recommendations by matching soil test results to yield goals.
Finally, monitor soybeans closely.
Irrigation provides a better growing environment not only for soybeans but for weeds, insects, and some diseases as well.
Research at the MU indicates that when soybeans have adequate water, little if any yield loss occurs as long as the tops of the weeds are shorter than the tops of the soybeans.
Insects may increase because of the lush vegetation that develops.
However, these insects normally cannot keep up with the rapid growth of the plant.
By adequately watering plants, you can greatly reduce the number of insects like grasshoppers and spider mites, which are severe pests in dry years.
Root rots and leaf diseases may increase if soybeans receive too much water, particularly early.
However, the effects of many soybean diseases are abated because irrigated plants are healthier.
Increased input costs for irrigation necessitate the need for careful monitoring and management if you are to realize positive net returns.
University of Missouri Extension  is an equal opportunity/access/affirmative action/pro-disabled and veteran employer.
June 2017 // Volume 55 // Number 3 // Ideas at Work // v55-3iw1
 RE-AIM is an evaluation framework that has been widely used by public health professionals for over 15 years.
RE-AIM identifies five evaluation dimensionsreach, effectiveness, adoption, implementation, and maintenanceand is considered a comprehensive model of evaluation.
The usefulness of RE-AIM has been well established in public health journals but has remained undocumented in journals for which Extension professionals are the target audience.
With the purpose of informing Extension professionals about RE-AIM, we briefly describe and present an application of the framework.
We conclude with insights about the potential of applying RE-AIM for evaluation across Extension programming.
RE-AIM was developed for the purpose of evaluating health behavior research but has evolved into a tool practitioners use to plan and assess programs and report program results.
This framework allows programs to be evaluated at the individual or participant level  and at the organizational level .
Department of Agriculture provided funding to expand 4-H Healthy Living programming to youths in selected rural counties in Mississippi and Tennessee.
The Jump into Foods and Fitness curriculum  , developed by Michigan State University Extension Service, was adopted for replication in these counties because evidence suggested that JIFF increases 4-H'ers frequencies of eating breakfast daily, vegetable intake levels, amounts of moderate physical activity, and enjoyment of being physically active.
Also, there was evidence of states having adopted JIFF as a research-based educational curriculum.
Prior to implementation of JIFF in the selected counties, 4-H professionals and volunteers who would be implementing the program received face-to-face training to enhance their relevant knowledge and skills.
Part of the training focused on the project's evaluation protocol, which was based on the five RE-AIM dimensions.
Because JIFF had not been implemented previously in Mississippi and Tennessee, RE-AIM was used as a standardized approach for evaluating the program in the participating counties, settings that greatly differ from the one in which the program was developed.
Specifically, the RE-AIM framework was used for measuring program reach, effectiveness, adoption, implementation, and maintenance as follows:
 Our experience with the RE-AIM framework suggests that it is a feasible tool for informing program modifications for enhanced success and sustainability.
For example, examining the checklists used for the implementation dimension of the evaluation could help identify adaptations made by individual educators that would be beneficial across all sites.
Evaluation based on RE-AIM is a straightforward approach for comparing public health outcomes across multiple states or sites.
The framework allowed us to develop a detailed evaluation protocol, on which agents were trained so that they were prepared to properly collect evaluation data.
Consistent data collected across sites made comparisons in outcomes possible.
Although we used the framework to evaluate only one health promotion program, it could be used to evaluate multiple programs for the purpose of identifying those that are most effective.
Use of 4-H Common Measures could make this possible.
If RE-AIM were used for evaluating several programs, effectiveness could inform decisions about resource distribution toward future program implementation across one state or multiple states.
RE-AIM could serve these same evaluative purposes for other Extension programs as well.
It is most intuitive to apply RE-AIM to other health-related programs in community resource and economic development and family and consumer sciences.
Yet the dimensions of RE-AIM are applicable to any educational program, including those in agriculture and natural resources.
It will always be important for Extension educators to know whether they have reached their target audiences and whether their programs have achieved the intended outcomes.
Funding for the 4-H Healthy Living program described in this article was provided by the U.S.
Department of Agriculture through the Rural Health and Safety Education Competitive Grants Program.
Jump into foods and fitness.
East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University Extension, 4-H Youth Development, Family & Consumer Sciences.
4-H Healthy Living programs with impact: A national environmental scan.
New Directions for Youth Development, 143, 1324.
The Strong Women-Healthy Hearts program in Pennsylvania: RE-AIM analysis.
Translational Behavioral Medicine, 5, 94102.
The RE-AIM framework: A systematic review of use over time.
American Journal of Public Health, 103, E38E46.
Evaluating the public health impact of health promotion interventions: The RE-AIM framework.
American Journal of Public Health, 89, 13221327.
December 2002 // Volume 40 // Number 6 // Research in Brief // 6RIB4
 Abstract This article presents the results of a survey designed to measure the perceived effectiveness of Dairy Option Pilot Program  training.
A preand post-training survey was used to see if the training increases a dairy farmer's perceived knowledge and understanding of put options.
Because the Risk Management Agency is expanding dairy risk management, evaluations are needed to measure the potential success of these programs.
Survey results show the training significantly increased the farmers' reported comfort level and understanding.
The majority of farmers reported intentions to buy options to control risk.
Undetermined, however, is whether dairy farmers will consider options after the DOPP program ends.
The Risk Management Agency  of the United States Department of Agriculture  was established as part of the provisions of the Federal Agriculture Improvement and Reform Act of 1996.
One of the RMA's main responsibilities is to help administer the crop insurance program.
However, the RMA is also charged with providing risk management training to farmers.
Some of this training and education is conducted jointly with the Cooperative Extension Service.
One of the new programs being developed by the RMA is the Dairy Option Pilot Program.
Most new programs such as DOPP are tested for 2 or 3 years before they are made broadly available.
The current DOPP program requires a significant time commitment from Cooperative Extension Service personnel.
However, no studies have been conducted to determine if DOPP will help farmers' perception of risk reduction or if DOPP training will improve farmers' knowledge and understanding of some of the available risk reduction tools.
This article presents the results of a survey designed to assess the perceived effectiveness of DOPP training.
Specifically, the survey addresses the issue of whether farmers feel DOPP training increases a dairy farmer's knowledge and understanding of put options.
The results can be used by policy makers and educators to help address the issues of risk training for farmers.
Often farmers may be reluctant to participate in a program because they feel overwhelmed by the materials and concepts.
The success of DOPP has implications beyond the dairy industry, as DOPP was initially conceived as the forerunner in a potential series of option pilot programs.
DOPP fits into the broader context of efforts to encourage use of private risk management tools, as an alternative to reliance on government loss assistance.
Until the 1980's, dairy farmers did not face much price risk because government price supports were so high.
Starting in the 1980's, the government reduced its price supports.
This has resulted in much greater variation in milk prices.
The last few years have seen the largest month to month price drops in history.
These price changes mean dairy farmers are now operating in a much riskier environment.
Put options are one of the main tools dairy farmers can use to manage price risk.
These options give dairy farmers the right, but not the obligation, to sell their milk at a predetermined price.
Farmers are basically buying price insurance when they purchase a put option.
Like other types of insurance, buyers must pay a premium for the protection and can choose among several levels of protection.
A study by Wolf and Berwald  found that the dairy futures market is an efficient hedging tool.
There are several factors that discourage farmer use of dairy put options.
One of the main obstacles with purchasing put options is their cost.
Costs vary but can often be 5% of the milk price.
Another potential problem is the lack of farmer knowledge about futures and options.
Terms like "basis," "strike price," and "premium" are probably unfamiliar to the typical dairy farmer.
In addition, the farmers usually must deal with a broker whom they likely have never met.
The DOPP program is designed to help farmers determine if options contracts can provide useful risk reduction on their farms.
DOPP provides a financial incentive toward purchasing put options as well as providing education about futures and options.
Under the DOPP rules, eligible farmers only have to pay 20% of the cost of a put option.
The USDA pays for the other 80% as well $30 of the broker fee per option.
Additional restrictions control who is eligible and when the options can be purchased and sold.
However, the biggest requirement is that dairy farmers attend a 4-hour training session.
This article presents the results of a survey designed to gauge the perceived effectiveness of DOPP training in Kentucky.
During June 2001, 41 farmers from 12 counties participated in one of four training sessions.
This represents 4.5% of the 917 eligible farmers.
DOPP training began in 2000 in Kentucky in two counties and was expanded in 2001 to include 12 counties.
Because counties included in 2000 were also part of the current training, there were a few participants who had already been through the training.
All of the participating farmers were given a two-part survey.
Pre-training questions were asked to gauge the farmers' perceived knowledge of put options and risk management.
Post-training questions asked many of the same questions, along with some others about the overall usefulness of the training.
Differences between preand post-training responses were used to determine if the DOPP training increased farmers' knowledge of put options.
Pre-training surveys were given at the start of the day's training, and post-training questions were asked at the end of the day's training.
The training usually lasted 4 hours.
The authors developed the questions used in the survey instrument.
Table 1 presents descriptive statistics of dairy farmers participating in the DOPP training.
The average farmer was 42 years old with some college education.
These farmers were milking over 100 cows, and the typical cow produced over 18,000 pounds of milk per year.
Only three farmers had ever tried using put options before, and at least two of the three had done so because of DOPP training the previous year.
Number of cows in milk
 Number of dry cows
 Number of times options used in the past
 a coefficient of variation = standard deviation/mean b 3=high school, 4=some college, 5=4-year college degree.
Note: education is a discrete measurement.
According to Kentucky Agricultural Statistics , the average Kentucky dairy farm is smaller and has lower milk production per cow than farms participating in DOPP training.
In 1999, the average milk production per cow for Kentucky was 12,368 pounds, while the average farm had fewer than 42 cows.
In total, Kentucky has 133,000 milk cows on 3,200 dairy farms.
Perceived Learning Outcomes from Training
 Table 2 presents results of the survey instrument about perceived learning outcomes from training.
The first column lists the question that was asked in both the preand post-training parts.
The second column shows the mean pre-training score, and the third column shows the mean post-training score.
The fourth column tests whether there was a significant change from preto post-training response by using a paired t-test.
If the t-value in column four is greater than two, then the change in the responses was deemed statistically significant at approximately the 0.05 level.
Pre-training Response 
 Post-training Response 
 I know enough about milk options to feel comfortable using them in my businessb.
I could explain a strike price to another farmerb.
I could explain an option premium to another farmerb.
People who use futures and option contracts are gambling with their moneyb.
Brokers can be trusted to give you good financial adviceb.
Put options are most like a) insurance b) gambling
 Put options are a way to a) make money b) reduce risk c) both a) and b)
 How do brokers make money on put options a) when purchased b) when sold c) when milk price go up d) when milk prices go down
 A put option increases in value when milk prices a) go up b) go down c) stay the same
 a t-values > 2 imply a statistically significant difference  between preand post-training responses.
b 1=strongly agree, 2=agree, 3=indifferent, 4=disagree, 5=strongly disagree.
Note: These results are significant at the 0.05 level.
The first five questions of Table 2 use a five-point scale to qualify responses.
If farmers strongly agree with a statement, then it is scored as a one, while strongly disagreeing is scored a five.
Agree, indifferent, and disagree are scored a two, three, and four, respectively.
The last four questions of Table 2 are not designed to qualify responses.
These questions have a correct and an incorrect response.
A farmer's response is scored a one for choosing the correct answer and is scored a zero for picking the incorrect answer.
Question one is probably the best indication that the training encouraged farmers to participate in the program.
Before the training began, most were not comfortable with options and how they worked.
Training increased their comfort level so that many farmers would agree that they would be comfortable using options in their operations.
Assuming increased confidence in a tool increases the usage of the tool, then the training achieved its objective.
Questions two and three indicate that the training may have helped farmers understand the terms involved with purchasing an option.
What is somewhat surprising is that farmers feel slightly more comfortable using options than they do explaining the option terms.
This difference appears both in the preand post-training responses.
However, the differences are very small, especially for the post-training responses.
The training was less successful in convincing farmers that using put options is not gambling.
Question four indicates that farmers started the training indifferent about whether options are gambling.
By the end of the training, they only slightly disagreed with the gambling statement.
A preferred result would have more farmers disagreeing that options are gambling.
When options are compared to either gambling or insurance, as in question 6, farmers did a better job of correctly describing options as insurance.
By the end of the training, 94% of the participants thought the insurance analogy better described hedging with options.
Part of the explanation of why farmers may have compared options to gambling may be a factor of the training methods used.
Farmers played a simulated game involving whether and when to purchase options.
In the game, timing was critical to payoffs, and some farmers even made more money not purchasing options.
The fact that options helped reduce income variation may have been overlooked by farmers.
Questions seven, eight, and nine indicate the training helped farmers understand the mechanics behind options.
The correct response was picked by more participants at the end of the training than at the beginning.
For questions seven and nine, farmers started with correct responses in pre-training above 70% and finished with correct responses above 90%.
Another weak area of the training appears to be about the function of brokers.
Question five indicates some wariness among farmers about whether to trust brokers.
Training did not significantly change this perception.
Question eight indicates farmers do not fully understand how brokers make money, although the training did improve the correct response rate.
Outcomes on questions 5 and 8 may be related to broker participation.
During the Kentucky training, only one broker attended and for only two of the four sessions.
Perceived Usefulness of Training
 Table 3 shows the results of questions only asked during the post-training.
They concern perceived usefulness of training.
I plan to purchase a put optionb.
This training increased my knowledge of put optionsb.
I would recommend this training to other dairy farmersb.
I need to learn more before trying to buy put optionsb.
I thought the information presented was sufficientc.
a coefficient of variation = standard deviation/mean.
b 1=strongly agree, 2=agree, 3=indifferent, 4=disagree, 5=strongly disagree.
c -1=too basic, 0=just right, 1=too difficult.
Question one of Table 3 corresponds closely to question one of Table 2.
Most farmers agree they will purchase a put option.
A similar response from Table 2 indicates most farmers feel comfortable using put options.
Thus, comfort level can be used as an indication of whether the training was successful at encouraging farmers to buy put options.
However, an unanswered question is whether farmers will buy put options outside the DOPP program.
The rest of the questions provide a guide about sufficiency of the training.
Question two and three show that farmers agree the training was helpful and useful to dairy farmers.
Farmers stated that the information covered was just right.
However, there was slight agreement that farmers need to learn more.
Kentucky modified the original DOPP material to help emphasize the insurance aspects.
This was done because of the lack of experience with futures and options of most farmers.
These changes probably helped with the response to question five but may have lowered the responses to question four.
However, using the original material probably would have increased the "too difficult" response for question five without increasing the understanding of most farmers.
The survey reported here indicates that DOPP training is useful in helping dairy farmers understand and use options.
Most farmers in the training had little prior knowledge about put options and probably would not have considered this tool without the training.
The training significantly improved the farmers' comfort level, and most agreed they would consider buying put options.
Yet to be determined, however, is whether farmers will buy put options without the DOPP program subsidy.
A final point of concern is about the desire of dairy farmers to undertake risk management.
The DOPP program provides significant financial incentives to help farmers learn about risk management.
Despite the substantial financial incentives to attend the training, fewer than 5% of the eligible farmers elected to attend the training.
From price taker to price maker.
New York: Coffee, Sugar & Cocoa Exchange, Inc.
The potential of dairy futures contracts as risk management tools.
Paper presented at AAEA meetings, Nashville, TN.
June 2017 // Volume 55 // Number 3 // Ideas at Work // v55-3iw4
 For nearly 100 years, turfgrass short courses have offered highly applicable educational and advancement opportunities for turfgrass managers outside formal college or university settings.
Lawrence Dickinson offered the first turfgrass short course in 1925 at the Massachusetts State Agricultural School, and similar 8to 12-week courses were initiated in subsequent years at Penn State and Rutgers University.
Many university programs across the country currently offer a turfgrass short course, but in recent years many institutions across multiple states have merged to provide joint short courses.
Illinois and Indiana were the first states to merge, in 1994, and numerous other states initiated collaborations in following years.
Declining enrollment and fewer turfgrass science faculty have been the primary drivers behind the merging of short courses, and the mergers allow the larger numbers of participating short course faculty to offer more specialized instruction tailored to their particular strengths.
The University of WisconsinMadison and the University of MinnesotaTwin Cities merged their short courses in 2003 and alternated the host site between the two states.
The course averaged 25 to 30 students each year until 2014, when unusually low enrollment coupled with increasing course costs drove discussion about developing a new course format.
Those discussions eventually included turfgrass faculty from surrounding states, and the result was a nine-state online collaboration called the Great Lakes School of Turfgrass Science that debuted in 2014.
The 12-week online course occurs once per week for 2 hr.
Each week a topic is taught by an expert in a particular area.
This lead instructor presents a live lecture to the class via Google Hangouts, which is embedded in a Moodle class management website.
Two or three additional instructors participate in the lecture, asking questions and initiating discussion.
Typically, following the main presentation, the course administrator and other instructors engage in a 15to 20-min roundtable discussion on the topic covered.
These discussions are not scripted and tend to hit on the latest trends or controversial subjects that were not presented in the main lecture.
Over 90% of the students surveyed indicated that these discussions were helpful to their understanding of the associated topics.
The online platform provides a unique way for Extension professionals leading the class to engage the students.
Students can sign on and watch the Hangout live and ask questions through a live chat with the course administrator, or they can watch the recorded version at their convenience and ask questions of the instructors via Moodle forums.
Students are assigned relevant readings prior to each live session and take a quiz developed by that week's instructor.
To receive a certificate of completion, a student must satisfactorily complete 10 of the 12 quizzes.
To date, approximately 50% of the students complete the course in 12 weeks, 35% take longer than 12 weeks, and 15% do not complete the required number of quizzes.
The benefits of using this format for both the students and the instructors have been numerous.
First, the nine-state footprint increased overall student enrollment threefold relative to the best years of the WisconsinMinnesota short course and allowed students from varied geographic areas and segments of the turfgrass industry to participate.
Second, the flexibility of the online class was critical for both students and instructors.
Nearly 90% of students surveyed in 2014 and 2015 agreed that they would not have been able to take a turfgrass science class without the flexibility the online course offered , and each instructor only needed to prepare for one lecture and assist in two others.
Third, the class was effective in transferring knowledge to the students and, likely, in changing their behaviors.
Students reported their knowledge of pertinent topics before and after taking the class by using a 4-point scale.
Self-assessed student knowledge on a variety of topics covered in the class increased from an average of 1.9 prior to the start of the class to 3.1 at the conclusion of the class.
Fourth, enrollment costs were lower for students relative to the in-person course because there were no facility rental, food, and printing expenses to be covered.
Moreover, students did not need to budget for hotel or travel costs and were not away from work or family for an extended period of time.
There were also drawbacks associated with the transition to a completely online course.
Foremost was the resistance to online learning by some students in the course.
As nontraditional students, many had never taken part in an online educational seminar and may not have known what to expect.
There was also a technology gap for both faculty and students that led to technical difficulties, though it should be noted that the incidence of these was much lower in 2015 than in 2014.
Despite these minor problems, the class to date has been considered an unqualified success by nearly all the instructors and students who have participated.
The use of short courses will remain a staple of turfgrass management for years to come, and their importance in educating the industry may even increase in the future.
Enrollment in traditional 4-year university turf programs has declined at most institutions for a variety of reasons , and workers entering the turfgrass industry will likely require continuing education from nontraditional sources.
Short courses, and, in particular, interactive and online short courses such as the Great Lakes School of Turfgrass Science, may be particularly attractive to these potential students.
Though lack of support and accreditation from universities may hamper online short course growth, benefits such as flexibility and the opportunity for interaction between students and experts make online courses such as the Great Lakes School of Turfgrass Science increasingly valuable tools in educating the turfgrass industry workforce.
We wish to express our gratitude to the Minnesota Golf Course Superintendents Association, Minnesota Turf and Grounds Foundation, Midwest Association of Golf Course Superintendents, Midwest Regional Turf Foundation, Wisconsin Turfgrass Association, and Turf Republic for partnering with us and promoting participation in the Great Lakes School of Turfgrass Science.
We also wish to thank the course co-instructors for their hard work, which has made the course a success.
Turfgrass history and literature.
East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University Press.
Turfgrass extension and outreach programming.
Bonos , Turfgrass: Biology, use, and management (pp.
Madison, WI: ASA, CSSA, SSSA.
Golf Course Management, 82, 4244, 46, 48, 50, 52, 54, 56.
August 2014 // Volume 52 // Number 4 // Feature // v52-4a6
 Due to their tangible, real-life nature, gardens can enhance learning in multiple settings , including Extension's educational programs.
Gardens provide opportunities for hands-on involvement, enabling the type of sensory, exploratory learning experiences Richardson  recommends for Extension's clientele.
In addition, gardens can be a source of the concrete experiences necessary for experiential learning.
Extension agents can use demonstration gardens to enhance learning for multiple audiences within several horticultural programming goals.
Workshops that combine a traditional classroom experience with a demonstration site visit increase learning and affect attitude change more so than a classroom experience or site visit alone.
In addition, gardens allow for the use of delivery methods unique to physical sites, such as guided tours and demonstrations, both of which have been promoted as ways to creatively engage learners.
When properly designed and interpreted, gardens can support self-directed learning  that results in both shortand long-term outcomes.
These include knowledge gain, increased curiosity, improved skills, problem solving, behavior change, increased confidence, and attitude change.
Recommendations to enrich learning in gardens and museum-type settings include developing plantings around a theme or "big idea" that guides all aspects of design ; developing gardens in scale with home landscapes and labeling all plant material ; providing informational and self-guiding tour brochures ; and installing interpretative signs.
Falk and Dierking  emphasize the need to connect visitors to reinforcing experiences outside of the garden to maintain learning, with interactive websites and printed materials suggested as possible delivery methods.
While research supports the educational effectiveness of gardens, an extensive search of the literature could find no studies of how Extension agents use gardens in their programming.
What principles, practices, and techniques are agents employing to enhance their garden's educational effectiveness?
Which audiences are served?
What are the challenges and benefits of choosing this educational delivery method?
Answers to these questions would provide guidance to agents embarking upon garden development as well as to agents seeking to expand or improve existing gardens.
The purpose of the study reported here was to investigate how horticulture Extension agents in North Carolina use demonstration gardens in their programming.
The study objectives were to:
 For the study, a demonstration garden was defined as a landscape or garden planting designed and maintained under the supervision of a horticulture Extension agent for the purpose of teaching horticultural principles and practices as part of an Extension program.
This could refer to a single bed planted with one specific theme or a series of gardens designed to teach about many different ideas or practices.
School gardens and community gardens were only included in the study if they were directly supervised by Extension and included some demonstration aspect.
The descriptive study was conducted in two parts.
The first part, a telephone survey, identified which horticulture agents in North Carolina were maintaining demonstration gardens and collected data about the characteristics of these gardens.
The first part established that 35 agents were maintaining 50 different garden sites as part of their Extension programming in North Carolina.
This article focuses on findings from the second part; a Web-based survey designed to determine how horticulture Extension agents use demonstration gardens in their programs and their perceptions of the challenges and benefits of choosing this educational delivery method.
The census study was conducted with the 35 agents identified in the first part of the study, with 30 agents participating.
Because the response rate was over 85%, non-response error was not addressed.
Three, five-point Likert-type scales were used to identify challenges, benefits, and desire for additional training related to demonstration gardens.
Reliability of the scales was determined by calculating Cronbach's alpha.
Scores for each of the scales were as follows: Challenges, 0.76; Benefits, 0.83; Additional training, 0.86.
Descriptive statistics were used to summarize data.
Content validity of the instrument was established by a panel of experts that included a county horticulture agent, the North Carolina Extension Urban Horticulture specialist, and two members of North Carolina State University's Department of Agriculture and Extension Education faculty.
Face validity of the Web survey was established by field testing the instrument among Florida horticulture Extension agents currently using demonstration gardens.
No problems were revealed during the field test, and no changes were made to the Web instrument.
Agents were asked to indicate how gardens are used in their programming.
The most common forms of use were related to supporting educational efforts.
All study participants indicated gardens were used to enhance non-formal education efforts, such as classes and workshops, with 97% indicating that practices and techniques to facilitate self-directed learning are employed.
Complete results are listed in Table 1.
When agents were asked to indicate specifically how they use gardens to support their educational efforts, the top three responses related to the use of gardens to support hands-on learning by 1) involving audiences directly in the garden's maintenance, indicated by 93%; 2) using the garden during workshops and classes to provide audiences with hands-on experience, 90%; or 3) involving audiences directly in the planning and development of the garden, 83%.
Complete results are listed in Table 2.
Agents were asked to identify which, if any, of nine features, techniques, and practices drawn from the recommendations of Price  and Falk and Dierking  they employ to enhance self-directed learning in their garden.
Ninety-seven percent reported using at least one technique for this purpose.
The use of plant identification labels, indicated by 87% of respondents, was the most frequently employed technique, followed by the development of gardens around an educational theme, 83%, with food production, water conservation, and plant selection for site conditions the most frequently demonstrated practices in North Carolina Extension gardens.
Complete results are listed in Table 3.
Based upon North Carolina Cooperative Extension's consumer horticulture programming goals, 15 principles and practices agents were likely to demonstrate in gardens were identified.
Agents were asked to indicate all principles and practices from this list demonstrated in their garden.
"Food Production" was the most frequently selected principle or practice, indicated by 80% of participants.
This was followed by "Water Wise Use/Xeriscaping, and/or Drought Tolerant Plants," all practices aimed at conserving water in the landscape based on plant selection and placement, and "Plant Selection for Site Conditions," both of which were selected by 57% of participants.
Complete results are listed in Table 4.
Agents were asked to indicate which audiences their gardens serve from a list of audiences commonly targeted by Extension horticulture programming.
The top three audiences were home gardeners, indicated by 97% of respondents, Master Gardener Volunteers, 93%, and youth, 77%.
Complete results are listed in Table 5.
When asked how they evaluate the impact the garden has on their program, 33% of participants responded they do not evaluate the garden's impact.
Sixty-three percent indicated they evaluated the garden's ability to enhance learning when incorporated into non-formal education efforts such as workshops, classes, and tours, while only 20% indicated they evaluate the garden's ability to facilitate self-directed learning.
Results are listed in Table 6.
In response to the question "What methods do you use to evaluate the garden ," 52% indicated "Surveys," while 46% indicated "Interviews." Thirty-two percent of respondents selected "I do not use any evaluation methods." Two agents selected "Other" and specified they use observation as a method of evaluating their demonstration garden.
A Likert-type scale consisting of 12 challenge statements related to developing, maintaining, and using demonstration gardens as part of Extension programming was developed by the lead author.
To determine the impact each of these challenges had on agents' ability to develop, maintain, and use demonstration gardens, agents were asked to rate each statement as follows: No Impact , Very Little Impact , Little Impact , Some Impact , or High Impact.
Seven of the 12 challenge statements averaged ratings of at least 4.0, "some impact," or higher.
The challenge found to have the highest impact was "Time to manage the gardens" , followed by "Availability of funds".
Another time-related challenge, "Time to plan and develop the garden," ranked third , while "Support of Master Gardener Volunteers"  and "Availability of volunteers to work in the garden"  ranked fourth and fifth, respectively.
Complete results are listed in Table 7.
A Likert-type scale consisting of 10 value statements related to the benefits of using demonstration gardens in horticultural programming was developed by the lead author.
Agents were asked to indicate their level of agreement with each value statement as follows: Strongly Disagree , Disagree , Neutral , Agree , or Strongly Agree.
Negative statements were reverse coded.
Seven of the 10 statements averaged 4.0, "agree," or higher.
The highest rated value statement was "The gardens increase the effectiveness of my Extension program" , followed by "The gardens provide meaningful opportunities for volunteer service".
"Demonstration gardens are not an effective tool for teaching horticulture," a reverse coded item, had third highest average rating, 4.31, indicating agents perceive gardens to be an effective educational delivery method for teaching horticulture.
Complete results are listed in Table 8.
A Likert-type scale consisting of nine competencies required to develop, maintain, and use demonstration gardens as an educational delivery method for Extension horticulture programming was developed by the lead author.
Agents were asked to indicate their level of desire for training on each competency as follows: No Desire ; Little Desire ; Moderate Desire ; High Desire ; and Very High Desire.
The only competency with an average rating higher than 4.0, "High Desire," was "How to evaluate the garden's outcomes and impacts".
Competencies for which agents had the least desire for additional training were "Garden installation"  and "Garden maintenance" , which were the only training topics achieving an average rating below 3.0, "Moderate Desire." Complete results are listed in Table 9.
The findings of the study reported here support the use of demonstration gardens as an appropriate educational delivery method for Extension's horticultural programming.
Study participants perceived that gardens are an effective tool for teaching horticulture.
This corresponds to findings that involvement in gardens and site visits enhance learning.
Gardens were used primarily to support educational efforts by providing opportunities for hands-on involvement with subject matter, as promoted by Richardson  and Kolb.
In addition, all but one agent reported incorporating features, techniques, and practices such as plant labels, interpretive signage, and self-guiding tour brochures to enhance self-directed learning.
Of nine possible features, techniques and practices recommended to support self-directed learning, two were found to be employed by more than 80% of participants, with labeling of plant material the most frequent.
This practice was reported by Price  as the feature most commonly sought by garden visitors.
The second most frequently employed practice, developing gardens around an educational theme, has been shown to be an important and effective strategy to enhance self-directed learning.
Learning how to develop and manage gardens to support self-directed learning was the second highest rated competency for which agents desired additional training.
Considerable scope for enhancing the ability of Extension gardens to support self-directed learning exists, particularly practices that encourage learning beyond the garden visit experience.
Only 20% of agents reported having subject matter-related brochures available in their gardens, though Price  reported high interest in such brochures.
Fewer were found to link the principles and practices taught in the garden to resources available online, a practice promoted by Falk and Dierking  as necessary for sustaining learning.
Gardeners are most likely to visit gardens to learn about plants, gardening techniques, and garden design principles.
The principles and practices agents are demonstrating in gardens align with these learning goals.
Food production techniques, design and plant selection for water conservation, and plant selection for site conditions were the most frequently demonstrated horticultural principles in Extension gardens.
Audiences most frequently targeted by this educational delivery method were homeowners, Master Gardeners, and youth.
These target audiences and learning outcomes align with those frequently found in Florida Extension demonstration gardens.
Agents were more likely to evaluate the garden's ability to enhance classes and workshops as compared to self-directed learning, though a third of respondents reported they do not evaluate any impact the garden has on their programming.
How to evaluate garden outcomes and impacts was the highest ranked competency for which agents desired additional training, indicating they are aware of the need for evaluation but are unsure how to accomplish it.
Evaluating the type of learning that takes place in gardens, museums, and nature centers is an emerging field.
Butler and Serrell  have shown that shortand long-term knowledge gains can result from garden visits and that these experiences have the potential to influence visitor's knowledge, attitudes, and future behaviors.
Falk and Dierking  recommend that visits to museums and related sites be evaluated as reinforcing experiences, valuable for their ability to reaffirm knowledge for long-term learning.
Lord  emphasizes the value of site visits for sparking interest in a subject as well as for affecting attitude change, an outcome supported by the findings of Harmon and Jones.
Agents rated the availability of time, funding, and volunteer support as the greatest challenges to using demonstration gardens, while also ranking the garden's ability to provide opportunities for meaningful volunteer service as the second highest among benefits of using gardens.
Findings from the first part of the study identified Extension Master Gardeners as the primary source of funding and labor for demonstration gardens.
It has been shown that Extension Master Gardeners anticipate involvement in gardens as part of their volunteer service.
Involving Extension Master Gardeners in the planning, development, maintenance, and funding of demonstration gardens can help agents overcome the challenges of limited time and funding, while providing these volunteers with the hands-on learning experiences they have been shown to value.
While the value statement, "The gardens increase the effectiveness of my Extension program," ranked highest among 10 possible benefits of using gardens, other highly ranked value statements related to the garden's ability to provide opportunities for volunteer service and to develop community partnerships and collaborations.
The establishment of collaborations and partnerships and utilization of volunteers to extend educational reach have both been identified as sources of excellence for Extension.
Demonstration gardens are an effective educational strategy for teaching horticultural principles and practices to Extension audiences, particularly homeowners, Master Gardeners, and youth.
The exhibit as educator: Assessing the impact.
Informal learning in public gardens: The process and the product.
In American Association of Botanical Gardens and Arboreta, Reaching out to the garden visitor, Chapter 2.
Walnut Creek, CA: Alta Mira Press.
Demonstration gardens as teaching tools in Extension horticulture programs: Their characteristics, utilization, target audiences, benefits, and challenges as implemented by horticulture Extension agents in North Carolina.
North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC,
 L., & DeMarrais, K.
Visits to public gardens: Their meaning for avid gardeners.
Experiential learning: Experience as the source of learning and development.
Handling nonresponse in social science research.
Journal of Agricultural Education, 42, 43-53.
The manual of museum learning.
Lanham : Rowman & Littlefield.
A naturalistic evaluation of home demonstration gardens for improved design and interpretation.
University of Delaware, Newark, DE.
VanDerZanden, A., & T.
A multifunctional horticulture teaching garden at Oregon State University.
December 2002 // Volume 40 // Number 6 // Feature Articles // 6FEA2
 Abstract Extension has a long history of support for communities, primarily through programs such as agriculture and 4-H.
When an entire community faces a crisis, however, the needs of the community can expand beyond the goals of a specific program.
In the summer of 2001, Klamath Falls, Oregon experienced a crisis when a federal decision eliminated irrigation water to over 1200 families farming more than 220,000 acres.
The Klamath County Extension Office recognized the role they could play and organized and facilitated three countywide meetings to identify needs and strategies for action.
The actions that evolved from the meetings were substantial, and the Extension office learned several key lessons about responding to crisis.
The history of Extension is about helping people by providing objective information.
To provide this information, the Extension Service in each state develops programs.
In Oregon, the programs are agriculture, forestry, family and community development, 4-H/youth, and marine/Sea Grant.
There is an informal, overarching program in community development.
The challenge for Extension is to provide, through its programs, information necessary to help individuals and communities succeed.
Changes in economics, demographics, technology, and the environment challenge Extension faculty, as we begin the 21st century, to provide information that is useful to a changing audience, with changing technology, in a changing world.
These changes are, from an historical perspective, very rapid.
Sometimes they are extremely so, and a crisis ensues, as Klamath Falls, Oregon recently experienced.
The changes there were abrupt and severe, involving several agricultural communities.
This article is about how the Klamath Extension Service responded to a crisis in their community in the summer of 2001 and about what lessons were learned that may be of value to other offices and communities.
In April 2001 the Bureau of Reclamation determined that it could not release the normal allocation of water from Klamath Lake to farmers in the Klamath Irrigation Project.
In a period of drought, the Bureau found that the water was needed to protect two species of endangered fish in Klamath Lake.
The effect was that over 1,200 families, farming over 220,000 acres, were without their normal irrigation water for the summer of 2001.
The irrigated lands, to the southeast of the city of Klamath Falls in Oregon and California, had been settled in the early 1900s under the federal Homestead Act.
A supply of water was assured by federal agreement, and water flowed each summer for over 90 years, until the summer of 2001.
With irrigation, the lands of the region produced a variety of forage crops as well as barley, potatoes, and onions.
The people and economies of three small towns in the region--Merrill and Malin in Oregon and Tulelake in California--are highly dependent upon agricultural production.
The decision to not allocate water had an immediate and very dramatic impact on farmers who could not water crops.
Most chose not to plant crops and tried to find alternative sources of water, mainly from wells, to preserve their perennial crops, such as alfalfa, through the season.
As the farmers withheld investments to plant their summer crops, the impacts spread to the local businesses and communities, and then to the community of Klamath Falls and eventually to the county and region.
As the crisis in the communities increased, the faculty of the Klamath County Extension Office recognized that their traditional "technology transfer" information was of little value in this situation.
The office faculty are specialists in such fields as livestock, forage, crops, horticulture, natural resources, 4-H/youth, and nutrition education.
The specialists soon realized the crisis put their present informational programs "on hold" until the larger crisis for individuals and communities was addressed.
Historically, the Cooperative Extension Service has responded to the problems and crises of communities.
This includes responsiveness to small-scale problems such as local economic depressions and regional drought conditions to more nation-wide crises, especially the Great Depression and national efforts during both world wars.
During the farm crisis of the 1980s, Extension played a significant role in helping communities recover.
Extension's efforts included stress management workshops, family farm communication seminars, intergenerational farm transfer sessions, couples retreats, farm family support groups  as well as programs on financial management and marketing skills.
The farm crisis caused severe stress among farmers and farm families , and Extension responded by organizing more intensive intervention for farm families.
The University of Missouri trained mental health counselors to provide stress management and social service coordination.
Iowa State University Extension was able to secure funding to provide long-term , one-on-one outreach education to farm and rural families facing severe stress.
In other circumstances, Extension formed partnerships to offer valuable services such as a 24-hour Stress Management Hotline.
Extension has also responded to short-term crises during flooding , drought , and even child abduction.
In most of these incidences, Extension's primary role was to provide reliable information.
This information was delivered by radio ; television ; Web site links; and fact sheets, information packets, and other publications.
Research has supported the use of these techniques in dealing with community crisis.
University of Wisconsin-Madison conducted a survey to assess the impact of the farm financial crisis.
The survey indicated that churches and Extension were perceived as being more responsive to farm families than the helping agencies--social services, community action, health care agencies, mental health agencies--in the community.
Williams explains this result in part by farmers' lack of awareness of helping organizations and by farmers' pride, which created a barrier to accessing services.
In addition to the techniques listed earlier, Williams recommends Extension connect farmers with assistance by networking with agencies, publicizing these agencies, and by training these agencies on how best to respond to farm families in distress.
Other reports have surmised that Extension's success in aiding farmers in crisis is due to the trust developed over many years of collaborating on rural issues.
Helping People Help Themselves
 Extension faculty have also developed tools to enable community members to help themselves during times of crisis.
Conway, Corcoran, Duncan, and Ketchum  developed Towns in Transition: Managing Change in Natural-Resource Dependent Communities as a video and study guide for community leaders for periods of crisis and transition.
The guide highlights actions a leader can take, especially:
 This type of education suggests an emerging role for Extension professionals.
Patton and Blaine , in their article "Public Issues Education: Exploring Extension's Role," state that Extension professionals may be uncomfortable dealing with value-based conflicts  in which research-based  information addresses only a small part of the issue.
Rather than providing technical information, the Extension professional may need to assume a facilitator or "process expert" role to help a community recover from crisis.
In his critical review of the modern Extension Service, Land-Grant Universities and Extension: Into the 21st Century, author George McDowell  argues that Extension is in the process of renegotiating its "social contract" as it searches for the best way to serve in the 21st century.
Nationally, Extension must broaden its program portfolio to better engage the society it serves.
"Engagement means staying attuned to the issues faced by people".
The Klamath situation provides an example of just such engagement and serves as the foil for proposing some general guidelines for responding to crisis in a way that is both timely and effective.
From a decision-making perspective, the role of the facilitator in a time of crisis is to help the community go through the steps of problem resolution as a group.
This challenge, then, is to help the group understand values at risk and to set goals, to gather information to better understand the situation, to generate opportunities for resolution of the crisis, and to make a decision.
This assessment provided Klamath faculty with the experience of engaging the broader community in a general--"outside the box" of a particular program--discussion.
As the water crisis in the Klamath developed, Klamath faculty and OPOD specialists designed a series of three needs assessment and resolution meetings, called "Klamath Community Assessments."
 The office director sent invitations to about 50 community leaders, representing businesses, agencies, non-profits, and interested citizens.
The meeting, held June 13, attracted 35 participants.
The points in the discussion, borrowing the 2000 assessment of needs process previously conducted in the county, included:
 Using these steps the group identified four broad needs:
 The group concluded the meeting with specific action items  for each issue.
The second meeting was held on August 2.
The process in this gathering, which attracted 25 participants, began with introductions, followed by an update of "needs and actions" identified in the earlier meeting.
The group reported several major successes.
For example, the county government created the Klamath Disaster Resource Center to coordinate information and respond to the crisis.
Also, Oregon State University initiated, with the University of California, a process to provide a scientific assessment of the environmental, social, and economic impacts of the lack of water.
And major progress was made on getting the issue before the national media.
After review of the progress to date, the facilitator moved the group to step 5 with the question: "What is needed in the Klamath Community to help sustain itself in the next year?" This question moved the focus of the assessment beyond the 2to 3-month time frame from the first meeting.
The participants, working initially in small groups and then as a whole, identified seven columns of needs:
 Working in self-selected groups, participants then completed the remaining steps and identified alternative ways to meet the needs.
A set of 20 action  items were identified, some as simple as holding a community potluck to build community spirit and others more involved, such as engaging the county commissioners to appoint an advisory group to promote public policy.
One action item was for the OPOD office to provide policy education, and a training session was held the next month.
A third meeting was held September 26.
After introductions, the dozen participants reviewed successes related to the action items.
The successes were numerous, including:
 Despite the smaller group, it was clear that critical participants were present, that earlier participants had worked together creatively, and that a good deal of work had already been accomplished.
The facilitator then led the group through a review of recent events  and the current state of the community.
Participants noted how vulnerable they felt to world problems but how strong they felt as a community.
They felt that the confrontation that had been building to forcefully open the head gates that control the irrigation water was now over and that there was renewed opportunity for working together.
There were new aspects to the crisis, such as the lack of recharge from irrigation water causing shallow wells in the region to go dry, thus requiring families to haul all of their water.
This new aspect of the crisis led to a request for more information about ground water, and economic impact information being developed by Oregon State University was needed to help with measuring the value of the water not delivered.
This meeting closed with a strong sense that the mission of the meetings was accomplished; the series of meetings had met their objective to help the community identify needs and means to resolve them.
In review of the outcomes of the meetings, it is not clear that the successes in the community would have occurred without Extension facilitation.
Certainly, many parties encouraged cooperation and action.
It is clear, however, that several key contacts were made and several key opportunities were discovered in the Extension-facilitated meetings.
Further, it was clear that the energy developed at the meetings was helpful in identifying tasks and people willing to do them.
In review of the sessions, participating faculty identified the following five lessons learned.
First Lesson: Start Early
 When a crisis develops rapidly, as it did in the Klamath Basin, it is desirable to be active quickly.
The first meeting of the community leaders was held about 2 months after the decision to withhold water was made.
This was sufficient time for the initial dust to settle and at the time when people were starting to care about "what to do now" It could be argued that Klamath Extension might have anticipated the crisis and been a voice to warn people.
Indeed, Extension offices across Oregon are now beginning to recognize that they may wish to begin engaging people before the issue takes on crisis proportions.
Second Lesson: Involve Community Leaders
 Get a broad group of community leaders involved.
Participants in the meetings were people recognized for their leadership qualities in a great variety of areas, and some were associated with Extension programs.
The breadth of participation enabled the group to identify the full range of values, to gather a great variety of information, and to generate a much broader array of alternatives.
Interestingly, although the Klamath Basin is known as a small community, many participants knew each other by name and sight but had never worked together.
The series of meetings encouraged new acquaintance and developed a host of new leaders familiar with Extension.
Third Lesson: Keep Meetings Focused
 Keep the schedule and the meetings focused and productive.
We chose to hold community meetings every 6 weeks to have early progress reports on the "X by Y" items and to keep the group energy high.
Also, the meetings were managed with a moderately tight agenda so that we did not "just sit around and gripe" about the issue, but moved toward "what are we going to do about it." By concluding each meeting with the X by Y session, we hoped people would see that the time spent was worth their while.
Fourth Lesson: Start Meetings on a Positive Note
 To give the meeting a positive, forward-looking feel, we started each meeting by looking at past successes.
During the initial meeting, the community members quickly listed a range of "accomplishments" over the past few years--such as completing a new ice rink for youth.
This strategy, which is part of a problem-solving method called "appreciative inquiry" , promotes a positive atmosphere that reduces the tendency of people in crisis to focus on the negative.
At the second and third meetings, we began with successes to continue this sense of accomplishment and positive outlook.
Fifth Lesson: Use Trained Facilitators
 It was desirable to have trained facilitators to help design and guide the initial meetings.
The facilitators modeled the process in the first meeting, and, by the third meeting, the Klamath faculty were prepared to run the meeting alone.
One of the key tasks of the facilitators was to remain neutral in a situation where it was necessary to honor different points of view.
The facilitators anticipated and allowed a measure of "venting," but then guided it into positive energy and action.
In many respects, the meetings served as a forum for an "attitude adjustment" for citizens and a training session on meeting facilitation for faculty and staff.
As a Klamath office faculty member quipped at the start of this project, "Helping a farmer with an irrigation system design isn't very useful when the water is turned off." Increasingly, due to the rapid changes in the world around us, there will be a need for Extension to help people respond to crises outside program areas.
The day that Extension faculty can remain specialists, dedicated solely to their specific crop or program, is probably over.
There is a growing challenge to make sure that the existing Extension programs are relevant.
In situations that require synthesis, the existing programs may function too much as silos, and it is between the silos where the problems and solutions reside.
The three meetings facilitated by Klamath Extension provided a way for faculty to see the broader concerns of the community and to discover some methods to help address those concerns.
Community response to the water allocation was varied and in some cases led to public protest, resulting in national attention on the issues.
Secretary of Interior Gail Norton responded by releasing 75,000 acre-feet of water to the irrigation project.
The federal government provided $20 million in payments to affected farms.
Farmers and state agencies in California and Oregon drilled new wells that provided additional irrigation water.
The farm community continues to live with the uncertainty of secure water delivery for irrigation.
Federal agencies, led by the Bureau of Reclamation, and community organizations are continuing attempts to resolve issues related to endangered species and irrigation.
The National Academy of Science in Science and the Endangered Species Act  summarizes that "approaches must be developed that rely on cooperation and innovative procedures" to resolve endangered species and natural resource conflicts.
Extension can provide relevant programs that support these needed cooperative and innovative approaches.
Towns in transition: Managing change in natural resource dependent communities.
Oregon State University Extension Service.
Extension assists a state in crisis.
Impact EXTRA, North Dakota State University Extension Service.
Problem solving with people: The cycle process.
University of Alaska Extension Service: University Press.
The thin book of appreciative inquiry.
Plano TX: Thin Book Publishing.
Land-Grant Universities and Extension into the 21st Century: Renegotiating or abandoning a social contract.
Ames, Iowa: University Press.
From farm crisis to workforce readiness.
Economic Development Review, 1079-80.
National Research Council, Committee on Scientific Issues in the Endangered Species Act.
Science and the Endangered Species Act.
Washington D.C.: National Academy Press.
Taking the university to the people: Seventy-five years of Cooperative Extension.
Ames: Iowa State University Press.
South Dakota State University farm crisis response.
College of Agriculture & Biological Sciences Extension Service.
Heritage horizons, Extension's commitment to people.
The farm crisis: Responding to the stress.
University of Wisconsin Press.
June 2017 // Volume 55 // Number 3 // Research In Brief // v55-3rb4
 It is becoming increasingly necessary to conserve and protect Florida's water supply to meet growing domestic demands while supporting water requirements of agriculture, horticulture, tourism, industry, and natural systems.
Water conservation is a fundamental way to mitigate increasing demands, and residential water use has been identified as an important area of focus for Extension.
The majority of household water use is applied as landscape irrigation and often can be reduced substantially without compromising landscape aesthetics (St.
Hilaire et al., 2008; Warner, Lamm, Rumble, Martin, & Cantrell, 2016).
Thus, Extension can play a key role in this complex issue by helping people adopt good irrigation practices and technologies.
Further, it is essential that Extension professionals who focus on water conservation target people who use residential landscape irrigation.
Targeting programs provides an opportunity to be "both cost-effective and results-effective" (Skelly, Hill, & Singletary, 2014, para.
2) in today's resource-stretched Extension environments.
It is important to understand unique characteristics of residential irrigation users as a target audience to successfully encourage adoption of technologies and practices that save water.
This target audience is relatively undefined, although it has been suggested that residential irrigation users differ from the general public.
Because residential irrigation users have not been adequately studied, research is needed to describe this group and guide targeted educational initiatives.
Others have argued that the effort it takes to segment an audience and identify its members' needs is worthwhile.
Therefore, we conducted a study to examine the unique needs of residential irrigation users by comparing them with the general public.
The purpose of our study was to understand how residential irrigation users differ from the general public so that Extension programs focused on water can be targeted to reach this audience, an audience known to use an excessive amount of water.
The following objectives guided the study:
 We used two web-based survey instruments to achieve the study objectives: a general public survey and a home irrigation user survey.
We implemented the surveys twice  to gather data across a 2-year span, thereby mitigating the impacts of external effect on response.
We adapted survey questions originally used in the RBC Canadian Water Attitudes Study , and questions were identical across the instruments.
Both surveys were reviewed by a panel of experts to ensure external validity, and pilot testing with 50 respondents representative of the target populations was used for determining reliability of the adapted items prior to full data collection.
All research protocols were approved by the University of Florida Institutional Review Board.
We collected data using nonprobability opt-in sampling methods in collaboration with a survey research company.
The general public target audience comprised Florida residents over the age of 18 who were representative of the population.
Prior to data analysis, we weighted the results according to 2010 U.S.
Census data  using post-stratification methods  to reduce error associated with nonprobability sampling.
We obtained a total of 1,306 responses from the 1,489 surveys sent to the general public audience, resulting in a response rate of 88%.
Additionally, we used five screening questions for identifying members of the residential irrigation user target audience to ensure that respondents were Florida residents over the age of 18 who had lawn or landscaping and an irrigation system they had control over.
We obtained a total of 1,669 responses from the 2,827 surveys sent to target audience members, resulting in a response rate of 59%.
The variables of interest for the study included perceived importance of clean and plentiful water for various purposes, perceived governmental influence on engagement in water conservation behaviors, and demographics.
We collected data identifying respondents' perceptions about importance of clean water and importance of plentiful water using two series of seven statements ; respondents indicated associated levels of importance on a 5-point Likert scale with the response options 1 = not at all important, 2 = slightly important, 3 = fairly important, 4 = highly important, and 5 = extremely important.
We averaged the responses to each set of seven items to create importance-of-clean-water and importance-of-plentiful-water index scores, both ranging from 1  to 5.
We calculated Cronbach's alpha ex post facto to ensure reliability and found that the indexes were reliable across both audiences, with scores greater than.70.
We collected data identifying respondents' perceptions of governmental influence on water conservation behaviors using two series of statements developed by Lavergne, Sharp, Pelletier, and Holtby .
We measured negative governmental influence using four items addressing whether respondents felt the government pressured them to partake in water conservation.
We measured positive governmental influence using three items addressing whether respondents perceived that the government gave them the freedom to partake in water conservation.
For both series of items, respondents indicated their level of agreement with each statement on a five-point Likert scale with the response options 1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = neither agree nor disagree, 4 = agree, 5 = strongly agree.
We averaged responses to both sets of items to create two indexes, one negative and one positive, ranging from 1  to 5.
We calculated Cronbach's alpha ex post facto and found both indexes to be reliable across the two audiences, with scores greater than.80.
We used SPSS 22 to analyze the results.
We calculated frequencies and means for objective one.
We used chi square tests and analyses of variance for objective two to compare the groups for statistically significant differences, with a significance level of p <.05 established a priori.
There were demographic similarities and differences between the general public and residential irrigation users.
One difference was that there were more homeowners among those who used irrigation.
In addition, more residential irrigation users reported that they were governed by restrictions imposed by a homeowners' association.
We did not find statistical differences related to sex or to the average number of years residents had lived in Florida, with residential irrigation users reporting an average tenure in Florida as 23.5 years and the general public 25.3 years.
Irrigation users reported higher education levels overall.
We found significant differences in perceptions about the importance of both clean and plentiful water for various purposes when we compared the two groups.
Florida residential irrigation users placed higher importance on clean water than the general public did.
Conversely, the irrigation users placed lower importance on plentiful water than the general public did.
Data analysis revealed that Florida's residential irrigation users perceived stronger positive governmental influence than the general public did.
The two groups perceived negative governmental influence equally.
Residential irrigation users are an important target audience for Extension, and an awareness of the unique traits of such a target audience can empower Extension professionals to conduct effective programs that encourage behavior change and lead to water conservation.
The results reported here suggest practical ways Extension can promote landscape water conservation behaviors on the basis of important audience characteristics.
Extension professionals should use these findings to create more impactful programs.
Overall, Florida residential irrigation users are more educated and are more likely to own homes governed by HOAs that detail how they must maintain their landscapes.
Wentz, Rode, Li, Tellman, and Turner  noted that landscape composition and water use behaviors are "increasingly intertwined with community associations" (p.
3373), and HOAs have great power to either promote or hinder water conservation.
People tend to adhere to the social pressure to manage one's landscape according to perceived expectations , and perhaps appealing to this group's adherence to social norms could affect their engagement in water conservation.
Extension professionals should consider emphasizing the increased resale value or reduction in maintenance time associated with proper irrigation with this audience.
In addition, getting neighbors together to discuss water conservation practices and encouraging HOA boards to promote or even enforce water conservation could be effective approaches with this target audience.
Compared to the general public, residential irrigation users place a higher level of importance on water quality and a lower level of importance on water quantity.
One conclusion that can be drawn from this finding is that residential irrigation users rationalize their water use because they value their landscapes.
By downplaying the importance of water quantity, they can justify their high use of water for maintaining their lawns, thereby reducing cognitive dissonance.
On the other hand, residential irrigation users may be placing a higher value on water quality because they perceive they have less personal influence on water quality issues.
This finding is similar to reports that people do not feel connected to the management of their home landscape as it relates to water quality issues.
Extension can build on home irrigators' valuing of clean water by helping them understand how irrigation practices affect both water quantity and water quality.
By assisting residents in making connections between their actions and both water issues, Extension professionals can have larger impacts on proper landscape management.
Because residential irrigation users perceived government influence positively, Extension professionals should consider partnering with local government agencies, including water management districts, in creating and disseminating messages about government programs that support water conservation efforts.
Perhaps Extension professionals could serve as conduits for the distribution of information about incentive programs sponsored by government agencies and even build programs around new incentives that are being offered.
Extension professionals also should consider having government officials known in their communities speak at programs or guest blog on their websites.
In addition to Extension professionals who traditionally conduct urban water conservation programming, those in family and consumer sciences, 4-H, and community development should consider conducting more education on outdoor water use and conservation strategies.
The results reported here revealed that residential irrigation users are different from the general public.
Therefore, more research exploring these differences and capitalizing on residential irrigation users' specific needs should be conducted.
Our study was specific to a state that places a high value on green landscapes, and a study exploring whether these effects are found across the United States could be useful.
The differences identified are relatively small, and we present these findings as a preliminary indication that there are important differences between the public and home irrigation users that can be used to guide impactful Extension programs.
We note that the general public is a broad group that includes residential irrigators.
For this reason, we believe that the differences we identified are very conservative and have greater practical significance than we identified here.
Future research should more closely examine the practical differences.
The recommendations previously suggested should be tested to determine whether residential irrigation users are responsive to them.
For example, Extension could conduct programming with a water management district, distributing incentives on its behalf and tracking participants to find out whether more residential irrigation users are engaging in the program than were prior to Extension's involvement.
Finally, qualitative research should be used to gain an in-depth perspective on what would incentivize residential irrigation users to reduce water use.
The good news is that residential irrigation users' high education levels indicate that they value learning and would likely be interested in educational opportunities offered by Extension.
Further, residential irrigation users feel water is important; therefore, opportunities abound for Extension to capitalize on this group's connections to water and further target programs to reduce pressure on this limited natural resource.
Homeowner attitudes and practices towards residential landscape management in Ohio, USA.
Environmental Management, 50, 257271.
A theory of cognitive dissonance.
Evanston, IL: Row Peterson.
Journal of Official Statistics, 19, 8197.
The role of perceived government style in the facilitation of self-determined and non-self-determined motivation for pro-environmental behavior.
Journal of Environmental Psychology, 30, 169177.
Efficient water use in residential urban landscapes.
University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences.
Enhancing and protecting water quality, quantity, and supply.
Classifying residents who use landscape irrigation: Implications for encouraging water conservation behavior.
The effect of strategic message selection on residents' intent to conserve water in the landscape.
Journal of Agricultural Education, 56, 5974.
Impact of homeowner association  landscaping guidelines on residential water use.
Water Resources Research, 52, 33733386.
August 2019 // Volume 57 // Number 4 // Ideas at Work // v57-4iw1
 It is wine industry tradition to strive for low vineyard yields and vine stress to improve wine quality, and this farming philosophy is boasted in the marketing of premium wine.
Accordingly, many Oregon wine grape producers use low yield targets to ensure quality , yet studies indicate that cropping levels could be higher and quality maintained.
Understanding the yieldquality relationship is challenging as it involves interactions among vineyard characteristics, management practices, production goals, and marketing elements.
Such complex issues are not suited to traditional studies that address a single hypothesis.
Rather, large-scale collaborations can address these issues with practical and actionable outcomes.
Agricultural producers desire engagement with university research teams , but faculty view engaged research as risky because of its nontraditional nature.
However, engaged research projects can generate robust data from limited research funds.
Furthermore, as land-grant universities strategize to meet community needs, faculty are encouraged to engage industry through innovative projects that lead to research-based adoption.
To challenge the "low yield equals high quality" paradigm in Oregon's wine grape industry, I led a research team that developed the Statewide Crop Load Project, a long-term regional project in which we involved industry members and researchers to address two questions:  What yield levels ensure quality wine?
and  How does vineyard and season affect those limits?
We engaged industry members in fruit-thinning trials at their vineyards and wineries.
Collaborators collected production data and submitted fruit and wine to Oregon State University for analysis.
From 2012 to 2018, 25 companies in western Oregon participated in the study.
Fourteen collaborators participated for 3 years or more, and five were involved from the project's start.
Including industry members on the research team allowed for information transfer and generated a large data set.
Our research team analyzed vineyard and winery data to develop yield guidelines based on vine productivity measures, fruit composition, and wine sensory results.
According to stakeholders, the Statewide Crop Load Project has been one of the most important research projects for the wine industry because it fostered relationships between industry and university and empowered producers to observe research results firsthand.
Here I outline project development tips for those interested in engaging industry citizen scientists in research.
The majority of companies  were successful in following protocols and meeting deadlines.
I outline below the requirements for participation and traits of successful participants.
Our team was able to generate multiyear, multisite data to develop yield management guidelines for the Oregon wine industry by engaging citizen scientists.
Success required a strategic approach to planning, understanding of producer needs , coordination, and communication to the extent that is often challenging for citizen science research.
Direct industry involvement increased awareness of scientifically tested yield metrics and led to increased yields before the publication of quantitative scientific research.
Through coordination and communication, our team proved that motivated industry members are successful citizen scientist partners for researchers seeking to address complex production issues.
Industry engagement was a vital step in achieving industry adoption of practices that challenge tradition.
The Oregon Wine Board, Oregon Wine Research Institute, and American Vineyard Foundation provided funding.
Faculty research assistants Amelia White , Michael Kennedy , and Kelli Whisenhunt  provided technical support.
The project included the following collaborators: Adelsheim Vineyard, Airlie Winery, Archery Summit Winery, Atlas Vineyard Management, A to Z Wineworks/Rex Hill, Bethel Heights Vineyard, Chehalem Wines, Cristom Vineyards, Dion Vineyard, Domaine Droughin-Oregon, Domaine Serene, Duck Pond Cellars, Forest Hills Farms, Jackson Family Wines, Johan Vineyards, Ken Wright Cellars, Lemelson Vineyards, Results Partners, Van Duzer Vineyards, Willakenzie Estate Winery, Winemakers Investment Properties/Precept Wines, and Winter's Hill Winery.
Terroir and other myths of winegrowing.
Davis, California: University of California Press.
Vineyard floor management influences 'Pinot noir' vine growth and productivity more than cluster thinning.
Vineyard floor management and cluster thinning inconsistently affect 'Pinot noir' crop load, berry composition, and wine quality.
April 2010 // Volume 48 // Number 2 // Ideas at Work // v48-2iw3
 Potential water quality impacts of agricultural production include runoff and leaching losses of nutrients, pesticides, and sediments.
Extension has adopted water quality protection as a national initiative , and CSREES coordinates national and regional water programs.
Some states employ specialists in water resources or county agents for resource management.
Other agents who traditionally deal with agriculture or urban horticulture may find themselves increasingly addressing water quality concerns.
Extension may prove to be critical in addressing water quality issues for several reasons, including the following.
The voluntary adoption of best management practices  is the typical method of improving agriculture's water quality impacts.
A recent survey in Virginia found that 85% and 90% of producers thought that education programs encouraging the voluntary adoption of BMPs were the best way to address water pollution challenges.
However, the inability of the Maryland's voluntary Nutrient Management Program to achieve desired reductions in nutrient loading to Chesapeake Bay, even though agriculture participated in implementing recommended BMPs, has raised questions about the effectiveness of this approach.
Technology transfer issues about agricultural BMP adoption include questions about the effectiveness of BMPs, how willing producers will be to adopt specific BMPs, and the costs of implementing specific BMPs.
This article describes the structure of our water quality evaluation program and enumerates the successes and challenges of this program to guide Extension faculty interested in developing similar programs.
The University of California Cooperative Extension in Ventura County along with faculty at the Riverside and Davis campuses undertook two large grant projects  to assist growers in implementing BMPs to improve runoff and leachate water quality, enhance water conservation, and assess the effectiveness of these BMPs.
The procedure in these grant projects involved: 1) assessing runoff water quality or other relevant metrics at cooperating sites; 2) suggesting appropriate BMPs on a site-specific basis; 3) aiding cooperators in the implementation of BMPs; and 4) re-assessing runoff water quality or other relevant metrics after BMP implementation.
These projects included some cost-share or supply money for cooperating producers.
Principal investigators  for these grant projects were two county-based farm advisors and four campus-based Extension specialists.
Additional county-based faculty included staff research associates responsible for project management, sample collection, photo documentation, and report writing.
Additional campus-based faculty included post-doctoral associates and staff scientists responsible for sample analysis, data analysis, and report writing.
Funding was supplied by the California State Water Resources Control Board, the state regulatory agency in charge of enforcing water quality regulations.
Project direction and plans for the implementation and assessment of BMPs were reviewed by a Technical Advisory Committee that included the Natural Resources Conservation Service, agricultural industry groups, and agricultural producers.
Data collected at cooperating sites, when appropriate for assessing implemented BMPs, included:
 In general, the multi-campus, interdisciplinary approach was successful for assessing the effectiveness of agricultural BMPs, developing demonstration sites, and gathering water quality data for Extension programming.
Having a range of specialties among PIs was useful for producer education.
For example, agricultural producers who were already concerned with nutrient runoff were even more motivated to implement BMPs when told that legacy pesticides such as DDT were present in their or their neighbors' runoff.
Had there not been a water quality specialist with facilities to analyze pesticides on these projects, these educational opportunities would have been lost.
The effectiveness of certain BMPs was easy to evaluate.
For example, it was clear that retention basins with tailwater recycling capabilities were very effective at nearly eliminating the off-site movement of nutrients, sediments, and pesticides in runoff.
Likewise, improvements in the distribution uniformity from irrigation system upgrades were easy to quantify.
However, the evaluation of other BMPs was more difficult in some cases.
Factors leading to difficulty in quantifying BMP effectiveness included the following.
It is our hope that addressing these concerns will help others developing similar programs for Extension and research purposes avoid some of the challenges we encountered in these projects.
Chesapeake Bay eutrophication: scientific understanding, ecosystem restoration, and challenges for agriculture.
Journal of Environmental Quality 30:303-320.
Erosion control reduces fine particles in runoff to Lake Tahoe.
Runoff sediment particle sizes associated with soil erosion in the Lake Tahoe basin, USA.
Land Degradation and Development 19:331-350.
Segmentation of Email Systems Benefits You and Your Clientele Abstract Using commercial email services to segment email lists allows Extension to customize information according to clientele interests.
Our email system has 42 segments, allowing us to be very specific in choosing who receives the information we send out.
It also allows clientele to manage their information according to their needs.
There are some challenges, such as not being able to send attachments, but overall these systems can makes delivery of information more efficient and effective, and less expensive than printed media.
Andrew McGuire Extension regional specialist Ephrata, Washington andrew.mcguire@wsu.
Although not acclaimed like the more recent social networking, it is the most basic electronic connection to most people-even Facebook requires an email.
Extension uses this tool widely, mainly for contacting individuals or groups through email lists.
With automated mailing list management , the use of these lists allows us to contact many individuals quickly and cheaply.
However, there are new ways to improve this tool.
Email List Segmentation Using a commercial email service, our multi-disciplinary team of Extension specialists built an email system that allows subscribers to receive only the information that they want.
This is done by enabling clientele to choose from 42 interest segments  while subscribing.
They also give information on their occupation and geographic location.
With this information, our team can send out information based on these segments.
We can send one email to multiple segments, for instance apple production and cherry production, but a client signed up for both of these segments would only receive one email.
Subscribers can change their selected segments or unsubscribe at any time by clicking a link at the bottom of each email.
Occupation/Industry sector Farmer/rancher/producer/growen  Crop consultant Ag-chemical Equipment Government agency employee Research Spanish speaker Interest Segments Vegetables Potato Onion Sweet corn Green peas Carrot Other vegetables  Vegetables seed crops Cereals and other row crops Wheat/small grains Corn  Dry edible beans Alternative crops Tree fruit production Apple Cherry Pear Stone fruit Nursery Automation/mechanization of fruit production Grape production Juice grapes Wine grapes Table grapes Winery Other small fruit Blueberry Raspberry Forages and perennial crops Alfalfa Timothy Other grasses, legumes, mixes Mint Livestock production Cattle Swine Sheep Goats Pasture management Ag systems High residue farming Soil quality/health Certified organic production Direct marketing Small farms Water and Irrigation Center pivot irrigation Drip irrigation Surface irrigation Water availability, water rights Benefits of the System There are many advantages of such a system, for both the clientele and for Extension.
Benefits of a Segmented Email System For Clientele For Extension Proven, known, and widely used Active "push" of information rather than technology  Instant delivery Device neutral Can use to target specific segments of Instant access anywhere  Expandable Customized and specific information focused on their Web access allows it to be used unique blend of interests/needs anywhere, anytime, by multiple users Timely notification of alerts and Automated list management events as opposed to quarterly newsletters Lower cost than paper publishing Allows Extension to reach clientele previously unknown since the user selfidentifies interests By using a template for emails, all communications look professional and similar no matter the segment The creation of this system eliminated email lists maintained by individual Extension educators, which led to clientele receiving emails from multiple WSU Extension sources.
It also eliminated a printed newsletter that did not focus on the specific interests of clientele because it combined articles on too many diverse topics such as tree-fruit, agronomic crop, vegetable, and livestock production.
Now, we have a unified, content-specific system, instead of a shotgun approach to delivering information.
We use the system to deliver pest alerts specified by the target crop, event announcements, timely reminders, informational articles, and links to outside information.
After a little over a year, we have over 940 subscribers.
Challenges and Cautions We needed to build a small team willing to learn a new system and define rules that work for all segments.
To maintain quality control over messages sent from the university, we created a template for all emails and agreed to limit emails to maximum two per week per segment.
Gatekeepers, as we called them, were identified as people willing to send information for specific segments even if the information originated from other sources.
For example, any university faculty may send information to the grape industry through the two gatekeepers for grapes and wine.
This provides quality control of the system and ensures that not all faculty have to learn the email system, just the gatekeepers.
A large initial effort is needed to ensure that clientele subscribe to the system.
Our team of gatekeepers has promoted this service at all commodity and educational meetings.
We have encountered some limitations in using these types of systems.
Some services offer only a limited number of segments, so know how many you will need and compare prices.
We pay extra  for additional segments.
When sending to multiple segments, most systems only allow you to do "OR" combinations, as in Cattle or Sheep.
If you want to be more specific, such as sending only to crop consultants who are also in the alfalfa segment , you will have to find a service that offers this feature and probably pay significantly more.
Most services do not allow email attachments, but links to articles or websites are acceptable.
Graphics are limited to a specific size, but this has not been a problem as we try to keep our emails small.
For a small extra fee, we eliminated all reference to the system provider and have our Extension logo on every email.
Emails sent to numerous clientele through these types of services can be misidentified as spam.
Choose a reputable service with strong spam policies.
This will prevent most of your emails from being rejected by your clientele's Internet service providers.
We have had to work with a few ISPs to unblock our emails, since they do not come from the university system.
Finally, any email system will have to deal with full inboxes.
To attempt to deal with this, we have sent our subscribers information on best practices for managing email and other information they receive.
This is a work in progress, for both our clientele and us.
Cost and Services We pay $414 per year for our service level, which allows us a maximum of 2,500 subscribers, 5.0 MB image library, and 15,000 emails per month.
Examples of companies offering these services are iContact, Constant Contact, Bronto , AWeber, and MailChimp.
All of them are designed for email marketing, but some of them can be adapted for Extension use.
Use their free subscription plans to test each one.
Our team has elected to charge each gatekeeper a nominal fee to pay for these services.
Extension learners' use of electronic technology.
Auto-responders: An e-mail list productivity tool.
Articles appearing in the Journal become the property of the Journal.
Single copies of articles may be reproduced in electronic or print form for use in educational or training activities.
If you have difficulties viewing or printing this page, please contact JOE Technical Support
Assessing Irrigation Water Quality for pH, Salts, & Alkalinity Abstract Proper irrigation management is increasingly critical as demand and competition for high quality, potable water grows.
Coupled with identifying all potential stressors, accurate interpretation of water quality reports is essential to irrigation managers because management practices affect both soil and plant health.
The complex nature of information given in water quality reports makes interpretation and selection and implementation of appropriate management options difficult for many stakeholders.
Therefore, an easy-to-follow flow chart was developed for use by Extension agents to aid in consultations with stakeholders' about their water quality reports.
With increasing demand for potable water, irrigation managers are turning to alternative, poorer quality sources of water  for irrigation purposes.
Poor quality irrigation water poses many hazards to plant production if not managed properly.
Due to increasing use of poor quality water for irrigation, simple tools are needed to help Extension agents and stakeholders make appropriate irrigation management decisions.
The Water Quality Flow Chart The water quality flow chart  can assist plant managers in making irrigation management decisions.
It should not be the sole reference used to determine water source suitability.
Other stress factors to consider along with the WQFC include: Geographic region  Salinity tolerance of the plant grown Weather conditions  Soil texture, use, and intensity of management Identifying stress factors is especially important for arid regions where salts can build up in soils rather quickly.
Southwestern USA Example : Maintenance of warm and cool-season grasses Three water sources, categorized "no problem" by WQFC Warm-season turfgrasses-no problem Cool-season grasses-salinity induced stress/death Although beneficial in terms of water conservation, the use of poorer quality water for irrigation without proper management can cause soil structure issues and plant growth and quality problems.
The information available about irrigation water quality is very technical , and stakeholders have difficulty identifying proper management strategies.
Water quality reports typically include values for pH, total dissolved salts , electrical conductivity , sodium absorption ratio , adjusted residual sodium , bicarbonate/carbonates, and/or residual sodium carbonate.
These parameters interact in a complex manner, influencing plant growth and soil structure.
To simplify irrigation quality assessment, the WQFC  accounts for pH, salts, and alkalinity concurrently.
This tool will help Extension agents understand water quality reports and the associated irrigation management issues , and, with knowledge of other stressors present, offer management options  to stakeholders.
Irrigation Management Issues  Identified in the pH, Salts, and Alkalinity Water Quality Flow Chart IMI Description MO1 1 Applying irrigation water with pH <5.5 may result in damage to 1, sensitive plants, and young roots and leaves 2, 3 2 Pure water: Not enough Ca and Mg ions are present to aggregate 1, the soil.
Soils disperse, easily compact, resulting in limited water 2, and air movement, and root growth.
4, 5 note 12 Assessing Irrigation Water Quality for pH, Salts, & Alkalinity 3 Pure water with Na: Inadequate Ca and Mg ions present to 1, aggregate the soil.
In addition, the minimal Na ions present occupy 2, binding sites in the soil.
Soils disperse, easily compact, 4, 5 resulting in limited water and air movement, and root growth.
note 1 4 lon toxicities may exist; evaluate plant salinity tolerance.
11 5 Increasing permeability problem.
Monitor water quarterly to make 3 sure that there are no changes.
6 Inadequate Ca and Mg ions present to counter Na ions.
Soils 3, disperse, compact easily, and limit water and air, and root growth, 4, ion toxicity likely.
5, 6, 8, 9 note 1 7 Optimal pH range for plant nutrient availability is 5.5 6.5.
Some 1 pesticides are susceptible to alkaline hydrolysis as pH increases above 7.0.
8 Elevated HCO 3 and CO32 may increase the 1, 2, buffering capacity  of your soil over time.
4, 7 Alkaline hydrolysis, the degradation rate  of some pesticides when the pH > 7.0, may increase in the presence of HCO 3 and CO 3 2-.
9 HCO 3 and CO32quickly complex with Ca and Mg to form a 1, 2, precipitate.
Inadequate amount of Ca and Mg available to complex 4, with HCO3 3 and CO32-, aggregate the soil, and be available for plant 5, uptake.
In finen textured soils, if Na is present, it will dominate the 7, CEC and Na issues may persist.
In addition, sandy soils may 8, become clogged.
9, 10 note 1 10 Biological activity can cause daily and seasonal pH fluctuation is in 1 surface water bodies.
1 MO = Management option which are described in detail in Table 2.
2 Note 1 More problematic in finer textured soils, soils with appreciable organic matter, and soils with moderate to high CEC.
Management Options  for Irrigation Management Issues  Identified in the pH, Salts, and Alkalinity Water Quality Flow Chart MO Description 1 Invest in pH meter or litmus paper to monitor pH.
Monitor and log pH over the day and seasons to identify any patterns in pH shifts.
Schedule irrigation events and pesticide applications when water pH is most ideal and or treat water accordingly.
2 Apply base forming fertilizers such as calcium nitrate to raise pH, and acid forming fertilizers such as urea to lower pH.
3 Submit soil sample for testing and evaluate results.
4 Encourage good water movement by enhancing existing drainage, and if necessary break-up the surface layer.
5 Increase Ca and or Mg by applying gypsum , lime , or some other source, either by land application or through an injection system.
Application via injection system with each irrigation event is preferred.
6 Applying an acid can remove Na and lower pH.
Where soil already has Ca present , applying acid can release Ca to exchange with Na on exchange sites.
Application with each irrigation event is preferred.
7 Monitor HCO and CO 2using a pool alkalinity test kit or by submitting a 3 3 water sample for analysis.
Submit soil sample for testing to assess the buffering capacity of the soil.
8 Applying an acid will dissolve the CO 2and HCO complexes formed with 3 3 Ca and Mg; the released Ca and Mg displace Na.
Applying an acid can also remove Na, and lower pH.
Application with each irrigation event is preferred.
9 Investigate if alternative water source is available for irrigation use or to blend with current water source.
10 Apply specific volume of irrigation water to leach excess salts from the soil profile.
To maintain a specific level of soluble salts in a soil/substrate use a leaching requirement.
This enables infiltration of a specific fraction of applied water through the root zone to keep soil salinity from exceeding a determined level.
To reduce soil salinity levels to an acceptable/manageable level determine the reclamation requirement and apply needed volume of irrigation water to leach salts to a specified depth.
11 Plant tolerance to presence of excess salts and individual ions vary.
Consider selecting species/cultivars tolerant of salinity to minimize potential for crop losses.
Water Quality Flow Chart For pH, Salts, and Alkalinity y The following brief overview of water quality parameters and potential irrigation management issues addressed in the WQFC could be given to stakeholders to help evaluate their water quality and irrigation management.
The term "water quality" describes the physical, chemical, and biological components of water and has been extensively examined and reported for drinking water.
Irrigation water quality may impact the health and productivity of plants, soils, and the surrounding ecosystems receiving drainage water.
Reclaimed irrigation water may have higher salt content than municipal, potable water sources.
Poor quality irrigation water can also reduce pesticide efficacy and alter the physical structure of soils.
Monitor irrigation water quality throughout the growing season and over time , and adjust management actions  to maximize plant health while protecting natural resources.
pH Measure of acidity  and alkalinity  in solution, ranges from 0-14 7 = neutral  >7 = alkaline <7 = acidic Influences soil pH and nutrient availability Reliable indicator of other water quality issues Plant and soil management problems  Damaged irrigation equipment  Reduced pesticide efficacy  Salinity Measure of the soluble salts content in a water source, reported as: Lab Total dissolved salts  Field Electrical conductivity  Highly saline irrigation water: Reduces seed germination, rooting, growth, establishment, and fruiting of plants  Lowers the osmotic potential of the soil solution, reducing plant available water  status and permeability hazard of irrigation water Relationship between soluble Na and soluble calcium  and magnesium  used to predict the exchangeable Na fraction of soil equilibrated with a given solution  Elevated SAR values in irrigation water applied to clay soils can cause: Dispersion of soil colloids Reduced infiltration and hydraulic conductivity adj RNa Better estimate than SAR of potential irrigation management issues when: bicarbonate concentrations 120 ppm bicarbonate-rich water applied to alkaline soils Does not require any additional analysis uses commonly reported parameters Bicarbonates Produced by dissolving carbon dioxide in water Expressed as ppm or meq/L High levels of bicarbonates in irrigation water can: Cause unsightly foliar deposits on leaf tissue Precipitate salts Clog drip emitters and soil pores Form complexes with Mg and Ca reducing Ca and Mg for plant uptake and colloidal dispersion  Increase soil pH if the buffering capacity of the soil  is low Residual Sodium Carbonate Determines if excess Ca and Mg in irrigation water after Ca and Mg ions precipitate with carbonates Expressed as meq/L Useful when determining Irrigation water management Soil amendment needs Conclusions Successful management of production systems  irrigated with poor quality water can only be achieved by understanding potential stressors and accounting for their impacts in determining production inputs.
By following the WQFC, one can determine potential IMIs and MOs; however, stressor addition can create an issue even if the WQFC indicates no issues.
Of all potential stressors, irrigation water quality is commonly the most difficult for stakeholders to understand and manage.
This irrigation WQFC is a tool that will make help Extension agents interpret water quality reports and advise stakeholders about appropriate management options when other potential plant growth stressors are considered Acknowledgements The authors greatly appreciate the through reviews from Dr.
Bernd Leinauer and Dr.
Water considerations for container production of plants.
North Carolina State University Horticulture Information Leaflet.
Water quality assessments A guide to use of biota, sediments and water in environmental monitoring.
UNESCO/WHO/UNEP by E&FN Spon.
Water quality changes in golf course irrigation ponds transitioning to reuse water.
Turfgrass and landscape irrigation water quality: Assessment and management.
Taylor & Francis Group.
Irrigation water salinity and crop production.
University of California, Agriculture and Natural Resources.
Salinity management for sustainable irrigation: Integrating science, environment, and economics.
The International Bank for Reconstruction and Development/The World Bank.
Managing irrigation water quality for crop production in the Pacific Northwest.
Pacific Northwest Extension Publication.
Irrigation in developing countries using wastewater.
International Review for Environmental Strategies.
Irrigation science and technology In: Turfgrass: biology, use, and management.
Impact of reuse water on golf courses and turfgrass parameters monitored over a 4.5 year period.
Managing saline and sodic soils for producing horticultural crops.
Soil salinity and quality of sprinkler and drip irrigated cool-season turfgrasses.
Soil salinity and quality of sprinkler and drip irrigated warm-season turfgrasses.
A Web site for interpreting drinking water quality analyes.
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June 2013 // Volume 51 // Number 3 // Research In Brief // v51-3rb4
 More than one in five U.S.
preschoolers are overweight or obese, putting them at higher risk for future chronic health problems.
In order to address these issues, the Head Start program in south central Minnesota and the University of Minnesota Extension collaborated to deliver and evaluate a nutrition education program directed at preschool children and their families.
The main goal was to improve the healthy eating preferences, physical activity, and knowledge of health promoting behaviors among participants.
The health and nutrition program titled "Lessons in a Box" included four components, two mainly educational and two additional supporting resources.
First, Head Start youth received nine interactive lessons, 20 minutes each, delivered once a month for 9 months.
The lessons were led by Community Nutrition Educators.
Content was coordinated among CNE and Head Start nutrition coordinators and included: Germs and Hand-washing, MyPyramid, Keeping Foods Safe, Fruits and Vegetables, Protein, Dairy, Grains, Physical Activity, and Eating Healthy Snacks.
The lessons were based on the Simply Good Eating core curriculum , as well as MyPlate.
The second program component involved an assessment of youth done with the parent/caregiver to determine potential areas of health concern, which would lead to the distribution of recommended nutritional pamphlets.
Third, newsletters, including nutrition information, were distributed to all parents/caregivers of participating youth.
And fourth, Head Start main classroom teachers were asked to review and reinforce the nutrition lesson of the month.
The evaluation process was twofold.
First, structured interviews with parents/caregivers of participating youth were scheduled at baseline and post-test.
Second, researchers assessed participant BMI at two points in time.
The interviews were led by a trained parent advocate and aimed to assess youth eating behaviors, eating patterns, physical activity, family food security, and food intake.
Advocates measured the preschoolers' heights and weights to collect data on their growth chart  and Body Mass Index  percentiles.
A dietitian provided guidance to determine if participants should be given nutritional pamphlets or referred to other resources.
Advocates accommodated Spanish and Somali language preferences through use of interpreters during data collection.
Data was analyzed with McNemar's test and paired t-tests using SPSS v.20.
Participating youth  were comprised of 47% female  and 53% male.
Parental reports of concerns about youth eating patterns and food intake are reported in Tables 1 and 2.
Although there was no significant difference between pre-test and post-test, x2  = 2.25, p =.134, parental concern about youth eating patterns decreased from 7.8% to 5.5% by the end of the course.
In addition, there was a group difference in their child's intake of vegetables for baseline between the group reporting concerns about their child's eating patterns and the groups without concerns at posttest, F  = 3.904, p =.049.
Specifically, the children of parents with concerns about youth eating pattern  ate vegetables less than the children of parents without concerns  at baseline.
However, there was no group difference in intake of vegetable for post-test, F  =.890, p =.346.
Also, there was a group difference in their child's intake of meats and proteins for baseline between the group with concerns about their child's eating patterns and the groups without concerns at posttest, F  = 6.912, p =.009.
The children of parents with concerns about youth eating pattern  ate less meats and proteins than the children of parents without concerns  at baseline.
However, there was no group difference for post-test, F  = 1.008, p =.316.
Concerns about youth food intake also did not show significant change, x2  = 1.306, p =.253, but decreased from 9.2% to 7.0%.
Participants showed significant decreases in intake of fast foods, fats, and combination foods.
Both females and Hispanic/Latinos showed larger magnitude changes in frequency of fat consumption than their counterparts.
Youth classified as overweight or obese initially saw the largest decrease in both fast food and fatty food consumption compared to those in healthy or underweight categories.
Along with these behavior changes, there were participant shifts towards healthier BMI categories.
There was a shift in 77% of underweight youth moving to a healthy BMI category at post-test, as well as 28% of youth in the obese category shifting to an overweight or healthy percentile.
Baseline scores indicated most youth were already in the healthy BMI percentiles , but after this class there were even more youth in the healthy category.
Healthy eating habits can be influenced at an early age.
Participating youth were able to make changes towards healthier eating behaviors after receiving education and support over nine months.
Not only did they improve their eating habits, but many also experienced shifts towards a healthier BMI percentile.
While many children and parents already reported healthy eating habits prior to the course, trends of improvement were seen in those groups with less desirable health behaviors.
Furthermore, decreased concerns about eating patterns and food intake in parents of participating youth could potentially indicate that parents had a better understanding of healthier eating habits after this course.
The shift in weight categories as well as decreased consumption of fats and fatty food also indicates improved dietary and health habits over all.
A limitation of the study was the ceiling effect, in which a limited number of questions may cause no statistically significant change in some responses.
BMI percentile is also limited because it cannot determine changes in body composition.
Due to the pilot nature of the study, a control group was not obtained.
Addressing these limitations may provide statistically significant results that can be directly attributed to this program.
Early nutrition education to promote healthy eating behavior can be a successful strategy for preventing health complications among young children.
The results suggest the Lesson in a Box program is especially beneficial for Head Start youth who are at the highest risk for future nutrition-related health complications.
Even though the data showed limited statistically significant findings, especially when looking at the aggregate data, there were clear trends moving in the desired direction.
A second year of data is being collected to further understand program outcomes.
Physical activity and nutrition in children and youth: an overview of obesity prevention.
Preventive Medicine, 31, S1-S10.
Complications of obesity in children and adolescents.
International Journal of Obesity, 33, S60-S65.
Simply Good Eating For Health.
University of Minnesota Extension Service Miscellaneous Publication MI-08023.
Interventions to prevent obesity in 05 year olds: an updated systematic review of the literature.
What Role Can Child-Care Settings Play in Obesity Prevention?
A Review of the Evidence and Call for Research Efforts.
Journal of the American Dietetic Association, 111, 1343-1362.
Relationship of fruit and vegetable intake with adiposity: a systematic review.
Obesity Reviews, 12, e143-e150.
Prevalence of obesity and trends in Body Mass Index among US children and adolescents, 1999-2010.
JAMA: The Journal of the American Medical Association, 307, 483-490.
February 2002 // Volume 40 // Number 1 // Ideas at Work // 1IAW4
 Abstract To move the 4-H Geology project beyond a focus on rock and mineral collections and introduce youth to science concepts and geologic processes, a 4-H Earth Science Leader Guide was developed.
State-wide workshops and the creation of Earth Science Materials Kits were key elements of the first year's success.
The result is both an increase in youth enrollment in the 4-H Geology project and an increased county staff capacity to support science education programs.
Historically, Oregon's 4-H Geology project materials included a youth record page and a 22-page combined leader/member manual.
The manual provided limited project recommendations that relied on non-Extension publications.
The project's primary focus was on the collection and display of rocks and minerals at 4-H fairs.
In 1998, only 241 youth in 19 of Oregon's 36 counties participated in the 4-H Geology project.
Geologic formations and Earth science processes have a dynamic, and sometimes immediate, influence on the quality of life Oregonians enjoy.
The productivity of farm, forest, and range lands is determined by the nature of their soils and their location relative to mountain ranges and oceans that strongly influence rainfall and watershed drainage.
The Columbia River watershed drains over 250,000 square miles from the northern Rocky Mountains  to the Cascades , providing water for salmon habitat, irrigation, navigation, and hydraulic power.
An understanding of these interrelationships is important when making natural resource management decisions.
Extension Agents, teachers, and volunteers working with youth groups needed educational resources to develop an understanding of these geologic interrelationships.
After reviewing this situation, Oregon's 4-H Natural Science Curriculum Committee recommended that the 4-H Natural Science Specialist convene a Task Force to develop new geology education materials.
The Curriculum Committee believed:
 A 16-member inter-agency, interdisciplinary Task Force was convened to serve as the 4-H Earth Science Leader Guide review team.
The team included campus-based and county Extension faculty, club leaders, teens, teachers, an after-school science club specialist, and staff from the U.S.
Fish and Wildlife Service and U.S.
It was critical that the Task Force members represent a diversity of science expertise.
Reducing 365 million years of geologic activity into an accessible format is a daunting task.
When interpreting complex concepts to youth, it is important not to make them so simplistic as to be inaccurate.
The Task Force decided that the Leader Guide would contain lessons on basic geologic concepts for youth in grades 4-8.
The resulting 4-H Earth Science Leader Guide includes nine chapters with 27 experiential lessons.
The opening chapter introduces geography and Oregon's nine geologic provinces.
In the next eight chapters the background sections present information on Oregon's geologic history beginning in the Mesozoic and continuing over time to recent events.
For example, the Chapter 2 background section focuses on the genesis of the Blue Mountain Geologic Province, one of the oldest in Oregon.
To assist adults to interpret this information to youth, three experiential lessons explore the basic science concepts:
 The lessons in each succeeding chapter present additional broad Earth science concepts, such as the rock cycle, earthquakes, and volcanism.
These basic science lessons can be used anywhere in the United States by tying concepts to a particular region to make them most relevant to local learners.
Once the 4-H Earth Science Leader Guide was completed, the Task Force realized it was imperative to provide training to familiarize staff and volunteers with the new materials.
Specialists presented six workshops across the state reaching 84 participants.
When asked if they would use the workshop material learned in the next six months, 93% of participants responded "Yes." This proved to be true.
As a result of the state-wide workshops, counties that had not previously had enrollment in the 4-H Geology project now had trained leaders who were actively delivering the program to youth and requesting additional support.
In response to this need, Earth Science Materials Kits were developed.
The kits include chemicals, geologic models, videos, and reusable equipment needed to conduct the lessons.
In 2001, 29 of Oregon's 36 counties have access to an Earth Science Materials Kit.
Of these counties, 10 had no enrollment in the 4-H Geology project during 1999.
Through the development of new geology education materials, the 4-H Natural Science Curriculum Committee learned that a triad approach was needed to successful launch an expanded state-wide program.
In the first year, the number of youth enrolled in school enrichment or club based 4-H Geology projects increased to 479.
In addition, Agriculture and 4-H Agents are using the Leader Guide lessons and kit materials to support other youth education efforts.
The result is both an increase in youth enrollment in the 4-H Geology project and an increased county staff capacity to support science education programs.
August 2019 // Volume 57 // Number 4 // Tools of the Trade // v57-4tt5
 Marketing risk management skills are a critical component of successful farm management given the importance of price expectations to marketing and management decisions.
Previous research has shown that using futures market prices is an efficient, low-cost approach to forecasting national agricultural commodity prices.
However, to effectively manage the risks to their operations, farm decision makers need local cash price forecasts as well.
Kastens, Jones, and Schroeder  concluded that combining current futures prices with basis forecasts, where basis is defined as local cash price minus futures price, is an effective approach to local cash price forecasting.
Therefore, accurate basis forecasts are needed by producers and others seeking to create price expectations and evaluate marketing opportunities throughout the crop-marketing year.
Research has shown that historical moving average forecasts generate accurate basis forecasts  and are attractive to producers and Extension professionals because of their ease of application.
Nonetheless, developing moving average basis forecasts requires several years of historical basis data for the relevant local market region.
Although most farm managers are familiar with the concept of basis as the relationship between local cash price and futures market price, relatively few know how to forecast basis and even fewer have access to the historical basis data for their market region needed to generate accurate forecasts.
Workshop surveys of over 250 producers in Illinois and Indiana indicated that 85% of producers did not have access to historical corn and soybean basis data needed to generate basis forecasts.
The Purdue Center for Commercial Agriculture Crop Basis Tool fills this void.
The Crop Basis Tool is an open-access web-based tool that provides grain industry participants with access to weekly historical and contemporaneous corn and soybean basis data for local market regions in the eastern Corn Belt.
This tool is a valuable resource for producers and for Extension professionals offering marketing risk management education, such as that described in Kotsakou, Walters, Groskopf, Tigner, and Banerjee , and outlook programming.
The underlying data, functionality of the tool, and interpretation of output are described herein.
Daily cash price data from approximately 2,000 grain elevators and processors in four states  are collected from DTN, a company that collects and provides agricultural information.
Cash price data are averaged for each U.S.
Department of Agriculture crop reporting district in each state (U.S.
Department of Agriculture National Agricultural Statistics Service, 2018), resulting in regional average cash price series.
Wednesday cash and futures settlement prices are used in computing weekly basis data.
The numbers of buyers vary by crop reporting district and week, depending on how many buyers report cash prices.
To facilitate comparisons across crop-marketing years, a crop year is defined as having 48 weeks with 4 weeks per month.
When a month has five Wednesdays, prices from the fourth and fifth Wednesdays are averaged and reported as the fourth week.
Data are updated weekly, providing users the ability to continuously compare current basis to historical averages.
To view data, users make selections related to state, region, crop, futures contract, and crop year.
Example Nearby Corn Basis Chart for Central Indiana
 Example Deferred Corn Basis Chart  for Central Indiana
 After making the desired selections, the user selects Submit to generate a chart.
As indicated in the examples in Figures 1 and 2, the chart includes two lines.
The blue line is the applicable historical basis data.
The black line is the corresponding basis data for the current crop-marketing year updated weekly.
By moving the cursor so that it hovers over applicable sections of the chart, the user can view a detailed data label for each week.
In addition, the user can access the context menu in the upper right corner of the chart to export charts in a number of formats for use in presentations, publications, and social media.
The Purdue Center for Commercial Agriculture Crop Basis Tool is based on work supported by the U.S.
Department of Agriculture National Institute of Food and Agriculture under award number 2015-49200-24226.
We also would like to acknowledge resources for the project provided by the Purdue Center for Commercial Agriculture.
Futures-based price forecasts for agricultural producers and businesses.
Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics, 23, 294307.
Perceptions of marketing strategies: Producers vs.
Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics, 23, 279293.
Practical alternatives for forecasting corn and soybean basis in the eastern Corn Belt.
Journal of Agricultural and Resource Economics.
December 2002 // Volume 40 // Number 6 // Feature Articles // 6FEA5
 Abstract The environment for Extension is rapidly changing, but new opportunities are emerging.
Extension can play a unique and important role in helping managers learn to consistently apply technical knowledge throughout their organizations.
"Cow Sense" is a successful program that can serve as a model for progressive programming that combines technical knowledge with organizational development.
Extension is in a critical time in its history.
Traditionally, especially in agriculture, Extension educators taught technical concepts directly to an audience of farm managers.
In the days when Extension was the only provider of this type of information, it was an effective model.
Today, Extension faces direct competition from private sector sources that provide specific and timely technical information.
Extension must find new, more progressive models for serving the needs of rapidly evolving industries in order to stand on the brink of distinction.
In the traditional model, teaching technical concepts directly to the farm manager was an effective method because the farm manager was also the principal source of farm labor.
Private sector information providers continue to reflect this model because their educational efforts are focused on the manager and his or her authority to make purchasing decisions.
Farm managers are left with the organizational challenge of disseminating technical knowledge throughout their workforce.
Consistent and through application of technology requires a systematic approach to workforce organization and training, an approach that is quite unfamiliar to most farm managers.
Herein lies a unique opportunity for Extension educators to distinguish their role from that of private sector information sources.
Extension can develop programs that combine technical knowledge with organizational development training.
Such programming equips managers with the tools necessary for consistent and sustainable adoption of technology.
Pennsylvania's successful Cow Sense program demonstrated this model of programming for a particular need in the dairy industry.
The concept, however, applies to all Extension educators who find themselves working in a rapidly changing industry and faced with competition from other technical information providers.
Here is what we did and how it worked.
Structural change in the dairy industry, as with much of agriculture, has led to fewer and larger farms that employ more people.
As farms employ more people, two of the principal challenges dairy managers face are maintaining consistency in work performance and implementing change throughout the organization.
Technical knowledge is useless if it cannot be consistently applied throughout an organization.
As dairy farms increasingly hire non-family workers, the background and experience of the typical employee is changing.
Many of today's dairy workers do not have experience with livestock.
All skills that a successful dairy worker needs are not straightforward or easy to acquire.
As a result, dairy farm managers must provide training for new employees to ensure that they have adequate technical knowledge.
"Cow sense" is a particular type of technical knowledge.
"Cow sense" is a term used to describe a person who understands cow behavior and can inherently detect cow health problems.
Most people obtain their "cow sense" through behavior observation over time working with cows.
In many cases, the ability to quickly and accurately identify and take action with sick cows can make the difference between rapid recovery and profitability or disease and economic loss.
In this regard, "cow sense" is a very important skill for dairy farm employees to possess.
This skill is too important to wait for the slow and unpredictable process of experience to teach it.
The Cow Sense Workshop was developed to address the difficulty managers have in passing on "cow sense" to employees.
Unlike physical farm tasks that may be easily explained and demonstrated to employees, "cow sense" is an observational and interpretive ability that is much less demonstrable.
The Cow Sense Workshop approached this difficulty with two specific objectives:
 Table 1 lists each session contained in the Cow Sense Workshop, the time allotted for each session, group size, and type of format used for training.
The first and last session departed from the technical aspects of cow sense and addressed organizational development topics.
The first session, "Recognizing and Managing Dairy Systems," emphasized systematic management and decision-making, as opposed to the more haphazard approach that often takes place on dairy farms.
The last session, "Sharing What You've Learned," followed up on the systems theme inherent to all of Cow Sense by detailing a systematic approach to training.
The core of the Cow Sense Workshop was purposely organized into five interactive sessions that addressed four key components of learning cow sense.
These four components were:
 Recognizing and Managing Dairy Systems
 The Transition Cow Challenge
 Observing Dry and Pre-fresh cows
 Live animal, hands-on practice
 Observing Fresh Cows Through Day 40
 Sharing what you've learned
 Each of the four cow sense components was further reduced into specific teachable concepts.
In this manner, the body of diagnostic skills necessary to evaluate cow health was condensed into a systematic model to facilitate the learning process.
In the examination component, for example, participants were instructed on how to properly use a stethoscope to determine breathing rate and pattern.
Veterinary instructors provided descriptive and written criteria for determining normal and abnormal situations and need for intervention.
The Transition Cow Challenge
 Understanding why one needs to learn a new skill is an important part of the teaching process.
We selected cows in the transition period, defined as cows from 3 weeks before to 40 days after calving, as our focus for teaching, because they are the most likely group on the farm to develop disease.
Thus, they are the most profitable group for dairy workers to observe using their "cow sense." This component of Cow Sense presented scientific background to the physiological changes that take place in transition cows, which accounts for the greater susceptibility to metabolic and infectious disease.
In understanding the associated health concerns, the participants were better able to relate the skills being taught to their role in maintaining cow health.
Body Condition Scoring as a Key Health Indicator
 The role of body condition, defined as the amount of body fat a cow carries, was emphasized in the previous session relative to cow health.
A previously published systematic methodology to determine a cow's body condition score was demonstrated to show how easily a procedure could be taught.
The systematic approach enabled Cow Sense instructors to effectively teach a diverse group of people to accurately body score cows to within an acceptable degree of accuracy in less than 30 minutes.
Emphasis was made on how determining body condition score was important to monitoring cow health.
A dairy farm worker with cow sense can distinguish an abnormal cow from a group of normal animals.
This is the fundamental skill that participants learned in two sessions of the Cow Sense workshop: "Observing Dry and Pre-fresh cows" and "Observing Fresh Cows Through Day 40." Program developers identified easily observable animal descriptors and provided information about what constitutes normal or abnormal for each descriptor.
The result was a simple, organized resource known as the OBSERVED chart that managers learned and could use to teach others.
Students received the OBSERVED chart in a durable, laminated form.
Each letter in OBSERVED stands for a discrete descriptor, thus the user may assess each descriptor in order to complete a systematic observational evaluation in a consistent and repeatable manner.
The chart also includes more detailed comments and information about potential causes of abnormal symptoms.
After a potential problem cow is identified, there is need for a specific and organized examination routine that leads to predictable results such as treatment or a call for veterinary assistance.
In order to teach proper examination techniques, groups of five or fewer students were assigned to a veterinary instructor for hands-on practice.
Each student had an opportunity to practice his or her examination technique under the supervision of the veterinarian.
Interestingly, we found that groups of more than five students per veterinarian tended to discourage participation by some students, while groups of five or less led to practice by all students.
The Cow Sense program's aim was not to have farm workers make veterinary decisions, but to improve animal health through early disease recognition.
Cooperating local veterinarians were provided with learning materials in advance and briefed about expected learning outcomes.
They were comfortable with this learning process and did not feel threatened by it.
One participating veterinarian indicated that his clients' ability to communicate effectively with him has improved dramatically since they attended Cow Sense.
Cow Sense participants were asked to evaluate each segment of the workshop.
We wanted to assess more than just perception of the workshop quality.
We were interested in how the participants would use the information in the future for training or management purposes.
Participants were asked to indicate all answers that applied to them.
Table 1 contains the combined responses from three different sessions of Cow Sense where an identical evaluation instrument was used.
It is important to note that almost all components of Cow Sense were said to have "increased knowledge" of greater than 50% of the participants.
This is remarkably high, given the audience contained a blend of dairy industry personnel, many of whom were quite skilled, high-level dairy managers and Extension agents.
The large percentage of participants who marked "increased knowledge" indicates a great need to teach basic cow health skills such as those used in the hands-on examination portion of the workshop.
In addition, a high number of participants, 22 to 28%, indicated they would use their new knowledge to "train others." This too, would suggest a strong need for this type of material.
Recognizing and Managing Dairy Systems
 The Transition Cow Challenge
 Using Body Condition Scoring as a Management Tool
 Detecting Problem Cows in the Pre-fresh Group
 Hands-on examination techniques in small groups
 Detecting problem cows in the lactating group up to 40 days after freshening
 In many cases, dairy managers take on training responsibilities without benefit of prior experience or education in this area.
Cow Sense was designed to provide participants with training materials and methods that they could use to teach others in their organizations.
Participants learned organizational skills such as how to define specific work systems and tasks that make a dairy farm function.
Once systems and tasks are defined and understood, managers can design useful training programs that meet the needs of individual workers.
Cow Sense participants were encouraged to use program materials as an example of reducing a complex job ability to understandable, and thus, learnable pieces.
Research shows that adults have a strong need to understand why they should learn a new skill.
To accommodate this need, all presenters related educational content to the goals of a dairy farm business and the practical needs of dairy workers.
In addition, adults learn best when instruction is task-centered.
Cow Sense developers made a concerted effort to emphasize hands-on learning and to conduct training in settings that closely resemble the workplace.
Training skills that dairy managers require are similar to those used professionally by effective Extension educators.
Dairy managers need to reduce complex skills and concepts to easily learnable pieces.
They need to help learners to understand why it is important for them to acquire new skills and understand new concepts.
They need to organize and present the information in a way that captures and maintains the learners' interest, accommodates the learning needs of individuals, and ultimately leads to content mastery.
Finally, they need to follow up on initial training with coaching and feedback to ensure that behavioral change has occurred.
The "cow sense approach" can be used in a variety of different ways.
Extension educators may follow the path we used in Pennsylvania to teach dairy farm managers how to effectively train their employees to have "cow sense." They can hold a farm-based workshop and employ a combination of lecture and hands-on activities to teach the desired concepts and skills.
Dairy managers can, of course, use the material to teach their employees.
Or, in certain situations, an Extension educator may work with a dairy manager directly.
The educator might assist the manager to develop his/her own "cow sense" curriculum customized to the particular dairy operation.
This format allows the dairy workers to develop their animal skills, while the dairy manager acquires new skills as a trainer.
It's a clich to say that we live in rapidly changing times, but it is the truth.
The responsibilities of dairy managers are now very different, and the relationship that Extension once had with them is similarly changed.
Extension educators need not abandon their role as providers of technical knowledge, but the reality is that others now play a part in this.
Farm managers have a pressing need for training in organizational skills that lead to consistent application of technical knowledge.
Extension professionals can play an important role in meeting this need.
The Cow Sense Workshop is a model for just such an effort.
Principal descriptors of body condition score in Holstein cows.
Journal of Dairy Science.
"Adult Learning" in The ASTD training and development handbook, Robert L.
Craig, ed.; New York: McGraw Hill
April 2015 // Volume 53 // Number 2 // Research In Brief // v53-2rb5
 Conserving water used outdoors for landscape irrigation in residential areas represents both an opportunity and a challenge for water resource managers and Extension agents.
In Florida, one study found that between 46% and 75% of a household's water is used outdoors.
When addressing water conservation, Extension agents should understand that certain groups of residents may have different attitudes towards conservation and, therefore, have different educational needs.
Knowing these attributes of Extension audiences can help agents develop landscape water conservation programs that meet the different needs among distinct groups, or segments, of the general public.
Audience segmentation is a technique that is commonly used in the field of social marketing to identify individuals who are more likely to adopt recommended behaviors.
Agents can apply this strategy to identify and profile specific targeted audiences to engage with programming designed to change behavior.
The purpose of the study reported here was to investigate how homeowner water conservation behaviors  in yards can be used to identify and segment Extension audiences into distinct groups.
Specifically, we wanted to know if owning a rain barrel  is related to attitudes and behaviors that help identify audiences likely to conserve water in other ways.
RBs are usually 55-gallon plastic containers that collect stormwater runoff from rooftops and gutters.
The water collected can be stored and later used to irrigate gardens, potted plants, and lawns.
Collecting stormwater can also reduce erosion and pollutant runoff.
However, there is little evidence that RBs can consistently meet irrigation needs of residences.
Most RBs designed for residential use lack the capacity to meet the water needs of turfgrass, the dominant groundcover in many yards.
Regardless of the limitations of the technology, RB workshops hosted by Extension faculty in Florida and elsewhere have been popular.
RB use may be a visible indicator of "green attitudes" or a "water conservation ethic".
Even if the actual water savings from individual RBs are insignificant, RBs can serve as visual cues that water conservation is a social norm among some members within a community.
The visibility of RBs could also influence the spread of the technology and other recommended landscaping behaviors within their neighborhoods.
If RB owners are a unique audience in terms of their commitment to reduce water in landscaping, Extension programs may increase adoption of landscaping best management practices  by targeting programming specifically to them.
Further, RBs may be a catalyst for homeowner adoption of other BMPs that conserve water.
The research investigated specific attributes of RB users and whether RB usage is associated with the use of other WCBs.
In 2010, our team, which included an environmental horticulture agent, state specialists, and a graduate research assistant, created a 26-item Internet-based questionnaire to examine landscaping practices related to water conservation.
The survey elicited respondent demographic data; home ownership status; features of the neighborhood; information on residential irrigation practices; use of landscaping contractors; fertilizer application; and information about RB ownership, use, and satisfaction.
We created two variables from two sets of survey questions regarding indoor and outdoor conservation behaviors.
The indoor conservation variable was the number of indoor behaviors respondents indicated they performed from a list that included having low-flow toilets and shower heads, taking short showers, turning off the faucet when brushing teeth or scrubbing dishes, using aerators to reduce faucet flow, and owning an Energy Star washing machine.
The outdoor conservation behaviors variable was the number of behaviors, including landscaping with plants that conserve water, mulching around plants to reduce evaporation, watering the yard early in the morning or late in the evening, and having a shut-off nozzle on their hose.
The survey population was a nonrandom sample of 1,500 people who had provided their email addresses at Alachua County Extension programs and outreach events over a period of 10 years.
The programs included landscaping workshops, native plant sales, and sales of compost bins and RBs at a reduced cost.
The Extension agent emailed a newsletter to these constituents monthly.
This time, the agent emailed them an invitation to participate and a reminder email with a link to the online survey four weeks later.
The response rate was 36% , though not all participants answered all of the questions.
We used multiple imputation to address the problem of missing values.
Specifically, we used the Proc MI procedure in the Statistical Analysis System  9.3, to create 10 sets with imputed data.
These data were then analyzed using the standard procedures for calculating frequencies, means, and regression parameter estimates for each imputed data set.
We calculated statistical significance by chi-square or t-test and their associated probability levels.
Effect size was based on Cramer's V, Pearson's correlation coefficient, or R-squared, as appropriate.
In order to address the focal issue of the study, the extent to which RB ownership is associated with the number of water conservation practices in the yard and in the home, we used multiple regression.
We hypothesized that demographic predictors , behavioral measures , and RB ownership would be associated with a larger number of WCBs reported by respondents in their yard and home.
We conducted the regression analysis as a block model to examine the effects of each set of predictors.
Our approach treated the demographic variables as exogenous factors and focused on the mediating effects of RB use.
With our final analysis step we estimated the results across the 10 imputed datasets using Proc MIAnalyze.
The initial phase of the analysis compared respondents who used a RB with those who did not.
As shown in Table 1, the two groups were similar in their demographic attributes, including respondents' age, years of residence in Florida, and educational attainment.
There was a tendency for non-adopters to be more likely than RB owners to have a household income over $150,000 and to live in a neighborhood organized by an HOA, though P-values did not meet the 0.05 threshold for statistical significance.
There were statistically significant differences between RB owners and non-adopters regarding landscape maintenance behaviors and water conservation practices.
For example, non-adopters were more likely to have a permanent irrigation system  and to employ a lawn care service.
Non-adopters also fertilized  and irrigated  the lawn more often than RB owners.
In contrast, RB owners reported using significantly more water conservation practices in the yard and in the home.
However, the frequency of contacting Extension for information was not substantially different between RB owners and non-adopters.
Our models regressed WCBs  on respondents' demographic predictors, behavioral measures, and RB ownership  for both WCBs in the yard and in the home.
When compared with the non-adopters, RB ownership was significantly associated with reported adoption of three additional water conservation practices in the yard and two additional water conservation practices in the home.
There was a relationship between the demographic predictors of education and age, and the number of reported WCBs respondents performed inside the home.
One behavioral measure, outdoor irrigation frequency, was also significantly associated with adoption of indoor WCBs.
We also calculated R-squared, or the percent of variation in the dependent variable that is accounted for by the predictors.
The adjusted R-squared for water conservation practices in the yard was 49.2%  and for water conservation practices in the home, 20.4%.
Our impression that RB ownership can be used to identify a unique Extension audience segment was supported by data suggesting that among Extension landscaping newsletter recipients, RB owners were significantly less likely to hire a lawn service, to have a permanent in-ground irrigation system, or irrigated their yard less often.
These data suggest that RB owners are more aware of the water needs of their landscape or wish to conserve water.
If that is true, these findings have several implications for Extension programming.
If RBs are an indicator of a water conservation ethic, this audience could be open to additional Extension conservation programs such as Florida-Friendly Landscaping and Sustainable Floridians.
This audience may also be interested in other water conservation programs such as drip irrigation workshops, for example.
RB owners may be more aware of their landscape in general if they are more aware of the water needs of their landscape than non-adopters in this sample.
RB owners as an audience may receive other pro-environmental programming less directly related to water conservation, such as landscaping for wildlife, better than audiences who have not adopted RBs or who exhibit less environmental awareness.
Further, focusing on those who have adopted a variety of recommended landscaping practices may yield insight into how they made these changes and what motivated them.
That insight could be used to evoke changes among audiences who have yet to adopt water conservation behaviors.
Finally, the study also demonstrates the benefit of conducting research about unique audiences and their needs.
The methods used to collect this data were relatively time and resource efficient.
Surveying Extension constituents, including recipients of electronic newsletters, is a method that could be used on a broader scale with little cost to obtain data on a targeted sample.
There are several limitations specific to the study, however, including the measure of the number of conservation behaviors.
While we counted having a shut-off nozzle on their hose as a conservation behavior, this measure did not capture those people who did not have or did not use a hose, for example.
Another limitation was due to using a sample that was not randomly selected; the participants were solicited based on their previous contact with the Extension service and self-selected to participate.
This meant we had no way to assess nonresponse bias, and these results should not be generalized to a broader population of Extension constituents or the general public.
Future survey research could be performed with clients in other regions to see how they compare with this group.
Further, the survey could be administered with a random sample of Extension clientele or the general public to investigate the representativeness of these findings.
Future research on WCBs could benefit from pairing self-reported water use data with actual water use data from utilities or metered wells.
Research should be done to explore motivations, attitudes, and needs of RB owners.
The tendency of non-adopters to be wealthier should also be explored by future research on RBs and WCB.
The research reported here helps us understand the technology adoption process and should lead to better Extension programming.
Understanding specific audiences such as RB owners and non-adopters can help strengthen Extension by helping agents target existing programming, make effective use of scarce resources, and increase their impact.
More than a stand-alone water conservation solution, RBs can be used by Extension agents as a way to help disseminate and normalize conservation behaviors across communities.
While RBs alone may not ensure an adequate supply of clean water for the future, they highlight pro-environmental attitudes and can be a valuable piece of the water conservation puzzle.
Consumer demand for green stormwater management technology in an urban setting: The case of Chicago rain barrels.
Water Resources Research, 47, 1-11.
Marketing social change: Changing behavior to promote health, social development, and the environment.
Jossey-Bass, San Francisco, CA.
Blue revolution: Unmaking America's water crisis.
Beacon Press, Boston, MA.
The moderator-mediator variable distinction in social psychological research: Conceptual, strategic, and statistical considerations.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 51, 1173-1182.
Wiley International Encyclopedia of Marketing.
John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Translating health psychology into effective health communication: The American healthstyles audience segmentation project.
Journal of Health Psychology, 1, 261-277.
Mapping and modeling the biogeochemical cycling of turf grasses in the United States.
Environmental Management, 36, 426-438.
Xeriscape people and the cultural politics of turfgrass transformation.
Environment and Planning D: Society and Space, 28.
Lawn people: How grasses weeds, and chemicals make us who we are.
Temple University Press, Philadelphia, PA.
Free Press, New York: NY.
Missing data: Our view of the state of the art.
Psychological Methods, 7, 147-177.
Theory and method in health audience segmentation.
Journal of Health Communication: International Perspectives, 1, 267-284.
Survey research and analysis: Applications in parks, recreation and human dimensions.
Venture Publishing, State College, PA.
Hands-on social marketing: A step-by-step guide to designing change for good.
Sage Publications, Los Angeles, CA.
June 2013 // Volume 51 // Number 3 // Ideas at Work // v51-3iw5
 prison systems are overflowing, and it is projected that the number of inmates will only continue to increase.
In 2010, the average cost per day to house an Idaho inmate was $52.22; the current number of incarcerated inmates is 7,869.
Putting this into perspective, Idaho taxpayers are paying $410,919 every day, or $149,985,501 per year, to house, feed, provide medical care to, and clothe all of these individuals.
In 2001, the average operating cost per inmate per state was $62.05 per day (U.S.
Department of Justice, 2001).
These statistics do not even begin to reflect the cost of loss to victims and damage caused from the crimes committed.
At the North Idaho Correctional Institution , a minimum security prison for men, 403 inmates are serving time for drug/alcohol , assault , property , and sex-related  crimes.
Upon release and with current economic challenges, they will be given the extra burden of re-assimilating into their communities with prison records and the same misconceptions they had about financial practices prior to confinement.
Often this lack of knowledge leads to the very crimes they committed in the first place.
One inmate from a previous study commented that "most of us [are] in here because of money".
Although some correctional institutions provide vocational education to inmates, little is done with personal finance.
Bill Farmer, NICI Education Program Manager, stated that, unlike many other institutions, the inmates graduating from NICI are provided "an intense, structured program that focuses on their specific needs and risk areas to help them develop approaches to making choices and decisions that encourage success in the community".
As these men reenter as citizens in our communities, these skills could be the difference between a reoffending prisoner and a financially healthy citizen, family member, employee, and taxpayer.
In 2009, NICI partnered with several agencies, including the University of Idaho Extension, and began offering bi-monthly resource fairs for inmates pending immediate release in a monitored environment.
Community agencies introduce themselves and the resources they provide.
During 50-minute class sessions, research-based curricula, interactive games and tools that focus on key areas of finance , are presented.
The interactive nature of this method allows participants to make connections between past paradigms and new information using relevant examples in a fun environment by creating an ongoing learning experience.
The hands-on nature of the sessions gives the inmates "something" to take with them: decision-making and communication skills, problem solving, collaborations, resources, and reflective exercises.
Grieshop maintains that "games can be powerful tools for exposing the nature of problems and possible solution paths".
Inmates become invested in their own financial behaviors, and the games aid in this process.
Ericksen stated, "students learn what they care about and remember what they understand" (1984, p.
In these sessions, inmates discovered how to define a need and a want, how to visualize and prioritize their goals, and how to create a livable saving/spending plan in several budgeting activities.
They also engaged in the Bank of Life, where they spend/acquire their money using various banking methods and reconcile a bank statement.
The debt management and credit sessions incorporate the Isle of Misfortune and Credit Card BINGO.
These games help inmates work together to develop ideas on how to reduce, eliminate, or adapt expenses and why it is vital to read the fine print of any contract.
All of the class scripts, games, and tools are adaptable and available to other educators directly from the author.
From 2009-2012, financial resources have been introduced to 687 Idaho inmates, and common financial misconceptions have been addressed.
From workshop conversations, the majority of past participants feel more empowered to take control of their finances.
Where saving money hasn't been a priority, the group expressed interest in saving in the future, even in small amounts.
To introduce budgeting, the inmates created a "picture" of their income and expenses.
Several inmates teased that they had been "tricked" into making a spending plan after expressing that a budget would be impossible.
Credit and debt discussions have invited thoughtful misconceptions/questions from the group.
Nearly all of the inmates showed interest in sharing this information with others, including their friends, family, and cellmates.
Further impact of this educational program is that 83% of the former inmates have maintained their freedom, gone on to attend school, are holding regular jobs, and are building households in their communities.
A former inmate has been coming to the Extension office over the past year for help with his finances.
As he produced a goal setting resource called the "Bucket List," he commented, "I would never be where I am without the help of the financial education workshops." He has acquired a job, lives on his own, and is maintaining a very high GPA in college.
Our future goal is reaching the remainder of the 17% who reoffend.
The resource fairs are not mandatory, but increased numbers of participating inmates confirm the private and public value of this program.
With this unique group of students, not all of the inmates choose to attend these educational workshops; however, the majority take advantage of these resources, expresses their appreciation for the information, and are very respectful of the educator.
With the knowledge that these fairs are a privilege and with careful class monitoring by prison officials, safety concerns and challenges have never been an issue with this minimum security group.
Inmates are attentive and eager to participate in all of the activities.
Financial education workshops enable the inmates to "start over" with accurate information.
They are focused on learning how to correct past mistakes and how to avoid making new ones.
Furthermore, participants learn about resources available through Extension and how to get and use those resources.
NICI and the University of Idaho Extension are currently working on another learning and evaluation tool appropriate for this audience to monitor and track inmate success during their stay, during probation, and once they are no longer in the prison system.
Reaching this audience will make a larger impact on all of our lives.
The time spent with inmates introducing financial tools and other Extension resources has already proven valuable not only for the inmates but for society.
Inmate financial literacy holds both a public and private value and should be considered a mandatory pre-release requirement in all prison systems.
With fewer re-offenses, inmates and their families can move on to live productive lives.
Taxpayers and victims alike will see greater financial benefits.
With the results from future data from the prison, Idaho hopes to serve as a role model for other states looking to reach this underserved group.
The Essence of Good Teaching.
Inmate perceptions of financial education needs: Suggestions for financial educators.
Proceedings of the Association of Financial Counseling and Planning Education, 113-126.
June 2017 // Volume 55 // Number 3 // Ideas at Work // v55-3iw5
 One of Extension's strengths is the leadership it provides in organizing large community efforts.
Some examples include community gardens, incubator kitchens, 4-H clubs, agricultural cooperatives , and food purchasing cooperatives.
A cutting-edge opportunity for additional community building lies in makerspaces, places where people can design and create together using tools and resources for production and learning.
Extension has the distinct ability, reputation, and network to catalyze the expansion of makerspaces.
In turn, the maker movement can provide Extension the opportunity to engage a new audience with technical knowledge and skills.
Makerspaces come in all shapes and sizes and serve as gathering places for tools, projects, mentors, and expertise.
The concept behind makerspaces emanates from the technology-driven "maker culture" associated with Make: magazine and the maker faire events it promotes.
The idea of a collaborative studio space for creative endeavors has caught hold in education, where the informal combination of lab, shop, and conference room form a convincing basis for learning through hands-on exploration.
Makerspaces are zones of self-directed learning, providing physical laboratories for inquiry-based learning and validating the drive for discovery.
Utah 4-H has been involved in organizing various types of makerspaces and has discovered positive and negative elements of each.
The Cache Makers 4-H club has the largest Extension-managed makerspace in the state.
Located in a rented warehouse-style facility, this space includes a computer lab able to accommodate 20 youths and a flexible workshop area for building, soldering, and sewing.
Also in the space is a small woodshop that includes saws, drills, a laser cutter, and a computer numerical control mill.
Any room or space  can be transformed into a makerspace.
Utah 4-H's original maker efforts started this way.
Utah 4-H has used two types of makerspace trailer options.
One type of trailer has space for youths to work inside using tools  but also allows maker projects to "spill out" into a classroom or park.
The second type of trailer is used only to haul tools and equipment to and from various locations.
If you are interested in establishing a makerspace, you can implement strategies that make the process manageable.
Three such strategies are starting small, using available resources, and tapping the knowledge of others.
Starting a makerspace can be overwhelming, but the project can be scalable.
Start small to gauge community interest and capacity and then grow over time to meet expanding needs.
Take advantage of easy-to-use resources that will help guide your process.
Two examples are the Cognizant Maker Space Blueprint and the Youth Makerspace Playbook.
In addition to using these resources, consider talking to others in Extension as well as representatives of museums, schools, and libraries to learn from their experiences in developing programs and spaces.
As tools once found only in manufacturing facilities and labs become more affordable and accessible, the time is right to engage communities in the maker movement.
As you look to the future, remember that making is a human activitytry to involve makers from all generations and walks of life.
Their expertise and enthusiasm will breathe life into your program.
The maker movement is expanding from basements and garages to a global community.
In fact, the White House hosted its first maker faire in 2014 to raise awareness of the maker movement, and former president Barack Obama proclaimed June 18, 2014, a National Day of Making.
The National Week of Making continues to be celebrated each June.
In the spirit of belonging, building, and sharing, the maker movement has emergedgiving voice and encouragement to all who seek to express themselves through the things they create.
Extension has an opportunity to apply the skills and knowledge of land-grant educators and the organization's substantial volunteer network in new ways by meaningfully participating in the maker movement.
As traditional face-to-face Extension office interactions decrease and online dissemination of information increases, makerspaces can become authentic assembly places for Extension and the community.
Makerspaces provide opportunities for people to make and learn from one another in cooperative learning environments.
Creating and supporting makerspaces will increase the visibility of Extension, allow for the delivery of content to a new audience, and help ensure that Extension stays relevant in the 21st century.
October 2017 // Volume 55 // Number 5 // Tools of the Trade // v55-5tt8
 Is face-to-face training for volunteers becoming a thing of the past?
In 2005, Kaslon, Lodl, and Greve said that alternative training should be developed due to volunteers' increasingly busy schedules and Extension staff and program budget decreases.
Many state 4-H programs now offer web-based asynchronous sessions for volunteers.
These sessions allow volunteers to move at their own individual paces.
However, with many online training opportunities, the participant's level of engagement is reduced to watching videos, reading, and completing a quiz or typing into a text box.
What is missing is the benefit of a visual link among members, allowing them to learn with and from one another.
Confidence and competence in facilitation of science, technology, engineering, and math  programs increase when professional development is provided.
When designing training for volunteers, it is important to recognize what is needed to support the transfer of learning and to incorporate strategies the volunteers will be expected to apply.
As videoconferencing becomes a more widely accepted method for delivering training, Extension staff should realize that the design aspect comes with a higher level of complexity.
We conducted pilot testing of an intentionally designed online training experience intended to increase both the skills and comfort levels of adult volunteers.
To meet volunteer needs and achieve desired programming outcomes, we used Zoom to provide online training with the "face-to-face feel" of an in-person session.
Zoom is a cloud-based high-definition videoconferencing and desktop-sharing software.
The system offers a user-friendly layout compatible with desktops and mobile and tablet devices.
Participants also can call in from a landline or cell phone.
Sessions can be recorded, and screen sharing is available.
Zoom offers breakout room and chat box features that allow for both individual private chats and whole-group interactions.
Meetings can be scheduled in advance, with meeting notifications shared to calendar systems, or participants can be invited to join a meeting in real time.
Free videoconferencing is available for up to 40 min/hr, or a Pro Plan, with unlimited meeting durations and additional features, can be purchased for $14.99/month.
Maine Math and Science Alliance recently launched Afterschool Coaching for Rural Educators in STEM , a professional development opportunity for afterschool program providers and 4-H volunteers.
We partnered to create a completely virtual version of the sessions.
Using Zoom and guided by a coach, cohorts of five to 10 participants were able to engage in face-to-face conversations, participate in small-group activities, and report their experiences and findings using the breakout room feature.
Videos from the online STEM resource Click2Science were used for demonstrating targeted skills to the whole group.
Screen sharing allowed volunteers to share short video clips and receive feedback from peers about their own youth development practices.
We revised hands-on science activities with intentionality so that they could be integrated successfully into the online experience.
Videoconferencing is a useful communication method within Extension, especially for one-on-one meetings and committee work.
Although webinars have become more popular and aim to offer synchronous experiences, they are often one-sided and do not allow for a good deal of interaction beyond the chat box.
Robideau and Vogel  stated that an "intentional design and development process is key to the expedient implementation of a high-quality interactive training product for delivery via distance technology" ("Introduction," para.
Using a synchronous platform such as Zoom allows for high-quality interactive training, eliminating the need to create entire online modules and, thereby, saving both time and expense.
Learning to use new technology can take a bit of time, but the Zoom platform is user-friendly and has simple features that are clearly marked on a menu bar.
Users can click camera and microphone icons to disengage from participating in the video or audio interactions while still viewing the presentation or hearing the conversations.
The option to access web-based training reduces volunteer participation barriers such as issues with distance, travel, work schedules, and childcare.
Another advantage to using Zoom is the ability to connect through both computers and mobile devices.
If an Internet connection is not available, users have the option of calling in to the session.
Having this flexibility works well as not all volunteers have access to a computer but many have access to a smartphone or a landline.
All users  have the ability to share their screens.
Sharing a draft document from a desktop, capturing ideas during a brainstorming session, or sharing a video clip for discussion and feedback can be accomplished at the click of a button.
Using breakout rooms where participants can actually see each other is a game changer in making virtual sessions feel more personable.
The host can assign people randomly or manually to rooms and can "visit" rooms.
Breakout room members can easily signal the host if they need help or have a question.
This feature allows for think-pair-share activities or small-group discussions.
With a little preparation prior to the session, the host can plan hands-on activities to be carried out by partners or small groups.
From the perspectives of both the volunteer and the trainer, lack of connectedness, engagement, and other components of in-person trainings is no longer a concern when using Zoom.
Allen and Ouellette  stated that "pilot testing has shown high enjoyment levels and self-reported skill gains by most participants" (p.
13) who use the platform.
When compared to other videoconferencing platforms, Zoom tended to be the most reliable and accessible for those who had slow or no Internet connectivity.
The call-in option allowed anyone with a telephone to participate.
So is face-to-face training for volunteers becoming a thing of the past?
Our experience suggests that using videoconferencing for volunteer training is a viable option for providing high-quality interactive training from a distance.
With its potential for virtual face-to-face contact, its ease of use, and the capability for volunteers to access real-time training from home, videoconferencing has many appealing aspects.
Building coaching relationships over the Internet.
It's easier than you think.
Afterschool Today, Fall 7, 1213.
Evaluation of web-based training for volunteers.
The International Journal of Volunteer Administration, 29, 3140.
December 2002 // Volume 40 // Number 6 // Research in Brief // 6RIB5
 Abstract The project reported in this article evaluated whether stormwater quality could be improved by educating homeowners and implementing best management practices in a suburban neighborhood.
Nitrogen, phosphorus, and bacteria levels from two watersheds were compared using the paired watershed approach.
Resident surveys, property site assessments, soil tests, and water quality and quantity monitoring were conducted.
A x2-analysis of survey data indicated no significant changes in measured behavior.
Significant  reductions in NO3-N and fecal coliform bacteria concentrations occurred; however, total nitrogen concentrations did not change significantly.
Nonpoint sources contribute nutrients, bacteria, and other contaminants to receiving water bodies.
In Connecticut, both the Branford River and Branford Harbor in Long Island Sound are impaired due to low dissolved oxygen and eutrophication caused by excess nitrogen from stormflow.
In addition, high bacteria levels have caused beach and shellfish bed closures on the Branford River and Branford Harbor.
Education is one tool available to foster adoption of best management practices  in residential neighborhoods.
The role of education in changing the actions of homeowners with respect to nonpoint source pollution has been researched in one study.
Swann  found that media campaigns and intensive training seemed to be the most effective method of producing change, with up to a 50% change in the use of BMPs.
Other methods such as community newsletters, demonstration projects, and use of the Internet were not as effective as media campaigns and intensive education.
However, the ultimate evaluation of nonpoint source education is an improvement in water quality, and education programs typically stop short of measuring a water quality response.
The objective of the project reported here was to determine if the quality of runoff from a suburban neighborhood would improve as a result of educating homeowners about residential BMPs.
This project involved a collaboration of Extension educators and university researchers.
Pollutants considered for this study were nitrate+nitrite-N , ammonia-N , total Kjeldahl-N , total nitrogen , total phosphorus , and fecal coliform bacteria.
The project area was a residential neighborhood located near Long Island Sound in the town of Branford, CT.
Two adjacent watersheds were studied.
The control watershed was 5.4 ha in area and contained 22 homes, with an average lot size of 0.25 ha.
The treatment watershed was 6.1 ha in size, and contained 34 homes, with an average lot size of 0.21 ha.
Impervious area was 23% for both watersheds.
Eight lots had property in both watersheds.
These homes received the same treatment as the homes in the treatment watershed.
Two new homes  were constructed in the control watershed during the study.
Study of Residential Neighborhoods in Branford, CT.
Dashed lines represent watershed boundaries.
Numbers represent street numbers.
Triangles represent monitoring stations.
Other symbols represent changes made after treatment.
The study design used was the paired watershed approach , using one control and one treatment watershed.
The control watershed accounts for year-to-year differences such as climate.
During the calibration period, no education was performed, and no BMPs were implemented.
The purpose of the calibration period was to develop significant regressions between paired observations from both watersheds for the constituents measured.
Water quality monitoring began in May 1998, and water quantity monitoring was added in November 1999.
The treatment period began with the education of residents in July 2000.
The calibration period was 25 months, and the treatment period was 13 months.
A "train the trainer" approach was used to educate volunteers who instructed homeowners.
Beginning in 1998, members of the University of Connecticut Departments of Cooperative Extension, Plant Science, and Natural Resource Management and Engineering provided a series of eight evening seminars.
The goal of the seminars was to educate project volunteers and other members of the community on how to properly evaluate home sites, care for lawns, collect soil samples, and educate homeowners.
Volunteers learned how to identify structural features of lots and management practices of homeowners that contribute to nonpoint source pollution.
Trained volunteers then performed site assessments similar to Andrews, et al.
on 24 lots in the treatment watershed.
A soil test was also performed on each lawn in the treatment watershed.
Volunteers recommended changes in homeowner practices based on information collected and reviewed by extension personnel.
The recommendations focused on the following:
 Several structural modifications were made in the treatment watershed.
In November 2000, gutter downspouts were diverted on four houses so that roof runoff drained to the lawn and not on the driveway.
In April 2001, a rain barrel and a rain garden were installed at one house.
In May 2001, a rain barrel was installed at another house.
A resident survey was designed to collect data on homeowner management practices during the calibration and treatment periods.
The survey consisted of questions regarding lawn care practices such as watering and fertilization, car washing, leaf disposal, and pet waste management.
Residents of the treatment watershed received the survey by mail in March 1998.
A follow-up survey was given to residents of the treatment watershed in 2001.
The results from the follow-up survey were compared to the results from the initial survey using contingency analysis and the x2 statistic to determine if there was a significant change in surveyed behavior as a result of education.
Water monitoring sites were located where concrete stormwater pipes from each watershed discharged into small brooks.
Stage data was recorded at each site by a solar/battery powered CR-10 datalogger and pressure transducer.
Samples were analyzed for nitrate+nitrite-N , ammonia-N , total Kjeldahl-N , and total phosphorus  on a Lachat colorimetric flow injection system using EPA approved methods.
Total nitrogen  concentrations were calculated by adding TKN and NO3-N concentrations.
Grab samples were also obtained for 29 runoff events and were analyzed at an independent laboratory for fecal coliform bacteria.
All statistical analyses were performed using SAS Version 8.2 software.
Because most of the water quality data were found to be log-normally distributed, log-transformed data were used for statistical analysis.
Mass export was calculated on an event basis by multiplying flow by concentration from the sample that represented that event.
Regressions were performed on paired nutrient and bacteria concentration data, nutrient export data, and flow data for the calibration and treatment periods.
The slopes and intercepts of the two regressions were compared using ANCOVA.
Calibration regressions were used to predict treatment observations based on control observations during the treatment period.
Treatment watershed predicted values were then compared to observed data and a percent change was calculated.
No significant change in event stormflow was found between calibration and treatment periods.
The concentration of NO3-N in stormwater runoff significantly  decreased by 60% in the treatment watershed following education.
This was observed as a change in intercepts for the calibration and treatment regressions for the paired NO3-N samples.
The percent change was based on the difference between predicted values using the calibration regression equations and observed values for the treatment watershed.
Concentrations of NH3-N, TKN, TN, and TP in runoff were not significantly different due to the treatment.
Stormflow Concentrations of NO3-N from the Control and Treatment Watersheds in Branford, CT
 Results from the Nationwide Urban Runoff Program  indicated that event mean concentrations in runoff from residential areas were 0.736 mg/L for NO3-N, 1.9 mg/L for TKN, and 0.383 mg/L for TP.
The mean stormwater concentrations for both the control and treatment watersheds during the calibration and treatment periods were slightly higher than the NURP mean for NO3-N, and slightly lower than the NURP mean for TKN.
TP means for this study were lower than the NURP mean of 0.383 mg/L.
Calibration and Treatment Period Regressions Between Stormflow Concentrations of NO3-N from the Control and Treatment Watersheds in Branford, CT 
 During the calibration period, bacteria concentrations in both watersheds were similar.
However, after treatment, bacteria concentrations in stormwater from the treatment watershed decreased.
Using ANCOVA, a significant  change in regression slopes was detected.
This change represented a 26% reduction in bacteria levels in stormwater runoff.
The reduction occurred mostly for high concentrations.
Stormflow Concentrations of Fecal Coliform Bacteria from the Control and Treatment Watersheds in Branford, CT
 None of the regressions for nutrient export were found to be significant.
For the treatment regressions, this may have been due to the fact that only eight-paired export values existed.
More samples are needed to evaluate nutrient export during the treatment period.
The initial survey was distributed to a total of 61 property owners in both the control and treatment watersheds.
Of the 61 receiving the initial survey, 72% completed and returned it.
Responses are analyzed based on a nominal scale, according to the classification in Davis.
Responses for the survey question regarding fertilization were grouped according to those who fertilized less than four times per year and those who fertilized four or more times per year.
The survey question asked how many times per year they fertilized their lawn.
This grouping was done to minimize low observed cell frequencies and to simplify presentation of results.
Responses to the survey can be seen in Table 2.
Bracketed groupings represent responses to individual questions and the corresponding calculated x2 statistic.
A p-value of 0.05 or less would indicate that the response rate was significantly different for that question from the initial survey to the follow-up survey, for treatment watershed residents.
Analysis of the survey results indicated that no significant changes in measured behavior occurred.
The four residents who made changes in their lawn care fertilization practices all live close to the monitoring station in the watershed.
It is possible that the impact of their change was greater due to the proximity of their property to the station, even though no significant behavior differences were detected by x2-analysis watershed-wide.
It is also possible that other residents made subtle changes that were not reported on the survey.
Part of the education included general housekeeping practices such as the impacts of over-spreading fertilizer on impervious areas.
Intensive education efforts appeared to produce a relatively small change in measured behavior in the first 13 months following treatment.
However, bacteria counts in the treatment watershed decreased.
Although there was a significant reduction in NO3-N concentrations, TN concentrations did not significantly change due to treatment.
Continued monitoring of water quality and quantity may show changes in nutrient concentrations or in runoff exports; however, at this time the only significant changes due to treatment was a reduction in bacteria counts and NO3-N concentrations.
Future research might include more detailed survey questions, such as type of fertilizer used (organic vs.
inorganic), amount of lime applied to lawns, and whether fertilizer was overspread on impervious areas.
Also, the effectiveness of other innovative education methods could be researched.
For example, an educational seminar or picnic could be held for residents, and BMPs such as a mulching lawn mower or rain barrels could be raffled off to those in attendance.
We would like to thank several members of the Branford River Project, Joan Merrick, Lil Sakai, Mariah Storm, and Don MacDonald, for all of their efforts in interactions with the homeowners in the study.
This project was funded in part by the Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection through a US EPA nonpoint source grant under 319 Clean Water Act and by the Connecticut Cooperative Extension System.
Storrs Agricultural Experiment Station Scientific Contribution # 2070.
Home*A*Syst, an environmental risk-assessment for the home.
Northeast Regional Agricultural Engineering Service.
A primer on nonpoint pollution.
Journal of Soil and Water Conservation, 40, pp.
Paired watershed study design.
United States Environmental Protection Agency.
Connecticut Department of Environmental Protection.
Connecticut waterbodies not meeting water quality standards.
Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, NJ.
The SAS System for Windows (Release 8.
A survey of nutrient behavior among residents in the Chesapeake bay watershed.
In EPA, Proceedings of National Conference on Tools for Urban Water Resource Management and Protection (pp.
United States Environmental Protection Agency.
Methods for chemical analysis of water and wastes.
United States Environmental Protection Agency.
Results of the nationwide urban runoff program.
June 2017 // Volume 55 // Number 3 // Research In Brief // v55-3rb6
 Bullying is commonly defined as repeated acts of aggression, intimidation, or coercion against a victim who is weaker in terms of physical size, psychological or social power, or other notable power differences.
Bullying behaviors include physical aggression, teasing, and mimicking, as well as indirect behaviors such as social isolation, rumor spreading, and gossiping.
In the United States, bullying has been framed as a public health issue that if unaddressed can present serious negative psychological outcomes for all youths, not just victims.
Youths who bully experience higher than average levels of anger and depression and have little empathy for others.
Youths who bully also are more likely to struggle with substance abuse problems in adolescence and adulthood.
Youths who are victimized can experience depression and anxiety, increased feelings of sadness and loneliness, changes in sleep and eating patterns, loss of interest in activities they used to enjoy, and suicide ideation, and these issues may persist into adulthood.
In addition, research has indicated that youths who witness bullying have negative psychological and physiological distress, similar to victims.
Witnesses also become desensitized to negative school behaviors and begin to lack empathy for those who are being targeted.
Because research has demonstrated that bullying has a negative effect on all youths, it is an important area for Extension prevention and intervention efforts.
Identifying ways to reduce children's exposure to bullying behaviors is important to the health and well-being of all youths.
Research by Go and Murdock  suggested that programs should focus on increasing all youths' sense of safety, not just those who are victims.
In an effort to reduce bullying and increase prosocial behaviors among youths, Extension family and child development and 4-H youth development personnel formed a collaborative relationship to implement a program called Be SAFE.
Be SAFE: Safe, Affirming, and Fair Environments  is a curriculum that teaches youths about physical and verbal bullying, indirect bullying , and cyberbullying.
The full curriculum has 10 lessons, largely focuses on promoting prosocial behaviors, and offers ways to help youths become allies when they observe bullying.
Additionally, a condensed version of the Be SAFE curriculum, reduced from 10 lessons to six, was developed in response to the limited amount of time teachers are able to allot to educators attending their classrooms.
The condensed version of the program was implemented in classrooms in Alabama; Table 1 shows the lessons and activities of the reduced Be SAFE curriculum.
We conducted an evaluation of this condensed version of Be SAFE.
Parental consent forms and preand postprogram questionnaires were collected for 501 youths across 12 schools in Alabama.
Between fall 2014 and fall 2015, Extension educators collected data by administering a questionnaire before teaching the first lesson of the program and after teaching the final lesson.
The sample was equally male  and female.
Data were collected from youths in grades 511: 10.8%  were in grade 5, 52.5%  were in grade 6, 18.6%  were in grade 7, 13.4%  were in grade 8, 1.6%  were in grade 9, 2.6%  were in grade 10, and 0.4%  were in grade 11.
Participating youths ranged from 10 to 17 years old: 10.8% were 10, 18.0% were 11, 45.3% were 12 , 16.2% were 13, 4.4% were 14, 2.2% were 15, 3.0% were 16, and 0.2% were 17.
The racial/ethnic composition of the sample was 54.5% Caucasian, 28.9% African American, 2.0% American Indian or Alaskan Native, 11.3% Hispanic, and 5.6% multiracial.
The original survey instrument that accompanied the Be SAFE curriculum was a retrospective questionnaire.
During a pilot test of the original survey, youths found it difficult to remember their knowledge, attitudes, and beliefs before the program ; therefore, we changed the survey instrument to a pretest/posttest questionnaire.
We also adapted the original survey instrument to include items related to demographic information and victimization rates, and we removed questions related to lessons that were not taught.
The adapted questionnaire consisted of five demographic items, 22 items related to program outcomes, and two victimization items.
The questionnaire as administered before and after the program was found to be moderately reliable  and correlated.
For the purpose of our study, we were interested in measuring specific knowledge gains of youths related to the following key learning components of the curriculum lessons: "Bullying is different from harassment," "I can describe qualities of a healthy relationship," "I know ways to help someone who's being bullied," and "When I feel stressed or worried, I know ways to shift my focus and trust that I will settle down." Youths responded to these items using a 4-point Likert scale ranging from 1  to 4.
Additionally, we selected two items for measuring whether bullying victimization changed for youths who participated in Be SAFE: "During the past 12 months, have you ever been bullied on school property" and "During the past 12 months, have you ever been electronically bullied" were measured as yes or no dichotomous variables.
We used SPSS version 22.0 to analyze the survey data.
Paired-samples t-tests were applied to the relevant items on the questionnaire.
We used means and standard deviations to summarize preand postprogram measurements.
We also conducted an analysis to examine mean differences in preand postprogram questionnaire responses for each grade level.
We created a variable to measure individual changes in preand postprogram questionnaire results for each youth and conducted a frequency analysis to count the individual instances of positive change, negative change, and lack of change in responses from youths.
Youths significantly increased in their knowledge of how to help someone being bullied, t = 5.15, p <.001; knowledge of how to settle down when worried or stressed, t = 3.35, p =.001; and ability to describe qualities of a healthful relationship, t = 3.28, p =.001.
There were no significant changes in youths' understanding of the difference between bullying and harassment, t = 1.67, p =.095, or in reports of in-person bullying victimization, t = 0.69, p =.492.
Reports of cyberbullying victimization from before to after the program indicated a statistically significant increase, t = 2.52, p =.012.
Results of the paired-samples t-test are shown in Table 2.
We also examined significant effects by grade level.
Findings were significant only among middle school youths.
Results showed that significant increases in knowledge of how to be an ally were experienced by 31.8% of sixth graders, t = 4.0, p <.001; 23.9% seventh graders, t = 2.18, p =.032; and 32.8% of eighth graders, t = 3.05, p =.003.
Additionally, 36.1% of seventh graders significantly increased in their understanding of the difference between bullying and harrassment, t = 2.84, p =.006.
However, sixth and eighth graders had no significant change in understanding the difference between bullying and harassment.
With regard to ability to describe qualities of a healthful relationship, significant increases occurred for 28.5% of sixth graders, t = 2.70, p =.007, and 30.6% of eighth graders, t = 2.25, p =.028.
There was no significant difference in the ability to describe healthful relationship qualities among seventh-grade youths.
With regard to knowing how to control their emotions, significant increases were experienced by 27.1% of sixth graders, t = 3.07, p =.002, and 24.7% of seventh graders, t = 2.31, p =.023.
Eighth graders, on the other hand, showed no significant difference in knowing how to control their emotions after participating in Be SAFE.
Overall, we found statistically significant increases in youths' knowledge of how to help someone being bullied and how to be an ally.
As we examined grade level differences, we found associations between grade level and effectiveness of certain components in the reduced Be SAFE curriculum.
For example, sixth graders and seventh graders increased their knowledge of controlling their emotions, but there was no statistically significant increase for eighth graders.
The data also showed that only sixth-grade and eighth-grade youths experienced statistically significant increases in their ability to recognize healthful relationships; this was not the case for students in the seventh grade.
Our findings suggest that overall youths in the sixth grade were the most receptive to information taught from the curriculum.
Educators should be conscientious of how they teach concepts from the curriculum as they interact with different age groups.
There are three notable limitations in our evaluation study.
First, single-item measures were used for understanding knowledge gains.
Future studies will involve the use of validated measures supplemental to the measures from the curriculum.
Second, we did not find statistically significant reductions in existing bullying victimization rates.
Lack of reductions in these rates can be related to the timing of the posttest, which was administered the day of the last lesson.
Because youths did not have a substantial time frame for applying the skills they learned, statistically significant changes were not demonstrated.
In future studies, the postprogram questionnaire should be administered at a later time.
Furthermore, although those who are perpetrators of bullying could be in the same age group as the program participants, they may not be participants in the program.
Until school climates are improved, reductions in victimization may be slow to occur.
Third, cyberbullying rates increased from before to after the program.
In the reduced curriculum, discussion of cyberbullying is combined with discussion of other types of bullying; there is not a separate day to focus on this area.
The finding of increases in cyberbullying suggests that it is important to explicitly focus on cyberbullying to reduce incidence of this activity.
The goal of Be SAFE is to help youths understand bullying behaviors and gain social and emotional intelligence as a peer group rather than as individual bullies or victims.
The results of our study confirm that the condensed Be SAFE curriculum is most effective with youths in grades 68.
Because research has shown that most bullying behaviors peak near the age of puberty , it is important that Extension educators who engage in antibullying efforts do so with students who are at this stage of development.
Through our study, we found that Be SAFE is an effective program for shifting attitudes and beliefsunfortunately, however, not behaviors.
Extension personnel interested in bullying prevention could begin working with younger age groups.
Primary prevention efforts could be considered a precursor to later prevention efforts, establishing healthful peer relationships before bullying behaviors peak.
We did not implement Be SAFE with children younger than 10; therefore, it is unknown whether Be SAFE is effective for elementary school children.
It may be beneficial to make age-specific modifications to Be SAFE, implement the modified program with younger children, and then evaluate its effectiveness.
A major limitation to our evaluation study was the strength of the curriculum's survey for evaluating the impact of the lessons and activities.
It is important for program leaders and those developing curricula to examine their surveys and make adjustments to ensure that validated constructs are used, instead of only single-item measures.
As evaluation in Extension programs becomes increasingly important, making adjustments in this area will ensure that Extension program leaders can produce stronger evaluation results.
Bullying in schools: Perspectives on understanding and preventing an international problem.
School Psychology International, 22, 364382.
Self-reported empathy in Norwegian adolescents: Sex differences, age trends, and relationship to bullying.
Stipek , Constructive and destructive behavior: Implications for family, school, and society (pp.
Washington, DC: American Psychological Association.
Bystanders' reaction to witnessing repetitive abuse experiences.
Journal of Counseling Development, 87, 319326.
Trauma reactions of bystanders and victims to repetitive abuse experiences.
Violence and Victims, 19, 239255.
Bullying at elementary school and problem behavior in young adulthood: A study of bullying, violence and substance use from age 11 to age 21.
Criminal Behavior and Mental Health, 21, 136144.
The role of chronic peer difficulties in the development of children's psychological adjustment problems.
Child Development, 74, 13441367.
Be SAFE: Safe, affirming, and fair environments.
East Lansing, MI: Michigan State University Extension.
A meta-analysis of school-based bullying prevention programs' effects on bystander intervention behavior.
School Psychology Review, 41, 4765.
Bullying and the peer group: A review.
Aggression and Violent Behavior, 15, 112120.
School bullying: Insights and perspectives.
Do the victims of school bullies tend to become depressed later in life?
A systematic review and meta-analysis of longitudinal studies.
Journal of Aggression, Conflict and Peace Research, 3, 6373.
October 2001 // Volume 39 // Number 5 // Feature Articles // 5FEA2
 Abstract This article describes a process used to design a statewide evaluation tool for parenting education programs.
Domains of successful parenting were identified using a nominal group process.
Indicators were developed for five domains and were pilot tested in six counties.
The resulting instrument was easy to use and produced reliable results that could be aggregated at the state level.
Several shortcomings were identified and will be addressed.
The involvement of county faculty in this process was a key to its success.
Evaluation has become critical in the functioning of Extension programs.
The Federal government is demanding, through the Agricultural Research, Extension, and Education Reform Act  of 1998, that Extension systems report state-level outcomes for funding decision purposes.
Many states are placing similar demands on their Extension systems.
Additionally, many states and counties have moved to performance-based budgeting, which requires state-level evaluation data for benchmarking purposes.
One way that the Florida Cooperative Extension Service works to achieve accountability is through state major programs and design teams.
One such major program is Successful Parenting and Family Development.
A significant number of Florida counties provide educational programs to address the needs of parents.
The Successful Parenting and Family Development Design Team provides leadership to activities that support these efforts, such as:
 The membership of the design team consists of Extension specialists and county faculty from each of the five districts in Florida.
In the spring of 1999, Florida sent representatives from the Successful Parenting and Family Development Design Team to the Southern Region Accountability Workshop held in Atlanta, Georgia.
Various Extension professionals representing13 states met for the purpose of developing a performance-based accountability model for parenting education programs to be used by Extension professionals.
The development of such a performance plan would provide a basis for more effectively communicating nationwide impacts of Extension's parent education programs.
In this regional meeting, participants first discussed major issues facing children and families throughout the nation.
Subsequently, sub-groups of state representatives met and worked together to:
 After the sharing of ideas from each sub-group, individual states met to work on a list of possible core domains to be used in their parent education programs.
Each state reported to the larger group regarding the domains they were willing to work on upon their return to their respective states.
The Southern Region Accountability Workshop gave Florida the impetus to continue working toward a statewide evaluation strategy.
Our goal was to refine these core domains, with indicators that were general enough to be used with most programming related to successful parenting and family development.
The evaluation strategy was also to be based upon the following programming parameters:
 In addition to the draft of the core domains identified at the Atlanta workshop, other possible domains were obtained from various sources.
These sources included the National Extension Parent Education Model , Parent Training Today , Alabama Children's Trust Fund Evaluation Manual , and Nurturing Program for Parents and Children 4 to 12 Years.
These source materials are typically used by Extension professionals.
There were common themes that emerged from these resources.
These themes are shown in Table 1 in the first column.
The members of the state major program team needed a great deal of input if these domains were to be useful at all levels--county, state, and federal.
Previous efforts to develop state-level evaluation tools had failed because there was not sufficient input from county faculty and because the process and measures were too complex.
Specifically, the questions were often written at too high a reading comprehension level for the audience being served, and there were far too many questions that were developed.
The high number of questions enhanced the reliability of the measures, but the instrument became too long to use effectively with the audience.
The county faculty quickly realized this and refused to use the state-provided evaluation tool.
At a statewide in-service training, county faculty were introduced to the draft of the core domains.
By having the agents participate in the process of refining the initial domains formulated in Atlanta and by possibly adding additional domains based on their identified teaching objectives, we hoped to be more successful this time in developing a statewide evaluation tool.
Table 1 Summary of Potential Core Domains of Successful Parenting The following process based on the nominal group technique was used.
Faculty representing 26 counties voted on the top five  domains of successful parenting that best represented their programming objectives.
State specialists compiled the first wave of county faculty input and shared the overall results.
Several domains received tie votes.
Therefore, county faculty participated in a second wave of voting and again chose the top five items.
From this process we identified the set of five core domains receiving the highest degree of support, which were: 1.
Stress Management and Support, 2.
Age Appropriate Behavior, 3.
County faculty elected a representative from each of the five districts in Florida to assist with preparing an evaluation tool to address the five core domains.
The committee met and identified five to seven specific indicators for each parenting domain.
These indicators were derived from the academic literature, existing indicators used by county faculty, and brainstorming of ideas by the committee members.
Indicators were generic enough that they were appropriate to use with various parenting curricula.
Particular effort was made to keep the questions simple and easy to understand to accommodate varying levels of literacy among program participants.
To ensure the readability, committee members shared draft question items with target audience members.
After revision, the resulting instrument contained 27 specific indicators.
The county faculty supported a post-only design because of its simplicity for respondents and ease of administration.
The response categories were designed so program participants could indicate to what extent their behavior had changed compared to the start of the educational program  Following the development of the new statewide instrument, six counties, four urban  and two rural , volunteered to pilot test the instrument in their parent education programs.
Consistent with their plans of work, county faculty conducted programs primarily with low socioeconomic status target audiences consisting of single parents, court-ordered parents, and Headstart participant families.
They selected indicators to reflect the domains that matched their educational objectives.
Therefore, the total number of respondents ranged from 370 to 402 depending on the specific indicators included.
Results of the Pilot Test The results of the pilot test are summarized in Table 2.
Stress Management and Support Among the five items, respondents reported the highest incidence of doing better with "identifying sources of stress in your life".
About 7 in 10 respondents reported that they were doing better with dealing with stress and practicing positive stress management techniques.
The participants were less likely to report doing better with taking a break when needed  and asking and receiving help from others.
The five items, when scaled to establish Chronbach's alpha reliability, produced a reliability coefficient of.71.
Age-Appropriate Behavior Over 93% reported doing better with understanding their children's behavior, and nearly 90% reported doing better knowing what to expect at their child's age.
Over 70% reported doing better at creating an environment where their children can grow and learn.
About half of the respondents reported doing better with not comparing their child with other children and matching learning activities with developmental level.
The Chronbach's alpha reliability coefficient for the five age-appropriate behavior items was.72.
Discipline About 8 in 10 respondents reported doing better in understanding the causes of a child's misbehavior and responding to their child's positive behavior.
About 60% reported doing better with avoiding spanking and yelling.
The remaining items--being consistent with rules, guiding their children's behavior, setting reasonable limits, and providing choices to make decisions--ranged from 55 to 45% of respondents reporting doing better.
The seven discipline items produced an alpha reliability of.70.
Communication About 80% of respondents reported doing better with not criticizing their children and listening to their children.
About three-quarters of respondents reported doing better communicating as a family.
Over half reported doing better at sharing feelings.
Finally, only 40% reported doing better at letting their children express their feelings respectfully.
The Chronbach's alpha reliability for the five communication items was.68.
Healthy Self-Esteem About 87% of parents reported doing better at praising their children's efforts and helping them feel better about themselves.
Over 70% reported doing better with providing opportunities for children to experience success.
About 60% reported doing better with spending special time with each child and doing things together to create happy memories of childhood.
The alpha reliability for the five self-esteem items was.77.
Table 2 Summary of Pilot Test Results Discussion and Conclusions The state major program team members were very encouraged by the results and the feedback from the process.
County faculty who participated in the pilot test reported that the instrument was extremely easy to use.
It also provided them with useful information that they can incorporate into their annual state accomplishment report.
From a state-level perspective, it provided information that can be aggregated even when different curricula are used by county faculty.
Although one may question validity of aggregating such data, it is acceptable because the instrument focuses upon measurement of general parenting domains rather than specific information.
Indicators were generic enough that they were appropriate to use with various parenting curricula.
In addition, the outcomes were very useful for demonstrating accountability.
These results move beyond documenting numbers and program satisfaction, and measure improvement in parenting practices as a result of the educational programs.
Furthermore, the information obtained can assist us with shaping the topics for future parenting educational materials.
For example, if the audience is not indicating a high level of improvement in one of the domains, new teaching materials could be developed to further teach those skills to parents.
Having a valid and reliable instrument that measures statewide impacts and is acceptable to county faculty is a long-awaited goal of the state major program team.
However, there are some shortcomings with the instrument's response categories.
In particular, the "about the same" category is vague.
It is not clear if respondents did not adopt the behavior or if they were already doing the behavior before the class.
From a program development perspective, it would be useful to know this information in order to recommend programmatic changes such as increasing time devoted to the topic or incorporating different teaching strategies.
Also, we were unable to tell how much "better" respondents were doing when they responded "better." Our next step is to make the necessary revisions without making the evaluation tool too complex or cumbersome for the program participants.
Again, county faculty will have input at our next statewide inservice training.
Our goal is to revise response categories, to consider adding additional domains and indicators, and to increase the number of counties using the instrument.
We will continue to use the group process outlined here to achieve these goals.
In summary, from this experience we want to emphasize three main points.
First, the process used to generate the domains would be applicable to most program areas in Extension.
By incorporating county faculty input, the relevance of the evaluation instruments can be significantly improved.
By using the nominal group process, the instrument is validated by the very people who will be using it and, consequently, is more relevant to their program needs.
In addition, this helps ensure that it will be adopted--which has been a significant problem in the past.
Second, the instrument developed proved to be very easy to use, yet sensitive enough to show program areas that are in need of improvement.
Third, the process has greatly advanced the statewide evaluation efforts of parent education programs, and we will continue to refine and add tools as we proceed into the new 4-year plan of work.
When it comes to designing useable evaluation tools, two heads  are better than one.
Studio City, CA: Center for the Improvement of Child Caring.
Group techniques for program planning: A guide to nominal group and Delphi processes.
Middleton, WI: Green Briar Press.
Park City, UT: Author.
The Alabama Children's Trust Fund evaluation manual.
Auburn, AL: Alabama Cooperative Extension Service.
National Extension Parent Education Model.
Manhattan, KS: Kansas Cooperative Extension Service.
Concept of state major programs and design teams.
Gainesville, FL: Florida Cooperative Extension Service.
The following process based on the nominal group technique was used.
Faculty representing 26 counties voted on the top five  domains of successful parenting that best represented their programming objectives.
State specialists compiled the first wave of county faculty input and shared the overall results.
Several domains received tie votes.
Therefore, county faculty participated in a second wave of voting and again chose the top five items.
From this process we identified the set of five core domains receiving the highest degree of support, which were: 1.
Stress Management and Support, 2.
Age Appropriate Behavior, 3.
County faculty elected a representative from each of the five districts in Florida to assist with preparing an evaluation tool to address the five core domains.
The committee met and identified five to seven specific indicators for each parenting domain.
These indicators were derived from the academic literature, existing indicators used by county faculty, and brainstorming of ideas by the committee members.
Indicators were generic enough that they were appropriate to use with various parenting curricula.
Particular effort was made to keep the questions simple and easy to understand to accommodate varying levels of literacy among program participants.
To ensure the readability, committee members shared draft question items with target audience members.
After revision, the resulting instrument contained 27 specific indicators.
The county faculty supported a post-only design because of its simplicity for respondents and ease of administration.
The response categories were designed so program participants could indicate to what extent their behavior had changed compared to the start of the educational program  Following the development of the new statewide instrument, six counties, four urban  and two rural , volunteered to pilot test the instrument in their parent education programs.
Consistent with their plans of work, county faculty conducted programs primarily with low socioeconomic status target audiences consisting of single parents, court-ordered parents, and Headstart participant families.
They selected indicators to reflect the domains that matched their educational objectives.
Therefore, the total number of respondents ranged from 370 to 402 depending on the specific indicators included.
Results of the Pilot Test The results of the pilot test are summarized in Table 2.
Stress Management and Support Among the five items, respondents reported the highest incidence of doing better with "identifying sources of stress in your life".
About 7 in 10 respondents reported that they were doing better with dealing with stress and practicing positive stress management techniques.
The participants were less likely to report doing better with taking a break when needed  and asking and receiving help from others.
The five items, when scaled to establish Chronbach's alpha reliability, produced a reliability coefficient of.71.
Age-Appropriate Behavior Over 93% reported doing better with understanding their children's behavior, and nearly 90% reported doing better knowing what to expect at their child's age.
Over 70% reported doing better at creating an environment where their children can grow and learn.
About half of the respondents reported doing better with not comparing their child with other children and matching learning activities with developmental level.
The Chronbach's alpha reliability coefficient for the five age-appropriate behavior items was.72.
Discipline About 8 in 10 respondents reported doing better in understanding the causes of a child's misbehavior and responding to their child's positive behavior.
About 60% reported doing better with avoiding spanking and yelling.
The remaining items--being consistent with rules, guiding their children's behavior, setting reasonable limits, and providing choices to make decisions--ranged from 55 to 45% of respondents reporting doing better.
The seven discipline items produced an alpha reliability of.70.
Communication About 80% of respondents reported doing better with not criticizing their children and listening to their children.
About three-quarters of respondents reported doing better communicating as a family.
Over half reported doing better at sharing feelings.
Finally, only 40% reported doing better at letting their children express their feelings respectfully.
The Chronbach's alpha reliability for the five communication items was.68.
Healthy Self-Esteem About 87% of parents reported doing better at praising their children's efforts and helping them feel better about themselves.
Over 70% reported doing better with providing opportunities for children to experience success.
About 60% reported doing better with spending special time with each child and doing things together to create happy memories of childhood.
The alpha reliability for the five self-esteem items was.77.
Table 2 Summary of Pilot Test Results Discussion and Conclusions The state major program team members were very encouraged by the results and the feedback from the process.
County faculty who participated in the pilot test reported that the instrument was extremely easy to use.
It also provided them with useful information that they can incorporate into their annual state accomplishment report.
From a state-level perspective, it provided information that can be aggregated even when different curricula are used by county faculty.
Although one may question validity of aggregating such data, it is acceptable because the instrument focuses upon measurement of general parenting domains rather than specific information.
Indicators were generic enough that they were appropriate to use with various parenting curricula.
In addition, the outcomes were very useful for demonstrating accountability.
These results move beyond documenting numbers and program satisfaction, and measure improvement in parenting practices as a result of the educational programs.
Furthermore, the information obtained can assist us with shaping the topics for future parenting educational materials.
For example, if the audience is not indicating a high level of improvement in one of the domains, new teaching materials could be developed to further teach those skills to parents.
Having a valid and reliable instrument that measures statewide impacts and is acceptable to county faculty is a long-awaited goal of the state major program team.
However, there are some shortcomings with the instrument's response categories.
In particular, the "about the same" category is vague.
It is not clear if respondents did not adopt the behavior or if they were already doing the behavior before the class.
From a program development perspective, it would be useful to know this information in order to recommend programmatic changes such as increasing time devoted to the topic or incorporating different teaching strategies.
Also, we were unable to tell how much "better" respondents were doing when they responded "better." Our next step is to make the necessary revisions without making the evaluation tool too complex or cumbersome for the program participants.
Again, county faculty will have input at our next statewide inservice training.
Our goal is to revise response categories, to consider adding additional domains and indicators, and to increase the number of counties using the instrument.
We will continue to use the group process outlined here to achieve these goals.
In summary, from this experience we want to emphasize three main points.
First, the process used to generate the domains would be applicable to most program areas in Extension.
By incorporating county faculty input, the relevance of the evaluation instruments can be significantly improved.
By using the nominal group process, the instrument is validated by the very people who will be using it and, consequently, is more relevant to their program needs.
In addition, this helps ensure that it will be adopted--which has been a significant problem in the past.
Second, the instrument developed proved to be very easy to use, yet sensitive enough to show program areas that are in need of improvement.
Third, the process has greatly advanced the statewide evaluation efforts of parent education programs, and we will continue to refine and add tools as we proceed into the new 4-year plan of work.
When it comes to designing useable evaluation tools, two heads  are better than one.
Studio City, CA: Center for the Improvement of Child Caring.
Group techniques for program planning: A guide to nominal group and Delphi processes.
Middleton, WI: Green Briar Press.
Park City, UT: Author.
The Alabama Children's Trust Fund evaluation manual.
Auburn, AL: Alabama Cooperative Extension Service.
National Extension Parent Education Model.
Manhattan, KS: Kansas Cooperative Extension Service.
Concept of state major programs and design teams.
Gainesville, FL: Florida Cooperative Extension Service.
The following process based on the nominal group technique was used.
Following the development of the new statewide instrument, six counties, four urban  and two rural , volunteered to pilot test the instrument in their parent education programs.
Consistent with their plans of work, county faculty conducted programs primarily with low socioeconomic status target audiences consisting of single parents, court-ordered parents, and Headstart participant families.
They selected indicators to reflect the domains that matched their educational objectives.
Therefore, the total number of respondents ranged from 370 to 402 depending on the specific indicators included.
The results of the pilot test are summarized in Table 2.
Stress Management and Support
 Among the five items, respondents reported the highest incidence of doing better with "identifying sources of stress in your life".
About 7 in 10 respondents reported that they were doing better with dealing with stress and practicing positive stress management techniques.
The participants were less likely to report doing better with taking a break when needed  and asking and receiving help from others.
The five items, when scaled to establish Chronbach's alpha reliability, produced a reliability coefficient of.71.
Over 93% reported doing better with understanding their children's behavior, and nearly 90% reported doing better knowing what to expect at their child's age.
Over 70% reported doing better at creating an environment where their children can grow and learn.
About half of the respondents reported doing better with not comparing their child with other children and matching learning activities with developmental level.
The Chronbach's alpha reliability coefficient for the five age-appropriate behavior items was.72.
About 8 in 10 respondents reported doing better in understanding the causes of a child's misbehavior and responding to their child's positive behavior.
About 60% reported doing better with avoiding spanking and yelling.
The remaining items--being consistent with rules, guiding their children's behavior, setting reasonable limits, and providing choices to make decisions--ranged from 55 to 45% of respondents reporting doing better.
The seven discipline items produced an alpha reliability of.70.
About 80% of respondents reported doing better with not criticizing their children and listening to their children.
About three-quarters of respondents reported doing better communicating as a family.
Over half reported doing better at sharing feelings.
Finally, only 40% reported doing better at letting their children express their feelings respectfully.
The Chronbach's alpha reliability for the five communication items was.68.
About 87% of parents reported doing better at praising their children's efforts and helping them feel better about themselves.
Over 70% reported doing better with providing opportunities for children to experience success.
About 60% reported doing better with spending special time with each child and doing things together to create happy memories of childhood.
The alpha reliability for the five self-esteem items was.77.
Table 2 Summary of Pilot Test Results Discussion and Conclusions The state major program team members were very encouraged by the results and the feedback from the process.
County faculty who participated in the pilot test reported that the instrument was extremely easy to use.
It also provided them with useful information that they can incorporate into their annual state accomplishment report.
From a state-level perspective, it provided information that can be aggregated even when different curricula are used by county faculty.
Although one may question validity of aggregating such data, it is acceptable because the instrument focuses upon measurement of general parenting domains rather than specific information.
Indicators were generic enough that they were appropriate to use with various parenting curricula.
In addition, the outcomes were very useful for demonstrating accountability.
These results move beyond documenting numbers and program satisfaction, and measure improvement in parenting practices as a result of the educational programs.
Furthermore, the information obtained can assist us with shaping the topics for future parenting educational materials.
For example, if the audience is not indicating a high level of improvement in one of the domains, new teaching materials could be developed to further teach those skills to parents.
Having a valid and reliable instrument that measures statewide impacts and is acceptable to county faculty is a long-awaited goal of the state major program team.
However, there are some shortcomings with the instrument's response categories.
In particular, the "about the same" category is vague.
It is not clear if respondents did not adopt the behavior or if they were already doing the behavior before the class.
From a program development perspective, it would be useful to know this information in order to recommend programmatic changes such as increasing time devoted to the topic or incorporating different teaching strategies.
Also, we were unable to tell how much "better" respondents were doing when they responded "better." Our next step is to make the necessary revisions without making the evaluation tool too complex or cumbersome for the program participants.
Again, county faculty will have input at our next statewide inservice training.
Our goal is to revise response categories, to consider adding additional domains and indicators, and to increase the number of counties using the instrument.
We will continue to use the group process outlined here to achieve these goals.
In summary, from this experience we want to emphasize three main points.
First, the process used to generate the domains would be applicable to most program areas in Extension.
By incorporating county faculty input, the relevance of the evaluation instruments can be significantly improved.
By using the nominal group process, the instrument is validated by the very people who will be using it and, consequently, is more relevant to their program needs.
In addition, this helps ensure that it will be adopted--which has been a significant problem in the past.
Second, the instrument developed proved to be very easy to use, yet sensitive enough to show program areas that are in need of improvement.
Third, the process has greatly advanced the statewide evaluation efforts of parent education programs, and we will continue to refine and add tools as we proceed into the new 4-year plan of work.
When it comes to designing useable evaluation tools, two heads  are better than one.
Studio City, CA: Center for the Improvement of Child Caring.
Group techniques for program planning: A guide to nominal group and Delphi processes.
Middleton, WI: Green Briar Press.
Park City, UT: Author.
The Alabama Children's Trust Fund evaluation manual.
Auburn, AL: Alabama Cooperative Extension Service.
National Extension Parent Education Model.
Manhattan, KS: Kansas Cooperative Extension Service.
Concept of state major programs and design teams.
Gainesville, FL: Florida Cooperative Extension Service.
Discussion and Conclusions The state major program team members were very encouraged by the results and the feedback from the process.
County faculty who participated in the pilot test reported that the instrument was extremely easy to use.
It also provided them with useful information that they can incorporate into their annual state accomplishment report.
From a state-level perspective, it provided information that can be aggregated even when different curricula are used by county faculty.
Although one may question validity of aggregating such data, it is acceptable because the instrument focuses upon measurement of general parenting domains rather than specific information.
Indicators were generic enough that they were appropriate to use with various parenting curricula.
In addition, the outcomes were very useful for demonstrating accountability.
These results move beyond documenting numbers and program satisfaction, and measure improvement in parenting practices as a result of the educational programs.
Furthermore, the information obtained can assist us with shaping the topics for future parenting educational materials.
For example, if the audience is not indicating a high level of improvement in one of the domains, new teaching materials could be developed to further teach those skills to parents.
Having a valid and reliable instrument that measures statewide impacts and is acceptable to county faculty is a long-awaited goal of the state major program team.
However, there are some shortcomings with the instrument's response categories.
In particular, the "about the same" category is vague.
It is not clear if respondents did not adopt the behavior or if they were already doing the behavior before the class.
From a program development perspective, it would be useful to know this information in order to recommend programmatic changes such as increasing time devoted to the topic or incorporating different teaching strategies.
Also, we were unable to tell how much "better" respondents were doing when they responded "better." Our next step is to make the necessary revisions without making the evaluation tool too complex or cumbersome for the program participants.
Again, county faculty will have input at our next statewide inservice training.
Our goal is to revise response categories, to consider adding additional domains and indicators, and to increase the number of counties using the instrument.
We will continue to use the group process outlined here to achieve these goals.
In summary, from this experience we want to emphasize three main points.
First, the process used to generate the domains would be applicable to most program areas in Extension.
By incorporating county faculty input, the relevance of the evaluation instruments can be significantly improved.
By using the nominal group process, the instrument is validated by the very people who will be using it and, consequently, is more relevant to their program needs.
In addition, this helps ensure that it will be adopted--which has been a significant problem in the past.
Second, the instrument developed proved to be very easy to use, yet sensitive enough to show program areas that are in need of improvement.
Third, the process has greatly advanced the statewide evaluation efforts of parent education programs, and we will continue to refine and add tools as we proceed into the new 4-year plan of work.
When it comes to designing useable evaluation tools, two heads  are better than one.
Studio City, CA: Center for the Improvement of Child Caring.
Group techniques for program planning: A guide to nominal group and Delphi processes.
Middleton, WI: Green Briar Press.
Park City, UT: Author.
The Alabama Children's Trust Fund evaluation manual.
Auburn, AL: Alabama Cooperative Extension Service.
National Extension Parent Education Model.
Manhattan, KS: Kansas Cooperative Extension Service.
Concept of state major programs and design teams.
Gainesville, FL: Florida Cooperative Extension Service.
The state major program team members were very encouraged by the results and the feedback from the process.
County faculty who participated in the pilot test reported that the instrument was extremely easy to use.
It also provided them with useful information that they can incorporate into their annual state accomplishment report.
From a state-level perspective, it provided information that can be aggregated even when different curricula are used by county faculty.
Although one may question validity of aggregating such data, it is acceptable because the instrument focuses upon measurement of general parenting domains rather than specific information.
Indicators were generic enough that they were appropriate to use with various parenting curricula.
In addition, the outcomes were very useful for demonstrating accountability.
These results move beyond documenting numbers and program satisfaction, and measure improvement in parenting practices as a result of the educational programs.
Furthermore, the information obtained can assist us with shaping the topics for future parenting educational materials.
For example, if the audience is not indicating a high level of improvement in one of the domains, new teaching materials could be developed to further teach those skills to parents.
Having a valid and reliable instrument that measures statewide impacts and is acceptable to county faculty is a long-awaited goal of the state major program team.
However, there are some shortcomings with the instrument's response categories.
In particular, the "about the same" category is vague.
It is not clear if respondents did not adopt the behavior or if they were already doing the behavior before the class.
From a program development perspective, it would be useful to know this information in order to recommend programmatic changes such as increasing time devoted to the topic or incorporating different teaching strategies.
Also, we were unable to tell how much "better" respondents were doing when they responded "better."
 Our next step is to make the necessary revisions without making the evaluation tool too complex or cumbersome for the program participants.
Again, county faculty will have input at our next statewide inservice training.
Our goal is to revise response categories, to consider adding additional domains and indicators, and to increase the number of counties using the instrument.
We will continue to use the group process outlined here to achieve these goals.
In summary, from this experience we want to emphasize three main points.
First, the process used to generate the domains would be applicable to most program areas in Extension.
By incorporating county faculty input, the relevance of the evaluation instruments can be significantly improved.
By using the nominal group process, the instrument is validated by the very people who will be using it and, consequently, is more relevant to their program needs.
In addition, this helps ensure that it will be adopted--which has been a significant problem in the past.
Second, the instrument developed proved to be very easy to use, yet sensitive enough to show program areas that are in need of improvement.
Third, the process has greatly advanced the statewide evaluation efforts of parent education programs, and we will continue to refine and add tools as we proceed into the new 4-year plan of work.
When it comes to designing useable evaluation tools, two heads  are better than one.
Studio City, CA: Center for the Improvement of Child Caring.
Group techniques for program planning: A guide to nominal group and Delphi processes.
Middleton, WI: Green Briar Press.
Park City, UT: Author.
The Alabama Children's Trust Fund evaluation manual.
Auburn, AL: Alabama Cooperative Extension Service.
National Extension Parent Education Model.
Manhattan, KS: Kansas Cooperative Extension Service.
Concept of state major programs and design teams.
Gainesville, FL: Florida Cooperative Extension Service.
October 2018 // Volume 56 // Number 6 // Tools of the Trade // v56-6tt1
 Pastures are the foundation of most livestock operations and can be a sustainable agricultural system due to the natural ecological connection of grazing livestock, the soil, and pasture plants.
Along Colorado's Front Range and throughout the western United States, pastures are an important component of numerous operations, but my observations have indicated that grazing management is highly varied.
A small demonstration plot simulating grazing is a tool educators can apply to illustrate the advantages of addressing stubble height and grazing timing to improve pastures.
Therefore, my purpose herein is to describe a perhaps unfamiliar resource that Extension professionals can use to promote effective pasture management practices.
A busy Extension agent can easily implement a grazing demonstration plot as an educational tool.
The plot is simple and inexpensive to set up, takes only 12 hr every other week to maintain, and can provide hands-on learning opportunities for multiple years.
An Extension agent wishing to set up a grazing demonstration plot can use the following steps:
 In 2015, a small team of Extension professionals , U.S.
Department of Agriculture Natural Resources Conservation Service conservationists, and local conservation district representatives was formed.
We implemented two grazing demonstration plots in Colorado, one on irrigated pasture and one on dryland pasture.
Every year, team members hold pasture walks, workshops, and in-field grazing discussions at the plots to highlight the results of the various regimes and the effects of pasture stubble height and grazing intervals on overall pasture condition, root development, and water infiltration.
A demonstration plot simulates multiple grazing regimes in a small space.
It visually demonstrates to land managers how grazing heights and recovery time affect yields and grass stand health.
For many pasture managers to be willing to implement changes, transformation in pasture management must be directly related to economic feasibility.
A grazing demonstration plot illustrates that chronic overgrazing is detrimental to plants, soils, and wallets.
With the yield data our team collects, we can show a decrease in yield over time in the squares that are clipped at low heights.
Moreover, overgrazing causes increased costs for applied inputs, such as fertilizer, irrigation, and reseeding.
These economic impacts are motivating factors for change.
Over 250 landowners and students have visited our demonstration plots since 2015.
According to workshop evaluations and anecdotal evidence, using the demonstration plots as an educational tool has resulted in an overall increase in understanding of grazing impacts and soil health.
The grazing demonstration plots provide space for networking and have piqued an interest among local livestock and horse grazers regarding pasture management and soil health.
An important facet of using grazing demonstration plots is that they provide a visual reference for participants.
For example, in our dryland squares clipped at 1 in., weeds take over within 3 years.
Feedback from past workshops has indicated that the visual impact of the demonstration plots provides an "aha" moment for many participants in their understanding of grazing management as they visually observe the results of concepts we try to explain in fact sheets and classrooms.
We have found that the visual impact of the demonstration, especially on the dryland plot, is more influential than the yield data.
At workshops, we use the plots to demonstrate the relationship between soil and plants.
By comparing soil temperature across plots, we can discuss how vegetation coverage influences evaporation of soil moisture.
We also dig up roots to compare the sizes and depths of root masses under different management conditions.
We also have found that the plots provide an opportunity for peer-to-peer learning.
The in-field discussions afford the opportunity to network with collaborating producers and agriculture professionals.
Producers often need this type of encouragement to try something different.
Management knowledge and ability is pivotal in making any grazing system effective.
Extension professionals can use grazing demonstration plots to enhance audience understanding of grazing management concepts such as forage harvest timing, frequency, and intensity.
Such plots demonstrate the effects of various grazing regimes on aboveground plant biomass production.
As a result, Extension work with land managers can be more influential in teaching the relationship that exists across grazing livestock, soil, and plants.
Thank you to Joe Brummer , Glenn Shewmaker , and Steven Fransen  for providing technical support and encouragement regarding the implementation of our grazing demonstration plots.
October 2001 // Volume 39 // Number 5 // Research in Brief // 5RIB3
 Abstract The case study reported here surveyed users of the PowerPay Debt Reduction software to examine factors that influence the adoption of technology developed by Extension to expedite the transfer of ideas or applications.
Respondents were classified into sectors labeled Extension, Military, or Business users.
Each of these client segments rated "ease of use" and "product quality" as the major influences on their decision to acquire the software.
The "cost of software" was a greater influence for the Business sector, while "administrative attitudes" were more of a factor in Extension and the Military.
Numerous computer programs have been developed by Extension professionals to leverage their ability to expedite the transfer of new ideas or applications.
An example of this approach is the WEEDS 2.0 expert system.
This type of tool may be designed for use by both other professionals and their clientele.
This article reports the results of an evaluation survey of an Extension software product in an effort to determine some of the factors that may influence the adoption of such technology by their intended audiences.
In 1993, Utah State University released the PowerPay Debt Reduction Software.
This product was designed for financial counselors, advisors, and educators.
The software enabled these facilitators to personalize the debt reduction options of their clients and offered previously unavailable details in a very rapid fashion.
The software was adopted by several state Extension systems and by dozens of private/public financial counselors and was incorporated into several family support programs within the United States military.
In 1999, the software was improved and upgraded to version 4.0 for Windows.
In June of that year, an announcement of the upgrade was sent to every owner of record of the previous DOS version of the software.
Each owner also received an evaluation survey asking about his or her use of the software.
Those owners who had purchased site licenses that allowed multiple users were asked to forward the survey to others within their organization who had used the software.
Users of the software were asked to evaluate eight factors that may have influenced their adoption of the PowerPay software.
Four of the factors dealt with the general quality of the software.
Users were asked to consider the influence of the following factors in their decision to acquire the PowerPay software:
 Each factor was rated as being a  strong or  slight barrier to adoption;  not a factor in adoption of the product; or having  encouraged adoption or  strongly encouraged adoption.
The four other factors listed in the survey addressed organizational attitudes toward adoption of technology.
The developers of the software speculated that large organizations like Extension were influenced by other issues beyond general product quality.
The survey recipients were asked to evaluate these factors in the same manner as the others.
For the purpose of data analysis, PowerPay users were categorized as "Extension," "Business," or "Military" users.
Business users included both publicly funded organizations  and for-profit financial advisors.
Table 2 summarizes the survey distribution and response patterns of the three categories.
A single survey sent to a site license holder often resulted in multiple responses as individual users returned forwarded surveys.
All site license holders returned at least one survey.
A total of 244 surveys were returned.
Table 3 summarizes the responses.
For each client segment , the factors influencing adoption are listed in descending order according to the percentage of respondents listing that factor as having played a role, whether positive or negative, in the adoption of the PowerPay software.
For each client segment, ease of use and product quality were the most significant factors influencing adoption of the PowerPay software.
The cost of the software was named as a factor by a higher percentage of respondents in the Business sector  than of either Extension  or Military  respondents.
The influence of Administrative or Supervisory attitudes was named as a factor by a much higher percentage of Extension  and Military  respondents than by those in the Business segment.
The capability of personalizing printouts with the local institution's name was not considered as important as the software developers had anticipated.
Only in the Business sector did more than half of the respondents list this factor.
The fact that the software was not an in-house product was the least influential of all of the listed factors.
The results of this evaluation survey suggest that well-crafted, relevant, and reasonably priced software products will be readily adopted by Extension clientele.
Respondents from all three sectors listed these three categories as having the greatest influence upon their adoption of the PowerPay software.
Conversely, the attitude of Administrators and Supervisors was much less an influence in the Business sector compared to Extension and the Military.
For Extension, this likely reflects the ability of specialists to direct technology adoption via budget or program development discretion.
The ability to personalize the PowerPay printouts to reflect the name of the facilitating organization was not nearly as important as the developers anticipated.
Along the same lines, the fact that the software was not internally developed was deemed the least influential factor by all three categories of respondents.
Virtually all respondents were interested in purchasing the new version of the software.
Their responses, therefore, would certainly be skewed towards a favorable view of the product.
Nevertheless, their identification of factors that influenced their adoption of the technology offers useful insights for Extension professionals providing similar technology-based products to further the knowledge transfer mission.
The implication for Extension educators developing software for clientele use is straightforward: Concentrate on producing a quality product, and don't worry too much about organizational politics being a barrier to adoption of technology.
WEEDS 2.0 expert system.
University of Idaho, Moscow, ID.
June 2013 // Volume 51 // Number 3 // Feature // v51-3a5
 Extension is recognized for its capacity to design and implement outreach programs that meet the needs of diverse audiences.
Family forest owners are of particular concern for natural resources Extension professionals because of their significant roles in ensuring forest health and productivity and "keeping forests as forests".
Family forest owners control 264 million acres  of woodland in the United States.
High rates of land transfer, changing owner characteristics, and their various reasons for ownership makes the design  of outreach and Extension programs for this audience particularly challenging.
Nationally, Extension employs a variety of educational approaches for family forest owners.
Activities range from traditional Extension approaches such as workshops, classes, and conferences to newer electronic formats involving webinars or online interactive learning.
Some programs are targeted at specific needs.
For example, Ohio State University Extension's "welcome wagon approach"  provides new woodland owners in Appalachian Ohio with the contacts and information for making informed decisions about their forest resources.
Ties to the Landdeveloped by Oregon State University Extension and partnersfocuses on succession planning for forest landowners who want to ensure family ownership continuity across generations.
In this article, we describe the development, implementation, and ongoing evaluation of Wisconsin's statewide Learn About Your Land  program.
LAYL targets family forest owners who are "unengaged" with the forestry community and related support programs.
Specifically, they are private owners with more than 10 acres of woodland who have not enrolled in state tax-incentive programs, are not involved with woodland owner associations, generally do not have management or stewardship plans, and have no or limited prior participation in educational events for woodland owners.
University of Wisconsin  Extension educators defined the audience and developed and implemented the program in partnership with the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources  and instructional partners.
Evaluation has been integral to program development and ongoing implementation.
From the outset, Extension educators and partners were interested in documenting that the program: a) reached the intended audience, b) increased knowledge of management options, and c) induced desired forestry actions by program participants.
Our purposes for this article are twofold.
First, we want to share Wisconsin's model of a successful program targeting "unengaged" family forest owners; second, to illustrate the integral role of evaluation and the insights gained for program improvement and documenting impacts.
We present the article chronologically, beginning with the development and evaluation of an initial pilot program.
The pilot phase led to broader statewide implementation and ongoing evaluation.
We conclude with a summary of findings and insights on evaluating extension programs for landowner audiences.
The LAYL program model emerged through a partnership between WDNR, UW Extension, and three local nature centers.
The idea was to attract unengaged woodland owners by offering a mixture of 2-hour classes featuring topics of interest and moving them towards implementing forest management practices.
As developed, pilot classes had the following nine characteristics
 Topics offered during pilot stage LAYL classes were selected to appeal to owners with limited woodland management experience.
Pilot stage topics included:
 Program organizers contacted target participants in a three-county area through direct mailings of a specialized program brochure.
Using county property tax records, mailings were sent to owners with five acres or more of woodlands.
Three direct mailings to 4,175 woodland owners advertised the classes in the three counties; the third mailing also included articles with helpful hints for managing woodland.
A series of 15 classes were held at each of three local nature centers.
Nature center staff helped deliver classes and administer evaluation surveys.
Pilot classes ran from September 2006 through December 2007.
Session attendance totaled 852, representing 328 households owning 10,000 woodland acres.
The pilot was evaluated through four components: 1) a two-part in-class survey, 2) a 6-month-post-class mailed survey of participants, 3) a 6-month-post-class survey of a sample of non-attendees, and 4) interviews with participating instructional partners.
The methods used in the pilot stage formed the basis for ongoing evaluation of the expanded program.
The pilot in-class survey was a one-sheet questionnaire  administered before and after each session.
One section collected data from all participants, and another was to be completed by only one member of each household.
The 455 completed responses represent 328 unique households.
A post-class mailed survey was sent to those participant households 6 months after the class series ended.
Adjustments for incorrect addresses left a useable sample of 298 households for the post-class survey; 229 completed surveys were returned for a response rate of 76%.
The non-attendee survey involved a stratified random sample of 437 households drawn from the original mailing list of those invited to attended classes but who did not participate.
Incorrect addresses and refusals reduced the useable sample was 395.
Two hundred and sixty-one  completed surveys yielded a response rate of 66%.
Finally, UW Extension evaluators conducted interviews with nature center staff and five agency foresters who presented information in the classes.
Results of the in-class evaluations showed that programs were successful in attracting the targeted audience.
For example, only 7% of participants belonged to a woodland owner membership organization, and 64% had not attended a woodland event or activity in the 2 years prior to participating in a LAYL class.
Class surveys also showed that attendees were highly satisfied with the classes, considered the information they received as being very useful, and gave presenters high ratings.
A larger majority  of the class attendees felt that their knowledge about the featured topics had increased and that they intended to use what they had learned.
Fifty-one percent  gave one or more specific examples of what they learned at the session and how it would apply on their property.
Results of the post-class survey  reinforced that classes achieved their intended educational effects.
An overwhelming majority  of those who attended at least one class and who completed a survey felt they had gained valuable knowledge from attending.
Seventy-five percent  reported that knowledge of their woodlands had increased somewhat to a lot.
The same percent reported that their interests in managing their woodlands had increased somewhat to a lot.
Thirty-five percent  contacted a forester after attending a class, and 48% said that they took some sort of action as a result of what they learned at a class.
Trimming, planting, and thinning their woodland were frequently mentioned actions.
The non-attendee survey  allowed for comparing attendees and non-attendees.
Results showed that the attendees and non-attendees were similar across most demographic measures , with the exception of a statistically significant difference in the number of years of woodland ownership.
The two groups differed significantly on several other dimensions related to managing woodlands.
Attendees participated in more activities that improved their woodland, had more involved management styles, and thought about their woodlands more frequently than non-attendees.
Class attendees placed greater importance on natural features of the woodland and personal connection to nature as reasons for ownership than non-attendees, who valued more utilitarian reasons for owning woodlands, such as hunting.
As the final component of the pilot evaluation, interviews showed that nature center staff were very positive about hosting the classes.
They mentioned numerous benefits, including new program offerings for adult populations.
In contrast, agency foresters expressed mixed feelings about the classes.
As a group, the agency foresters were somewhat guarded about expectations for long-term impacts of classes on participants' woodland management decisions.
As the pilots were progressing, it became clear from in-class responses that the LAYL approach offered an effective new model for reaching unengaged landowners.
Beginning in late 2007, prior to completing the pilot classes, the decision was made to offer similar programs to other areas across the state.
As with the pilot program, organizers used county property tax records to identify participants.
Those with property enrolled in Wisconsin's Managed Forest Law  program were excluded.
The acreage threshold was increased to 10 to shorten mailing lists and to reflect pilot audience data showing a large majority of attendees had 10 acres or more of woodland.
Because topics were to be "county specific" and chosen with consultation from local foresters, topics varied by location but remained consistent with those offered in the pilot.
By the end of September 2008, three series totaling 64 classes were held in 11 counties spread across the state.
Different class locations were added each year between 2008-2011.
Building upon the pilot stage, brochures mailed to participants with class information were professionally designed.
Additional, brief, educational content related to woodland management was included with the brochure as an insert.
As the program developed, new educational approaches were also included.
Between January and February 2009 a series of six 1-hour, online sessions were offered; each online class was repeated twice on the day offered.
These webinars attracted 88 additional family forest owner households.
The following year, 2010, webinars were advertised in all brochures.
Also, to accommodate those owning woodlands in other areas but living near program sites, a software package that sorted by zip codes was used to identify potential woodland owners within 35 miles of each location.
That distance was reduced for classes offered in Milwaukee.
As with the pilot, ongoing evaluation supported program improvements and documented outcomes.
Evaluation consisted of three of the four components used in the pilots, eliminating the interviews.
Consistent with the pilot, questionnaires were designed to be brief and easy to answer.
Questions were field tested with actual woodland owners.
Surveys were administered following established procedures for generating high response rates, including multiple contacts with respondents.
* Included questions to assess if woodland owner was part of the intended target audience 
 + Pilot evaluation also included interviews with instructional partners
 The in-class surveys produced data on reaction to classes, perceptions of knowledge gained, and intentions to use information gained from class.
These included specific written examples of ideas and practices they intended to use.
Surveys also generated data on age, management, attachment to woodlands, use of foresters and other professionals, acres owned, membership in a woodland owner organization, and activities completed since owning their woodland.
As with the pilot, the second component consisted of periodic post-class surveys of attendees conducted 6 to 8 months after classes.
Five post-class surveys were conducted, including the pilot.
Post-class surveys were mailed to all attending households.
The third evaluation component involved surveying non-attendees.
As had been done for the pilots, non-attendees were surveyed once again in 2010.
The 2010 survey involved a final sample of 764 randomly selected non-attendees from all those who were mailed a brochure.
There were 488 returned surveys yielding a response rate of 64%.
Results were summarized in multiple formats, primarily for program planners, funders, and instructional partners.
Select highlights are presented in Table 3.
As with the pilot classes and regardless of location, attendees fit the targeted characteristic of being "unengaged." Prior to attending LAYL classes, few had attended woodland-related events in the previous two years , small numbers had a written woodland plan , and hardly any belonged to a woodland owner organization.
A majority across all years had not had any discussions regarding their woodland with a WDNR or private forester.
An overwhelming majority of attendees was highly satisfied with the classes, considered the information they received as being very useful, and gave presenters high ratings.
A larger majority  of the class attendees felt that their knowledge about the featured topics at classes they attended had increased and that they intended to use what they had learned.
Analysis of written comments showed a variety of intended actions.
High percentages  would definitely recommend the classes to other woodland owners they knew.
Across multiple years, the post-class assessments generally concluded: 1) classes increased interests in and awareness of woodland management, 2) classes prompted respondents to use foresters after classes and in the future, 3) respondents did a variety of woodland improvement activities as a result of classes, 4) high numbers of respondents owned woodland for non-utilitarian reasons, and 5) in the future respondents will retain ownership, harvest timber and do more improvement activities while being more likely to use foresters.
For example, from 2009 post-class surveys, 71% reported that they were thinking more about the future of their woodland compared to before attending classes.
A majority  of those who attended one or more classes felt that they had gained useful information for making decisions about their woodland.
Nearly a third  of the survey respondents had already contacted a forester after the classes.
Another 74% intended to contact a professional forester in the future to discuss specific woodland activities they intended to do within the next five years.
Many  had already carried out various woodland-related activities since taking the classes, including tree planting and removing invasive species.
A comparison of attendees and non-attendees revealed several statistically significant differences.
As with the pilots, their demographics were similar, but non-attendees intended to do fewer activities on their woodland during the next 5 years compared to attendees.
Also, more non-attendees lived on their woodland, and fewer non-attendees identified recreation other than hunting as important reason for owning their woodland.
The LAYL program has been successful in reaching new audiences, increasing awareness, inducing new actions, and expanding connections with the forestry community.
As noted previously, a large majority of participants had neither prior involvement with forestry outreach education nor communication with the forestry community.
The experience of programming and evaluating this initiative offers insights for Extension programming.
In-class questionnaires helped us document that our format was attracting the intended audience.
Attendee data, along with data from those not attending, also helped us learned more about segments within our target audience with differing interests and motivations for attending programs and taking management actions.
The additional information about audience segments helped focus limited resources and influenced refinements in classes, for example, adding classes in urban areas for people who live in the major metropolitan areas but owned woodland elsewhere in the state.
In our case, audience analysis has helped Extension educators better identify and know their audience, and it additionally has helped our major partner, the WDNR Division of Forestry, to better understand one of its important target audiences.
Integrating evaluation throughout planning and implementation helped us to understand and document how the program was making a difference for targeted participantsit produced valuable impact data.
Beyond data about numbers of classes offered, numbers of participants, and information about their characteristics, the information about what participants actually took away from the class and what they did has been highly valuable.
This information has been essential for maintaining support for funding, continued implementation, and continuing partnerships.
The continuous component of evaluation also has allowed for a longitudinal perspective of a program from its infancy to full maturity.
Previous research has found reflecting on evaluation data to be important for improving voluntary environmental programs, yet generally lacking in practice.
A long-term perspective is useful for reviewing how the program has worked and also provides cues for initiating other programs.
For example, reflection and responses from LAYL reinforced the value of face-to-face sessions and also suggested value in developing complementary educational materials in DVD and on-line formats.
Our experience with LAYL has reinforced the importance of designing flexibility into program delivery and allowing for revising programs based on feedback.
Simple flexibilities could include offering classes at different times when people are available, taking advantage of multiple formats for reaching audiences, and focusing on content that will interest the target demographic and woodland user level.
Evaluative information may identify important changes to content and delivery approaches of educational programs.
Our pilot effort proved the concept and highlighted many areas to improve the programs.
For the program described here, testing new course concepts or marketing approaches in some areas allowed for improvements before broader use statewide.
Beyond changes to programming, it may also be important to adjust evaluation approaches to ensure data produced are relevant and useful.
In this case, we refined measures and questionnaire formats along with content and program delivery.
The result is an effort that exceeded expectations and has become a valued program for Wisconsin.
America's family forest owners.
Journal of Forestry 102:4-14.
Understanding and reaching family forest owners: lessons from social marketing research.
Journal of Forestry 105:348-357.
Improving voluntary environmental management programs: facilitating learning and adaptation.
Extension/outreach implications for America's family forest owners.
Journal of Forestry 102:15-18.
October 2020 // Volume 58 // Number 5 // Feature // v58-5a3
 The world is a much different place than when Cooperative Extension began to deliver research-based information to local farmers.
Extension began as a top-down process  wherein scientists developed answers to pertinent questions and Extension staff delivered them to end users.
Shroyer and Sullins  described traditional Extension as on-farm demonstrations.
However, an increased desire for two-way communication between Extension and end users was evident through the expansion of on-farm research.
Shroyer and Sullins  described this type of study as action research in which farmers' suggestions, observations, and conclusions are incorporated into the management solutions tested by scientists.
described the addition of on-farm research to traditional research as a continuum rather than a substitute.
Overall, farmers have evolved into very astute innovators capable of conducting applied research.
Extension programming has developed into a farmer-centered participatory assistance process for determining technical knowledge needed for adoption of an innovation.
Lanyon  described participatory assistance as a series of repetitive experiences by a farmer during research, development, and implementation.
As Vanclay and Lawrence  explained, the lack of adoption of research findings by farmers, what Extension personnel might call best management practices, is part of the disconnect in the traditional Extension programming model.
This circumstance is evident in the 2018 Census of Ag Irrigation Survey, which showed that only 31% of Nebraska irrigators used soil moisture monitoring to schedule irrigations whereas 48% used the older and less accurate method of determining hand feel of soil water.
It was these challenges that led to creation of the University of NebraskaLincoln  Testing Agricultural Performance Solutions  education and extension program.
Faculty at the West Central Research, Extension, and Education Center , including members of our author team, in cooperation with members of the Nebraska Water Balance Alliance conceptualized, planned, and implemented the program.
We established the TAPS program in 2017 at the WCREEC, which is in North Platte, Nebraska.
Although the TAPS program is ongoing and expanding, we have chosen to focus herein on the first 2 years of the project.
The two primary agricultural production challenges in the area were and continue to be limited water resources and increasing levels of nitrate in the groundwater.
In addition, crop prices at the time were at economically challenging levels for agricultural producers.
To address the aforementioned issues, our TAPS team focused on profitability and input use efficiency when developing the TAPS program.
Primary goals of the program were to
 With the many challenges related to agricultural production, a deeper level of engagement among stakeholders was needed.
Thus, we designed the program to incorporate and engage agricultural researchers, technology providers, and industry personnel along with farmers.
UNL's TAPS team and research technicians formed the foundation of the program, and the TAPS program was hosted at UNL facilities.
The land-grant structure allowed for the oversight and neutrality needed to maintain a safe environment for producers, researchers, and industry suppliers to innovate, develop, test, learn about, and adopt new technologies; try new management practices and techniques; and make needed adjustments to achieve efficient, environmentally responsible, and profitable production of a crop.
Furthermore, inclusion of local businesspersons, technology providers, farmers, and researchers in the program allowed a learning community to develop.
The TAPS program engages this learning community via farm management competitions held at research sites such as the WCREEC.
Unlike with a simple yield contest where competitors' costs and revenues are ignored, the objectives of the TAPS farm management competitions relate directly to real farm management and the relationships of resource allocation to profitability and sustainability.
The competitions occur in real time and include information regarding field conditions, market conditions, and regulatory constraints.
Also unique to TAPS is the communication among participants, technology providers, and the university.
As part of their participation, competitors use a web-based portal to access new and emerging technologies such as aerial imagery and sensor data for their specific plots at the research site.
Several opportunities for stakeholders to meet and discuss outcomes and challenges and to share their experiences are a large part of the program.
Communication, learning, and innovation are enhanced through continuous communication and direct yearlong interaction among those involved in the program as well as through sharing of the competition results and findings via publications, presentations, and news media outlets.
The TAPS design used during the program's first 2 years had many benefits:
 In the first 2 years, each competition occurred on a single field  to reduce variation in soil and weather conditions across the competitor sites, a factor that is often observed in on-farm research comparisons.
In addition, this approach allowed for an experimental environment where statistical inferences were possible.
The university's specialists and educators were treated as any other competitor; however, to prevent any claims of favoritism or biased accounting, they were not eligible to win awards.
Although the actual land area for the competition was limited to three plots  per team, each team's plots were amplified on paper to represent a 3,000-ac or 1,000-ac harvested farm depending on the competition.
All field operation and equipment costs were held the same for each team within a competition.
The farm sizes we used were adequate for showing the impact of minor differences in management and sufficient quantities of grain to market.
Participants in the first and second years had control over six elements of farming operations/decisions:
 All other production and management decisions  were the same for all plots.
WCREEC staff and employees conducted physical management of the plots, including machinery and irrigation system operation, application of chemicals, and harvesting.
Participants were provided soil water data from a capacitance probe installed in one of their three replicated plots.
In addition, aerial and satellite imagery, weather station data, plant growth parameters, and other data sources/information were provided to all participants to help in the management of their plots.
The participants competed for three awards:
 The most significant award was established for the most profitable farm to emphasize that profit is one of the primary drivers in the business of farming and that without it, sustainability is unlikely.
The TAPS team determined profitability by calculating the difference of revenue  minus costs.
Revenue was determined according to each team's grain sales, quantity of production, and insurance indemnity payments.
The Nebraska Crop Budgets for irrigated corn production were used to estimate a typical machinery complement, a set of crop inputs, and land expenses  in the calculation of profitability.
However, costs for harvest, irrigation, grain drying, hauling, and fertilizer were adjusted to yields and use in the competition.
For the highest input use efficiency award, we used the Water  Nitrogen Intensification Performance Index.
The award for greatest grain yield was initially called into question in that yield should not be a primary goal of crop production.
However, further discussion revealed that greatest grain yield was too important to ignore and that the opportunity to discover and learn about the yield-to-profit and yield-to-efficiency relationships was too great to neglect.
During the first 2 years, the TAPS farm management competitions began with a kickoff meeting in March of the respective year.
Participants were provided a project description and introduced to the TAPS webpage.
Participants were required to submit their crop insurance decision by the end of March and their hybrid selection, seeding rate, and preplant nitrogen decisions by mid-April.
Subsequent nitrogen, irrigation, and marketing decisions were made throughout the growing season.
Marketing was closed mid-November, and the awards banquet occurred in mid-December.
Two major education and engagement events occurred during the growing season.
The first was a field tour held in June, where participants could view their plots and reflect on their management decisions to date.
The second was the annual August Water and Crops Field Day, which included a TAPS update, a participant panel discussion, and an industry fair of the latest technology and services in crop production.
Selected results from the 2018 corn farm management competition held at the WCREEC are shown in Table 1.
The wide range in profitability showed that there were improvements to be made by reducing input costs and improving marketing strategies.
Furthermore, the results showed that several contestants had similar yields with varying levels of irrigation and nitrogen fertilizer amounts, highlighting the importance of efficiency and cost of production concepts.
Farm 12 served as a control plot with no irrigation or nitrogen applied.
Several key takeaways have resulted from the competitions.
The winners of the award for highest input use efficiency in the first 2 years  had the highest and second highest yields, respectively.
Price received and marketing proved to be one of the key drivers of profitability.
Most teams that achieved a significant profit did some forward contracting or sold on the futures market during the growing season.
Several journalists attended the TAPS educational events and provided positive feedback and media coverage.
One media outlet represented was a regional publication, Nebraska Farmer, which printed several stories after staff interviewed participants and contest award winners.
In addition to these media releases, social media posts and stories, including in UNL's CropWatch newsletter and Cornhusker Economics website, were completed, all of which contributed to sharing the successes of the TAPS program.
Preliminary impacts were documented through two tools: a follow-up survey with the participants after competing and an awards banquet participant survey.
After the competition, participants were given a written survey to complete.
The survey focused on the TAPS program in general and on possible changes in thinking or behavior.
The survey results indicated that 39% of the participants were recruited by UNL, 33% by a friend, and the remaining 28% in some other way.
Thirty-four percent of the participants joined TAPS to learn from other competitors, 31% to test new technology, 14% to help someone who asked them to participate, and the remaining 21% for other reasons.
Seventy-seven percent of participants found that TAPS met or exceeded their expectations.
Seventy-four percent of the competitors indicated that if asked by a neighbor about TAPS they would rate it as being a great program, and 26% indicated that they would rate it as good.
The remaining portion of the survey documented changes in thinking or behaviors.
Findings regarding respondents' greater likelihood of taking certain actions are as follows:
 Respondents also provided additional comments.
Examples are as follows:
 Among banquet participant survey respondents, 89% indicated high agreement with the statement that they had been rewarded for their invested efforts and participation in the program.
Additionally, 89% indicated high agreement with the statement that having ag technology and service providers involved in the competition added positively to the experience.
Overall, findings suggested that the TAPS program increased stakeholder engagement and interest, making it another tool in the university's arsenal for fulfilling its land-grant objectives.
The TAPS competition began with 15 teams comprising 18 contestants in a single competition in 2017.
The program expanded, not only with other competitions, but also in number of participants.
In 2019, the TAPS program hosted five competitions in two states, using three crops and two irrigation application methods.
Fifty-eight teams comprising 160 individuals competed in those events.
Participatory assistance: An alternative to transfer of technology for promoting change on farms.
American Journal of Alternative Agriculture, 9, 136142.
Approaches to evaluating grower irrigation and fertilizer nitrogen amount and timing.
Agricultural Water Management, 213, 693706.
Learning as transformation: Critical perspectives on a theory in progress.
Agricultural research in developed countries: Past, present, and future of farming systems research and extension.
Journal of Production Agriculture, 7, 124131.
Farmer rationality and the adoption of environmentally sound practices: A critique of the assumptions of traditional agricultural extension.
European Journal of Agricultural Education and Extension, 1, 5990.
June 2013 // Volume 51 // Number 3 // Ideas at Work // v51-3iw1
 Extension educators must develop the skills and abilities to work effectively with an increasingly diverse population.
Building the cultural competencies of Extension educators has become an important goal and a timely focus for professional development.
Reduced budgets and reductions in staff are challenging the ability to provide professional development in the traditional face-to-face delivery method.
Online conferencing systems that allow voice-over-IP provide new ways to meet professional development needs for audiences over large geographic areas at less cost.
A study by Senyurekli, Dworkin, and Dickinson  found that 95% of Extension educators were "very interested" or "interested" in professional development opportunities available on-line versus attending a traditional class or workshop.
Diversity training can help Extension educators become more aware of unintentional biased behaviors and beliefs that may affect their interactions with others, thus helping them to work more effectively with people with different backgrounds and experiences.
Li, Dianmond, Chang, Primm, and Lu  found that seeing a documentary film that deals with issues of diversity was more effective than lectures or small group discussions.
They suggest that films make a difficult topic safer by objectifying it and that "Films also allow viewers to experience emotions vicariously, thus allowing them to acknowledge and process such emotions in a less personally threatening environment" (p.
Lee, Kane, and Drane  also found the use of film to be a valuable media form that can positively contribute to diversity education.
The video/discussion series, Diversity in Two-Part Harmony, was conducted over videoconferencing during the noon hour.
Part I consisted of watching a diversity-focused non-feature documentary film in the comfort of participants' own local setting.
Part II consisted of an open discussion of the diversity topic that was presented/experienced in film.
Films ranged from 25 to 45 minutes.
Sessions ranged from 1 to 1 1/2 hours.
To allow for effective conversations, participation was limited to nine county sites for each film.
Bridge reservations were based on a first-come, first-served basis, with a minimum number of participants required for each county site.
The first nine counties that registered the minimum number of participants and an identified operator for the PolyCom system were given one of the available bridge slots.
Participants were encouraged to engage in open discussions with no right or wrong responses.
Diversity in Two-Part Harmony was advertised as an opportunity to:
 Additionally, the sessions provided an opportunity for Extension educators to fulfill a part of their diversity professional development requirements for the year.
A brief description of each movie was shared, along with the date and time for each session.
Each movie was rated according to its potential for controversy: A=low, B=low to moderate, C= high, and D=Red Hot.
The following ground rules were set for discussion.
A brief evaluation form was emailed to each participant following the session.
A total of 112 participants were registered for the four sessions.
Eighty-eight completed and returned a 5-question evaluation using a Likert-type scale and an opportunity to add additional comments.
The Ugly Truth [VHS].
American Broadcasting Companies, Inc.
A 20/20 documentary that exposes the subtle but widespread discrimination based on "average looks" versus "good looks." Rating: Low potential controversy
 Hidden in America: Children of the Mountains [DVD].
American Broadcasting Companies, Inc.
A Diane Sawyer documentary on the life experiences of people in the isolated pockets of Central Appalachia.
Rating: Low to moderate potential for controversy
 Why Can't We Live Together?
A Tom Brokaw documentary on the race relations in an ordinary town of Matteson, Illinois.
Rating: High potential controversy
 Daddy & Papa [DVD].
An exploration into the lives of four different gay men who decided to become fathers.
Very High potential for controversy
 Eighty-seven percent  of participants "strongly agreed" or "agreed" that viewing the video increased their awareness of the diversity topic, and 88.6% "strongly agreed" or "agreed" that the discussion following the video helped them to consider other perspectives on the topic.
Seventy-six percent  "strongly agreed" or "agreed" that as a result of the session they would approach the topic differently.
And 98.9% "strongly agreed" or "agreed" that a video followed by an open discussion is a good strategy for diversity education.
Note: SA = Strongly Agree; A = Agree; N = Neither Agree nor Disagree; D = Disagree; SD = Strongly Disagree
 The following are sample comments from participants.
While the majority of participants indicated that the video and open discussion was a good strategy for diversity education, a few participants would have preferred a more structured and prescriptive approach to the topics.
While the goal of the program was designed to be an open discussion that allowed for the expression of various perspectives, consideration should be given to including a more structured framework for the discussions.
Open discussion of diversity-focused documentary films using videoconferencing can create a valuable professional development experience with limited cost in time and finances for participants.
This program is also recommended for use in other educational settings.
Using non-Feature films to teach diversity, cultural competence, and the DSM-IV-TR outline for cultural formulation.
Academic Psychiatry, 32, 291-298.
August 2009 // Volume 47 // Number 4 // Tools of the Trade // v47-4tt5
 The drought of 2007-2008 underscored the need to create a culture of water conservation in Georgia.
Though the state receives average annual precipitation of 51 inches , recent population growth has stressed the state's water resources.
Georgia's population continues to grow; three counties are on the list of fastest growing counties in the United States.
In 2003, the Georgia Department of Natural Resources  sponsored a study of attitudes and perceptions of Georgia citizens to water conservation.
The study found that Georgia citizens expect state agencies to take a lead in water conservation and they felt discouraged when they perceived water waste in public facilities.
In 2006, the Georgia DNR initiated a program to educate and encourage citizens to conserve water.
One component of the program focused on having public universities demonstrate leadership in water conservation.
Public universities were targeted because of their pivotal role in education and high visibility.
The University System of Georgia Board of Regents , eager to provide an example for the state, called on the resources and expertise of UGA Cooperative Extension.
Together, the BOR, DNR, and an Extension specialist designed a 2-day workshop tailored to the needs of university campus facilities and grounds managers.
Campus facilities and grounds managers deal with a full range of water use, from outdoor irrigation of ornamental displays and sports fields, to housing facilities, to complex laboratory systems.
They are comfortable working with new technologies and understand the constraints of limited budgets.
Rather than explaining the complexities of advance technology, this group needed help in evaluating water use from different parts of their campus and setting priorities.
They needed a tool to help them determine where their efforts would have the greatest impact.
Managers needed strategies for developing comprehensive water conservation plans to effectively reduce campus-wide water use while maintaining functionality.
Each of the program planning team members brought critical knowledge to the workshop.
The DNR provided the expertise on indoor water use, having experience with industrial, institutional, and commercial water conservation projects.
The Extension specialist provided the expertise in outdoor water uses.
The BOR provided contact information for facilities managers at University System of Georgia campuses and were able to identify campuses with conservation success.
The first day of the workshop focused on indoor water use, and the second day focused on outdoor water use.
Topics covered on the first day were these:
 For Day 2 and outdoor watering, the following presentations were given:
 Two components of the workshop were identified by participants as particularly helpful: the use of water auditing in preparing a water conservation plan and case studies presented by other managers.
The use of indoor and outdoor water auditing as a tool for developing water conservation plans was highlighted on both days of the workshop.
The training focused on the water audit as a means for identifying and quantifying water use, water waste, and water losses.
This information would then be the basis for determining how to achieve the greatest water savings for the lowest cost.
The water audit provides the information baseline for creating an effective plan.
Case studies highlighted successful and unsuccessful efforts at three universities.
These case studies illustrated how expected/perceived water conservation problems did not necessarily yield expected savings.
In each case, a water audit separated real from perceived water conservation issues.
The case studies indicated that heating and cooling of buildings used the most water.
The audits also encouraged cooperation and communication with water authorities as attempts were made to locate meters and wrestle with estimated bills.
The case studies emphasized the importance of communicating and educating the campus community, so that they could participate in water conservation by voluntarily lowering their consumption.
At a round table session open to all participants, successes and failures were freely discussed because facilities managers do not perceive themselves as competitors.
A total of 66 managers representing 30 institutions of higher education participated in the workshop, and 46  filled out a post-workshop evaluation.
Eighty-five percent of the participants found the workshop informative.
The participants indicated on the evaluations that the workshop increased the their understanding of which operations might use the most water and which improvements could be made in their facilities.
Participants also reported they found the water audit procedure information, case studies, and discussions most valuable.
Figure 1.Response To Post Workshop Evaluation Questions
December 2002 // Volume 40 // Number 6 // Ideas at Work // 6IAW2
 Abstract The author describes the rationale and the process for developing an educational seminar based on the current research on stepfamilies for professionals who work with children and families.
Receptiveness to this program model for "second-tier" family life education is demonstrated.
Extension educators can broaden efforts to positively affect family's experiences and children's development by delivering programs on relevant and recent family life research to community professionals.
This represents a "second tier" of family life education and fits within an ecological perspective on human development.
This theoretical framework recognizes multi-level environmental influences on human development.
Specifically, community professionals represent factors outside the family that can affect family functioning.
"Understanding Stepfamilies: Information and Strategies" is a 4-hour research update seminar for professionals who work with children and families.
Responses to the program indicate receptiveness to similar Extension programs targeting professionals.
Rationale for developing a professional seminar on stepfamilies centers on the following.
The Predominance of Stepfamilies
 Many individuals, even those who work with children and families, hold on to the traditional family form as the predominant family structure in the U.S.
and do not recognize the trend of increasing family type diversity, particularly the predominance of stepfamilies.
Approximately half of marriages each year are remarriages for one or both partners; approximately 65% of these involve children.
Overall, estimates are that half of Americans today are or will be in a step relationship in their lifetime.
Negative Attitudes Towards Stepfamilies Continue to Exist
 Biases in favor of first families persist.
Specifically, teachers, counselors, and peers hold negative stereotypes of stepfamilies.
Ganong and Coleman  posit that societal views  indirectly impact relationships in families by influencing the social support stepfamilies receive.
Low social support is associated with poor family functioning.
Children, especially, feel distress when they feel they "don't fit in".
Community Practices Fail to Acknowledge Stepfamily Structure
 Stepfamilies are an "undeveloped institution" without established norms that prescribe roles and rules or institutional support for its structure.
This is evident in programs, services, and organizations that work with families.
For example, most forms regarding the child do not provide a structure that allows inclusion of stepparent information or more than one household address.
Stepparents have unclear legal relationships and financial obligations to stepchildren.
In general, most institutions and organizations continue to assume a nuclear family model in attitude and practice.
The Relative Newness of the Research
 Research on stepfamilies is a comparatively new area of investigation in the social sciences, with the majority of current knowledge about stepfamilies coming from the last decade and a half of research.
It is therefore not surprising that professionals working with families  may not have a solid working knowledge of the research on stepfamily experiences, due to the likelihood that their program of study did not include information on the study of stepfamilies.
Given these factors, stepfamily functioning is an important topic for a family life education seminar for professionals and an opportunity for meaningful outreach.
Greater community support, understanding, and validation of stepfamily members' experiences can provide much in the way of healthy child and family development.
The Understanding Stepfamilies program resulted from an interdisciplinary review of the research literature on stepfamilies.
The structure of the seminar consists of three parts:
 Additionally, the program development incorporated ideas for effective adult learning  by balancing didactic delivery with experiential activities, small and large group discussions, and the use of different media.
Data are from 127 participants across six 4-hour seminars conducted during the period of March-December 2000.
Participants rated aspects of the program using a 5-point Likert scale.
Table 1 shows the mean scores on each factor.
Following the program, participants rated their level of knowledge about stepfamilies before and after the program on a 5-point Likert scale, using a post pre/post pair of questions.
After the workshop, they rated their level of knowledge of stepfamily functioning prior to attending the workshop and after the program.
A paired-samples t-test showed a significant change in this global measure item from an average of 1.4 before the workshop to 4.3 after the workshop.
Qualitative comments included the following.
About the program design and delivery:
 About the relevance of the information:
 Various factors support an increased emphasis on stepfamily research for Family Life Educators.
Additionally, targeting community professionals who work with families is warranted  and represents a second tier of education the potential for a broader range of impact.
A description of "Understanding Stepfamilies" professional education workshop is offered for replication for agents and specialists.
Participants responded positively to the program's structure and content, and indicated improved knowledge of stepfamily dynamics on a global measure.
Follow-up evaluation will determine the extent to which program participation impacts participants' work with families.
One student, two homes, sometimes two schools, Today's School Psychologist, 4.
Etiology of child maltreatment: A developmental-ecological analysis.
Psychological Bulletin, 114, 413-434.
Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press.
The interface between stepparent families and schools: Research, theory, policy, and practice.
Ihinger-Tallman , Remarriage and stepparenting: Current research and theory.
How society views stepfamilies.
Marriage and Family Review, 26,, 85-106.
Active learning: Cooperation in the college classroom.
MN: Interaction Book Co.
American Demographics, 14, 36-39.
The changing face of American families.
Invited plenary presentation at the First National Conference on Stepfamilies, New Orleans, LA.
Irrigation Management for Corn William L.
Kranz, Irrigation Specialist, Northeast Research and Extension Center Suat Irmak, Agricultural Water Management Specialist, Biological Systems Engineering Simon J.
van Donk, Water Resources Engineer, West Central Research and Extension Center C.
Dean Yonts, Irrigation Engineer, Panhandle Research and Extension Center Derrel L.
Martin, Professor, Biological Systems Engineering This NebGuide discusses corn irrigation management strategy options and objectives.
There are more than 16 million acres in harvested row crop production in Nebraska.
About 8 million of these acres are irrigated.
Corn occupies approximately 70 percent of the irrigated acreage, or 5.6 million acres.
Consequently, improving irrigation management can have significant impact on the quantity and quality of Nebraska's most precious resource: water.
Soil Plant Water Relationships Understanding the relationships between plants and their environment is essential to effective irrigation management.
Plant characteristics important to irrigation management include total seasonal water use, daily crop water use, rate of plant development, and rooting depth.
Important soil characteristics include water holding capacity, water intake rate, and the presence of any restrictive soil layers that might inhibit root penetration and/or water movement.
Quantity and quality of the available water supply also must be considered.
The objective of irrigation management is to provide supplemental water needed by the plant while maximizing the value of water.
Corn Water Use Characteristics Evapotranspiration , or crop water use, is the water removed from the soil by evaporation from the soil surface and transpiration by the plant.
For corn, evaporation can account for 20 percent to 30 percent of growing season ETcTranspiration is the last step in a continuous water pathway from the soil, into the plant roots, through the plant stems and out through leaf surfaces and into the atmosphere.
Approximately 70 percent to 80 percent of crop water use results from plant transpiration.
The amount of daily corn water use varies with atmospheric conditions: air temperature, humidity, solar radiation and wind speed.
High air temperatures, low humidity, clear skies and high wind speed will result in high ET demand.
High humidity, clear skies and low wind speed will result in lower ET demand.
Atmospheric demand must be adjusted for the stage of crop development to estimate crop water use on a daily basis.
A high atmospheric demand day in early May will result in little ET because the corn plant is small with a limited root zone and little leaf area to transpire water.
The same atmospheric demand day in mid-July will result in near peak crop water use because the corn roots are fully developed and the plant leaf area is sufficient to transpire water at rates equal to the atmospheric demand.
This adjustment is referred to as applying a crop coefficient to the atmospheric demand or potential evapotranspiration.
Seasonal water use is affected by climatic conditions, relative maturity range, soil fertility, water availability and the interaction of these factors.
Although the total amount of water used by corn will vary from season to season and location to location, it will generally follow the pattern dictated by seasonal trends in weather variables and corn development.
The smooth curve in Figure 1  illustrates the long-term average water use pattern for corn.
This average water use pattern shows typical daily ET levels throughout the growing season based upon the average daily ET over a 10 plus year period.
The jagged curve in Figure 1  illustrates the fluctuation possible in daily ET, values for an individual year.
Thus, irrigation managers must be familiar with the long-term trend but more importantly be able to determine what the daily ET was over the last few days.
Knowledge of the long-term trend and actual daily crop water use rates are critical to determining when to irrigate and how much water to apply.
In Nebraska, total corn water use ranges from 28 inches per year in the southwest to 24 inches in the east.
Water requirement depends both on the previously mentioned atmospheric conditions and corn variety.
The relative maturity range of a particular variety has the most impact on seasonal ETcFor example, at the same location and in the same year, a corn hybrid with a 113-day maturity will use more water than a 100-day hybrid.
Longer-season corn hybrids use more water, but they also have the potential to produce more grain if the heat units and water supply are available.
If both varieties are able to mature fully, the grain produced for each inch of ET is approximately equal.
The difference in seasonal water use is due to total days of water use, and in some cases a difference in daily water use.
Due to variation in weather conditions in a given year and from year to year, the long-term average crop water use per day  could vary by plus or inus 0.03 inches per day.
Day-to-day variation within a given year  can be more than 0.20 inches per day.
Thus, for reasons described above, use of soil water sensors and accessing daily crop water use estimates based on the weather conditions during the current growing season are highly recommended.
In addition, the duration of each growth stage could vary by plus or minus two days when compared to the long-term average values provided in Table I.
4-3-2-1 rule: 40 percent of the water comes from the top 1/4 of the root zone, 30 percent comes from the second 1/4 and SO on.
The 4-3-2-1 rule is illustrated in Figure 2.
Water applied using subsurface drip irrigation systems will result in more water removal from the depth where the drip lines are placed.
In addition, though corn roots can reach depths of 5 to 6 feet, until late in the season conservative irrigation management assumes a 3-foot effective root zone.
Later, when predicting the timing and amount of the last irrigation, the effective root zone is expanded to 4 feet.
Long-term daily average and individual year corn water use with select growth stages.
Average crop water use  by growth stage for 113-day maturity corn grown in South Central Nebraska.
Average Water Water water needed to needed use rate Duration reach stage cumulative Growth stage     Emergence  0.08 0-10 0.8 0.8 4-leaf  0.10 11-29 1.8 2.6 8-leaf  0.18 30-46 2.9 5.5 12-leaf  0.26 47-55 1.8 7.3 Early tassel  0.32 56-68 3.8 11.1 Silking  0.32 69-81 3.8 14.9 Blister Kernel  0.32 82-88 1.9 16.8 Beginning Dent  0.24 89-104 3.8 20.7 Full Dent  0.20 105-125 3.8 24.5 Maturity  0.10 126-140 1.4 25.9 Long-term average number of days since planting required to progress from the previous growth stage to the next.
For example, to go from the blister kernel stage to the beginning dent stage requires approximately 15 days.
Days to each growth stage were determined using the Hybrid-Maize Corn Growth Model for the period 1982-2005 at Clay Center, Neb.
Corn does not extract water uniformly throughout its rooting depth.
Generally, more water is extracted from shallow depths and less from deeper depths.
If water is applied to the soil surface, the typical extraction pattern follows the Figure 2.
Root zone soil water extraction and plant root development patterns.
Matching Crop Demands with Water Application In general, irrigation water is meant to supplement water stored in the soil profile and any effective rainfall recorded during the growing season.
Thus, a water balance approach for estimating the irrigation requirement would be: Effective rainfall + Soil water removed Seasonal ET = Irrigation requirement.
On a long-term average, corn grown on a deep silt loam soil in southeast Nebraska requires about 6 inches of net irrigation, central Nebraska requires about 9 inches, and the Panhandle of Nebraska requires about 14 inches of net irrigation per year.
These values will vary from year to year as a function of climatic conditions  that impact ET as described earlier.
When planning an irrigation system, sufficient system capacity should be available to meet the crop water use rates in column 2 of Table I.
However, simply converting the crop water use rate to a system capacity may result in unnecessarily oversized system components.
NebGuide G1851 Minimum Center Pivot Design Capacities in Nebraska provides a method for estimating system flow rates needed to meet crop water demand while accounting for system down time, soil water holding capacity and the potential for rainfall during the growing season.
Using this approach, system capacities can be determined to meet the management scheme of the operator and minimize the installation and operating cost of the system.
The goal of irrigation management should be to provide supplemental water while considering the economic and environmental consequences.
One reason is that corn yield response to irrigation water application follows the law of diminishing returns.
In addition, because irrigation systems are not 100 percent efficient at delivering water, it is impossible to convert all of the applied water to ET and ultimately to grain yield.
Thus, managers need to consider the potential for increased grain yield and cost of water application when deciding whether to apply the last inch of irrigation.
Applying several inches of excess water will lower the net return for the irrigated field potentially due to depressed grain yield resulting from leaching nutrients below the active root zone and inhibiting soil aeration.
In addition, the cost of pumping the extra water would add to corn production costs.
Pumping costs can be estimated by multiplying the fuel use rate per acre-inch by the cost of fuel per unit.
For example, the estimated fuel use to pump water from a depth of 100 feet at a pump outlet pressure of 50 psi is approximately 1.97 gallons of diesel fuel per acre-inch.
Thus, the pumping cost for each inch of water applied would be approximately 1.97 times the cost of diesel fuel.
In situations where irrigation water supplies and natural precipitation are not adequate to meet crop ET demands, limited or deficit irrigation can be effective in increasing yields above dryland levels.
However, applying less water than is needed by the crop will typically result in yield reductions when compared to fully irrigated corn.
Under extreme water limited conditions, water applications should be targeted to critical growth stages such as between pollination and early dough, thereby making the most efficient use of the water available.
Growth Stages Immediately after planting, crop water use consists almost entirely of evaporation from the soil surface.
Estimated ET rates will typically be less than 0.10 inch per day unless the soil surface is wetted by a water application event.
Following a rainfall event soil evaporation rate could be more than 0.20 inches per day depending on the soil texture and residue cover and the recorded amount of rainfall.
Irrigation during this period is discouraged because water application via sprinkler systems could cause a crust to form on the soil surface that will reduce water infiltration and in some cases impede plant emergence.
Maintaining good residue cover will limit crust development by absorbing the water droplet energy and also minimize soil evaporation by reflecting some of the incoming solar radiation.
About two weeks after emergence, the corn plant grows to a height of about 6 inches.
The permanent root system begins to develop from the nodes and growing point during this time.
At a plant height of about 10 to 12 inches , the tassel and ear are beginning to form inside the stalk.
The number of kernel rows and kernels in a row are being determined at this time.
Leaf area index  increases to 2.0 for fully irrigated corn.
Daily corn water use averages between 0.15 and 0.20 inches per day.
The plant's roots are concentrated in the top 18 inches of soil if there are no soil-limiting factors such as compaction, impermeable layer, or gravel.
Assuming an effective root depth of 18 inches, plant available water equals 3 inches in a silt loam soil and 1.5 inches in sandy soils.
First irrigation depths should account for rainfall and be light to limit deep percolation losses.
Between the 8-leaf stage and tassel emergence corn root depth, leaf area and water use grow rapidly reaching peak daily water use rates during pollination.
Root depth increases from 18 inches to 4 feet during this period doubling the amount of soil water available for plant growth.
LAI increases to over 5.0 under fully irrigated corn with plant populations above 24,000 plants per acre.
Water use rates grow to 0.32 inches per day when averaged over a threeto five-day period.
Individual day water use rates can reach over 0.40 inches per day when high air temperature, low humidity and windy conditions prevail.
Due to the high water use rates, it is important to avoid water stress during the reproductive stage.
Severe water stress during silking tends to desiccate the silks and pollen grains causing poor pollination.
Water stress during silking will result in the greatest yield reduction.
Irrigation depths should be increased to match corn ET minus rainfall while leaving some room in the soil for future potential rainfall events.
Water requirements remain high during the early reproductive stages, often remaining in the 0.30 to 0.35 inches per day range until the dough stage.
During this time, kernels are growing as the plant transfers dry matter to the grain.
Root development begins to slow down during the blister kernel stage and remains nearly constant at 4.5 to 5 feet for the remainder of the season and plant available soil water reaches a maximum value.
Bottom leaves begin dying back during this period of time but have little impact of crop water use rates or yield.
Irrigation depths should match corn water use minus rainfall while continuing to leave room for future rainfall events.
Corn water use rates decline beginning with the dough stage in response to lower atmospheric demand , loss of transpiring leaf area, and changes in plant physiology as the grain approaches maturity.
Corn water use drops from 0.30 inches per day to 0.20 inches per day by full dent.
Lower leaf loss continues during this period as well.
It is assumed that the crop root zone remains constant at approximately 4.5 feet under fully irrigated conditions.
Due to reduced crop water requirements, soil water levels can be drawn down below 50 percent depleted toward the end of the dent stage without affecting grain yield.
However, corn does require some water right up to physiological maturity SO one should continue to monitor corn water use rates and soil water levels.
As corn approaches physiological maturity more water can be removed from the soil profile without impacting final grain yields.
Determining when to stop irrigating is an important economic decision.
Saving one pass with a center pivot or one irrigation event with a furrow irrigation system reduces production costs associated with pumping the irrigation water.
Irrigation Management Irrigation management is basically deciding when to irrigate and how much to apply.
The decision must be based on the available irrigation water supply, the soil water holding capacity and water intake rate, and the corn water needs.
Well-timed irrigations provide enough water to prevent corn stress while fully using water from rainfall and available in the soil.
Thus, irrigation scheduling accounts for all plant sources of water to produce economic yields.
EC783 Watermark Granular Matrix Sensor to Measure Soil Matric Potential for Irrigation Management provides a detailed discussion about granular matrix soil water sensor field preparation and installation procedures.
In addition, the publication provides information on how to convert readings recorded in the field into how much plant available water has been removed from the soil or soil water depletion.
Tabular values are provided for eight general soil texture classifications.
Finally, an example is provided to show how the soil water readings can be used to determine the time for the next irrigation event.
Irrigation management based upon potential crop water use estimates obtained from ETgages is discussed in detail in NebGuide G1579 Using Modified Atmometers  for Irrigation Management.
Estimated potential crop water use rates based on weather conditions can be obtained from the High Plains Regional Climate Center.
Estimated ET can be obtained using a subscription program directly from the Climate Center via the Internet.
In this way, crop water use can be estimated for specific fields using the field location, emergence date and relative maturity.
Similar information is available from radio stations and some newspapers based upon an average emergence date and crop relative maturity planted in the area.
Irrigation management also includes considering the economic and environmental consequences of each irrigation event.
For example, suppose a crop production function indicates that the last 2 inches of irrigation water applied under full irrigated conditions produces 2.5 bushels of corn per inch.
If the price for corn is $3.15 per bushel, the increase in income resulting from the water application is $7.88 per acre  If pumping cost  is less than $7.88 per acre, net income will increase as a result of applying the water.
However, irrigation management must also evaluate the environmental aspects of irrigating.
For example, if the plant uses 0.2 inch of the applied water, what are the potential environmental effects of the remaining 0.8 inches of water?
If the extra water makes its way to the aquifer and carries 8 lbs of nitrogen with it, will the increase in net income be worth it?
Soil Textures Soils classified as coarse-textured include: fine sands, loamy sands and fine sandy loams.
These soils generally have plant available water holding capacities less than 1.5 inches per foot.
In the top 3 feet, the plant available soil water at field capacity can be between 1.5 and 2.7 inches.
Some sandy soils in Nebraska also have root-restricting layers at shallow depths that can restrict root development.
The combination of low plant available water capacity and shallow rooting depth results in a relatively small soil-water reservoir.
Small soil-water reservoirs create challenging water management scenarios.
Application depths greater than 0.75 inches could resulti in plant stress in the event of an unexpected system failure.
Frequent irrigations of less than 0.50 inches reduce the water application efficiency due to the amount of water lost during each application event.
A compromise is to apply relatively frequent light  water applications.
Medium-ar fine-textured soils generally have plant available water capacities of more than 1.8 inches per foot.
In the top 3 feet, the plant available soil water at field capacity can be between 5.4 and 7.6 inches.
Because these soil textures can store more water, irrigators have more scheduling flexibility.
If no leaching or surface runoff occurs, water applications of 0.75 to 1.3 inches are appropriate for these soils.
Irrigation Systems In Nebraska, approximately 70 percent of the irrigation water is supplied by center pivot sprinkler systems and about 30 percent using furrow irrigation.
An estimate of the water application efficiency is needed to determine the amount of water that might need to be pumped per season.
Conventional gated pipe irrigation with no reuse pit typically has an efficiency of about 50 percent.
This means if 10 inches of net irrigation is required, an irrigator using conventional gated pipe and no reuse would have to pump 20 inches of water.
With a reuse system the maximum efficiency increases to near 70 percent, and the depth pumped would decrease to 14 inches.
When furrow irrigating, it is important to irrigate the entire field quickly.
Every-otherfurrow irrigation supplies water to more area in a given amount of time and produces yield comparable to those achieved when every-furrow is irrigated.
In addition to saving time, the water application depth may be reduced 20 percent to 30 percent by implementing every-other-furrow irrigation.
With no reuse system, every-other-furrow irrigation is about 60 percent efficient.
With a reuse system, maximum efficiency increases to near 75 percent.
Surface irrigation management is discussed in detail in NebGuide G1338 Managing Furrow Irrigation Systems.
Properly designed and well-maintained center pivot and lateral move sprinkler irrigation systems can be 85 percent to 90 percent efficient.
A sprinkler irrigation system that is 90 percent efficient would require a gross application of 11 inches to deliver a net application of 10 inches.
If farming practices are changed to accommodate increased water application rates, and sprinkler spacing is less than 7.5 feet, system efficiencies can be improved by dropping the sprinkler nozzles nearer the soil surface.
Center pivots also allow more precise application depths and timing than are possible with furrow irrigation systems.
The ability to consistently apply only the depth of water needed allow center pivots to take full advantage of rainfall and minimize the potential for plant stress.
For more information about center pivot system design and management see the University of Nebraska-Lincoln Extension publication Web site.
Summary Proper water management on irrigated corn can produce economic yields, conserve water supplies and preserve or enhance water quality.
Use corn ET, estimates and regular soil water measurements to determine irrigation timing and amount.
Consider the irrigation water supply and the system's ability to deliver the water.
Work to maximize the efficiency of your irrigation system by performing regular maintenance.
A critical concept of any crop production parameter is: to manage it, you must measure it.
In order to manage an irrigation system effectively, irrigators need to know how much water has been pumped and where it has gone.
Efficient irrigation management requires that accurate records be kept documenting the water applied and rainfall for each field.
Acknowledgments The authors would like to recognize the work of the extension specialist who wrote the original edition of this NebGuide: Brian Benham, former water resources engineer, South Central Research and Extension Center.
Irrigation Systems Management MSM452/852: Class Notes.
University of Nebraska, Lincoln, Neb.
Design and Operation of Farm Irrigation Systems.
How a Corn Plant Develops.
Iowa State University Cooperative Extension, Ames, Iowa.
Nebraska Department of Natural Resources.
Annual Evaluation of Availability of Hydrologically Connected Water Supplies.
This publication has been peer reviewed.
Index: Field Crops Corn Issued May 2008
Water-Conserving Landscapes: An Evaluation of Homeowner Preference Tony A.
The classes of plant material included traditional , intermediate , and native/adapted plant species of the Intermountain West.
Landscapes were subjected to a 5-week dry-down period.
Under drought conditions, respondents preferred drought/adapted and intermediate landscapes to traditional landscapes.
A focus on XeriscapeTM education, practices, and visual exposure may result in greater adoption of XeriscapeTM practices by homeowners and may also result in significant residential water savings.
Introduction Drought and the increase in population throughout the Intermountain West area of the United States have created severe water shortages in the region.
The population in the Intermountain West continues to grow faster than anywhere else in the United States, and homeowners there use approximately 60% of potable water to irrigate landscapes.
Because water is a limited resource, the need for conservation of landscape irrigation water has become increasingly important.
Water-Conserving Landscapes: An Evaluation of Homeowner Preference Although water is used in high amounts for other purposes as well, "a landscape may serve as a visual indicator of water use to the general public due to its visual exposure".
As homeowners become more aware of landscape water conservation alternatives, attitudes toward drought-tolerant landscapes may change throughout the United States.
In 1979, Hancock suggested that residential landscape water conservation is "essential to establishing a successful water policy aimed at curbing use in all sectors of water conservation".
Since landscape water use represents a major portion of the water used in urban areas in the Intermountain West, there is considerable potential for providing water savings through landscape water conservation.
XeriscapingTM has been emphasized as one potential technique for conserving water in residential landscapes.
The seven principles of Xeriscaping TM are: 1.
Plan and design the landscape comprehensively from the beginning; 2.
Create practical, usable turfgrass areas; 3.
Appropriately use perennials, trees, and shrubs and zone them together according to the water needs of the plants; 4.
Improve the soil where needed; 5.
Irrigate efficiently, and; 7.
Maintain the landscape appropriately.
XeriscapeTM practices have long been advocated by landscape architects, landscape designers, and horticulturists with little adoption.
This may be, in part, because homeowners are unaware of landscape water requirements and the potential for Xeriscapes to provide colorful, attractive landscapes.
Little research has been conducted on homeowner preferences for Xeriscapes A great deal of research, however, has been conducted on what a preference is and what psychological elements influence preferences for landscapes.
Preference is an extremely useful measurement in landscape assessment research, and most differences in preference are probably influenced in one way or another by familiarity and knowledge.
Thayer  used a preference survey to determine what public responses were to xeric landscapes.
Identical plants were used in each of eight small landscapes, Water-Conserving Landscapes: An Evaluation of Homeowner Preference differing only in groundcover.
Thayer's research, although provocative, focused mainly on the ground cover and the preferences that homeowners had for the landscapes under well-watered and dry conditions.
Research has not been conducted to compare preferences for integrated ornamental and turfgrass landscapes under well-watered and drought conditions.
Objectives The research reported here implemented design elements and survey instrumentation to evaluate the hypothesis that lower water use, xeric landscapes can be equally or more aesthetically acceptable than higher water use, traditional landscapes.
The specific objectives of this research were: 1.
To compare homeowner perceptions of three landscapes differing only in plant material, and 2.
To assess homeowner knowledge of XeriscapingTM and how that knowledge might or might not influence attitudes toward different landscape plant materials.
Materials and Methods Three different landscapes were designed and constructed at the Utah Botanical Center Research Station located in Kaysville, Utah.
The test site has a high mountain desert climate, with temperature extremes ranging from -30 C in January to 41 C in July.
Average daily temperatures range from -4 C in January to 24 C in July.
Soil at the test site is a Kidman fine sandy loam .
Experimental Design Landscape plant materials included.
Planting plans for the landscapes were spatially identical , and landscapes differed only in plant material.
For example, each landscape contained one evergreen tree [traditional-Pinus heldreichii  Markgr.
ex Fitschen, intermediate-Pinus aristata Elgelm., and native/adapted Pinus edulis Engelm.].
Turfgrasses planted in the landscapes were Poa pratensis L.
, Festuca arundinacea Schreb.
, and Buchloe dactyloides  Engelm.
Landscape material was purchased from local retail nurseries and installed using accepted horticultural practices.
Conceptual Landscape Design Figure 2.
Examples of Different Plant Materials in the Landscapes Tree Shrub Turf Native/Adapted Pinyon Pine Fernbush Buffalograss Intermediate Bristlecone Pine Korean Spice Viburnum Tall Fescue Traditional Bosnian Redcone Pine Redtwig Dogwood Kentucky Bluegrass Figure 3.
Installation of Ornamental Plants and Drip Irrigation System Once the landscapes were installed, a 1-year long establishment period began in which the plants were irrigated to prevent any moisture stress.
The public preference survey was conducted the following summer both before and after a 5-week-long dry-down period in which the landscapes were not irrigated.
Survey Part 1 of the survey instrument included seven-point, bipolar adjective scale  questions.
A seven-point Likert scale was used, with "1" meaning "strongly dislike," "4" meaning "neutral," and "7" meaning "strongly like." Part 2 of the survey instrument included semantic, differential scale questions.
Part 3 of the survey instrument included demographic questions.
In June of 2005, the study population, adults over the age of 18 who owned homes within a 10-mile vicinity of the test site, was invited to participate in the survey.
Follow-up reminders were sent to the study population with a map and directions to the landscapes.
Three different days were offered for participation, and subjects were also offered a five-dollar gasoline gift card for participating.
As the study participants arrived at the experiment site, written and verbal instructions were given out along with the survey instrument.
Each survey instrument contained detailed questions concerning the three landscapes, and participants viewed each type of landscape from three different positions  and answered questions that assessed their reaction to the overall color schemes and appearances of the landscapes.
Similarly, the participants were asked for their overall opinion of the grass texture in each landscape and an overall opinion of each landscape.
As they completed the survey for each type of landscape, the participants moved on to the next type of landscape and answered the same set of questions until all three landscape types had been viewed and evaluated.
Location of Survey Positions Within the Landscape.
The first survey was conducted in June 2005  before the dry-down began.
A follow-up survey was conducted the following week to increase the number of participants.
A second survey was conducted in August 2005  at the end of the dry-down period.
Results and Discussion In June of 2005, a total of 66 subjects responded over six scheduled survey days.
June respondents were similar in certain respects to the Davis County census record.
Some notable differences for June include the percentage of female respondents , age , income , and educational levels.
In August of 2005, a total of 132 subjects responded over three scheduled survey days.
The characteristics of the sample population from August were similar in many respects.
Differences existed with respect to 60% percent female, a median age of 58, over half having attained a four-year college degree, and 64% reporting household income above $50,000.
These differences can, in some respects, be explained by our strategy of sampling homeowners, with the possible exception of the proportion of female respondents.
The highest opinion ratings and preferences of the respondents in June were for the traditional landscape.
However, they favored the appearance of the turfgrass in the intermediate landscape  over any of Water-Conserving Landscapes: An Evaluation of Homeowner Preference the other turfgrasses in the study.
In the native/adapted landscape, 69% of respondents somewhat to strongly liked the color scheme of the landscape.
And statistical tests of differences in the survey items show considerably more similarities than differences in preferences.
Respondents' perceptions of the landscapes in August were different than those from June during the well-watered conditions.
For example, though not statistically different, the preference of the August respondents was for the intermediate landscape overall, whereas June respondents preferred the traditional landscape.
Thirty-eight percent of August respondents disliked or strongly disliked the turfgrass in the traditional landscape after the dry-down, whereas 39% liked or strongly liked the turfgrass in the intermediate landscape.
The native/adapted landscape, which bloomed profusely in June, was flowerless during the August survey, and the preference for this landscape dropped slightly in August.
However, the 0.5-point drop in mean preference for the native/adapted landscape was less than the 1 to 1.5-point drop in mean preference for the traditional landscape.
And mean difference tests point to more differences than similarities.
Thus, the physical changes in the landscapes as a result of the dry-down are to some extent reflected in perceptions, given how the different landscape types fared over the course of the summer.
Descriptive Statistics for Landscape Preference Types for June and August Surveys  June Survey  Traditional Intermediate Native/Adapted Overall Color Scheme from Position B 5.35  5.03  4.94  Overall Appearance from Position B 5.27  4.92  4.74  Grass Texture 5.14  4.79  3.11  Appearance of the Grass 4.98  5.15  3.02  Overall Opinion of the Landscape 5.41  5.05  4.55  Respondents from both survey periods understood the concept of XeriscapingTM and had a basic knowledge of the seven principles of XeriscapingTM.
For example, three-fourths of respondents in both surveys agreed or strongly agreed that XeriscapeTM designs can result in visually pleasing residential landscapes.
It is thus possible that individuals with some knowledge of XeriscapingTM may have different preferences for landscapes under drought stress.
XeriscapeTM Knowledge of Respondents  JuneStrong Disagree/DisagreeNeutralStrongy Agree/Agree XeriscapeTM designs can result in a visually pleasing residential landscape 1.322.576.0 Residential XeriscapeTM designs include some areas of turf or grass lawns 1.527.671.1 AugustStrong Disagree/DisagreeNeutralStrongly Agree/Agree XeriscapeTM designs can result in a visually pleasing residential landscape3.921.123.7 Residential XeriscapeTM designs include some areas of turf or grass lawns.1.323.775.0 When participants were asked what percent of drinking water supplied to cities in the Rocky Mountain region was used for landscape irrigation, 64% of respondents in June and 63% of respondents in August answered either 60% or 75%.
This finding further indicates participants' familiarity with water issues in the region.
Water Use Knowledge of Respondents  June 15% 30% 45% 60% 75% 90% 100% What percent of the drinking water 8.0% 6.7% 17.3% 26.7% 37.3% 4.0% 0.0% supplied to cities in the Rocky Mountain region is being used for landscape irrigation?
August 15% 30% 45% 60% 75% 90% 100% What percent of the drinking water 2.7% 12.1% 17.5% 30.2% 32.9% 4.7% 0.0% supplied to cities in the Rocky Mountain region is being used for landscape irrigation?
Many of the respondents in June were familiar with Xeriscapes having seen them before in person , whereas only 14% had never seen a XeriscapeTM.
Respondents in August were as familiar with XeriscapingTM as June respondents, with 74% of respondents having viewed XeriscapesTM in person.
All of the August respondents reported having seen a XeriscapeTN design previously on at least one occasion.
Familiarity with XeriscapesTM Familiarity with Residential XeriscapeTM Designs Other than the landscapes surveyed today, have you ever seen a residential XeriscapeTM landscape?
If so, in what way?
Percentage of Respondents In person 87.0% 74.6% On television, video 18.0% 33.3% In magazines or books 27.0% 37.3% Lecture or public presentations 5.0% 6.4% No 13.7% 13.7% How many times have you seen a residential Xeriscape TM design?
Once 11.7% 8.8% Two or three times 46.7% 36.0% More than three times 41.7% 55.3% During what season have you seen residential XeriscapeTM designs?
Spring 73.1% 73.9% Summer 25.0% 24.3% Fall 0.0% 1.8% Winter 1.9% 0.0% Summary and Conclusions The results of the study reported here indicate that survey respondents from Davis County, Utah are familiar with Xeriscape TM principles and believe that XeriscapingTM can result in aesthetically pleasing landscapes with the potential to conserve water.
Under well-watered conditions, however, respondents still expressed higher opinions and preference for traditional landscape plant materials over the lower water-use intermediate and native/adapted landscape plant materials.
Under drought conditions, respondents expressed higher opinions and preference for the intermediate landscape.
Under drought conditions, respondents preferred the appearance of the grass in the intermediate landscape over the traditional landscape.
The preference levels for the native/adapted landscape plant materials were similar under both well-watered and drought conditions and were neither negative nor positive.
As water resources become more scarce across the US and landscape irrigation is more scrutinized, an understanding of public landscape preferences will help to shape and target water conservation programs.
Landscape water conservation programs often encourage the use of lower water use plant materials in landscapes to help decrease outdoor irrigation amounts, and the study reported here provides one example of how public preference information may be obtained and utilized.
Future survey research related to XeriscapingTM should focus on different socio-economic classes, ethnic groups, or non-residents, because their knowledge of XeriscapingTM and general landscape preferences could differ significantly from the participants in this study.
This research could also be duplicated in other parts of the United States to develop an understanding of landscape preferences on a regional basis.
Water conservation in housing.
Water Conservation Needs and Implementing Strategies Conference.
The Franklin Pierce College, Rindge, NH.
The experience of nature: A psychological perspective.
New York: Cambridge University Press.
Water-conserving landscapes and computer visual simulation: an evaluation of preference.
Utah State University, Logan, UT.
Public response to water-conserving landscapes.
Visual ecology: Revitalizing the esthetics of landscape architecture.
United States Department of Agriculture.
Soil survey: Davis-Weber area, Utah.
United States Census Bureau.
United States Census 2000.
Retrieved April 15, 2009, from: http://www.census.gov Utah Division of Water Resources.
Utah's M&I water conservation plan: investing in the future.
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Implementation of Drone System in Survey for Tomato Chlorotic Spot Virus Abstract As a cutting-edge technology, drone systems have shown great potential in agriculture.
This article elucidates the implementation of a drone with a multispectral sensing system in a field survey for tomato chlorotic spot virus in south Florida.
The findings demonstrate that drone technology can provide growers with precise and timely information about disease incidence and distribution in a labor-saving manner for decision making in crop management to mitigate yield loss.
We provide recommendations for Extension professionals regarding educating producers on applying the technology to manage their crops efficiently.
Compared to traditional approaches to remote imaging involving satellites and piloted aircrafts, the use of drone technology is less costly and can provide flexible unmanned platforms in smallor large-scale fields.
In recent years, the application of drone systems associated with high resolution cameras and specific sensors has allowed for generating remote images with very small pixel sizes-ground sample distance of less than 1 in.
This technology has provided important opportunities related to precision farming, timely decision making and adjustment of management practices in agriculture and forestry, and geosciences applications.
Speaking more specifically, such systems have been used worldwide for the following activities: surveying for and mapping soil properties, estimating vineyard canopy leaf area index, detecting and mapping sunflower nitrogen status, detecting weeds, detecting missing plants or dead spots in vegetable fields, estimating crop biomass with nutrient levels, surveying for plant diseases, spraying agrichemicals, assessing drip irrigation efficiency with thermal sensors, calculating fluorescence, temperature, and narrow band indexes, establishing relationships between photosynthesis and chlorophyll fluorescence, and managing livestock on pastures.
In addition, drone technology has potential application in Extension agricultural programming for adults and 4-H youths.
The applicability of drone technology in agriculture depends on the drone type and the sensing system.
Human eyes are able to see only a narrow band of light, a spectrum ranging from 400 nm to 700 nm.
On the other hand, some sensors can detect invisible light, especially the near-infrared  band, at which the wavelength is beyond 700 nm.
With the development of specified sensors associated with corresponding software for collecting and processing data, more applications of drones in agriculture will be available soon.
In many cases, however, ground verification is still important with use of this technology.
Although it is impossible to completely replace a ground survey, combining a ground survey with drone technology can save time and labor cost due to the need to perform only spot verification versus walking an entire field to conduct a crop assessment or pest scouting.
Tomato is an economically important agricultural commodity in south Florida.
With the state's favorable subtropical climate, tomato is grown throughout the winter season.
Tomato chlorotic spot virus  is a new virus that is causing devastating damage to the tomato industry in Florida and may potentially spread to other regions of the United States.
TCSV was initially detected in south Florida.
Severe outbreaks of the disease have occurred since the 2014-2015 growing season, causing significant yield loss.
To scout the disease incidence and monitor the spread of the disease, growers conventionally have had to walk through an entire field to check and count every plant with TCSV infection.
When an outbreak of plant disease occurs, growers are eager to obtain help from Extension professionals because time means money in such urgent situations.
However, because conventional scouting is time-consuming, especially on a large scale, Extension professionals can find it challenging to obtain results quickly enough to help growers with their decision making.
The time delays associated with conventional approaches often frustrate growers.
In this article, we describe implementation of a drone system in a field survey assessing the incidence and distribution of the disease caused by TCSV to assist south Florida vegetable producers in rapidly and efficiently addressing the disease.
Findings from our research suggest that Extension professionals can implement such an approach to educate agricultural producers on the use of drone technology in assessing crop diseases, regardless of commodity.
Materials and Methods Our case study was a 10-ac field with tomato  planted in early October, 2018, on raised beds.
Prior to planting, we applied granular fertilizer, conducted soil fumigation, placed driplines for irrigation and fertigation, and covered the field with plastic mulch.
Farmworkers transplanted healthy tomato seedlings to each bed 3 weeks after soil fumigation.
They applied a liquid fertilizer weekly through the driplines as fertigation at a nitrogen rate of 1.0 lb per acre per day starting from 6 weeks after planting.
Three times during the season, at different growth stages, they installed metal rebar stakes in each bed to hold plants tied with nylon strings.
They applied irrigation and pest control practices regularly, according to the tomato pest management farm plan in the region.
We used a DJI Phantom 4 Professional drone with a preinstalled multispectral sensor.
This system is able to simultaneously collect images of red, green and blue  color, NIR , normalized difference vegetation index , and normalized difference red edge.
We set up an autonomous flight with a mobile application  downloaded to an iPhone, marked each corner of the selected field, and chose the following parameters : flight overlap 80%, altitude of 200 ft above the ground, speed of 20 mph, and flight orientation initially adjusted toward the wind direction for smooth image capture.
In this case, the flight orientation was adjusted from southwest to northeast because of a light wind  from northeast.
When all the parameters were set properly and satellites were well connected, we launched the drone by tapping the take-off icon.
The data were automatically collected and stored in two separate micro secure digital  cards, one for the drone camera and the other for the sensor.
Setup of an Autonomous Flight with Corresponding Parameters Upon the drone's completing the flight on December 17, 2018, we transferred the data from both micro SD cards to a computer.
We processed the data with data processing software  by uploading the data to the cloud, via a high-speed Internet connection, for image stitching and data analysis.
To verify the result, the two plant pathologists on our author team conventionally conducted ground surveys three times, on November 15 and November 30, 2018, and January 15, 2019.
Each survey was in a different location in the same field to allow for adequate assessment of the disease incidence via counting the numbers of healthy and infected plants.
We compared the data with the results obtained from the drone system.
We analyzed the data from each ground survey by applying Fisher's protected least significant difference test at p <.05 using SAS software.
Results and Discussion Upon completing the processing of the data transferred from the micro SD cards via the FieldAgent software, all individual pictures were stitched together and different layers of images, such as RGB and NDVI mosaic images , were generated.
A set of quick mosaic images was generated immediately, whereas had super high resolution images been needed, we would have had to request those from the company  and paid processing fees.
Full Mosaic Images of Red, Green, and Blue   and Normalized Difference Vegetation Index   With FieldAgent, we created management zones for the field from the quick mosaic images based on plant health status  associated with NDVI values.
This version of the image was more meaningful for understanding the severity and distribution of the plant disease.
The imagery within the management zones indicated a clear pattern of the disease incidence.
The severe infection of TCSV started in the northeast corner of the field  and spread south and southwest in the field , displayed as the distribution of red and yellow colors of NDVI.
Management Zones of Normalized Difference Vegetation Index  with Severity and Distribution of Tomato Chlorotic Spot Virus in the Tomato Field Note: Red = dead or dying plants, yellow = infected plants, and green = healthy plants.
Verification at different observed spots indicated that the same pattern of disease was shown by the RGB, NIR, NDVI, and NDRE images simultaneously generated by the system.
These images were overlaid with one another, and all showed the same result.
Tomato Plants in Severely Infected Area  Versus Healthy Area  NDRE = normalized difference red edge.
The imagery shows that many more plants died or were dying in the infected area as compared to in the healthy area.
These results matched well with both the photographs taken from the ground  and the observations from ground surveys.
For example, the ground photos and survey observations also indicated that the incidence of TCSV infection was greater at the northeast corner of the field and lessened in the south and southwest.
Field Observations of Infected Plants at Field's Northeast Corner  Versus Healthy Plants at Field's Southwest Corner  Table 1.
Ground Survey Results of Incidence  of Tomato Chlorotic Spot Virus Infection in Tomato Field on Different Dates Surveyed location 11/15/2018 11/30/2018 1/15/2019 Northeast corner 8.0 a 69.5 a 77.3 a Middle east area 4.4 bc 56.3 b Southeast corner 3.6 bcd 43.5 C 63.8 ab Middle north area 4.8 b 36.3 cd 51.3 bc Northwest corner 4.5 bc 32.8 cd 41.3 C Middle area 4.0 bcd 25.2 def Middle south area 1.5 d 20.3 f Middle west area 2.1 bcd 22.1 ef Southwest corner 1.8 cd 24.5 def Note.
Values followed by the same letter within the column indicate no significant difference at p <.05.
The cause of the TCSV outbreak in this field is unclear, but the distribution pattern of the incidence might be related to the surrounding environment.
In fact, at the northeast corner of the field right across a road intersection, there had been a palm tree grove for about 20 years.
It is unknown yet whether these palm trees are the host of TCSV.
However, massive weeds under the palm trees could be an important contributor of TCSV carried by insect vectors, especially thrips, via wind.
Implementation of drone technology can provide a rapid and convenient approach to surveying the incidence and determining the distribution of a viral disease in a field.
In the case we studied, if applying a conventional approach by walking through the field, one person might cover only about 2 ac in a day.
However, it took only about 10-15 min to cover more than 20 ac by drone flight and only about 1 or 2 hr to generate quick mosaic images and identify management zones, indicating great advantages in time savings through implementation of this technology.
The cost of mentioned devices  might be a concern, but the technology has had a trend of decreasing in price.
Application of the technology will soon be one of the important measures Extension professionals can use to help and educate farmers in managing their crops easily and efficiently.
Conclusion Implementing the drone technology with a multispectral sensing system for plant health was demonstrated.
Detecting the incidence and distribution of TCSV infection shows great potential in disease assessment with rapid, precise, and reliable results.
The drone survey results matched well with the ground survey findings.
By using corresponding software, one can generate management zones on the basis of plant health, demonstrating the important advantage of applying this technology in making decisions about farming practices.
In addition, implementation of a drone system can provide quick, labor-cost-saving, and real-time information for Extension professionals in helping growers manage their crops efficiently, regardless of region or crop type.
Acknowledgments We express sincere thanks to Florida Department of Agricultural and Consumer Services for financial support, Dr.
Kelly Morgan and Mr.
James Fletcher at University of Florida Institute of Food and Agriculture Sciences for their coordination of the Statewide Best Management Practice Program, and Mr.
Kern Carpenter at Carpenter Farms for allowing us to use his field in our study.
Characterizing soil salinity in irrigated agriculture using a remote sensing approach.
Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C, 55-57, 4352.
Measuring sunflower nitrogen status from an unmanned aerial vehicle-based system and an on the ground device.
Proceedings of the Conference on Unmanned Aerial Vehicle in Geomatics, 38, 1/C22.
September 14-16, 2011, Zurich, Switzerland.
Introducing a low-cost mini-UAV for thermaland multispectralimaging.
International Archives of the Photogrammetry.
Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Science, 39, 345-349.
Estimating biomass of barley using crop surface models  derived from UAV-based RGB imaging.
Remote Sensing, 6, 10395-10412.
Detection of downy mildew of opium poppy using high-resolution multi-spectral and thermal imagery acquired with an unmanned aerial vehicle.
Precision Agriculture, 15, 639-661.
Evaluation multispectral images and vegetation indices for precision farming application from UAV images.
Remote Sensing, 7, 4026-4047.
Drones part of leap in agriculture technology.
Twenty-five years of remote sensing in precision agriculture: Key advances and remaining knowledge gaps.
Biosystems Engineering, 114, 358-371.
Drones in Extension programming: Implementation of adult and youth activities.
The photogrammetric potential of low-cost UAVs in forestry and agriculture.
International Archives of the Photogrammetry.
Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Science, 37, 1207-1214.
Development of a low-volume sprayer for an unmanned helicopter.
Journal of Agricultural Science, 7, 148-153.
Assessment of drip irrigation sub-units using airborne thermal imagery acquired with an unmanned aerial vehicle.
Stafford , Precision Agriculture, 13, 705-711.
Wageningen, Netherlands: Wageningen Academic Publishers.
First record of tomato chlorotic spot virus in the USA.
Tropical Plant Pathology, 37, 333-337.
Visualizing and quantifying vineyard canopy LAI using an unmanned aerial vehicle  collected high density structure from motion point cloud.
Remote Sensing, 5, 2164-2183.
The evaluation of unmanned aerial systembased photogrammetry and terrestrial laser scanning to generate DEMs of agricultural watersheds.
Quantifying efficacy and limits of unmanned aerial vehicle  technology for weed seedling detection as effected by sensor resolution.
Field distribution and disease incidence of tomato chlorotic spot virus, an emerging virus threatening tomato production in south Florida.
Tropical Plant Pathology, 44, 430-437.
A flexible unmanned aerial vehicle for precision agriculture.
Precision Agriculture, 13, 517-523.
P., & Rosab, F.
Multi-temporal imaging using an unmanned aerial vehicle for monitoring a sunflower crop.
Biosystems Engineering, 132, 19-27.
Drones in agriculture for STEM/STEAM education.
Demonstration of drone technology to improve crop management in vegetable production.
Proceedings of Florida Society of Horticultural Science, 132.
Structure-frommotion photogrammetry: A low-cost, effective tool for geoscience applications.
Geomorphology, 179, 300314.
R., & Martn, P.
Relationships between net photosynthesis and steady-state chlorophyll fluorescence retrieved from airborne hyperspectral imagery.
Remote Sensing of Environment, 136, 247-258.
Fluorescence, temperature and narrowband indices acquired from a UAV platform for water stress detection using a micro-hyperspectral imager and thermal camera.
Remote Sensing of Environment, 117, 322-337.
Field evaluation of tomato cultivars for tolerance to tomato chlorotic spot tospovirus.
Plant Health Progress, 20, 77-82.
Management of tomato chlorotic spot virus, an emerging tospovirus of tomato causing severe losses in south Florida.
Paper presented at the 2016 Annual Meeting of the American Phytopathological Society, Tampa, FL.
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April 2009 // Volume 47 // Number 2 // Feature // v47-2a9
 The fourth assessment report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change  concluded that global average mean temperature and the frequency of hot extremes, heat waves, and heavy precipitation will very likely increase in response to increased concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere.
The IPCC report also concluded that, due to improved understanding of anthropogenic warming and cooling influences on climate, the globally averaged net effect of human activities since 1750 has been one of warming.
The combination of long-term change  and greater extremes  suggests that climate change could have negative impacts on U.S.
The University of Florida recently established a climate Extension program under the Agricultural and Biological Engineering Department and in cooperation with the Southeast Climate Consortium.
The SECC is a consortium of seven universities: Florida State University, University of Florida, University of Miami, University of Georgia, Auburn University, University of Alabama at Huntsville, and North Carolina State University.
The main goal of the climate Extension program is to develop an information system for the southeastern U.S.A.
in which climate forecasts and information, together with decision support tools for agriculture, forestry, and water resource managers are made available to improve management decisions and reduce risks associated with seasonal climate variability.
Our main hypothesis is that many aspects related to vulnerability, defined as the degree of sensitivity and ability to cope with climate variability, and adaptation, defined as adjustments to environmental stresses caused by climate variability, can also be applied to climate change.
The question this article addresses is whether and how research and Extension efforts to develop adaptation strategies aimed at helping farmers cope with seasonal climate variability can be extended to address longer-term climate change.
We might also ask whether a climate Extension program should promote agricultural management practices that help the agricultural industry reduce the emission of greenhouse gases into the atmosphere.
Are there enough opportunities in agriculture to make a difference and would farmers be interested in such a program?
This article discusses the challenges involved and potential opportunities for the development and implementation of a climate change Extension program.
Natural, long-term climate change occurs in responses to fluctuations in the amount of solar energy reaching the Earth, changing ocean currents, formation or loss of ice sheets, and many other causes.
Global climate also varies naturally in response to shorter-term events, such as volcanoes, which send sun-blocking particles into the stratosphere to cool the Earth, or the Pacific Ocean event known as El Nio, which transfers thermal energy from one part of the planet to another.
In addition to these natural causes of climate variability, human activities have been shown to influence climate in many ways.
Land use changes like the irrigation of historically semi-arid areas for farmland, the paving and development of sprawling urban areas, the draining of wetlands, and increased aerosols in our atmosphere are all anthropogenic forcings to our climate system.
Perhaps the most significant human influence today is the increasing concentrations of greenhouse gases in the atmosphere, mainly carbon dioxide  and methane , which have modified the Earth-atmosphere energy balance, leading to a warming of the system.
Projections of future climate are based on climate models, complicated computer programs that attempt to describe how the atmosphere will behave through time in response to the forces that act upon it.
According to the 2007 IPCC report, the best estimates from these models indicate that the global average surface temperature would rise from 1.8C  to 4C  by the year 2099, depending on how much the concentrations of CO2 and other greenhouse gases increase.
An important question for agriculture is if a changing climate will also affect the occurrence of extreme events.
Will droughts, floods, heat waves, freezes, or storms become more or less frequent?
It has been theorized that a warmer planet would lead to more frequent and more severe extremes, but limitations in computer models keep us from answering that question conclusively.
Potential impacts of climate change on agriculture are broad and not completely understood.
Despite the potential challenges such as increased disease pressure and more frequent occurrence of extreme climate events, climate change may also bring opportunities for the introduction of new crops and increased yields.
There is general belief that the beneficial effects of an increase of CO2 on plants, the CO2 fertilization effect, may compensate for some of the negative effects of climate change.
However, recent studies demonstrate that the effects of elevated CO2 on plant growth and yield will depend on photosynthetic pathway, species, growth stage, and water and nitrogen management practices.
On average across several species and under unstressed conditions, crop yields are expected to increase in the range of 10-20% for C3 crops and 0-10% for C4 crops.
However, temperature and precipitation changes in future decades will also modify, and potentially limit, direct CO2 effects on plants.
Temperature is important for plant growth and development.
There is an optimum temperature range for maximum yield for any crop.
Warmer temperatures speed annual crops through their developmental phases and also increase their water requirements.
If a crop variety is being grown in a climate near its temperature optimum, a temperature increase of several degrees could reduce photosynthesis and shorten the growing period.
High temperature during flowering may lower grain number, size, and quality.
Most crops cultivated in the southeastern U.S.
are at, or near, optimal temperatures for the CO2 and water conditions that currently prevail.
Substantial temperature increases could have significantly negative impacts, limiting potential benefits of increased CO2 concentrations.
Increases in the concentration of atmospheric CO2 will likely stimulate the growth of weeds.
Some weeds respond more positively to increasing CO2 than most cash crops, particularly C3 "invasive" weeds that reproduce by vegetative means.
Insect pests are responsible for major impacts on yield quantity.
Insects are particularly sensitive to temperature because they are cold-blooded.
In general, higher temperatures increase rate of development with less time between generations.
Warmer winters will increase survival and possibly increased insect populations in the subsequent growing season.
Recent warming trends are believed to have led to earlier spring activity of insects such as the mountain pine beetle.
Climate factors that affect growth, spread, and survival of crop diseases include temperature, precipitation, humidity, dew, radiation, wind speed, circulation patterns, and the occurrence of extreme events.
Higher temperature and humidity and greater precipitation result in the spread of plant diseases, as wet vegetation promotes the germination of spores and the proliferation of fungi and bacteria.
It is likely that future tropical cyclones will become more intense, with larger peak wind speeds and more heavy precipitation associated with ongoing increases of tropical sea-surface temperatures.
There is more controversy about a potential increase in the number of tropical cyclones.
Since 1995 there has been an increase in the number of storms and in particular the number of major hurricanes  in the Atlantic.
But the changes of the past decade in these metrics are not so large as to clearly indicate that anything is going on other than a multidecadal variability.
Consequently, in the absence of large or unprecedented trends, any effect of greenhouse gases on the frequency of storms or major hurricanes is necessarily very difficult to detect in the context of this documented variability.
The mild temperatures and frequent rainfall predispose the southeastern U.S.
to an array of agricultural pest problems causing the region to be a relatively high user of pesticides.
If climate changes bring increased moisture and warmer temperatures to the region, it is likely to exacerbate epidemics and prevalence of leaf fungal pathogens and overwintering population of pests.
Effects of climate change on livestock are likely to be variable, based on a number of factors such as the magnitude of temperature increase and animal feed prices.
Dairy cows are particularly sensitive to heat stress, with temperature optimum for milk production between 4.5C  and 24C.
In addition to ambient temperature, humidity and wind velocity also affect performance.
Long-term adaptation may include crossbreeding with more heat tolerant-breeds and furthering research on heat tolerance in known milking breeds.
Climate change may also affect the beef cattle and poultry industries, both through direct effects on production and indirectly through changes in grain prices, pasture productivity, or costs for cooling.
Cooling costs are particularly worrisome in light of a steep upward trend in the price of fossil fuels.
In general, analyses indicate that intensively managed livestock systems have more potential for adaptation than crop systems.
Some of these adaptations may be enabled by the use of alternative energy sources on farm.
Interest of farmers in climate change impacts has recently increased in response increased media coverage of climate change, including the much-publicized record loss of sea ice in the Arctic during the summer of 2007.
Intense hurricane seasons in 2004 and 2005 and recent press coverage of carbon-offset markets also sparked an interest in climate change and potential opportunities to generate additional income.
Some Extension agents in Florida have expressed interest in engaging in climate change education, even if claims of linkage between global warming and hurricane activity are premature and if risks that climate change poses to farmers are still uncertain.
The development and dissemination of management practices that are best adapted to seasonal climate variability is the main focus of the existing climate Extension program.
The approach used to mitigate risks associated with seasonal climate variability focuses primarily on techniques such as shifting planting dates, changing crop varieties, and cultural practices.
However, adapting to climate change might require farmers to use management practices and technologies that are beyond those existing today.
Research must play proactive role to generate necessary responses and technologies that farmers will need to handle such future challenges.
Nevertheless, the education process involved in establishing an Extension program aimed at mitigating risks associated with climate variability seems to be an efficient and effective way to introduce a climate change program.
The following adaptation strategies could be part of a combined climate variability/change Extension program.
Adaptation strategies could also include changes in tillage practices, selection of varieties with greater drought and heat tolerance, and development and implementation of improved Integrated Pest Management  programs.
The extent of adaptation will depend mostly on the affordability of proposed strategies, the rate of climate change, and access to knowhow and technology.
Dissemination and promotion of emission reduction strategies to help mitigate climate change would be a new activity under the existing climate Extension program.
Management of forestry and agricultural activities is regarded as an important option for greenhouse gases  mitigation.
Activities in these sectors can reduce and avoid the release into the atmosphere of the three most important GHGs: carbon dioxide , methane , and nitrous oxide.
The main goal would be to shift agriculture from a net source to a net sink for greenhouse gases.
Florida ranks sixth in among the states in total GHG emissions and is 30th among the world's top 75 emitters among states and nations.
Although the GHG sources and sinks in the forestry and agriculture sectors of Florida are minor portions of the total emissions profile, they represent significant potential for offsetting and reducing the projected increases in emissions over future decades.
Activities with potential for GHG mitigation include afforestation, improved forest management and protection, soil carbon sequestration, agricultural CH4 and N2O mitigation, and biofuels offsets.
Soil carbon sequestration has additional appeal because practices that enhance soil carbon also improve soil quality and fertility.
Soils store carbon for long periods of time as stable organic matter, which reaches an equilibrium level in natural systems that is determined by tillage and other management practices, climate, soil texture, and vegetation.
When native soils are disturbed by agricultural tillage, fallow, or residue burning, large amounts of CO2 are released.
However, a significant portion of the carbon captured by plants through photosynthesis can be sequestered by soils managed with direct seeding and other techniques that minimize soil disturbance.
Irrigation can enhance carbon sequestration over native soil levels by overcoming the moisture limitation to increased plant biomass production.
Examples of management practices with the potential to increase soil organic carbon include:
 Agriculture alters the terrestrial nitrogen cycle as well.
Through nitrogen fertilization and improper water management, nitrogen is more prone to being lost to ground or surface water and to the atmosphere.
N2O, a common emission from agricultural soils, is a potent greenhouse gas.
Atmospheric concentrations of N2O have increased by 15% during the past two centuries  but reductions can be achieved through improved nitrogen management.
Methane emissions from livestock include enteric emissions from ruminant activity in cows and manure management emissions.
Methane traps heat about 21 times more effectively than does CO2.
Other than reducing the number of cows, there is little opportunity to reduce enteric emissions.
On the other hand, emissions from manure management are affected by management options.
Most modern dairies utilize a lagoon system for animal waste treatment, a practice that leads to large emissions of methane and nitrous oxide.
Closed-system anaerobic digestion of the manure has the potential to eliminate most methane emissions from lagoons while conserving more nutrients and also producing a renewable energy source.
Livestock production in Florida includes both confined animal operations and pastured animals.
The increase in production and concentration of intensive livestock operations along with increased urbanization of rural regions have resulted in greater awareness and concern for the proper storage, treatment, and utilization of livestock manure.
Pastured animals offer limited opportunity for managing livestock manure to lessen greenhouse gas emissions.
The principal opportunities for altering manure management, therefore, occur in dairy and poultry operations with confined livestock.
Table 1 gives the CH4 emission estimates for confined dairy and poultry production in Florida with their CO2 equivalent global warming potential.
Greenhouse emissions from broilers account for more than twice that of dairy cows, while the layer population produces around one-sixth of the emissions of dairy operations.
The main goal of our climate Extension program at the University of Florida is to reduce risks associated with climate variability.
Adding the perspective of climate change to the existing program is an attractive option given the existing focus on developing adaptation strategies and training of stakeholders to add seasonal climate variability as part of their decision making process.
Dissemination and promotion of mitigation strategies should also be included, especially strategies that increase the efficiency of inputs, improve soil quality, and may allow the participation of producers in the carbon trading market.
The first step towards developing a climate change Extension program should be to undertake initial or ex ante assessment to understand farmers' perceptions, attitudes, long-term goals, and other cognitive and decision-making information through participatory methods.
Once enough data has been elicited and analyzed, we may start to developing adaptation and mitigation strategies targeting and end-goal of economic and ecological sustainability.
Figure 1 shows a framework for the envisioned integrated climate Extension program.
Many adaptation strategies such as changing planting dates and crop varieties are common to climate change and climate variability.
The integrated program should also include mitigation strategies that are technically sound and affordable.
Examples include conservation tillage, energy conservation, biofuels, conservation practices, and improved N management.
Many of these are already being promoted due to increased competition and high energy costs.
A program to help to educate farmers about potential opportunities in carbon trading markets and establishment of base line carbon levels for different ecosystems and agricultural activities should also be undertaken to promote farmers engagement.
Figure 1.Framework of a Combined Climate Variability and Change Extension Program
 Testing the source-sink hypothesis of down-regulation of photosynthesis in elevated CO2 in the field with single gene substitutions in Glycine max.
Forest Meteorol., 122, 85-94.
What have we learned from 15 years of free-air CO2 enrichment ?
A meta-analysis of the responses of photosynthesis, canopy properties and plant production to rising CO2.
New Phytol., 165, 351-372.
H., Douglas Jr., C.
Soil organic carbon sequestration potential of adopting conservation tillage in U.S.
Yield responses of southern U.S.
rice cultivars to CO2 and temperature.
Effect of temperature, elevated carbon dioxide, and drought during seed development on the isoflavone content of dwarf soybean [Glycine max Merrill] grown in controlled environments.
Food Chem., 53, 1125-1129.
Combining population-dynamic and ecophysiological models to predict climate-induced insect range shifts.
.The CO2 fertilizing effect-Does it occur in the real world?
New Phytol., 163, 221-225.
Crop ecosystem responses to climatic changes: pests and population dynamics.
In: Climate change and global crop productivity.
Reddy KR, Hodges HF.CABI Publishing, New York, USA.
Feeding and managing cows in warm weather.
Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida.
Plant reproduction under elevated CO2 conditions: a meta-analysis of reports on 79 crop and wild species.
Responses of agricultural crops to free-air CO2 enrichment.
Adv Agron., 77, 293-368.
Soil processes and global change.
Hurricanes and global warming.
Bulletin of the American Meteorological Society 86, 1571-1574.
R., & Chivian E.
Climate change and U.S.
agriculture: The impacts of warming and extreme weather events on productivity, plant diseases, and pests.
Center for Health and the Global Environment, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA.
J., Allen Jr., L.
Elevated temperature and carbon dioxide effects on soybean seed composition and transcript abundance.
Crop Sci., 43, 1548-1557.
Evaluation of the growth response of six invasive species to past, present and future carbon dioxide concentrations.
Journal of Experimental Botany, 54, 395-404.
Rising carbon dioxide and invasive, noxious plants: Potential threats and consequences.
World Resource Rev, 16, 427-447.
June 2017 // Volume 55 // Number 3 // Research In Brief // v55-3rb7
 Research-based programs are the hallmark of Extension education programming, and a key task of effective program planning is translating current research into useful and relevant practice.
In recent years the 4-H program has aligned itself closely with the research base of positive youth development , yet few models have been developed to translate this research into practice.
In 2014 the Oregon 4-H program adopted a new program model, based on several strands of youth development research, to describe and evaluate the impact of 4-H on youths.
This model proposes that 4-H facilitates optimal development in young people by increasing thriving , with an emphasis on high program quality.
While theoretically feasible, the model still needs to be extensively tested and refined.
One of the first steps in testing the model was to align Oregon's larger and more common signature 4-H programs with the model and develop corresponding evaluation protocols.
The annual 4-H Summer Conference a 4-day residential campus-based program that is one of these key statewide 4-H programswas the first program to be evaluated via the new program model.
The purpose of the research described here was to test the fit of the 4-HSC program with the model and begin to build evidence for the model's structure and validity.
In addition, the impact of 4-HSC on youth thriving is reported.
Thriving youths are youths who think, feel, and act in ways that put them on a positive track of development.
Over time, this thriving orientation increases the odds of optimal youth development.
Thriving youths are more likely to achieve important developmental outcomes, such as increased academic engagement and achievement , higher social competence and personal standards , and increased connection to others , and they are more likely to contribute more to their communities.
All of these achievements are target outcomes for the 4-HSC program.
Research shows that youths who are on a thriving trajectory have some common characteristics.
These characteristics, called "thriving indicators" , include openness to challenge and discovery, hopefulness for the future, prosocial development, positive emotionality, and high levels of intentional self-regulation.
Aligning with these characteristics are the programming and goals of 4-HSC:
 Of the youths attending 4-HSC in 2015, 378  completed a written questionnaire about the experience.
The instrument was developed for our study and administered the last evening of the conference.
Respondents ranged in age from 12 to 19; the mean age was 14.86; 71.3% were girls.
Of the respondents, 93.2% were White, 2.6% were American Indian or Alaska Native, 1.2% were Black or African American, 1.2% were Asian American, and 1.8% were Native Hawaiian or other Pacific Islander.
Latino ethnicity was reported by 8.9% of respondents.
These demographics align fairly well with the overall demographics of Oregon and are typical of participants in the Oregon 4-H program.
Youths responded to a list of items related to the thriving indicators of  openness to challenge and discovery,  hopefulness for the future through college aspiration and motivation,  prosocial development,  positive emotionality, and  intentional self-regulation.
Youths were also asked about the impact of 4-HSC on their college awareness and motivation.
Each item was preceded by the wording "While at 4-H Summer Conference did you.
."; youths were prompted to indicate "yes ," "no ," or "not sure " for each item.
Items were analyzed in three steps.
First, we conducted a descriptive analysis to determine the percentage of youths indicating "yes" to each item.
Second, we calculated inter-item reliability scores for each of the five thriving indicators using Cronbach's alpha.
Third, we tested for significant differences on the indicator scores based on age, gender, race and ethnicity, socioeconomic status, parental income, and parental expectations for higher education.
Seven items made up the openness to challenge and discovery subscale.
The top five items and the percentages of youths who answered "yes" to these items are presented below.
The seven items were combined to create an overall thriving indicator score.
The score was then standardized, resulting in a value of 0 to 1, with a mean of.693.
The scores were moderately skewed toward the high end, indicating the conference's positive impact on participants' openness to challenge and discovery.
Analysis of variance revealed significant differences based on gender, with scores higher for boys  than for girls .
Eight items made up the hopefulness for the future through college aspiration and motivation indicator.
The top five items and the percentages of youths who answered "yes" to these items are presented below.
The eight items were combined to create an overall thriving indicator score.
The score was then standardized, resulting in a value of 0 to 1, with a mean of.792.
The scores were skewed toward the high end, indicating the conference's positive impact on participants' college awareness and motivation.
Further analysis revealed no significant differences based on demographic variables.
An additional question asked participants whether attending 4-HSC affected their likelihood of attending college at OSU.
Participants selected a response option on a 15 scale, with 1 indicating "much more likely to attend." More than half of the respondents indicated that 4-HSC positively affected their likelihood of attending OSU:
 Because college decisions become more salient with age, the "likelihood of attending OSU" item was analyzed by age.
An analysis of variance revealed a significantly higher likelihood of attending OSU for middle school youths  than for high school youths .
This finding was opposite of what was expected and is addressed in the discussion section.
Eighteen items made up the prosocial development subscale.
The top five items and the percentages of youths who answered "yes" to these items are presented below.
The 18 items were combined to create an overall subscale score.
The score was then standardized, resulting in a value of 0 to 1, with a mean of.712.
The scores were moderately skewed toward the high end, indicating the conference's positive impact on prosocial development.
Analysis of variance revealed a significant difference between middle school youths  and high school youths .
Two items made up the positive emotionality subscale.
The items and the percentages of youths who answered "yes" to these items are presented below.
The two items related to positive emotionality were combined to create an overall positive emotionality score.
The score was then standardized, resulting in a value of 0 to 1, with a mean of.708.
The scores were moderately skewed toward the high end, indicating the conference's positive impact on participants' positive emotionality.
Analysis of variance revealed a significant difference between middle school youths  and high school youths .
Five items made up the intentional self-regulation subscale.
The five items and the percentages of youths who answered "yes" to these items are presented below.
The five items were combined to create an overall subscale score.
They score was then standardized, resulting in a value of 0 to 1, with a mean of.757.
The scores were skewed toward the high end, indicating the conference's positive impact on participants' development of self-regulation.
Further analysis revealed no significant differences based on demographic variables.
The results of our study provide a useful first look at a signature 4-H program as it aligns with a new 4-H program model.
In particular, the results support the theoretical premise that 4-H programs promote youth thriving.
The results support the program's efficacy in enhancing the following characteristics related to youth thriving: openness to challenge and discovery , hopefulness for the future through college aspiration and motivation , prosocial development , positive emotionality , and intentional self-regulation.
These findings provide evidence that 4-HSC is positively affecting youths in all intended areas, and in the area of college aspiration and motivation in particular.
These findings set the stage for evaluation of other signature programs as they are aligned with the 4-H program model.
As mentioned, one of the key goals for 4-HSC is to encourage youths to consider attending OSU.
The results of the study revealed a modest impact on youths in this area.
In addition, contrary to what we predicted, middle school youths were significantly more likely to report wanting to attend OSU.
A potential reason for this finding is that 4-HSC may provide early initial exposure to the idea of college for younger participants who have not yet explored other possible college options.
Older youths, who are in the more advanced stages of college consideration, may have greater awareness of the fit of OSU with their college and career goals.
Additional research is needed to assess the longitudinal impact of attending 4-HSC on college choice.
A significant difference was found between boys and girls in the area of openness to challenge and discovery.
This finding is consistent with research that shows that boys may be more open to experience.
Recent research on growth mind-sets, and the contribution they make to youth thriving, has indicated a high level of plasticity, meaning that growth mind-sets can be developed.
The gender differences found in our study serve as a reminder that girls in particular may need to be encouraged to be open to new challenges and ideas.
Those developing or conducting programs intended to contribute to thriving among youths may want to pay particular attention to methods that encourage challenge and exploration for girls.
A second significant difference was found in the area of prosocial development, with survey responses indicating that high school youths have higher levels of this characteristic than middle school youths.
This difference reflects the developmental nature of prosocial attitudes and skills.
Whereas basic moral understanding, such as the ability to distinguish right from wrong, develops in early childhood, prosocial awareness develops across the adolescent years, as youths form a better understanding of themselves, their own needs and desires in relation to those of others, and a higher common good.
The results of our study provide some nascent forays into understanding the impact of the 4-HSC program through the theoretical lens of the new 4-H program model.
Although more work needs to be done, the findings are positive, and consistent with previous research in child and adolescent development.
Although our study was focused on the preliminary testing of a model specifically developed for the 4-H program, the study has implications for the broader extension field.
The study demonstrates how research can be translated into a program model that can be tested and used for program planning, evaluation, and improvement.
As proposed previously , Extension program "umbrella models" such as the one developed for the Oregon 4-H program can be effective tools for translating research into Extension program practice.
Connecting the dots: Improving Extension program planning with program umbrella models.
Journal of Human Sciences and Extension, 3, 4867.
Encyclopedia of Adolescence (pp.
New York, NY: Springer-Verlag.
Positive youth development in the United States: Research findings on evaluations of positive youth development programs.
The Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science, 591, 98124.
School engagement, academic achievement, and positive youth development.
Lerner , Promoting positive youth development: Lessons from the 4-H study.
New York, NY: Springer.
Mindset: The new psychology of success.
New York, NY: Ballantine.
The remarkable reach of growth mind-sets.
Scientific American Mind, 27, 3641.
Community programs to promote youth development.
Washington, DC: National Research Council.
Positive development in adolescence: The development and role of intentional self-regulation.
Human Development, 51, 202224.
Pro-social involvement as a positive youth development construct: A conceptual review.
The Scientific World Journal, Article Number 769158, 18.
Age and gender differences in motivational manifestations of the Big Five from age 1660.
Developmental Psychology, 49, 365383.
Positive youth development: Thriving as the basis of personhood and civil society.
Applied Developmental Science, 3, 172180.
The positive development of youth: Comprehensive findings from the 4-H study of positive youth development.
Washington, DC: National 4-H Council.
Key "soft skills" that foster youth workforce success: Toward a consensus across fields.
Washington, DC: Child Trends.
P., & Zuffian, A.
The moral foundations of prosocial behaviour.
Knafo-Noam , Encyclopedia on early childhood development: Prosocial behaviour (pp.
Montreal, Canada: Centre of Excellence for Early Childhood Development and Strategic Knowledge Cluster on Early Child Development.
The Search Institute model of youth thriving orientation: Overview of its evolution through recent funding from the Thrive Foundation for Youth.
October 2017 // Volume 55 // Number 5 // Tools of the Trade // v55-5tt7
 Drawing activities have been used in Extension programs to teach schoolchildren about trees , to incorporate children" perceptions into program evaluations , and to collect data for evaluators to use in their quest to capture the "real picture" of a program.
These examples represent the value of drawing in delivering program content or documenting attitudes and perceptions about a program.
More recently, drawing activities have been used across a variety of disciplinesforestry, science education, and psychologyto connect urban youths and urban nature , to teach science in schools , and to improve memory recall in adults.
On the basis of these examples, a cross-disciplinary group involved in a health and nutrition program for an underserved community in New Brunswick, New Jersey, developed an activity using sketchbooks to document participant impressions of and attitudes toward the program.
The Drawing Together activity was an important component of the Healthy Garden and Healthy Living program, a collaboration of Robert Wood Johnson Medical School; Elijah's Promise, a local organization that alleviates hunger through training, education, and social services; and the Rutgers Department of Landscape Architecture.
Those of us involved in Healthy Garden and Healthy Living sought to understand the potential for community gardening to improve the health of underserved individuals through their participation in gardening and food-related activities.
Participants were primarily homeless or previously homeless individuals who used Elijah's Promise soup kitchen and health services.
They received modest stipends as an incentive for participation, which included working in a community garden.
In the program, we implemented group drawing as a way to keep track of attendance, activities, and participants' impressions.
During the course of two or three weekly 30-min sessions across 15 weeks, the technique developed into an important activity that allowed participants to document their attitudes toward work, gardening, the program, and one another.
The loosely structured activity started with participants roaming the garden to find "things to draw." After a few days, participants opted to sit in a common space to draw, write, talk, and discuss the day's work.
Participants wrote about conflicts within the group, specifically relating to those who "really did the work" and those who were "getting credit for work they didn't do." Other participants' drawings and writings revealed a disagreement over ownership of the garden's compost pile.
The activity also provided valuable input with respect to our program management, most notably our lack of clarity on when participants would receive their stipends.
Overall, the sketchbook entries were a collection of participants' thoughts in words and images.
The information in the sketchbooks provided insights into the utility and shortcomings of the program that were not readily available through the program's existing evaluation structure.
For example, the confusion over stipend payments led our team to provide regular group updates and to explore alternative sources of payment funding.
We also began to formally recognize individual and group contributions to address the "who did what" issue and help improve the group dynamics.
Drawing and writing about garden work or a day's activities is not new.
Sketchbooks and journals are often used for documenting observations and impressions.
Moreover, Extension professionals use a variety of techniques and methods to document community attitudes and program outcomes.
But drawing together can produce information that can be more candid and reflective than responses to a onetime survey.
The qualitative information in the sketchbooks can be reviewed, evaluated, and interpreted independently or as a supplement to other data from a program.
Program developers who want to implement Drawing Together can use the following steps:
 The informality of the Drawing Together activity's execution allows for an information-rich collection of participant ideas and thoughts.
The activity can be easily incorporated as part of a community gardeners' meeting, as an afterschool program, or as an independent Extension program.
It can also be used in ongoing research.
The flexibility of the activity allows for its application in multiple types of settings, with diverse groups of participants, and across different disciplines.
The Healthy Garden and Healthy Living: Creative Engagement in Food Access and Nutrition program was funded through a Community-University Research Partnership Grant for New Brunswick.
Sketching culture, sketching nature: Uncovering anchors of everyday nature for urban youth.
Social & Cultural Geography, 13, 873893.
April 2008 // Volume 46 // Number 2 // Research in Brief // 2RIB6
 Abstract As Extension broadens its mission to include more urban clientele, information on the best delivery strategies to reach urban clientele is needed.
The study reported here examined the effect of mass media delivery methods on urban Extension clientele's knowledge about landscape maintenance.
The population for the study was 159 participants, randomly assigned to one of four treatment groups or control group, attending two garden seminars.
The findings in the study support the notion that mass media delivery strategies such as newspaper, video, and fact sheets are at least as effective in educating clientele as face-to-face delivery strategies.
Historically, Extension has accomplished its mission of providing research-based information from land-grant universities and experiment stations to people who will benefit from the information.
Richardson and Mustian  wrote that a variety of delivery methods can be effective in disseminating information to Extension clientele and that clientele preferences for particular delivery methods were often dependent upon specific subject being taught and the personal characteristics of the target audience.
Richardson and Mustian  noted, further, that in rural counties, Extension has been a major source of continuing adult education and youth education in traditional Extension program areas.
Fritz, Karmazin, Barbuto, and Burrow  recognized the strength of Extension in effectively reaching rural clientele, while recognizing Extension's need to better reach urban clientele.
Fehlis  reported that with 50% of the Texas population in six urban counties, Extension's future in Texas is dependent on effective programs in urban counties.
Fehlis noted that water quality and conservation are major issues in both rural and urban counties but that Extension must use different resources and delivery methods to provide educational programs to these two audiences.
In rural counties, issues such as dairy and feedlot manure waste disposal are of particular concern.
In urban counties, however, issues such as homeowners' improper use of fertilizers, pesticides, irrigation, and yard waste disposal are of greater concern.
The purpose of the study reported here was to examine the relationship between Extension clients' knowledge about landscape maintenance and mass media format.
Specific objectives of the study were to: describe research participants by their knowledge about landscape maintenance and determine what differences, if any, existed between mass media format and gains in knowledge about landscape maintenance.
The research design used in the study was experimental.
The researchers used a post-test-only control group design with random assignment of participants to one of four treatment groups or the control group.
According to Campbell and Stanley, this particular true experimental design controls for all the major threats to the internal validity of a study.
The study reported here was a part of a larger effort looking at perceptions of Extension clients with respect to their learning preferences for mass media related to landscape maintenance and to describe the effects of various mass media on clienteles' short-term cognitive development.
The final sample for the study was 159 participants attending one of two garden seminars  who were randomly assigned to one of four treatment groups or control group.
The population from which the sample was drawn included 203 people attending the seminars.
Of those attending the seminar, 168 agreed to participate in the study, and 159 provided usable responses.
A limitation of the study was that generalizing the findings beyond the target population is tenuous because participants were not selected randomly from the population.
The mass media formats used in this study included seminar, fact sheet, newspaper article, and video.
The newspaper article was a regularly appearing weekly newspaper column.
The video was a tape of a daily scheduled television program on community cable access channel.
The fact sheet was a part of the Texas Cooperative Extension Fact sheet series.
The newspaper, video, and fact sheet were all developed by one of the researchers.
The seminar script was also developed by one of the researchers, but the actual seminar was presented by a county Extension specialist agent not involved in the research project.
The instrument used to collect data for this study was designed to measure the participants' knowledge of landscape management practices after participating in a treatment or control.
The instrument consisted of a 20 question multiple choice test that participants completed after the treatment.
The control group took the test receiving no treatment.
Reliability for the instrument was estimated by calculating a Cronbach's alpha coefficient.
Content and face validity of the instrument were established by a panel of experts consisting of faculty and professionals who had expertise in the field.
The first objective of the study was to describe research participants by their knowledge about landscape maintenance.
As shown in Table 1, participants  had a mean score of  on the 20 question multiple choice test.
No participant had a perfect score of 20.
A majority of participants  answered at least 75% of the questions correctly.
The second objective of the study was to determine what differences, if any, existed between mass media format and gains in knowledge.
As shown in Table 2, statistically significant differences were found in knowledge about landscape maintenance by treatment level, F= 8.40, p<.05.
A large effect size  was found.
A Scheffe post hoc analysis of the data shows that participants who received the treatments newspaper, fact sheet, and video scored higher than the control group on the knowledge about landscape maintenance test.
Paired comparisons among variables resulted in two homogeneous subsets.
Subset one included the variables newspaper, video, fact sheet, and face-to-face.
No statistically significant differences were found between knowledge about landscape maintenance and these variables.
Subset two included the variable face-to-face and control group.
No statistically significant differences were found between knowledge about landscape maintenance and these variables.
Reaching urban clientele and meeting their needs with respect to water quality and conservation requires Extension to use different resources and delivery methods than it does with rural clientele.
Extension must use many different delivery methods to reach different target audiences.
For example, Kerrigan  noted that urban clientele can be effectively communicated with through newsletters.
In urban counties where target audiences are often larger and more difficult to identify, Extension agents may need to use mass media delivery methods to reach a larger number of their target audience.
The results presented in this article may help Extension educators in urban counties better understand the effectiveness of mass media delivery methods in educating their clientele.
A majority of participants  answered the test questions about landscape maintenance with a score of 75% or better.
Participants receiving one of the four treatments , averaged approximately 75% on the test about landscape maintenance.
Participants in the control group averaged approximately 62% on the test about landscape maintenance.
This finding demonstrates that the educational programming offered by Extension at the seminars resulted in, at a minimum, short-term cognitive development with respect to knowledge about landscape maintenance.
Those in the treatment groups scored approximately 13% higher than those in the control group.
The findings in the study reported here also support the notion that mass media delivery strategies such as newspaper, video, and fact sheets can be as effective in educating clientele as face-to-face delivery strategies.
If mass media can be used by Extension agents to teach those needing/willing to learn, as demonstrated in the study, Extension could use mass media to provide education to a larger, more diverse audience than the traditional Extension audience.
Additional longitudinal research on the effects of mass media delivery strategies is needed by Extension to document the long-term cognitive development of clientele.
Additional research is also needed on urban Extension agents' and target audiences' perceptions of what are the most effective and efficient delivery methods for communicating with clientele in urban counties.
Building on the findings of Vestal and Briers  that mass media resources think highly of the information received from university professionals, Extension should continue to create and maintain sustainable relationships with print and television.
In an effort to broaden the impact of educational programming, urban Extension agents may consider creating/strengthening relationships with mass media resources.
Agricultural communications: Changes and challenges.
Ames, IA: Iowa State University Press.
Experimental and quasi-experimental designs for research.
Boston, MA: Houghton Mifflin.
Evaluation of the use of water quality videotapes by county Extension offices in Iowa.
Journal of Applied Communications, 78, 13-22.
Factors associated with participation of Iowa young farmers in agricultural extension programs.
Journal of the American Association of Teacher Educators in Agriculture, 29, 45-52.
Taking the university to the people-seventy-five years of Cooperative Extension.
Ames, Iowa: Iowa State University Press.
Delivery methods preferred by targeted Extension clientele for receiving specific information.
Journal of Applied Communications, 78, 22-32.
Education through Cooperative Extension.
Exploring knowledge attitudes and perceptions of newspaper journalists in metropolitan markets in the United States regarding food biotechnology.
Journal of Agricultural Education, 41, 134-144.
The effect of mass media on the short-term cognitive development of the participants at a Tarrant County extension garden seminar.
Unpublished doctoral dissertation, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas.
August 2019 // Volume 57 // Number 4 // Research In Brief // v57-4rb6
 In response to drought conditions and population growth throughout the United States, researchers have focused on water conservation, particularly in the area of outdoor water use.
Concurrently, irrigation system evaluations have been used as a tool for encouraging water conservation in the landscape through education on irrigation methods for commercial, industrial, and institutional water users  as well as homeowners managing residential landscapes.
Irrigation systems are often inefficient due to factors such as poor timing of water application and improperly maintained equipment.
These factors may result in uneven water application, or poor distribution uniformity, which is a common factor leading to overwatering in landscapes.
Moreover, people often set automatic irrigation system schedules according to water requirements during the peak water demand period for turfgrasses, leaving schedules unchanged throughout the growing season.
Data obtained from previous irrigation system evaluations in Utah indicate that residents with automatic irrigation systems overwater their landscapes by 50%.
Furthermore, people use 53% of Utah's potable water to irrigate landscapes.
These data in Utah mirror findings from studies conducted in other states (Haley, Dukes, & Miller, 2007; St.
Hilaire et al., 2008).
Water supply and demand issues are prevalent across the United States due to factors such as population growth, increased standard of living, and drought conditions, particularly in arid western states (St.
Hilaire et al., 2008).
Therefore, addressing drought conditions and water supply and demand requires education.
Do education initiatives, such as irrigation system evaluation, adequately increase homeowner awareness and promote water conservation?
We implemented an irrigation evaluation program and investigated the educational results of the program via retrospective surveys.
Utah State University Extension has provided fact sheets for homeowners describing how they can determine their own distribution uniformity using "catch cups".
Utah homeowners can rent these catch cups at their local Extension office.
However, few people request the use of catch cups.
Therefore, recognizing a need for other options for addressing overwatering, Extension collaborated with water conservation districts in offering free sprinkler system evaluations for homeowners, or "water checks," to educate the public and address these issues.
The Water Check program in Utah began in 1999 when Extension worked with cities and water conservancy districts in support of statewide water conservation efforts during an ongoing drought.
Initially Extension provided training for water conservancy district Water Check program employees while water conservancy districts facilitated scheduling and assisted with program promotion.
Over the years the program has been running, some districts have been able to hire sufficient staff to run the program themselves.
Others have continued to contract with Extension to provide the service to clientele.
Historically, only Utah citizens living within the service areas of the water conservancy districts could register for a water check.
We added the Water Check program in 2015 for Cache County, Utah, which did not have a water conservancy district and is the location of the study described herein.
An education program involving on-site irrigation system evaluations for each program participant, Water Check is unique in that it provides in-person education along with detailed explanations of water check results.
A water check includes an irrigation system evaluation and a suggested customized irrigation schedule, adjusted according to site-specific landscape water requirements.
Participants receive this suggested irrigation schedule along with an individualized report identifying landscape and irrigation system problems, descriptions of these problems, suggested maintenance for a more efficient system, and web links for locating qualified irrigation specialists having Qualified Water Efficient Landscaper certification.
Trained Extension interns and master gardener volunteers conduct the following procedures for each homeowner participant:
 To qualify Extension interns and master gardener volunteers to conduct water checks, Extension agents and specialists provide training, conducted over 2 days.
During the Water Check program training, the interns and volunteers complete the following activities:
 According to Raidl et al.
, retrospective surveys serve as "an effective way to measure self-reported behavioral change" ("Implications" section, para.
Therefore, we evaluated knowledge gained by and behavioral changes in Water Check program participants in Cache County using a retrospective "post-then-pre" design.
Recall bias may occur in any educational program and in retroactive surveys because participants may incorrectly perceive an inflated preeducation understanding.
However, some studies have indicated that when compared to surveys conducted before and after an educational program, retrospective surveys provide more accurate data for evaluating knowledge gained from the program.
For example, according to Pratt, McGuigan, and Katzev , participants judge their own prior knowledge more harshly after participating in a program than they do when filling out a pretest.
Furthermore, retrospective surveys are an effective tool for measuring self-reported behavior because incomplete preor postprogram data sets and wasted data sets are eliminated.
Participants received the retrospective post-then-pre survey instrument through email via Qualtrics software.
Participants who did not provide email addresses received the same survey instrument through postal mail in paper form with a return envelope.
Participants received the survey instrument in October of the same year that they had received the Water Check program service.
We calculated percentages of increase by comparing the percentages of participants indicating "yes" in response to knowledge questions and "often" or "all of the time" in response to behavioral questions with regard to their statuses before and after receiving the Water Check program education.
We also included a yes-no question to collect data on whether participants had reduced their landscape water use after receiving their water checks.
Fifty percent of Water Check program participants completed the survey.
As indicated by the average overall positive percentage of change values shown in Table 1, close to 50% of respondents reported having more knowledge after receiving their water checks as compared to before receiving their water checks.
Results for specific types of knowledge were positive as well.
For instance, the percentage of change value for the survey item "I can identify maintenance issues with my sprinkler system such as sunken, tilted, or clogged heads" was 48%.
Survey participants also indicated having positive changes in irrigation behaviors after receiving a water check, as shown in Table 2.
That is, their habits of checking their sprinkler systems for repairs each season, adjusting their sprinklers according to weather needs, and implementing cycling  increased by an average of 26% in 2015 and 33% in 2016.
In addition to positive behavioral changes represented by the data shown in Table 2, 48% of participants indicated that they had reduced their landscape water use because of participating in the Water Check program.
The Water Check program provided in Cache County, Utah, in 2015 and 2016 included intensive, in-person education on landscape irrigation operations in the home environment.
Studies of similar programs focusing on irrigation system evaluations have indicated that training through workshops results in increased knowledge of efficient landscape irrigation practices as related to water conservation among homeowners  as well as larger scale business landscapes.
The results of our evaluation of the Water Check program support these findings.
Irrigation behaviors are difficult to change and require homeowner awareness and education.
Homeowners may not know how much water they are applying to their landscapes and may have a lack of understanding of landscape water requirements based on plant material and climate.
Our Water Check program survey results indicate that providing in-person and on-site irrigation system evaluations with suggested irrigation scheduling and thorough reports can help residents reduce their landscape water use and potentially save money on fertilizer application and water bills through a free educational program.
Though many Water Check program participants indicated that they reduced landscape water use, further investigation would identify actual changes in water use.
Using billing data for several years prior to and at least 1 year after performing water assessments, researchers could calculate actual changes in irrigation behavior.
Future research could address this question, providing data to help people manage landscapes across arid regions and identifying solutions for the demands of growing populations.
Residential landscape water check programs: Exploring a conservation tool.
Available from Digital Commons All Graduate Theses and Dissertations.
Measuring program outcomes: Using retrospective pretest methodology.
American Journal of Evaluation, 21, 341349.
June 2017 // Volume 55 // Number 3 // Feature // v55-3a1
 Between 2000 and 2010, the number of U.S.
residents living in urbanized areas of 50,000 or more grew by more than 27.5 million people, a notable increase from 68.3% to 71.2% of the total population (Urban Area Criteria for the 2010 Census, 2011; U.S.
As early as the 1980s, urban Extension clients were outnumbering their rural counterparts , and this imbalance prevails today  In 2011, Nelson-Smith queried, "Why isn't Extension more visible in the urban populations that reside in our own backyards?" (para.
Urban populations represent an untapped, incredibly important, and diverse sector of potential Extension clientele.
Being unknown or inaccessible to urban audiences is a concern for Extension.
Extension has been encouraged to meet the needs of the ever-growing urban population by "being open to changes in its programming and the methodology and approaches it uses to reach non-traditional populations" (Henning, Buchholz, Steele, & Ramaswamy, 2014, para.
It is important to note that urban Extension and rural Extension are not separate systems.
Urban Extension is often distinguished from traditional, or rural, Extension by its focus on issues-based programming, but it should not be considered a separate entity.
Extension must serve audiences of both types to uphold the land-grant mission.
Moreover, as rural and urban communities are important and mutually interdependent, complex issues often affect clientele regardless of where they live.
Unique characteristics of and challenges to successful urban programming have been documented.
For example, urban agricultural programs may need to provide support for navigating distinctive problems such as zoning issues and access to water management services.
Extensive diversity in urban counties also adds complexity to programming , and there is consensus that traditional programming strategies do not necessarily work in an urban context.
Successful urban Extension programs require training of personnel, new resources, comprehensive volunteer-development strategies, and the use of diverse team-based approaches that reach outside the traditional agricultural parts of colleges.
Traditional thinking can be applied to the land-grant university's role in urban programming (e.g., "Increasingly, [urban farmers] can turn to institutions that have been serving farmers in rural areas for more than 150 years: land-grant colleges and universities" [Pipkin, 2015, para.
3]); however, tackling issue-oriented needs in urban settings remains the greatest opportunity for Extension to better serve urban audiences.
Florida has been growing at nearly twice the rate of the country overall (U.S.
Therefore, Florida Extension has undertaken an active planning process to identify and meet the needs of its growing urban population.
This initiative was driven by a desire to establish in metropolitan regions a resilient and clearly recognizable urban Extension platform that addresses Florida's local critical issues.
The Florida dean for Extension arranged for an urban Extension task force to produce a plan for the integration of a more definitive urban approach into the existing Florida Extension system.
We represent that task force.
Due to the size of the state and participation from geographically distant Extension professionals, we employed a combination of remote electronic and in-person activities.
Interested agents and specialists first convened at the Extension Professionals' Association of Florida annual meeting in August 2013.
The meeting was characterized by discussion of the overall goals for the task force.
These goals were to
 As we discussed practical expectations for accomplishing these goals, difficulty in defining urban Extension emerged.
When defining urban Extension became a barrier to progress, we opted to identify characteristics of the planning process for urban Extension instead.
The characteristics we identified are as follows:
 Several months later, in June 2014, we held an urban Extension conference to gather ideas from the larger group of Extension faculty working in urban centers.
University of Florida Natural Resources Leadership Institute graduates facilitated the working conference.
The 47 attendees were members of the National Urban Extension Leaders group , county agents, state specialists, and administrators representing all subject matter areas and major urban regions.
The objectives were to develop a framework and to identify strategies to move University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences  urban Extension toward the best possible future by overcoming process constraints and emphasizing opportunities.
The program included exploration of issues and development strategies from existing national urban Extension efforts, guided planning scenarios, brainstorming of strategies for achieving the desired future, and identification of next steps for maximizing productivity.
Conference outcomes provided direction for the subsequent phases of task force work and resulted in four subcommittees that focused on  the urban Extension mission statement;  best management practices;  urban Extension centers, physical or virtual; and  urban Extension staffing.
These subcommittees were charged with preparing reports that would be used in development of the strategic plan.
After establishing the mission, goals, and guiding principles for urban Extension, the task force compared those fundamentals to the existing 10-year Florida Extension Roadmap  and found them to be relevant and compatible.
Our next major step was to develop a strategic plan.
While membership in the task force initially fluctuated, eventually 16 dedicated members emerged to concentrate on construction of the Strategic Plan for Extension in Metropolitan Regions.
Going forward, this group communicated through in-person meetings, conference calls, and email correspondence.
We selected an adaptive management process to support future decision making and guide development of the plan.
Adaptive management is a systematic, repetitive decision-making process used to move a system forward as participants consider all available knowledge and accept the need to proceed when all desired information is not available.
This approach establishes management "not only as a way to achieve objectives, but also as a process for probing to learn more about the resource or system being managed" (Johnson, 1999, para.
Adaptive management requires consistent monitoring, or periodic and systematic measurement of observations to identify trends over time (Block, Franklin, Ward, Ganey, & White, 2001; U.S.
Department of Agriculture [USDA] Forest Service, 1999).
Consequently, we considered monitoring central to the strategic plan's success and suggested three forms of continuous monitoring of strategic plan components to support the ability to make regular, iterative adjustments in the plan approximately every 5 years.
The forms of monitoring we suggested were implementation monitoring , effectiveness monitoring , and validation monitoring .
Our perspective was that this monitoring would allow UF/IFAS to identify significant trends, judge whether new approaches are effective, adjust to changes in the urban environment, and provide information to stakeholders.
The task force determined that the strategic plan would feature essential elements , a key outcome for each essential element, four measurable levels of performance indicators for achieving each key outcome, and alternatives for action for reaching each specified level of performance.
We defined 29 essential elements as the foundation for the strategic plan, and before identifying key outcomes defining the desired state for each essential element, we organized the elements into the following four frameworks:
 To develop the essential elements, framework designations, and key outcomes, we implemented a modified version of the Delphi process.
The Delphi process is a consensus-building tool that can be used to establish agreement among a panel of subject experts.
This approach is an appropriate alternative to in-person meetings in many cases , and it fit our needs because the task force members were located throughout the state.
The Delphi process begins with a generative round in which respondents reply to an open-ended survey question.
The group's responses are analyzed and used in the design of subsequent surveys, or iterations.
Panel members individually and anonymously indicate agreement during multiple iterations to reach a predefined level of consensus.
Agreement is often measured with Likert scales having response options ranging from strongly disagree to strongly agree.
Typically, two to four iterations are used, and the Delphi process is stopped when consensus is reached.
Although the definition of consensus is up to the researcher, it should be defined a priori.
We modified the Delphi process by using an initial face-to-face meeting of the entire task force instead of an open-ended survey to set out the essential elements and framework designations and begin work on the initial key outcomes.
This meeting also allowed participants to agree on the process for development of the strategic plan.
For the key outcomes, we defined consensus a priori as 70% agreement, and consensus was achieved via email through use of the standard Delphi process, as described above.
Following development of the essential elements, frameworks, and drafted key outcomes, the task force again convened in person to review the drafted key outcomes for language and consistency with the mission, goals, and guiding principles.
Redundant essential elements and key outcomes were eliminated or combined.
Additionally, we began developing performance indicators for use in measuring progress and success while enacting the plan.
We defined four categories of performance indicators: low, moderate, good, and optimal; the path for achieving a specific key outcome for an essential element follows the course of increasingly specific indicators.
Indicators not agreed on prior to adjournment were addressed via email through use of the Delphi process.
Next, we conducted an in-person meeting to finalize the performance indicators and determine where we perceived Florida Extension was on the continuum of low to optimal performance for each key outcome so that we could later assign action items.
Also at that meeting, we identified a steering committee that would provide additional leadership, bridge gaps in product development, format the plan, define terms and timelines, and ensure consistent and continued progress.
The resulting strategic plan draft with all essential elements, performance indicators, and key outcomes was shared with the dean for Extension in July 2015.
The dean expressed support for the plan and encouraged the steering committee to continue development.
Another remote meeting of the task force occurred in August, at which time we established alternatives for action intended to facilitate advancement from one performance indicator level to the next  for each essential element.
In early September 2015, the task force convened to review and further refine the alternatives for action.
The task force determined the existing performance level for each essential element to provide a starting point for the element.
Corresponding essential elements, performance indicators, and suggested alternatives for action were finalized and prepared for presentation to the Florida Extension leadership team in late September 2015.
At that time, the leadership team discussed further development of the strategic plan and further specified alternatives for action and approved the plan.
As has been noted, the task force charged with developing the Strategic Plan for Extension in Metropolitan Regions first established the relevant mission, goals, and guiding principles.
The mission of UF/IFAS urban Extension is "to develop knowledge in human, natural, and agricultural resources and to make that knowledge accessible in metropolitan regions to sustain and enhance the quality of human life." The basic UF/IFAS Extension mission statement was simply expanded to include reference to metropolitan regions.
The specific goals are
 And the guiding principles are as follows:
 The tables that follow present the 29 essential elements sorted into the four frameworks: institutional framework , Extension resources framework , partnership framework , and implementation framework.
Each essential element is accompanied by corresponding performance indicators that lead to the ultimate key outcome.
Existing levels of performance determined by the steering committee as of 2015 are shown as well.
The objective is to achieve optimal performance for all essential elements, using the performance indicators to benchmark progress and success while using adaptive management processes to address course corrections over time.
The Strategic Plan for Extension in Metropolitan Regions presents a comprehensive approach to implementing an urban Extension platform by supporting the long-term planning and decision making needed by a large organization.
The alternatives for action for each essential element comprise a series of measurable steps that guide activities and resources toward preset outcomes , with a timeline for completion by a responsible person, party, or partnership.
The preferred alternatives for action, derived from the present state of the performance indicators, form individual management plans, with each spanning approximately 5 years.
This approach allows for time to allocate budgets and adjust expected outcomes of programmatic sections of UF/IFAS urban Extension.
Annual individual work plans can then be derived from the 5-year work plans.
In this way the plan and its outcomes are completely integrated into and consistent with the overall Florida Extension mission and set of goals and outcomes.
An example of a single essential element with associated key outcome, performance indicators, and alternatives for action is presented in Table 5.
On the basis of the strategic plan, Florida Extension administration committed to working on a communications piece that sets out the key points and next steps of the Strategic Plan for Extension in Metropolitan Regions, for both internal and external audiences.
The dean for Extension conducted a Florida-wide Extension faculty town hall meeting in December 2015, which included an explanation of the need for the strategic plan and an overview of the six essential elements that comprised the initial focus of action.
Tasks related to those six essential elements were as follows:
 As indicated above, one of the first actions planned was conduct of a comprehensive, research-based needs assessment of Florida's urban areas.
This needs assessment will provide a deeper understanding of Florida's urban programming and clientele.
Urban Extension programming directions will then be tailored to address the identified clientele characteristics, needs, and challenges.
The process of developing a strategic plan designed to advance urban Extension takes substantial time and commitment from the organization, its educators, and its administration.
We note that our plan continues to evolve after more than a year of strategic development.
Leadership from individuals passionate about urban Extension is vital.
The plan itself is best seen as a longterm and adaptable plan of action, not a static product.
Additionally, the process provides UF/IFAS Extension and its urban partners with adaptive management capabilities for adjusting decision making as the urban environment changes or outcomes from our actions and other events become better understood.
The plan further allows for continuous monitoring to ensure that Extension remains relevant and resilient in all its endeavors.
Overall, the ultimate purpose of the tool is to provide our urban constituencies the same quality service we have provided traditionally, but with an eye toward their specific needs and changing situations and demographics.
In effect, however, it is a plan for all Extension efforts in the future.
We acknowledge the contribution of the members of the task force who met the goals and produced the approved report.
A debt of gratitude is owed to the numerous faculty behind the process and product described in this article.
Many individuals were involved in various capacities that supported the actual plan development.
Design and implementation of monitoring studies to evaluate the success of ecological restoration on wildlife.
Restoration Ecology, 9, 293303.
Toward a theory of group estimation.
Turoff , The Delphi method: Techniques and applications (pp.
Newark, NJ: New Jersey Institute of Technology.
Defining consensus: A systematic review recommends methodologic criteria for reporting of Delphi studies.
Journal of Clinical Epidemiology, 67, 401409.
Adaptive environmental assessment and management.
The Delphi method: Techniques and applications.
Newark, NJ: New Jersey Institute of Technology.
June 2013 // Volume 51 // Number 3 // Research In Brief // v51-3rb3
 Agriculture has always been a significant factor in the sustainability and development of human society.
Unfortunately, the important role of agriculture as a foundation for a secure and durable civilization is not always apparent to those outside of agriculture.
Specifically, current generations of children and youth often see agriculture only in terms of narrow stereotypesa farmer, a cow, and/or a tractor , with the stereotypical farmer only visualized as an old man that "wears bib overalls and chew[s] on straw".
These groups of children and youth represent the future leaders of society , the people we will depend on to support, regulate, and advocate for agriculture.
"Agricultural literacy is important to the future of our nation and the discipline of agriculture" (Frick & Spotanski, 1990, p.
Because the majority of the public is now almost completely removed from agriculture in their daily lives, it is of utmost importance that best practices in agricultural education are identified to ensure agricultural literacy is maintained in future generations of Americans.
The methods used to present agricultural education to students can greatly influence students' attitudes towards learning material.
Riedmiller  stated that the quality of a school garden or agricultural learning material is the single most important factor influencing the knowledge, skills, and attitudes of youth learning about agriculture.
Ricketts and Place  expressed the importance of youth "learning by doing" and the belief of allowing learners the opportunity for self-discovery learning.
Research has articulated the positive benefits of agricultural education programs for individuals in a variety of situations, such as nursing home residents, prison inmates, hospital patients, and disabled individuals , and hands-on experiences with agriculture have been shown to create a significant increase in a student's knowledge.
Gaining insight into youth perceptions of agriculture allows researchers and educators to develop methods to better educate and inform youth about agriculture.
Agricultural literacy is a critical need.
The cultivating of agricultural interest among youth can ultimately lead to not only a more agriculturally aware society but also a workforce to support agricultural practices that allow society to thrive.
For 80 years, the Houston Livestock Show and RodeoTM  has provided opportunities for youth to be involved in agricultural activities that create an awareness of the importance of agriculture.
In 1997, HLSR developed an agricultural awareness exhibition named "AgVenture" to expose youth to areas of agriculture and illustrate the impact of agriculture on everyday activities.
The exhibition includes 10 diverse areas of agriculture that enable youth to gain first-hand experiences.
A birthing center is available to allow youth to observe livestock such as sows, cows, and ewes give birth.
A poultry area displays the stages of a chicken's life, including hatching, growing for consumption, and reproduction.
The honey bees exhibit has live honey bees producing honey.
Observers are able to see how the colony of bees works together to produce honey for humans to consume and/or use to produce different by-products.
The Dairy Discovery Zone provides a life-sized model cow that offers participants a hands-on milking experience.
The rabbit exhibit allows participants to observe and interact with several different breeds of rabbits.
The Breed Row Barn showcases different breeds of swine, cattle, sheep, and goats.
The Fun on the Farm attraction allows youth to explore the world of agriculture by following Farmer Joe through the process of producing farm productsfrom planting to market.
Youth are encouraged to help with daily chores around the farm, such as gathering eggs, planting and harvesting crops, and milking a cow.
The horticultural exhibit features live earthworms that the youth are able to interact with hands-on, learning about their importance to soil and plants.
The Texas Department of Agriculture's Food and Nutrition exhibit is an interactive world where children learn about the three E's of healthy livingeducation, exercise, and eating right.
The Texas Farm Bureau exhibit depicts the history of agriculture and teaches students about the importance of cotton.
The purpose of the study reported here was to evaluate the effects of the AgVenture program on the knowledge and perceptions of agriculture among fourth grade students who attended the AgVenture program at the 2011 Houston Livestock Show and RodeoTM.
Elementary school students in the Houston metropolitan area were the population for the study.
Fourth grade students were specifically targeted for inclusion based on recommendations from previous research.
A total of 306 fourth grade students from eight different schools were identified as potential participants.
After seeking volunteers for the study and appropriate parental permission, a total sample of 41 participants in two schools agreed to participate.
Survey instruments were developed using a preand post-test design following a similar format used by Boleman and Burrell.
Both pre-test and post-test instruments included a knowledge section , perceptions section, and demographics section.
The perception section included 15 questions related to the student's personal perception of how agriculture affects his/her daily life and used a ranking of "Yes", "No", and "I don't know." Content validity was determined through a panel of fourth grade teachers, reading specialists, librarians, and HLSR personnel.
Instrument reliability was tested using the Spearman-Brown reliability test and revealed reliability for both instruments was.610, which has been deemed acceptable for early stages of research.
Time to complete both the pre-test and post-test instrument averaged 30-45 minutes.
Data were analyzed using the SPSS Statistics Program.
Institutional Review Board approval was obtained and proper protocol was followed.
Of the 41 participants, 78% were female, and 22% were male; ages ranged from 9 to 11 years of age.
The majority self-identified as African-American  or Hispanic.
More than 30% of the students stated they had no prior knowledge of agriculture before attending the AgVenture program, 29.3% had previously toured a rodeo and/or stock show, 29.3% had previous contact with farm animals and/or crops more than once, and 9.8% owned farm animals and/or had grown crops with their family.
Among all participants, 43.9% stated that they had previously participated in the AgVenture program at the Houston Livestock Show and RodeoTM , 39.0% had attended the HLSR, but had not participated in AgVenture, and 17.1% had never been to the HLSR.
A paired sample t-test revealed a significant change in knowledge at the.006 level.
Cohen's d indicated a medium effect size .
Student perceptions were affected through exposure to the AgVenture program.
Prior to participation in the program, 95% of the participants stated that they would like to learn more about agriculture and 90% believed that youth like themselves should learn more about agriculture.
Only 34% of the participants believed that agriculture affected their daily lives, and 46% perceived agriculture as important to their community
 After participation in the program, 90% of the participants wanted to learn more about agriculture, and 90% felt that it is important for students like themselves to learn more about agriculture.
While interest in agriculture seemed to remain unchanged or declined among participants from preto post-tests, appreciation of agriculture increased with exposure to AgVenture, with 61% perceiving agriculture affecting their daily lives  and 73% believing that agriculture was important to their community.
As part of the post-test instrument, participants were asked which portion of the AgVenture program they had learned the most from as well as which portion of the program had been the most fun.
The Birthing Center  and the Fun on the Farm  exhibits received the highest response in relation to learning and fun.
Participants' agricultural knowledge increased following their participation in the AgVenture program.
It is possible that prior lack of agricultural literacy was a result of the fact that 31.7% of the participants reported that they had no previous agriculture experience.
Based on the finding that only 34% of the participants believed that agriculture affected them, it can be concluded that many of the participants did not possess a deep understanding of the role that agriculture plays in society.
However, prior to participation in AgVenture, the majority of participants were interested in learning about agriculture.
Participants indicated that they "learned the most from" the exhibits that had active hands-on involvement in the program as indicated in their identification of the Birthing Center exhibit and Fun on the Farm exhibit as the most educational and fun.
In addition, study findings indicated an increase in fourth grade students' knowledge about basic agriculture, thus increasing agricultural literacy levels among youth.
Findings indicate that the interactive activities enabled students to relate to agriculture, therefore heightening their interest in agriculture and increasing their opportunity for self-discovery.
These finding are similar to those of Ricketts and Place , who reported hands-on activities as making students more receptive to learning.
It was further concluded that participation in the AgVenture program had a positive effect on student perceptions of agriculture; however, it was also concluded that the awareness of agriculture through the AgVenture program did not stimulate interest in agriculture and actually caused participants to question whether or not they would want to work in agriculture.
In fact, it is possible that this exhibit could have inadvertently perpetuated the stereotype of agriculture being limited to production agriculture.
Significant time, effort, and funds are expended to implement agricultural education programs for youth.
Based on the study reported here, it is recommended that future agricultural education intervention programs for fourth grade students continue to include hands-on activities designed to increase knowledge of basic agriculture-related concepts.
However, it is also recommended that additional exhibits be added that emphasize the breadth and depth of the agricultural industry.
It is critical that youth learn not only about production agriculture but also about agricultural technologies, alternative production methods, and local and urban agriculture.
Programs such as the one evaluated have the potential to influence agricultural literacy by allowing students to explore the complexity of agriculture and how it affects their everyday life.
This exploration must include aspects beyond production agriculture in order to avoid perpetuating the stereotypes that exist.
The AgVenture program could be improved through the inclusion of aspects that create a more broad-based understanding of careers in agriculture.
It is recognized that a limitation of the study was the small number of participants who completed the preand post-instruments.
In addition, given the small number, it was not possible to compare students who had prior AgVenture experience and those who did not.
However, given that the respondents were an ethnically diverse group, the study adds to the literature regarding agricultural literacy.
Additional program improvement could be achieved by extending programs such as the one studied to include in-school visits and follow-up materials and sessions.
These mechanisms would allow youth to continue their agricultural education beyond the activity itself.
Educators must understand that not all youth have an interest in learning about agriculture.
Relevance will be a key factor in gaining the interest of youth.
It is recommended that educators and program leaders demonstrate the connection between agriculture and youth using interconnected examples that have relevance.
One example would be the making the connection between items such as tennis shoes and basketballs being made from a cow's hide.
Educational materials should promote both the technical aspects of agriculture and the vast career opportunities in agriculture.
The study reported here provided insight into understanding how an important age group  reacts to and benefits from participation in an agricultural education program and adds to the body of research related to agricultural literacy and society's perceptions of agriculture.
Rural and urban adult knowledge and perceptions of agriculture.
Journal of Agricultural Education, 36, 44-53.
Coming to grips with agricultural literacy.
The Agricultural Education Magazine, 62, 6-13.
Houston Livestock Show and RodeoTM  Website.
Evaluation of the Incubators in the Classroom program: Does it increase fourth grade students' knowledge of agriculture-related science concepts?
Journal of Agricultural Education, 43, 49-60.
New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company.
Just how much can school pupils learn from school gardening?
A study of two supervised agricultural experience approaches in Uganda.
Journal of Agricultural Education, 52, 24-35.
A comparison of evaluation of digital versatile disc  instruction and live instruction in third grade classrooms.
NACTA Journal, 52, 2-5.
October 2017 // Volume 55 // Number 5 // Feature // v55-5a1
 He pointed to the land-grant university's partnership with federal and local governments supporting the Cooperative Extension Service as one of the major forces that transformed U.S.
agriculture and went on to ask why we would not turn to this same "mechanism" to enable the sustainable development of urban America in the 21st century "at the same scale as agricultural Extension [had done] with rural America 100 years ago" (Jacob, 2013, Introduction, para.
Indeed, in both rural and urban settings, Extension has long played a role in creating space to engage public issues.
There have been distinct understandings of the role of Extension professionals as "change agents" in such community-based work, and commitments to a "neutral position" (Peek et al., 2015, "Public Policy Education Key Principles," para.
2) are contrasted by arguments that Extension is a "non-neutral force for change.
not only or mainly about providing information and answering questions, but catalyzing change" (Peters, 2006b, p.
Although Extension has often been defined by a "one-way delivery" model of information dissemination, the century-long practice of Extension work has also embodied a collaborative model of "co-determining" what can and should be done in communities (Coon, 2010, p.
Extension engages citizens by "cultivat[ing] in [them] the qualities of character necessary to the common good of self government".
In short, Extension has put into practice the role of supporting and catalyzing change in communities as facilitators of citizens' own agency in response to public issues.
The land-grant university is shaped by multiple public purposes, providing expertise but also demonstrating a commitment to engagement.
Scholars have noted the various ways in which different narratives shape land-grant universities and Extension  within broader discourses about the contested purposes of higher education.
There has always been a tension between a technocratic mind-set and an approach that is more democratic, relational, and engaging.
For example, the Country Life Commission in 1909 called for new leaders among farmers who would "find not only a satisfying business career on the farm, but who [would] throw themselves into the service of upbuilding the community" (Report of the Commission on Country Life, 1911, p.
Peters and Morgan  argued that the commission "placed great hopes in this system as a vehicle for developing and organizing a new leadership and cooperative spirit" but that "many of the experts and educators who ended up being employed in that system lacked the commission's democratic ideals and broad-gauge vision of sustainability or were overpowered by conservative business interests that often influenced and shaped extension practice" (p.
In other words, catalyzing change did not always align with business or professional expectations.
Since its inception, Extension has been a complex organization with a complicated identity as a delivery system for scientifically based knowledge, an extensive adult education organization, and a community development agency.
In recent decades, public deliberation about issues has increasingly become part of Extension's work.
Deliberation resides at the intersection of  research and  information being used for educational programs aimed at improving communities through discourse with citizens.
Additionally, beyond its usefulness for convening citizens around public issues, deliberation can play an important role in defining how university faculty approach scholarship, what Extension is today, and what these institutions can be in the future (Peters, 2005, p.
19; Peters, 2014; Shaffer, 2014b; Thomas, 2010; Thomas & Levine, 2011).
Significantly, Extension has a long history as a "leaven at work in rural America," bringing rural people together in groups to understand public problems (Smith & Wilson, 1930, p.
The New Deal has often been viewed as a chapter in U.S.
history that relied profoundly on experts to ameliorate the challenges facing the country (Badger, 1989, p.
Nevertheless, administrators in the U.S.
Department of Agriculture  viewed themselves and their work in a more complex way.
With Secretary of Agriculture Henry A.
Wilson, assistant secretary  of the USDA, championed efforts to approach Extension's work through a democratic lens, building on a belief that "free and full discussion [was] the archstone of democracy" (Wilson, 1935, p.
145) and that Extension agents could play a critical role in facilitating citizen discussion about a range of public issues (Gilbert, 2009; Gilbert, 2015, pp.
142178; Shaffer, 2014a, pp.
Representatives from land-grant institutions in 10 states representing different agricultural regions of the country convened in 1935 to consider the use of discussion group methods in communities.
With support from USDA administrators, Extension agents convened rural people in homes and grange halls to introduce them to small-group discussion methods and to engage in democratic discussion about matters of local and national importance (Lord, 1939, p.
Extension's presence in communities made it the logical bridge between the government and rural communities for the broader USDA programs as well as the discussion group work (Perkins, 1969, p.
In the context of deeply troubling situations, such as economic collapse and environmental deterioration, Wilson believed that what was needed were opportunities for citizens to discuss issues with neighbors and colleagues in order to understand and address those issues.
Land-grant institutions, Extension, and the USDA could help make that happen, not through government propaganda, but through open discussion.
As McDean  noted, group discussion was meant to "provide a means for the expressing of all points of view" (p.
415) about the issues that mattered to people.
The USDA produced discussion materials for communities to use to talk about a range of policy issues and materials for leading such discussions (U.S.
Department of Agriculture, The Extension Service, & Agricultural Adjustment Administration, 1935).
This goal of discussing issues was described in one of the farmer discussion group pamphlets as "one of the most important jobs ahead" for Americans ("What kind of agricultural policy is necessary to save our soil?," 1936, p.
Worthy of note, Wilson based much of his commitment to discussion on his previous work as an Extension agent in Montana, where he had brought farmers together in community discussions.
He felt that something along those lines might be possible on a national scale (McDean, 1969, p.
Existing scholarly literature has focused on national-level discussion about this democratic effort, with little attention on its local-level aspects.
What follows is a brief description of how Extension educators and citizens participated in this civic experiment.
On March 22, 1935, the newspaper in New Bern, North Carolina, ran the article "Discussion Plan Gains Favor with County's Farmers." The article captured the interest in the trial discussions happening in the state.
One discussion group member, who the newspaper report indicated was "speaking of the value the farmers had been getting from the meetings," suggested that the discussions should last 6 or 7 years rather than 6 or 7 weeks.
In fact, the hope was that the discussions in various communities might even be continued indefinitely.
Another discussion group participant told Extension district agent E.
Gaither that the discussion approach was of "considerable value".
It was through the "give and take of what is said in discussion groups," according to Gaither, that the participant "acquires the ability to look behind the catchphrases and see if they have meaning, to analyze policies advocated by different interests, and to formulate and express his own point of view on these policies" ("Group discussions sponsored for N.
The 10 states from the initial discussion group trial expanded their efforts as other states also became involved.
By January 1936, approximately 30 states had active discussion programs, and within the subsequent 3 years, more than 40 states had discussion groups organized through Extension.
The trend of the groups, according to one report, was to "discuss in free and open fashion the lively controversial issues of the day affecting agricultural policies, present and future" ("Discussion project," 1936, p.
In Virginia, 700 discussion groups had been established, often in association with the broader county planning program.
In 1935, 547 groups met, with 47,000 Virginians participating, and in each of the next 2 years, these numbers would grow to 60,000 and 75,000, respectively.
Few programs in adult education reached so many people in Virginia in such a short period of time.
Virginia was not alone in its high level of involvement.
In Ohio, between 40 and 50 counties had organized discussion groups.
An additional 20 counties, in a state of 88 counties, expressed interest, with the only limitation of more discussion groups being the "shortage of state personnel".
Other states such as Georgia, Kansas, Montana, and North Dakota had discussion groups taking place in nearly all counties.
Composition of groups varied widely, yet many aligned with the Grange, American Farm Bureau Federation, and Farmers Union by integrating discussion into existent programs and groups.
This approach maintained the USDA's promise to the Farm Bureau that it would not seek to create a competing organization or association (Brunner & Lorge, 1937, pp.
In the following years, states such as Oklahoma distributed materials on small-group discussion methods produced by the USDA as well as state-specific and locally specific materials.
The circular "First Steps in Organizing and Setting Up County and Local Discussion Groups," published by Oklahoma State Extension, defined group discussion as "democracy in action, a commitment to small groups , the cultivation of friendly disagreement, [and a] space for everyone to speak".
Discussions were to be small enough that people could speak and engage in thoughtful discourse.
A graphic produced by Oklahoma Extension showed how the USDA, the university, and local community organizations such as chapters of the National Farmers Union, rural churches, 4-H clubs, and parent-teacher associations supported discussion.
What connected all these levels and layers visually was the term "Extension" vertically written amid the levels.
Discussion groups were institutionalized enough that Oklahoma's 1936 Extension annual report included a statement about the formation of discussion groups in which "farm people find democratic opportunity to study and discuss their problems" (Scholl, 1936, p.
In Michigan, one of the 10 trial states from 1935, Michigan State University appointed a county Extension agent to the position of state leader of discussion groups.
Johnston assumed this role in 1936 and dedicated his entire appointment to training Extension agents in discussion methods and convening of groups.
In his monthly narrative reports, he acknowledged the challenges of implementing the program, especially when Extension agents hesitated: "I have been trying to get [agents] to see that if they will adopt the Discussion Method in their educational program, that they will do better than [with] the lecture method now in use.
However, it is not easy to tear educators away from the practices they have used, with rather outstanding success for 20 years".
This sentiment would be echoed elsewhere.
In The County Agent , Gladys Baker noted the resistance and hesitation many agents had about the discussion efforts championed by USDA administrators.
She wrote about tension between the vision of USDA administrators and the experience of Extension agents:
 County agents who were responsible for setting up the discussion groups in communities and counties were not always enthusiastic about this additional project advocated by the Department of Agriculture at a time when they were already burdened with numerous federal programs.
The training and experience of the agents did not fit them with the necessary tolerance and objectivity for this task; for they were accustomed to parceling out a continuous supply of "right answers" to immediately pressing farm problems and consequently often found it difficult to see the practical value of philosophical discussion groups.
While there was obviously energy from administrators about cultivating democratic habits in rural communities in response to political, cultural, and philosophical questions, the reactions by those organizing these efforts were more nuancedsometimes involving explicit opposition.
Altering one's pedagogical approach, especially after relying on a particular set of methods, was a very real challenge.
Nevertheless, millions of rural men and women participated in discussion groups, tens of thousands of discussion leaders were trained, and more than 150 Schools of Philosophy  were held with over 60,000 Extension workers and other rural community leaders between 1935 and the early 1940s.
Overall, it was a robust example of Extension's having institutional support for engaging communities through group discussion about public problems.
One could read this article and simply see an intriguing story from Extension's past.
But I contend that there are important implications for Extension today.
In the 1930s and 1940s, Extension agents were confronting complex economic, political, and ecological challenges by inviting people to learn about them through facilitated small-group discussion.
More recently, Extension educators have embraced deliberative approaches in their community engagement work, dealing with issues such as economic vitality, natural resources management, and community development by creating opportunities for public deliberation.
I highlight three takeaways from this historical period that can inform discussions about Extension as we define its second century.
Extension has always wrestled with its identity.
Extension's second century can be strengthened by supporting civil discourse through discussionthe archstone of democracy.
American democracy depends on such efforts.
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Environmental leadership and deliberative democracy.
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What should you and I do?
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New York, NY: John Wiley & Sons.
The people's colleges: A history of the New York State Extension Service in Cornell University and the state, 18761948.
Ithaca, NY: Cornell University Press.
The welding of opposite views: Land-grant historiography at 150 years.
Paulsen , Higher education: Handbook of theory and research (Vol.
New York, NY: Springer.
The public commission of the university: The role of the community of scholars in an industrial, urban, and corporate society.
New York, NY: New York University Press.
Educating for deliberative democracy.
San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Deliberative democracy and higher education: Higher education's democratic mission.
Hartley , "To serve a larger purpose": Engagement for democracy and the transformation of higher education (pp.
Philadelphia, PA: Temple University Press.
Department of Agriculture, The Extension Service, & Agricultural Adjustment Administration.
Discussion: A brief guide to methods D-1.
What kind of agricultural policy is necessary to save our soil?
Farmer Discussion Group Pamphlet (Vol.
Discussion time is here.
Extension Service Review, 6, 145.
New York, NY: Carrick & Evans.
Deer, dissension, and dialogue: A university-community collaboration in public deliberation.
Journal of Higher Education Outreach and Engagement, 13, 1744.
Wicked bedfellows: Can science and democracy coexist in the land grant?
Higher Education Exchange, 5968.
June 2017 // Volume 55 // Number 3 // Tools of the Trade // v55-3tt5
 Cow Herd Appraisal Performance Software  is an Extension-developed beef herd management program that has been used by producers for over 30 years.
The program has allowed the CHAPS team at the North Dakota State University Extension Service to assemble substantial historical beef herd data that include calving distribution, reproduction, and growth data.
Previously, we reported a process for selecting herds from CHAPS historical data to create CHAPS20Y, a 20-year data set spanning from 1994 through 2013, as an Extension tool for understanding trends in beef production.
In this article, we describe calving distribution data obtained from CHAPS20Y, including yearly means and the averages of the yearly means.
Additionally, we describe linear trends over time based on the 20-year averages.
Those of us working in applicable areas of Extension can use knowledge gained from CHAPS20Y calving distribution data to help producers set relevant herd management goals and adjust management plans as needed to achieve those goals.
CHAPS defines the date that the third mature cow in a herd calves as the trigger date , or the start of the calving period for the herd.
We report the trigger date and each calving date on a day-of-year calendar, ranging from 1 to 365 days, to understand when calving occurs during the year.
Yearly mean trigger dates for CHAPS20Y ranged from day 69 to day 75 , with a 20-year average of day 72 .
Yearly mean calving dates ranged from day 91 to day 97 , with a 20-year average of day 94 .
CHAPS defines calving distribution as the percentages of individuals calving by certain times during the calving period.
Each year, for each herd, CHAPS calculates calving distributions by first determining the number of days between the trigger date and each individual's calving date and then determining the percentages of individuals in the herd that calved within 21 days, within 42 days, within 63 days, and after 63 days relative to the trigger date.
Figure 2 shows cumulative yearly calving distributions with 20-year average trend lines.
Yearly mean calving distributions ranged from 53% to 65% at 21 days, with a 20-year average of 61%; 83% to 90% at 42 days, with a 20-year average of 87%; 92% to 97% at 63 days, with a 20-year average of 96%; and 3% to 8% after 63 days, with a 20-year average of 4%.
CHAPS also calculates the calving distributions of heifers  and mature cows separately.
Heifers can calve early, prior to the trigger date , because CHAPS bases the trigger date on the calving dates of only mature cows.
Cumulative yearly calving percentages are shown for heifers in Figure 3 and for cows in Figure 4.
The percentages of heifers that calved early ranged from 24% to 41%, with a 20-year average of 36%.
For heifers that did not calve early, yearly mean calving distributions ranged from 69% to 77% at 21 days, with a 20-year average of 73%, and 82% to 93% at 42 days, with a 20-year average of 88%.
The percentage of mature cows that calved by 21 days ranged from 48% to 63%, with a 20-year average of 57%.
By 42 days, 82% to 88% of cows calved, with a 20-year average of 86%.
Heifer calving distribution and mature cow calving distribution differed over time.
Almost 20% more heifers calved by 21 days compared to mature cows , whereas the percentages of heifers and mature cows that calved by 42 days were similar.
To better demonstrate the herd-to-herd variation in the CHAPS20Y data set, we present yearly herd minimums and maximums for trigger and calving dates   and yearly herd minimum and maximum calving distribution percentages for all heifers and cows , for heifers only , and for mature cows only.
We have shown yearly mean trigger dates, calving dates, and calving distributions to be consistent over the 20-year period, as indicated by horizontal linear trend lines in Figures 16.
However, yearly minimums and maximums vary greatly, indicating herd-to-herd variability.
Although it is not our intention to determine cause and effect, we outline here possible causes of this variation to expand the Extension knowledge base, providing information Extension professionals can use to help producers manage their herds to meet their goals.
Numerous factors affect calving distribution and can result in variability within and between herds.
Proper nutrition is important to successful reproduction, and producers should evaluate nutrition practices when calving is not timely.
Breed and genetics affect the timing and reproductive capacity of beef cattle.
Cool wet springs and warm wet summers, associated with increased forage production, tend to increase cow-calf production.
Hot weather and drought can cause heat stress and impair reproduction.
The age of a cow is also an important consideration.
First-calf heifers often require more time than older cows to recover from calving before subsequent rebreeding.
Timely calving ensures ample time for rebreeding, allowing each cow to produce a calf every 365 days.
Ideally, 60% of heifers and cows in a herd should calve in the first 21 days of the calving season, and 86% in the first 42 days.
Producers may need to adjust breeding plans to achieve this goal; adjustments may include culling of late-calving cows.
Using data from CHAPS20Y, we have added to the Extension knowledge base and broadened Extension thinking on beef cattle reproductive management.
We have outlined the numerous factors that affect calving distribution.
With this knowledge, Extension professionals can help producers set herd management goals and adjust management plans to achieve those goals.
We thank Lee Tisor, Wanda Ottmar, and Michelle Stolz for their management of the CHAPS database.
Reproductive performance of beef cattle under drought conditions.
Journal of the American Veterinary Medical Association, 148, 10301033.
A computer program for appraising and increasing productivity in beef cattle.
Veterinary Medicine, 87, 706718.
December 2002 // Volume 40 // Number 6 // Feature Articles // 6FEA6
 Abstract Communities across the United States are growing and changing at an unprecedented pace.
The Fox Valley of Wisconsin is no exception to the rapid population growth and development that often occurs in an unplanned manner and evokes terms like "sprawl" and "leapfrog construction." The rapid suburban, exurban, and rural evolution is fueled not only by broad economic factors but also localized characteristics that push residents from the city and pull residents to suburbia.
This article describes research that investigated the pull factors in six suburban Fox Valley, Wisconsin communities and discusses resulting implications for Extension programming.
"Urban sprawl," "low-density construction," "leapfrog development," and related terms that describe the often haphazard pattern of suburban, exurban, and rural development are no longer voiced by a handful of planning and community development professionals.
Increasingly, citizens, elected officials, and communities across the United States are vocalizing their unhappiness with the maze of unmanaged development and the resulting negative externalities.
From a broad perspective, our overall booming economy and concurrent low interest rates, some of the lowest real farm incomes in recent times, and agriculture demographics are at the root of the development binge.
On a more localized level, additional factors that attract newcomers to the fringe and nudge homeowners from the city are at play.
These characteristics, commonly referred to as "push" and "pull" factors, can have significant localized impacts.
Often the right side of the tracks will flourish, while the wrong side will falter.
Poor schools, high crime rates, and declining services push those that can afford to escape the city to the fringes.
Lower taxes, cheaper land, bigger homes, subsidized transportation systems, and less restrictive land use regulations have all been proposed as factors that pull homeowners out of the city.
In the Fox Valley of Wisconsin, the exodus to suburbia has begun, thus prompting the question: "Why are people moving to the suburbs and beyond?"
 The Fox Valley is located in northeastern Wisconsin, along the banks of the Fox River and Lake Winnebago.
It encompasses four counties, Brown, Outagamie, Winnebago, and Fond du Lac, and is home to the well established, medium-size cities  of Fond du Lac, Oshkosh, Appleton, and Green Bay.
These cities have witnessed modest population growth of 12% or less throughout the decade of the nineties.
The population of the outlying suburbs and exurbs has expanded much more rapidly during the same time period, growing as much as 135% (U.S.
A suburb is an area with an established population and community services that is immediately adjacent to a traditional urban center with a central city.
An exurb is similar to a suburb except that it is not adjacent to the urban center and is a relatively new phenomenon resulting from the continued movement of people from the central city.
Table 1 shows population growth in the six suburbs included in the study.
Figure 1 illustrates growth differences between the communities studied and the adjacent urban areas.
Percent Population Change Comparison between Suburbs Studied and Adjacent Urban Areas (Source: U.S.
Until recently, these communities did little or no planning, and growth management was not a strong consideration.
This created the potential for negative transportation, environmental, social, and fiscal impacts.
One example of such impact is the loss of productive farmland.
From 1990-1997, over 36,000 acres of farmland were converted out of agricultural use in the four-county Fox Valley area.
Almost 15,000 homes, hundreds of commercial and industrial buildings, and miles of highway have replaced the tractor.
A second example is the income shift being witnessed.
From 1993-2000, nominal median family incomes grew 39% in urban areas, 45% in suburban areas, and 52% in rural areas.
For the purposes of this research, urban areas were defined as the central cities, suburban areas were defined as adjacent unincorporated towns, and the remaining unincorporated towns were treated as rural areas.
In 2000, the average suburban income in the Fox Valley was $55,909, while the state average was $40,570.
Ironically, the highest percentage increase during the 7-year period was in the rural area, which is home to a struggling farm economy.
It can be deduced that this trend is a result of the booming rural housing market and the relatively high-income non-farm residents inhabiting the new homes.
The income shift and anecdotal concentration of wealthy and low-income residents raise questions regarding social impact.
The University of Wisconsin-Extension currently funds a 5-year project called the Fox Valley Urban Initiative that targets improving understanding of urban issues, raising awareness of Extension programming, and reaching out to new audiences in the four-county region.
The fact that clientele were concerned with the obviously apparent movement of a major portion of the populous from the urban areas prompted University of Wisconsin-Extension to fund this research in order to:
 The primary purpose of the former objective was to identify the aforementioned pull factors.
A secondary research question addressed the civic involvement level of new residents.
A mixture of mail and telephone survey methodology using the Dillman Method was used to obtain the opinions of residents in the spring of 2000.
A total of 3,200 surveys were sent to households in the towns of Bellevue, Harrison, Buchanan, Algoma, and Greenville.
One thousand eight hundred ninety-six surveys were returned, producing a 59% mail survey response rate.
Households receiving mail surveys were randomly selected from a municipal tax and household list provided by the Town Clerks.
Previous experience with mail surveys in the town of Taycheedah led researchers to survey 200 households by telephone.
Survey respondents were randomly chosen from the phone directory.
The more than 2,000 responses garnered a confidence interval of 95% and a 5% sampling error.
The suburbs studied were chosen using multiple criteria.
From a broad perspective, Fox Valley Urban Initiative project funding influenced researchers to choose at least one community from each of the four counties and focus any remaining research efforts in the Oshkosh or Appleton areas.
Specifically, suburbs were eligible to be chosen if they were unincorporated and had a population under 10,000.
Researchers felt that unincorporated suburbs over 10,000 and incorporated city or village suburbs boast too many characteristics of the adjacent urban central city.
From the suburbs meeting these criteria, the fastest growing communities were chosen based on Wisconsin Department of Administration population projections.
Survey results are placed into three categories: home tenure, pull factors, and civic involvement level.
The research reveals three important findings.
First, two-thirds  of respondents lived in their current residence less than 10 years.
This corroborates the commonly held real estate notion that people move quite often, owning each home approximately only 7 years.
Yet despite the disposition to relocate, almost one-fifth  had lived in their previous community over 21 years.
This suggests that some extraordinary factors, be they push or pull, influenced relatively relocation-averse people to move.
The study reveals 64% of respondents moved from a neighboring urban community.
This suggests that the "relocation-shed" is rather small and dispels any argument that the increase in new suburban residents is due entirely to an influx of out-of-region newcomers.
In fact, a majority of the new suburban residents appear to be partaking in an "escape the city" exodus, similar to the out-migration that major U.S.
cities experienced in the 1960s.
In the survey, respondents were asked to rate the importance of a set of possible pull factors in their decision to move to the suburban community.
The data suggests five primary reasons for moving.
Almost half  of respondents identified a more rural atmosphere as being the most important reason.
Lower taxes  and a cleaner environment  ranked second and third, respectively.
Closer to family and friends, ranking fifth, was the most important reason for 6% of respondents.
The only primary reason not related to an urban exodus was to be closer to work , which ranked fourth, suggesting some out-of-region newcomers did relocate to the suburbs being researched.
Surprisingly, less government and better schools did not rank as primary pull factors, suggesting local urban schools and governments of the Fox Valley are fairing well in the eyes of the public.
Pull Factors by Percent of Respondents Ranking Most Important
 Additionally, two open-ended questions that relate to pull factors were asked.
The first inquired, "what most affects sense of community?" in the respondent's new community.
Five hundred seventy-five responses were subjectively categorized.
Almost half of the respondents  mentioned friendliness.
Eight percent noted rural atmosphere, and 7% stated community activities, which might indicate an increased need for rural neighborhood and community development initiatives.
Isolation from others unlike themselves was also an important factor.
Representative isolation comments received include "neighbors of similar backgrounds, values, and ages," "no minorities," and "everyone in neighborhood owns home-not renters as in our previous area."
 For those respondents answering that the new community was a good place to raise children, a second question inquired why they thought this was the case.
Six hundred responses were subjectively categorized.
Safety, rural atmosphere, and schools were top reasons, mentioned by 21%, 16%, and 14% of respondents, respectively.
Isolation-based comments were again frequently mentioned.
Community participation was analyzed on both a passive and active level.
From a passive level, respondents were asked:
 Interestingly, in reacting to the research during Extension programs, community officials feel the percentage of respondents answering yes is inversely related to lot size and income.
Investigating this proposal was, however, beyond the scope of this research.
As for relationship comparison, 34% of respondents feel closer to their neighbors in their new community versus their old community, 31% feel about the same, and 26% do not feel as close.
The high percentage of respondents feeling closer or about the same is surprising when the relatively low population density, automobile-dependent nature, and large lot size of suburban and exurban areas are considered.
That is, one would expect less opportunity for interaction.
On the other hand, if the suburbs and exurbs are becoming isolated pockets of affluence, as alluded to by some respondents, and people are moving to be closer to family and friends , more commonalties might exist, thereby explaining the result.
From an active level, respondents were asked to rate their civic involvement before and after relocation.
Several interesting results can be observed.
First, in five of the six communities surveyed, the percentage of respondents stating that they were not very active in their community decreased from 55% before relocation to 36% after.
Second, the percentage rating themselves as very active or somewhat active more than doubled after the move, from 11% to 23%.
These results are not consistent with the common proposal that new suburbanites are apathetic and too busy to be actively engaged in their community.
In fact, respondents appear to desire to become citizens and not just residents.
Comparison of Civic Involvement Before and After Relocation
 In Bellevue, however, respondents reported a decreased level of involvement.
Almost 55% said they were very active before their move, while only 37% stated this after moving to the suburbs.
Additionally, the percentage of respondents reporting they were somewhat not active or not very active increased 5%.
Bellevue's results are more consistent with the common suburban stereotype.
Supporting this stereotype is the fact that Bellevue was the only individual community that identified lower taxes as the top pull factor.
The increase in civic involvement in all but one of the communities might again be explained by the fact that a pool of people with common interests, similar incomes, and children of like ages are living in the suburbs.
The Fox Valley, much like the rest of the United States, is growing and changing, more so in suburban, exurban, and rural areas.
The population growth and development evolution are rarely planned and often unmanaged.
The resulting maze of sprawl can potentially be responsible for many externalities that have serious implications for many community-based professionals, especially Extension faculty and staff.
Sprawling development has been linked to increased traffic congestion, which can have serious social and environmental impacts.
Natural resources are also potentially degraded by the low-density housing that decreases contiguous tracts of wildlife habitat, negatively affects stormwater runoff and groundwater recharge, and paves over fertile soils.
The rural atmosphere and country aesthetics are slowly eroded away as new homes grow instead of corn and soybeans.
And, contrary to the popular belief of many policy makers, all tax base is not beneficial.
In fact, numerous research studies show that on average residential development is not a boon to fiscal health but is responsible for a net loss due to a higher demand for services than is paid for in taxes.
The study reported here reveals that respondents are being pulled out of the urban area by several primary suburban characteristics, including a rural atmosphere, low taxes, and a clean environment.
This presents a paradox for citizens, local governments, and Extension practitioners.
The primary characteristics attracting newcomers are precisely the assets that are destroyed at the hands of the new residents.
In addition to the aforementioned paradox, Extension professionals in small to medium size urban areas will increasingly be asked to address educational needs pertaining to social concerns that have plagued larger urban areas in post-war America.
The seeds of a "we and they" syndrome are apparent as suburban and rural incomes grow faster than urban, creating concerns of concentrated pockets of wealth and poverty.
Associated issues like crime and poor or inequitable urban educational investment inevitably could surface.
Moreover, our research reveals social isolation is disturbingly a reason for moving out of the city, albeit currently a small one.
Sheltering oneself and children from the perceived or actual ills of the city is, however, only a temporary fix that could feed a dysfunctional society and generation of youngsters.
The isolation factor and, more likely, resulting land use policies, could also increase the difficulty of the already complicated task of placing multi-family, elderly, and affordable housing in a community.
The NIMBY  syndrome, originally coined in reference to people's dislike of actual or perceived environmental hazards being placed near their homes, has spread to the housing field.
Finally, a new environmental injustice could become apparent in the new millennium.
Whereas the term "environmental injustice" currently refers to placement of existing environmental hazards in poor or minority communities, the new environmental injustice involves regional pollution caused by sprawling residents that affects everyone.
Suburbanites drive farther, require more pavement to be laid, and slowly cause the localized disappearance of rural landscapes.
The negative externalities affect everyone, including the citizen who has chosen to live in the city.
Moreover, the city dweller must pay  the same for county or regional based services  as the suburban resident, yet the suburban dweller costs the government more to service.
Fiscal injustice may well become a commonplace 21st century community issue.
Our research identifies that a suburban paradox exists, which finds newcomers negatively affecting many of the community characteristics that initially attracted them to suburbia.
Three of the top five reasons for moving to suburbia, rural atmosphere, lower taxes, and clean environment, can all be negatively affected by the typical suburban development.
This provides a plethora of education opportunities for community development and natural resource Extension educators.
The priority need is to increase suburban policymakers' understanding that a paradox exists.
Established findings in community development, economics, planning, and natural resource literature connect typical suburban development rates, patterns, etc., with the aforementioned negative externalities.
Extension educators can use our research combined with those findings to help local elected and appointed officials understand the existing situation in and/or potential problems on the horizon for their communities.
Once an understanding is developed, the next step is to empower communities to address the situation.
A number of community development tools ranging from limiting or managing development to designing growth to be more environmentally friendly and aesthetically pleasing are available to preserve the clean environment, low taxes, and rural atmosphere.
Comprehensive planning, conservation subdivision design, stormwater management, and environmental corridor easements are just a few of these tools.
Beyond the community development and natural resource fields within Extension, our findings, particularly income distribution and the desire to isolate, indicate the need for youth and family development education initiatives.
As parents move their children into suburbia, there is the potential for youth to become detached from urban amenities, culture, and peoples.
Youth development educators might consider programs that attempt integration of rural, exurban, suburban, and urban youth.
From the policy side, youth development educators might choose to have a role in helping school officials understand and address the potential for urban disinvestment in education that could result from a transfer of wealth to the urban and suburban areas.
The seeds of urban decay that have flowered in larger cities might also be sowed in small and medium size urban areas like the Fox Valley.
If allowed to flourish, the loss of family role models and other mentors in the central city might create the demand for family-based leadership development programs and enhancement of the already effective financial and food and nutrition programs.
On a more positive note, a number of families moving into a new suburban situation will be presented with a set of unknowns that family development educators are equipped to address.
We believe the most interesting implication for Extension is the opportunity that suburban migration provides for interdisciplinary programming.
The strong connection among the community development, natural resource, youth, and family development fields is apparent when one considers the seemingly harmless movement of a large number of affluent people to the suburbs.
We feel two of the most promising potential initiatives include suburban neighborhood development and youth based planning/environmental education.
Relationship Between Extension Programming and Suburban Migration
 An unexpected research finding revealed an increased desire to become involved in the community when people moved to the suburbs.
Community, youth, and family development educators can take advantage of this energy to begin neighborhood based programs, potentially including formation of neighborhood associations, which can be used as a central tool to address current and future education needs.
For many community development educators who are programming in comprehensive planning or teaching any topic that involves land use, it is apparent that value shifts are needed before much learning takes place and, consequently, large strides are made.
Altering values is a Herculean and maybe even impossible task.
Rather than apply all of the land use education energy to adults, a potentially more effective strategy for long term outcomes is youth-based comprehensive planning education.
In conclusion, a broad array of push and pull factors combined with lack of community preparedness is resulting in growth and change that could negatively affect the characteristics that initially draw people to communities.
The challenge for Extension is to educate communities about how to avoid unplanned, haphazard growth and address the youth and family development needs of the new demographic in medium and small urban areas.
It appears that suburban residents are willing to become involved in the community, which creates an environment ripe for Extension initiatives.
Washington D.C.: United States Bureau of the Census.
Mail and telephone surveys: The total design method.
New York, John Wiley & Sons.
Transportation and growth: Myth and fact.
Minnesota Department of Agriculture.
Cost of public services study.
Paul, Minnesota: Duncan & Associates.
Wisconsin town land use data book: Town-level farming and land use trends, 1990-1998.
Madison, Wisconsin: Program on Agricultural Technology Studies.
Fact sheet: Cost of community services for three Dane County towns.
Madison, Wisconsin: Wisconsin Land Use Research Program.
Wisconsin Department of Revenue.
Wisconsin municipal per return income report for 1999.
Madison, Wisconsin: Wisconsin Department of Revenue Division of Research and Analysis.
Wisconsin Department of Administration.
Town, Village, and City projections by total population.
Madison, Wisconsin: Wisconsin Department of Administration Demographic Services Center.
February 1995 // Volume 33 // Number 1 // Tools of the Trade // 1TOT3
 Abstract CANDI software is designed to aid in the management of agricultural pesticides and irrigation system design while considering the potential for groundwater contamination.
The authors describe the different modules and features of CANDI and show how it can be used for a particular area.
CANDI  software is designed to aid in managing agricultural pesticides and irrigation systems by considering the potential for groundwater contamination.
CANDI facilitates estimating the relative reduction of potential pesticide contamination of groundwater achievable by improved water/pesticide management.
By comparing the potential contamination results of different water management schemes, best management systems  can be selected.
When BMSs are implemented, the likelihood of groundwater contamination is reduced.
CANDI uses the concept of relative amount of pesticide, which is the fraction of the applied chemical that exists in the soil profile by the time the pesticide reaches groundwater.
CANDI can do the following:
 For a particular irrigation system design, predict which pesticide will yield an acceptable relative amount of pesticide at a specific depth.
In this case, the user must provide CANDI with the irrigation system efficiency, soil and crop data, weather information, and pesticide application dates.
For a selected range of possible irrigation system designs, show the irrigation system design that will result in the least relative amount of pesticide reaching a specific depth.
For this option, the user provides CANDI with the pesticide physical and chemical properties, application date, cultivated crop data, soil data, and weather information.
For the surface irrigation system, the final result is curves showing relative amount as a function of furrow inflow rate for selected furrow lengths.
For sprinkler irrigation systems, relative amount is a function of two design parameters, uniformity coefficient, and fraction of area adequately irrigated.
Demonstrate the zones of contributing groundwater to specified wells during prescribed travel times.
This permits the user to know where using pesticides is more hazardous to groundwater consumers.
For this optional output, the user must provide CANDI with pumping wells data and aquifer parameters.
Predicting the amount of pesticide that will leach to the groundwater is not trivial.
It can require using multiple computer simulation modules in series.
CANDI helps the user to perform this task easily and is designed for use by persons only slightly familiar with groundwater hydraulics or chemical leaching processes.
CANDI contains several simulation modules.
The modules are efficiently coded and integrated to achieve rapid processing for all applications.
The first module used simulates the irrigation system, either furrow or sprinkler.
In any irrigation system, reduction in potential pesticide contamination can be achieved by efficient water application.
Efficiency, in turn, is a function of several factors.
In surface irrigation, efficiency is a function of the furrow length, inflow rate, topography, and soil characteristics.
These variables are used as inputs for the surface irrigation simulation module .
SIRMOD predicts the water storage efficiency for a specified surface irrigation system at the site of interest and for a specific irrigation schedule.
CANDI provides a database of much needed information for Utah conditions.
SIRMOD will predict the total infiltrated depth of water for the prescribed combination of parameters.
In sprinkler irrigation, efficiency is a function of the uniformity coefficient, the fraction of area adequately irrigated, and soil characteristics.
These variables are required as inputs.
The sprinkler irrigation module estimates the soil storage efficiency, and uses the approach of Hart and Reynolds to predict the total infiltrated depth of water for the prescribed combination of parameters.
Total infiltrated depth, soil data, crop data, and pesticide data are subsequently used as inputs for a module that emulates the simulation abilities of the widely-used Chemical Movement in Layered Soil .
The relative amount of pesticide that reaches a prescribed depth after a period of time has elapsed is calculated by this module.
CANDI also delineates the capture zones for all wells within a study area by incorporating the Multiple Well Capture Zone module .
MWCAP provides efficient delineation of steady-state, time-related, and hybrid capture zones for wells in homogeneous aquifers.
Knowing the capture zone of his/her well, the user might select different water/pesticide management schemes for inside the capture zone than for outside it.
Using CANDI in Your Area
 CANDI can be used in humid or arid regions, while the pesticide leaching module can be used anywhere.
The irrigation modules should be used only at irrigated sites.
The well-head capture zone module is applicable for locations having fairly homogenous underlying aquifers.
The user's manual contains instructions and examples to guide CANDI's use.
CANDI will run on 286 or more powerful PC systems with math coprocessors.
It requires at least 512K of RAM, a hard disk, and an EGA  monitor.
CANDI can be obtained for $150 from the Dept.
of Biological and Irrigation Engineering, Utah State University, Logan, UT 84322-4105, phone 797-2785, FAX 797-1248.
CANDI: Chemicals and irrigation management software, version 2.0, user's manual.
Logan: Utah State University.
Analytical design of sprinkler systems.
Transactions of the ASAE, 8, 83-89.
Chemical movement in layered soils: User's manual.
Stillwater: Oklahoma State University, Agricultural Experiment Station, Division of Agriculture.
Office of Groundwater Protection.
WHPA: A modular semi-analytical model for the delineation of wellhead protection areas.
Kinematic-wave furrow irrigation model.
Journal of Irrigation and Drainage Division, ASCE, 109, 377-392.
October 2005 // Volume 43 // Number 5 // Research in Brief // 5RIB3
 Abstract A survey of Georgia irrigators focused on the determinants of farmers' crop choice and crop acreage allocation decisions was conducted.
The survey also addressed farmer interest in open-access information and decision support programs delivered by the University of Georgia via the Internet.
Results indicate crop choice and acreage decisions are heavily influenced by rotational considerations, but such considerations are not viewed as strict constraints.
Crop futures prices and expected input costs are also important factors.
Farmers expressed considerable interest in accessing information relevant to their crop choice and acreage allocation decision on the Internet at a university-run Web site.
In the information and outreach market that was once dominated by Extension programs from land-grant universities, rapid technological advancements have created opportunities for other private data providers to compete with university Extension services in offering fast, convenient, open access information.
At the same time, urbanization and industrialization trends have restructured most of the country's rural communities.
As we look across the modern rural landscape, we see more mechanized farm operations, the consolidation of smaller farm businesses, and the adoption of technologies designed to produce highly specialized products.
In this new landscape, the clientele of agricultural Extension services have redefined their information needs, with more specialized producers leaning more toward alternative sources of public information.
Surveys conducted over the years show a gradual decline in farmers' demand for university outreach services.
To spur university Extension programs to recapture their market share and reputation as a reliable source of relevant information, King and Boehlje  issued a challenge for these institutions to identify "newly defined niches of technology-mediated outreach  for broader audience segments."
 More recent studies have confirmed that ample opportunities still exist for university Extension programs.
More than 50% of the farmer respondents to a survey in Michigan in 1999 emphasized the need for outreach programs in marketing, business management, and farm economics, in addition to traditional Extension topics such as pesticide use and plant genetics.
Three years earlier, programs related to farm economics did not receive high significance ratings.
Lavis and Blackburn  analyzed Extension clientele satisfaction and found that, while older farmers were generally more satisfied with the delivery of Extension services, much of the demand for such services actually came from younger, full-time farmers operating larger farm businesses that require more specialized information.
These younger farmers also tended to be more educated.
These results are not outdated, as the same trends are still evident in a more recent study of diffusion-adoption stages and the use of information technology by farmers.
Most of the respondents in the Hall survey who were classified as technology innovators were younger, more educated operators of larger beef and peanut farms in the Southeast region.
Age and education are also correlated with early adoption of information technology.
This article presents the results of a survey of Georgia irrigators that focused on the determinants of farmers' crop choice and crop acreage allocation decisions.
The purpose of the survey was to identify opportunities for the delivery of university Extension services.
The survey also addressed farmer interest in open-access information and decision support programs delivered by the University of Georgia via the Internet.
The results of the survey should be beneficial to Extension programs in determining priority areas of involvement.
Irrigation permits were required in Georgia beginning in 1988, although voluntary permits were encouraged prior to that date.
By 2001, more than 21,000 irrigation permits had been issued by the Department of Natural Resources.
Many farms have obtained multiple permits.
By screening the permit database for multiple entries based on phone numbers, farm corporations, address, and name, one can identify 8,677 unique permit holders.
Of the unique permits, 8,279 had listed phone numbers.
From those 8,279 permits, a random sample of 195 farmers in Georgia was drawn for the survey.
The sample was stratified to ensure proportional representation among groundwater and surface water users.
The database from which the sample was drawn represents the best information available concerning irrigation permits in Georgia.
It includes all permits issued.
Some of the permits within the database, however, are not exercised by the permit holder.
Attempts were made to contact the farmers in the sample by telephone in June of 2004.
Of the 195 farmers in the sample, 37%  completed the survey.
Another 8%  had retired from farming.
The remaining 55% were either unavailable  or refused to complete the survey.
The questionnaire focused on the factors farmers consider when making two key decisions about use of their irrigated acres: which crops to plant and the number of irrigated acres to allocate to each crop.
The questions were structured to limit the possibility of misinterpreting the results.
While the overall response rate was lower than had been hoped, of those who were contacted that were not retired, the survey response rate was 65%.
No systematic pattern was identifiable among either the farmers we were unable to contact or the farmers who refused to answer the questionnaire.
In his review of a number of comprehensive studies examining non-response in telephone surveys, Gary Langer finds that non-response has an insignificant impact on the quality of information received from the survey.
For these reasons we feel the response rate is unlikely to have affected the results presented in this paper.
Farmers were asked to identify from a list all factors they consider in choosing the crops to plant in their farms' irrigated acreage.
Respondents were also asked to identify any other factors they consider that were not listed.
A follow-up question then requested them to identify the two most important factors that influence their planting decisions.
Table 1 summarizes the most popular answers provided by the respondents.
More than 80% of the respondents identified rotational considerations as a factor in their decision of which crops to plant on their irrigated acres in any forthcoming season.
This factor is also ranked ahead of all other factors in both the "most important" and "second most important" categories of the responses.
Economic considerations such as knowledge of futures prices and expected costs of production inputs were also important considerations, cited by over 60% of the respondents.
Although input costs were identified by one more respondent than futures prices, futures prices were much more important to the planting decision than input costs.
Interestingly, while 20% to 35% cited weather forecasts and crop water requirements as among those factors influencing planting decisions, very few ranked these factors  among the top two considerations.
These results suggest that farmers are making a multi-dimensional decision.
The importance of rotational considerations indicates a long-run perspective that revolves around the agronomic consequences of crop choice.
In addition, the importance of single-season economic factors like futures prices and input costs reflects a short-run perspective consistent with maximizing the season's net returns.
The farmers were also asked to identify from a list all factors they consider when deciding how to allocate their irrigated acreage to the crops they intend to plant.
They were also requested to list other factors they consider.
Here, as well, the respondents were asked to identify the two most important factors considered.
The most popular responses are summarized in Table 2.
Consistent with the crop choice results, concerns about the agronomic benefits of rotation, futures prices, and input costs are the three most commonly cited factors influencing the crop acreage allocation decision.
Marketing concerns are rated highly, as knowledge of futures price levels is considered more important than anything else by 34% of the respondents.
Rotation issues rank 2nd in the highest importance category and 1stt in the 2nd most important category.
These results suggest that rotational considerations serve as a general guide to crop choice, but not as a strict constraint to planted acreage.
In other words, farmers appear to be willing to forego some of the long-run benefits of rotational practices to capitalize on expected short-run economic conditions.
Extension programs that assist farmers in quantifying the short-run benefits and costs versus the long-run benefits and costs of their acreage allocation decision should be of particular interest to this clientele.
The survey was also designed to explore the feasibility of offering a decision support program that will be available through the University of Georgia Web site.
The decision tool is envisioned to incorporate such factors as futures prices, input cost estimates, weather forecasts, crop water needs, and pest pressure predictions.
This information will be routinely updated and available at a single location for easy access by farmers at the time planting and crop acreage allocation decisions are made.
Farmers were asked, "If a decision support program were available on the Internet through a University of Georgia website, would you consider using it?" Among the 72 respondents, 50 farmers comprising 69% of the survey participants said "yes", they would consider using the university's proposed online decision tool.
Among the 22 who declined, the most popular reasons cited were lack of Internet access , lack of experience in Internet surfing , and inability to use Internet services.
This article presents survey results concerning the determinants of farmers' crop choice and acreage allocation decisions.
What is evident from the results is that agronomy should remain an Extension priority area, as previous assessments of the demand for Extension services have established.
The more compelling result, however, is that while crop choice and acreage decisions are heavily influenced by rotational considerations, such considerations are not viewed as strict constraints.
Farmers appear willing to adjust their acreage allocations away from agronomic recommendations under certain economic conditions.
This suggests that Extension programs that provide economic as well as agronomic information will better serve the Extension clientele.
Finally, farmers appear to be very interested in accessing information relevant to their crop choice and acreage allocation decision on the Internet when that information is presented at a single Web site managed by the university.
The survey did not address farmers' desire to substitute Internet-based programs for traditional information delivery methods.
However, the survey did ask of those who were not interested in Internet-based information, why they felt that way.
Two key factors were cited repeatedly: lack of computer literacy and lack of access to Internet resources.
The lack of computer literacy also impedes the adoption of computer-based tools for formulating production and business plans.
There are still some farmers who need to be guided through the computer adoption process in their farm business operations.
Meeting this important challenge will enable Extension programs to deliver relevant, reliable, timely information with greater efficiency.
This, in turn, will assist farmers in making production decisions that are consistent with their own goals, and thereby enhance the welfare of the greater farming community.
Farmer sources and uses of information.
Expanding the role and function of the Cooperative Extension System in the university setting.
Agricultural and Resource Economics Review, 26, 153-165.
Public Perspectives, May/June, 16-18.
Use of private consultants and other sources of information by large cornbelt farmers.
1997 census of agriculture, Volume 1:Geographic Area Series, Part 51: United States Summary and State Data.
June 2013 // Volume 51 // Number 3 // Tools of the Trade // v51-3tt8
 The demands for insect identification and education far exceed the number of faculty available to address them in the Pacific Northwest.
With shrinking numbers of professorial faculty and reduced travel budgets, it was decided that creating a specialized group of volunteers and professionals to focus on insect identification and insect education would be beneficial.
The Insect Train-the-Trainer program was created to prepare this group of future volunteers.
With a higher level of localized knowledge about insects, a multiplier effect was anticipated by the volunteers that would allow Extension faculty to improve program efficiency , and increase capacity to deliver informal education about insects.
Correct identification of insects is a crucial starting point for insect education.
Trainees learned that beneficial insects play an important part in the ecosystem and insects can be extremely damaging to plants if not managed properly.
They learned about ecological insect management to the level that they could teach others.
Two requirements were emphasized in the training program: create an insect collection with a minimum of 10 insect orders and commit to completing a minimum of 10 service "payback" hours.
All participants had a background in agriculture, gardening, or university Extension.
Participants learned how to collect, pin, and identity different types of local insects and then used them to create an insect collection for use in their future training events.
We used the "train-the-trainer" model where an intensive training program prepared our future trainers.
Potential participants were required to apply to the program with an application similar to an application used in the Master Gardener program.
The application asked for information on prior training or education, related work experience, and community involvement or volunteer activities.
This allowed us the opportunity to select participants who already had a demonstrated background in basic biology and community volunteerism 
 A follow-up project was assigned during the course for trained participants to collect, mount, and identify 50 insect families over a 6-month period following the short course.
The trainees were also assigned the task of volunteering for a minimum of 10 hours of educational assistance in insect identification  and training others in insect ID and collecting.
A survey was conducted a year after the class to evaluate the impact of the course on insect identification and educational efforts across Oregon, Washington, and beyond.
In 2010 and 2011, we trained 71 individuals in four different 2 1/2-day  training sessions in Oregon and Washington.
The audience  included University Extension faculty/staff , agricultural professionals consultants/agronomists , and certified Master Gardeners.
A post-training survey  demonstrated that trainees had used their training to 1) identify an insect brought to them , 2) train others in insect ID identification , and 3) provide identification education both at work  and in their communities.
(See Table1 and Table.
Types of educational activities included workshops, classes, plant/garden clinics , school classroom trainings, 4-H youth and general youth , farmers markets , and county fairs.
Master Gardener volunteers used their training in Master Gardener-related activities such as presentations, plant clinics, garden clinics, and garden shows, which enhanced their programming efforts similar to the Ripple Effect Training by the Oregon Master Gardener program in the late 1990's.
Volunteer service hours by the trainees averaged about 11 hours each, and ranged from 5 hours to over 20 hours per individual at 1 year post training.
Based on survey results, we estimate over 700 volunteer service hours related to insect identification and IPM have resulted due to the training program.
The keys to making this type of train-the-trainer program successful based on our results are the following.
Based on the success of the program described here, similar train-the-trainer projects should be developed and implemented by Extension professionals in agriculture and other program areas as a means of expanding outreach during times of shrinking faculty numbers and limited travel budgets.
The key to success in such efforts will be selecting participants who fit the program's objectives, provide adequate training and resources, and plan from the beginning to provide a level of on-going support of volunteers to insure their success in the long term.
This program was sponsored in part by Western SARE.
Survey of Virginia Master Gardener volunteer management.
Master Gardener training costs and payback in volunteer hours.
The Florida Master Gardener program: History, use and trends.
The 1999 ASTD training and performance workbook.
December 2002 // Volume 40 // Number 6 // Feature Articles // 6FEA3
 Abstract A "Step-Up" Incremental Training Model for teen curriculum facilitators implementing inquiry-based science activities was designed and evaluated.
This model involves a sequence of three training workshops that alternate with curriculum implementations.
The model was evaluated using data from focus group interviews, surveys, and direct observations.
Key elements in the model's design include: workshop organization; introductory session; multiple increments; effective modeling and practice; "safe" environment for reflection and review.
The teens trained during the development of this model were effective in implementing curriculum activities with young children.
The authors believe that this method would be transferable to other teen-led Extension programs.
Animal Ambassadors is a youth science education outreach program of the School of Veterinary Medicine, Veterinary Medicine Extension, at the University of California, Davis.
Animal Ambassadors uses the world of animals, both domesticated and wild, as a "bridge" to help youth develop an interest in science while emphasizing important critical thinking and life skills.
The program's concept-based curriculum stresses awareness and understanding while fostering animal care and responsibility.
Funding was received from the American Honda Foundation in 1999/2000 for a project titled "Animal Ambassadors--A Science Education Outreach Model," a collaborative effort between the UCD School of Veterinary Medicine and the 4-H Youth Development Program in San Luis Obispo  County, California.
One goal of this project was to develop a state and national training model for the dissemination of the Animal Ambassadors curriculum through county-based 4-H Youth Development Programs using cross-age teaching strategies.
This article describes a "Step-Up" Incremental Training Model for teen curriculum facilitators, which was designed and evaluated by the authors.
Engaging children in science activities at an early age is crucial to developing a scientifically literate population.
In order to accomplish this, we must train and support science educators.
However, according to the National Education Association , current science training programs for educators fall short of what is needed to keep pace in an increasingly more scientific and technological world.
Most educators who work with elementary age children feel unprepared to teach science , and science education at the elementary age level has been viewed as weak.
Hurd  reports that findings from the Third International Mathematics and Science Study  demonstrate that professional development of science educators in the United States is not as well supported as it is in Germany and Japan.
Hurd also states that the study's results showed a lack of common vision for science education in the U.S.
Surveys show the value of hands-on training programs in which teachers experience the curriculum components in a manner that models how the children will receive them.
Teachers' anxiety level decreases, their confidence level increases, and their interest and curiosity about the subject matter increases.
Overall, the more familiar they are with the subject matter and the materials, the greater their comfort level is.
Lopez and Toumi  report that in order to deliver a successful hands-on, inquiry-based curriculum, educators require:
 The Animal Ambassadors curriculum activities are age-appropriate and use a hands-on, interdisciplinary, inquiry-based approach that follows the Learning Cycle  and emphasizes the Scientific Thinking Processes .
The content and instructional methodology of the curriculum align with the National Science Education Standards  and the Life Science and Investigation and Experimentation strands of the California Science Content Standards.
The Animal Ambassadors curriculum is subdivided into five units based on major animal-related concepts:
 The curriculum is designed around these animal concepts, but does not use animals in its activities.
To make the curriculum interactive, hands-on materials  are integral to the activities and are organized into learning kits.
Teens as Cross-Age Teachers
 Teens as cross-age teachers of younger youth are used commonly within 4-H Youth Development Programs.
Twenty-four teens from three different geographic locations and three 4-H clubs in San Luis Obispo County were recruited for the project.
Fifteen teens continued to work with the Animal Ambassadors program in its entirety, attending all training sessions and implementing the program with younger youth.
The teens worked in two groups and divided themselves further into teams depending on the nature of the sessions and activities.
The "Step-Up" Incremental Training Model designed in this study involves a sequence of three training workshops that alternate with curriculum implementations to ensure mastery of content and methodology while providing the opportunity for group reflection and feedback.
Each subsequent training is a "step up" from the one preceding.
4-H teens from San Luis Obispo County were trained as cross-age teachers of the Animal Ambassadors curriculum.
Their target audience was primary 4-H members  and young children  at the local YMCA.
Key elements of the "Step-Up" Incremental Training Model included the following.
Held on the Friday evening before the first Saturday training workshop, this 3 1/2-hour session began with an ice-breaker activity, followed by an agenda that focused on introducing the fundamentals of inquiry-based learning, including the Learning Cycle, science process skills, and questioning strategies.
This introduction was crucial to the success of all subsequent curriculum trainings, laying a foundation of instructional methodology upon which curriculum content was applied during three training workshops.
Teen Facilitator Training Workshop I
 During the subsequent full day of training, facilitators concentrated on activities from curriculum Unit I.
The limited amount of curriculum content covered was designed to help the teen facilitators develop confidence in their abilities to implement the activities using inquiry methods.
This approach is supported by Lee and Murdock , who caution against overwhelming teens during the initial training, recommending an incremental approach instead.
Workshop facilitators modeled the first activity for the teens, placing an emphasis on the instructional methodology from the previous evening's Introductory Session.
Subsequently, each team of teen facilitators planned and presented at least one additional activity from Unit I.
After each presentation, a significant amount of time was dedicated to group reflection.
Facilitators and trainees spent time reviewing and discussing each activity presented as it related to inquiry methods, curriculum content, and age-appropriateness.
Fundamental logistical challenges  the teens might expect to face during implementation with their target audiences were also discussed.
Upon completion of Teen Facilitator Training Workshop I, teams of teens were charged with implementing the activities with young children in 4-H clubs or at the local YMCA.
Teen Facilitator Training Workshops II and III
 Teen Facilitator Training Workshops II and III were 1-day curriculum trainings that focused on reflections from field experiences, review of methodology, activity modeling by workshop facilitators, and practice facilitation of activities by trainees.
Significant time for group reflection also remained as a major component of both agendas.
Training II, covering curriculum activities in Units II and III, was scheduled approximately 4 weeks after Training I in order to provide the teen teams sufficient time to schedule and implement all activities from Unit I with their target audiences.
Curriculum Training III also emphasized methodology and included the activities from Units IV and V.
This training was scheduled at an even longer interval  to allow for the larger number of activities to be implemented by the teen facilitators with their target groups.
More curriculum material was covered in Curriculum Trainings II and III because of the higher levels of abilities and confidence of the teens gained through their experiences in previous trainings and during curriculum implementation.
In order to strengthen the evaluation design, a method using multiple tools known as triangulation was adopted to assess the training model.
This method reduces threats to validity and allows a fuller and richer explanation of a given construct.
The efficacy of the training model as it related to the teens' familiarity with the curriculum materials, their understanding of inquiry-based teaching methods, and their understanding of questioning strategies was measured.
Two main tools were used to evaluate the training model: post-training surveys and a post-project focus group interview.
Direct observations of teen facilitators during curriculum implementation with the target audience were also used to measure the use of effective questioning strategies.
This tool was used as a supplement to questions asked during post-training surveys and the focus group interview.
Participating teens were asked to respond to post-training surveys developed using a Likert scale of 1 to 5, with 5 being Strongly Agree  and 1 being Strongly Disagree.
A category for Not Applicable  was also included.
Survey content focused on workshop organization and facilitation, as well as on skills acquisition and use.
Data were collected, and results were calculated and compared as percentages.
Participating teens were asked to take part in a focus group interview after all trainings and the implementations of the curriculum were completed.
Two focus group sessions were held, one for each of the two groups.
There was a group facilitator and a recorder for each of the interview sessions.
In addition, the focus group interviews were audiotape recorded, and the tapes were transcribed.
The focus group interview followed a standard format  with four sections:
 The moderator also gave a brief 2to 3-minute summary of questions and asked for any changes or additions to the summary.
A Site Observation Data Sheet was developed that was used twice at each site during actual implementation of curriculum activities.
Members of the research team counted and rated  the instances of scientific thinking processes during set time intervals.
The number of closed and open-ended questions posed by teens was also tallied.
The open-ended questions were rated as low, medium, or high.
Additionally, the observers answered two summary questions relating to how well the teens implemented inductive teaching methods and how well the children responded to the activities.
The 4-H teen participants in this project were effective in their roles as cross-age facilitators of inquiry-based science activities with younger youth.
Data from 20 pre-/postmatched sets  of children between the ages of five and eight were analyzed for changes in critical thinking skills through the use of the Science Thinking Processes.
Critical thinking skills were measured using a performance-based object description assessment tool.
Children were given two different objects  that were independent of the curriculum content and asked to describe them.
Data were quantified using a scoring rubric that measured the types of Scientific Thinking Processes and the manner in which they were used.
Positive changes were seen, particularly among girls.
These results were paralleled by other data that showed the children used more senses to observe and describe the objects during the post-test and that the children were far more inquisitive about the objects after project intervention, asking 75% more questions in the post-test than in the pre-test.
Elements integral to the design of the "Step-Up" Incremental Training Model provided the teen facilitators with the theory, skills, and practice necessary to achieve success during curriculum implementation.
The results of survey and focus group interview data with teens were compared, consolidated, and analyzed.
Outcomes and discussion related to these data are presented below.
Time to Practice Animal Ambassadors Curriculum Activities
 Becoming familiar with all aspects of any curriculum  is critical to the successful implementation of activities.
Therefore, sufficient time must be allotted during trainings for effective modeling, in-depth investigations, reflection, and guided practice.
Post-training surveys were used by participants to rate the amount of practice time they had for curriculum activities during workshops I, II, and III.
During the post-program focus group interview, several teens reported that they had sufficient time to practice curriculum activities during the trainings.
After the completion of all three trainings, some teens stated that they had spent enough time practicing the curriculum activities during the trainings that they did not need their binders or notes during implementation.
Some teens shared that practicing activities during trainings helped them learn and apply methods and techniques when working with children.
Furthermore, although some participants from an outlying area who had to travel 90 minutes each way thought that the individual trainings were too long, they were also of the opinion that the length of time was necessary to cover the material adequately.
Understanding Inquiry-Based Teaching Methods
 The Animal Ambassadors curriculum activities use a hands-on, inquiry-based approach.
This method of science education is especially effective in arousing the curiosity of young children and holding their interest.
Hinman continues by noting that most science education is taught in a traditional manner that emphasizes the rote memorization and recitation of facts.
Consequently, this is the method that is most familiar to facilitators.
After trainings II and III, participants were asked if they understood inquiry-based teaching methods.
Based on their responses, the teens' understanding of inquiry-based teaching methods improved from Workshop II to Workshop III.
Understanding of Inquiry Methods
 During the focus group interview, the teens reported that the inquiry-based training affected their lives.
One teen indicated that she was applying the inquiry approach to her own life and had become much more observant of things around her.
She also reported that she has become more curious about things as a result of her training.
Another teen shared that she now felt "safe" to explore and that the inquiry approach puts everybody on an equal level.
Open-ended questions are important to inquiry-based learning; they promote discussion and student interaction.
By encouraging exploration, open-ended questions stimulate student thinking and promote ideas, speculation, and the formulation of hypotheses.
Appropriate questions allow the learner to access information, analyze it, and draw sound conclusions.
Furthermore, good questions stimulate thinking, creativity, and additional inquiry.
With respect to questioning strategies, participants were surveyed as to their level of understanding between open-ended and closed questions.
Based on survey results, teens' understanding of questioning strategies improved with successive trainings.
Understanding of Questioning Strategies
 Focus group interview data supported the results from the post-training surveys.
Participants reported a deep understanding of open-ended and closed questions.
Teens reported using more open-ended questions not only in their work with younger children in the Animal Ambassadors Program, but also in numerous everyday situations.
In support of the above data, during direct observation by project evaluators, it was noted that the ratio of open-ended to closed questions posed by teen facilitators during implementation with the target audience improved with more trainings and experience.
The ratio of open-ended questions to closed questions was 1:10 after one training.
This ratio increased to 24:10 after two trainings and to 46:10 after three.
Based on the results of this study, the "Step-Up" Incremental Training Model is an effective method to prepare teenagers as cross-age teachers of younger children for inquiry-based science programs.
The elements of this model that are integral to its efficacy include the following.
As a training model for teen-led science programs, the "Step-Up" Incremental Training Model is effective.
Results from this project showed that the teen facilitators were able to apply inquiry methods and curriculum content in authentic settings and that they improved their abilities after each training increment.
As their abilities grew, so did their motivation to extend the implementation beyond the initial project.
One group of teens not only worked together to implement the curriculum in their 4-H club, they also worked in teams to deliver the program to children in a YMCA day camp and at a local zoo.
The authors believe that this method would be transferable to other teen-led Extension programs.
Further research would be needed to confirm this, but the model's framework lends itself to being adapted to content areas other than science.
Klingborg, DVM, Director, Veterinary Medicine Extension, School of Veterinary Medicine, University of California, Davis, California.
D., Youth Development Advisor and Home Economist, University of California Cooperative Extension, San Mateo-San Francisco Counties, California.
Sheila Klaesius, Project Coordinator, Animal Ambassadors, University of California Cooperative Extension, San Luis Obispo County, San Luis Obispo, California.
Andrea Laubscher, Project Assistant, Animal Ambassadors, University of California Cooperative Extension, San Luis Obispo County, San Luis Obispo, California.
A successful model for an academic-industrial partnership for elementary science education.
Journal of Chemical Education, 77, 1291.
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Elementary School Journal, 97, 419-433.
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Portsmouth, NH, USA: Heinemann.
Math, science training falls short.
National science education standards: Observe, interact, change, learn.
Learning through experience: a workshop for middle school science teachers.
Learning House, 66, 339-340.
October 2011 // Volume 49 // Number 5 // Tools of the Trade // v49-5tt6
 The use of face-to-face workshops and seminars to teach clientele and transfer technology is common among turfgrass Extension specialists , but training opportunities are limited for new employees entering the turfgrass industry.
Within the turfgrass industry, the majority of new employees come from lawn care/grounds maintenance , indicating the importance of developing programs specific for lawn care and grounds maintenance.
Although the exact turnover among employees of the turf industry is unknown, it is known that 51% of nursery and landscape industry employees leave their positions less than 5 years after starting.
The primary objective of the seminar was to provide basic turfgrass knowledge and application for new turfgrass industry employees in an efficient 1-day program.
The seminar covered the basics of plant growth and physiology; turfgrass establishment, including soil preparation, species selection, planting date, and post-planting care; cultural practices such as mowing, irrigation, aerification, and thatch control; fertilization, including rates, timing, and nutrient sources; common turf weed, insect and disease identification, biology, and control; and, last, the practical and legal aspects of using pesticides.
A secondary objective was to provide additionally training and pesticide recertification credits.
The final objective of the seminar was to make a small profit after recovery of programmatic costs.
Extension programs should recover costs at a minimum or make a small profit  that can be used to fund other Extension activities, professional advancement, equipment, or applied research.
Furthermore, paying for education increases the perceived value.
In Indiana the cost was $60 for members of the MRTF and $90 for non-members.
The cost was $65 in Arkansas.
The average profit for these events was $1,042, with an average attendance of 34.
This Basic Training: Turf Management seminar was offered in two states at multiple geographic locations in each state to facilitate greater participation.
Additionally, the seminar was offered in December through February during a period of inactivity for turf professionals.
Locations were selected based upon population and collaboration with county Extension educators.
The seminar was advertised to turf clientele in each state using mailing and email lists.
The seminars typically had an attendee cap of 50 attendees based on location, which was typically at a county or state Extension office, fairgrounds, community college, or convention center.
Preregistration was encouraged for attendees so that binders with handouts could be prepared in advance.
The seminar began in the morning and ran for 6 hours total with a break for lunch.
Topics were covered by the turfgrass Extension specialist using discussion and lecture.
Population Map Showing Basic Training Seminar Locations in Indiana and Arkansas 
 Pretests/posttests were used to help measure attendee learning.
Starting in 2007, a pretest and posttest were given to each participant at the start and end of the seminar, respectively.
The questions were based on the content covered during the seminar.
Additional data on the turf industry work experience of attendees was collected in 2009.
The data reflect that attendees learned during this seminar, with a modest improvement of 15% from pretest to posttest.
This improvement was less than expected and less than reported at a week-long turfgrass short course in Illinois and Indiana.
All experience levels improved from the pretest to posttest, with posttest scores highest among the most experienced.
Unexpectedly, improvement was higher  for those with 5-20 years of experience and lower  for those with <6 years of experience.
We are unsure as to why this occurred, but it could be due to 1) the questions we selected for the exam, 2) participants unaccustomed to taking tests, 3) greater recall of previously learned information among advanced participants from pretest to posttest, 4) inaccuracies from guessed answers  or 5) greater interest and attention among those with more turf experience.
Though this seminar was primarily targeted at beginning level turf professionals, 57% of attendees had >5 years of work experience in turf.
This suggest that experienced professionals appreciate "refresher" courses, especially when pesticide certification credits are offered, but also indicates that instructors need to be flexible in tailoring each course to the experience level of the attendees.
At the conclusion of each seminar, each attendee was given a seminar evaluation form to help gather information and document impact.
Ninety-two percent of the surveys were completed and returned.
The evaluation form included questions on the venue/classroom, most and least favorite topics, suggestions for improvement, five questions about the seminar , and an overall seminar quality rating.
The responses  indicated that attendees would recommend others attend the seminar in the future.
Despite pretest and posttest data showing only modest improvement, 95% of attendees felt better equipped to do their job following the seminar.
Ninety-eight percent of the respondents increased their knowledge of pesticide, nutrient, and water inputs, and 95% increased their understanding of environmental stewardship.
Although not a primary objective of this seminar, 72% of attendees felt the seminar would help them save money for their business.
These responses are similar to responses in a survey of a week-long turfgrass short course in Illinois and Indiana.
Attendees rated the overall quality of this seminar as 4.4 on a scale of 1 to 5, where 5=excellent, 4=good, 3=fair, 2=poor, and 1=very poor.
There are opportunities to provide education to new employees of the turfgrass and green industries.
A 1-day seminar covering basic principles of turf management was successful at improving attendee knowledge.
Despite the economy, these seminars were well-attended, profitable, and highly rated by those who attended.
This seminar can serve as a template and encouragement for those wishing to reach clientele through new educational outreach programs.
The authors want to express their gratefulness to Jon Trappe and Jennifer Biehl for their grading tests and compiling survey responses, and to the Midwest Regional Turf Foundation, Purdue University, and the University of Arkansas Cooperative Extension Service for co-sponsoring these seminars.
Nursery worker turnover and language proficiency.
Turfgrass Extension and outreach programming.
ASA, CSSA, SSSA, Madison, WI.
The Indiana-Illinois turfgrass short course10 years of cooperative outreach.
International Turfgrass Research Journal 10:718-712.
April 2019 // Volume 57 // Number 2 // Tools of the Trade // v57-2tt6
 To ensure the implementation of management actions appropriate for tackling natural resources concerns on working lands in the United States, the Regional Conservation Partnership Program  was introduced in the 2014 Farm Bill.
This initiative implemented through the Natural Resources Conservation Service  encourages individuals at land-grant universities and conservation agencies to partner with landowners to implement voluntary conservation practices.
The partnering groups work together, providing financial and technical assistance and outreach addressing natural resources issues of heightened concern within a watershed or region.
The activities allow farmers to implement innovative conservation practices, thereby broadening conservation effectiveness.
Despite such potential to get involved in watershed-based projects, Extension professionals have used the program only minimally in broadening Extension's objectives.
As agricultural systems become more complex, the goals of agricultural Extension will be advanced through strategic incorporation of ideas into education and outreach.
Extension professionals can use RCPP projects as opportunities to bring together those with local expertise in agricultural systems and conservation programs to provide knowledge transfer to various types of stakeholders.
Such collaboration proves useful when financial resources for outreach programs are declining by providing opportunities to serve more clients with fewer resources.
As Smart et al.
suggested, measurable conservation gains can happen only when conservation practices are implemented in critical areas and are coupled with careful long-term messaging and planning by Extension professionals.
Extension professionals, through RCPP projects, can collaborate with partner agencies to contribute services such as planning, monitoring, and technical assistance.
RCPP projects, which often span years, can be used for identifying a cohort of farmers to serve as early adopters of innovative conservation practices.
In addition, long-term on-farm data available from the projects can inform development of educational material for outreach, and farmer experiences may prove valuable for influencing conversations among agricultural producers within a region regarding a management practice or suite of practices.
Through the RCPP, the NRCS provides financial assistance for projects that address natural resources concerns such as water quality degradation, soil health degradation, and inefficient irrigation water use, among others.
Projects can occur at national, multistate, and state levels as well as within critical conservation areas.
CCAs are eight areas in the United States chosen by the Secretary of Agriculture that center on priority regional and local natural resources concerns.
The RCPP is implemented through NRCS's existing programs.
The practices selected for RCPP projects are qualified under NRCS's Environmental Quality Incentives Program, Conservation Stewardship Program, Agricultural Conservation Easement Program, and Healthy Forests Reserve Program.
For the purpose of achieving greater participation from landowners and, thereby, greater conservation gains, some of the requirements of these existing programs are relaxed, on a case-by-case basis.
To maximize conservation impact, landowners select conservation practices based on priorities for mitigating natural resources issues associated with their particular production enterprises.
A main difference between accessing NRCS funds in the traditional manner and doing so via the RCPP is that the RCPP requires participants to leverage resources, either cash or in-kind, from partners and fosters interaction between landowners and partners that facilitates achieving conservation gains at a watershed scale.
For Extension professionals, the RCPP is a vehicle for developing partnerships and engaging landowners in watershed-wide projects addressing natural resources concerns that otherwise would not be implemented due to limited funds within a county or parish.
For example, in Louisiana alone, from 2015 to 2017, through a total of 10 projects that included national, state-level, and CCA projects, $27 million was used for implementing practices to promote natural resources management.
Extension agents were critical in contributing to the success of these projects by interacting with agricultural landowners at the local level, gathering perspectives, initiating conversations regarding conservation, and organizing messaging sessions, such as field days for demonstrating expected project outcomes.
Specifically, for the Red Bayou project, a watershed-based project for improving water quality and soil health in the Red River Basin of Louisiana, priority concerns were identified through a watershed tour followed by farmer meetings held by Extension faculty and conservation agency staff.
These events highlighted the need for better resource management, improved efficiency in nutrient and irrigation use, and profitable production methods.
Such efforts demonstrate that through the RCPP, Extension professionals have an excellent opportunity to bring partners together to allocate resources, both financial and technical, within watershed boundaries.
As most practices implemented under RCPP projects are managed and maintained similarly to those in any NRCS program, the practices fit with little or no change into landowners' existing practices.
The RCPP provides a mutually beneficial means by which agricultural landowners can participate in a concentrated resource management effort to facilitate sustainable use of natural resources.
Extension professionals can play a vital role in identifying and building partnerships and marketing the value of these watershed-wide projects.
In addition, RCPP projects can provide an avenue for data collection with respect to real-time management practices and provide more data-driven solutions that can be shared with other stakeholders within a region.
Overall, the RCPP constitutes a useful tool.
Extension professionals can use the program to foster public participation in natural resources conservation and management.
The RCPP can serve as a program that enhances landowners' abilities to address natural resources concerns on their farms, issues often not adequately addressed due to limited financial and technical assistance, while not compromising on profitability.
Extension professionals can use the program for developing education, outreach, and conservation initiatives focused on the benefits of long-term conservation on working lands.
Extension 3.0: Managing agricultural knowledge systems in the network age.
Society & Natural Resources, 27, 10891103.
Climate-Related Risks and Management Issues Facing Agriculture in the Southeast: Interviews with Extension Professionals Abstract To explore Extension professionals' perceptions of the potential impact of climate variability and climate change on agriculture and to identify the top climate-related issues facing farmers, we conducted interviews with agricultural Extension personnel from Alabama, Florida, Georgia, and South Carolina.
Of those interviewed, 92% believed climate change will affect agriculture a moderate amount or a great deal.
Qualitative analyses revealed that the Extension professionals considered scarcity of water resources, temperature fluctuations, pest and disease pressures, forecast challenges, seasonal variability, and adaptation strategies as among the most important climate-related issues affecting agriculture in the Southeast.
Dourte Hydrologist The Balmoral Group Winter Park, Florida Clyde W.
Across this time continuum, fluctuations in conditions such as temperature and precipitation can be either beneficial or detrimental to agricultural production; susceptibility to changing conditions depends on multiple factors, including crop grown, crop varieties, location, soil conditions, and water access.
These variations also directly affect the efficiency of field practices, availability of water supplies, irrigation timing, pest and disease pressures, and severity of soil erosion.
In addition, climate extremes-heat waves, storms, droughts, heavy rainfalls, and floods-frequently pose challenges for farmers and may reduce agricultural yields.
Understanding Weather, Climate Variability, and Climate Change Over Time There is a rapidly growing and evolving body of research on the general climate beliefs of farmers and their perspectives on the magnitude of future climate impacts on agriculture.
There is also an emerging body of research about the general climate beliefs of Extension professionals , Extension professionals" perceptions of the usefulness of climate forecasting , and the willingness of agricultural advisors to incorporate weather and climate information into their advice to farmers.
Prokopy and colleagues  have examined the perspectives of Extension professionals on the existence of climate change, its causes, and its significance for agriculture as well as the relative utility of weather and climate information over different time scales.
In their survey of midwestern agricultural advisors, Prokopy et al.
found that all advisors, including Extension personnel, strongly supported the ideas that "farmers should take additional steps to protect farmland from increased weather variability," that advisors "should help farmers to prepare for the impacts of increased weather variability," and that "it is important for farmers to adapt to climate change to ensure the long-term success of U.S.
These authors also concluded that despite research showing a diminished influence of Extension on farmers over time, Extension remains a trusted source of information for farmers as well as agricultural advisors and that Extension educators need to be better prepared to deliver information related to climate and agriculture.
We build on this literature by exploring the specific climate-related issues Extension professionals believe to be the most important issues facing agriculture in the southeastern United States.
Methods Fifty Extension professionals from four southeastern states  were interviewed about their beliefs, attitudes, and perceptions regarding climate variability and climate change as well as climate-related agricultural issues.
The semistructured interview was developed by our team and received approval from the institutional review board at the lead institution.
We first identified potential respondents as those whom we knew to participate in climate-related trainings, and we identified additional participants by using snowball sampling.
Efforts were made to sample from four major Extension roles.
This sampling strategy was designed to include Extension professionals engaged with climate issues related to agriculture, such that they had a knowledge base for responding to relevant questions.
Sample Characteristics Characteristic No.
% Gender Male 39 78 Female 11 22 Race/ethnicity Caucasian 40 80 African American 5 10 Hispanic 5 10 Education Bachelor's degree 2 4 Master's degree 17 34 Doctoral degree 31 62 Extension role County faculty/Extension agent 13 26 State Extension faculty 17 34 Researcher 10 20 Administrator/director 10 20 State Climate-Related Risks and Management issues Facing Agriculture in the Southeast Alabama 11 22 Florida 18 36 Georgia 11 22 South Carolina 10 20 Provides climate information Yes 28 56 No 22 44 Target audience for climate information Farmers 25 50 Ranchers 8 16 Faculty 17 34 Perception of extent to which climate change affects agriculture Not at all o o A little bit 4 8 A moderate amount 18 38 A great deal 26 54 M Min Max Age  49 29 69 Extension experience  15 1 37 The 45to 60-min interviews were conducted via phone, recorded, and transcribed.
The full interview included questions on climate-related issues, training issues in Extension, attitudes about climate change, strategies and practices related to adaptation to climate variability and climate change, and suggestions for project implementation.
The full interview protocol can be obtained from the first author.
For the study described here, respondents were asked "What are the most important climate-related issues that you think are currently affecting agriculture in your state?
Please rank these issues in order of priority starting from 1  to 3." " They were then asked to explain why their top issue was important and to provide examples of possible agricultural effects.
Respondents also completed a brief online survey addressing their beliefs related to climate and agriculture.
Responses were qualitatively analyzed through the use of an inductive coding frame, in which codes were directly derived from a reading of the text.
Two individuals independently coded the responses, and intercoder reliability was established at the level of Kappa =.851, defined as "almost perfect agreement" (Viera & Garrett, 2005, p.
Although coding discrepancies occurred infrequently, all were resolved by a three-person team, and full consensus was achieved.
Codes were counted and recorded by number of mentions for each level of priority.
Results and Discussion The codes were organized under the major headings of  climate-related risks and  information and management needs.
The most frequently mentioned codes are presented in Table 2 and discussed thereafter.
Numbers of Mentions of Climate-Related Issues in Agriculture, Tallied in Order of Priority  No.
of mentions as No.
of mentions as No.
of mentions as Total Code #1 priority issue #2 priority issue #3 priority issue mentions Climate-related 47 36 29 112 risks Water scarcity 41 10 7 58 Drought 26.5 a o o 26.5 Rainfall patterns 5.5 5 1 11.5 Irrigation 3 2 3 8 Multiple 4 0 1 5 Competing use 1 1 1 3 Groundwater 1 1 1 3 availability Saltwater o 1 o 1 intrusion Temperature 1 11 6 18 Pests and 2 9 5 16 diseases Seasonal 3 2 5 10 variability Extreme weather o 4 2 6 Magnified risk o o 2 2 Climate o o 2 2 uncertainty Information and 3 11 7 21 management needs Forecasts 1 7 4 12 Weather o 3 3 6 Seasonal 1 3 o 4 Feature Climate-Related Risks and Management issues Facing Agriculture in the Southeast JOE 55 Climate o 1 1 2 Adaptation 2 4 3 9 Planting dates 1 3 1 5 Crop selection o 1 2 3 Decision support 1 o o 1 tools Note.
Each individual could generate three mentions based on his or her top three priorities, so the full number of possible mentions is greater than the number of respondents.
All 50 respondents provided a #1 priority, 47 provided a #2 priority, and 36 provided a #3 priority, for a total of 133 mentions.
ano respondent requested ranking both drought and rainfall patterns as the #1 issue, so the coders assigned a 1/2 code to each of these responses.
Climate-Related Risks When identifying the top three climate-related issues facing agriculture in the Southeast, respondents included challenges such as water scarcity, temperature, pests and diseases, and seasonal variability.
Water Scarcity  Water scarcity was the most frequently mentioned climate issue, with specific subcodes being drought, rainfall patterns, irrigation, multiple , competing use, groundwater availability, and saltwater intrusion.
Drought  When talking about drought, respondents provided the simple logic that water is essential to growing healthy plants and to achieving a strong yield.
A state Extension faculty member explained, "Drought affects production, and if you can't produce, you're not going to make money.
That's kind of obvious, but it's not trivial." Other interviewees discussed more specific issues, such as the reduction of crop yields and associated expenses.
A state Extension faculty member said that during a drought, "farmers [have] to replant the crop so it's increasing fuel expenses, seed expenses, and labor expenses." Many respondents emphasized that drought was especially damaging for dryland farmers.
In discussing drought, several respondents proposed irrigation as a solution.
One county agent said that irrigation makes lack of rainfall "a minor issue." However, some respondents also discussed the limitations of irrigation from the perspective of competing use, with one respondent stating, "Access to water is getting less and less.
And it definitely is affecting agriculture because, I think, there is more demand for the water by business, homeowners, and other industry." Drought planning and preparation tools also were mentioned.
According to a state Extension faculty member, drought forecasting can be beneficial if used properly: "You can't do much once you are in a drought, but if you [know one is] coming, you can certainly be better prepared the issue is to forecast drought in a reasonable time frame." Given the susceptibility of the Southeast to drought  and the subsequent pressures on groundwater reserves associated with irrigation , it is not surprising that drought was the highest ranked issue in the water scarcity category.
Respondents recognized these realities, with many explaining how severe drought conditions affect crop yields and the subsequent increase in associated expenses.
Rainfall Patterns  Rainfall patterns and timing was the second most frequently mentioned water scarcity issue.
Lack of precipitation can be detrimental to crop yield when plants do not obtain a sufficient amount of water at the right time.
As one state faculty member said, "You can have rainfall all through the year, but if you don't get it, say, for corn at tasseling time, when it's producing the ear you won't make much of a crop." According to some interviewees, recent rainfall patterns are seen as less predictable.
One researcher noted, "The types of rainfall events that we have are different.
Before, they were longer and more predictable, now perhaps less so." In an analysis of 60-year rainfall data, Wang, Fu, Kumar, and Li  found that the "interannual variance of Southeast summer precipitation decreased from the early twentieth century to the 1960s and then started to increase afterward" (p.
Such rainfall variability contributes to "exceptionally wet and dry summers" (Konrad et al., 2013, p.
9), presenting management challenges for farmers.
Irrigation  Although irrigation was frequently mentioned as a solution to water scarcity issues, some respondents addressed the inherent challenges of irrigation.
One administrator said, "A lot of center pivot irrigation systems have been going in, so you have water issues, adequate use of water, efficient use of water, potential impacts on your aquifers." Other respondents also raised the issue of groundwater depletion, with one researcher saying, "There's more irrigation and so there's less groundwater available." A county agent also identified the issue of competing use, saying, "There's some people that are scrutinizing these wateruse situations, and it creates a lot of debate and looking at agriculture and [farmers'] usage and [asking] 'do they really need to use that much?" Consistent with the respondents' attention to irrigation issues, Templeton, Perkins, Aldridge, Bridges, and Lassiter  found that 33 of 49 Extension professionals reported that their clientele could use climate forecasts to improve irrigation management, the highest rated item of all possible management practices in the study.
Temperature  Temperature was the second most frequently mentioned climate issue overall, with most respondents mentioning challenges associated with higher temperatures.
A county agent stated, "Summers seem to be getting hotter and hotter.
It affects not only the crop, but the soil moisture totally evaporates." A researcher said that "excessive heat, particularly nighttime temperatures" was problematic, especially for cotton.
Sustained high temperatures also were identified as a challenge.
A county agent said, "Last year, we had about a week to 10 days in May that were above 100 temperatures, and that was very tough." Other respondents focused on how temperature fluctuations and the lack of chill hours negatively affect the growing cycle of crops.
A state Extension faculty member who noted that farmers are challenged by temperature fluctuation emphasized, "In many parts of our state, we have fruit which require a certain number of chill hours." According to Fraisse, Breuer, Zierden, and Ingram , "If a crop variety is being grown in a climate near its temperature optimum, a temperature increase of several degrees could reduce photosynthesis and shorten the growing period" ("Potential Impacts of Climate Change on Agriculture," para.
Such increases in temperature, when combined with lack of precipitation "accelerate plant development, reduce grain-filling, decrease nutrient-use efficiency, and increase crop water consumption" (Anwar et al., 2013, p.
Pests and Diseases  Regarding pests and diseases, a county agent said, "What I think is the most important of these climaterelated issues is what people can visibly see.
And people can actually appreciate what's going on in their cropping system, and that has to do a lot with pests." Another county agent raised the issue of how drier conditions also can limit the efficacy of herbicides, saying, "If we remain dry during the planting season and do not get the moisture for those herbicides to be activated, then our back is against the wall from day one from a weed control standpoint." The Southeast is predisposed to agricultural pest problems, resulting in relatively high pesticide use , and increased frequency of higher temperatures and more precipitation tend to lead to wet vegetation that increases growth of pests and diseases.
Seasonal Variability  Seasonal variability codes fell into three categories: the effects of El Nio and La Nia and long-term oscillations, weather changes from year to year, and the rate of change in the seasons.
One researcher said, "I think the most frequent question is about the seasonal variation, the effect of El Nio and La Nia on issues related to planting or irrigations." The respondents who mentioned changes from year to year did so in terms of the effects on planting seasons.
An administrator summed up this concept: "I think the most pressing and current issue would be dealing with the weather variability, the weather risk that we have just within a 1-year growing season." Those interviewees who discussed seasonal change mentioned abrupt changes in the seasons and the lack of cold weather for vernalization of wheat or setting of fruit.
A county agent said, "It seems that we don't have a gradual pattern of changing seasons anymore it seems that we go straight from winter to summer, and straight from summer to winter." The topic of seasonal variability is an interesting bridge between weather and climate change, anchoring discussions of climate in terms of weather, which is of primary interest to farmers, but also relating these seasonal weather conditions to larger climatic influences.
Information and Management Needs Respondents articulated that both Extension professionals and producers need improved forecast information Forecasts  Interviewees stressed that agricultural decision makers need reliable, short-term weather forecasting.
A county agent explained that farmers are "trying to make decisions on different chemicals, fungicide applications, and things like that." When talking about seasonal forecasting, respondents focused on rainfall.
One county agent remarked that clients frequently ask questions such as "How is the rainfall going to be this year?" and "Are we expecting kind of a wet summer and fall, or are we expecting an extremely dry one?" Two respondents emphasized the importance of forecast accuracy for summer rainfall, with an administrator saying, "If you could really predict the weather for the summer, that might change [producers] from planting corn to planting grain sorghum or something like that." Overall, Extension professionals expressed the need for improved forecasts across all time frames: shortterm weather, seasonal variability, and climate change.
These findings are consistent with Cabrera et al.
, who reported that Extension agents in Florida agreed or strongly agreed that their work was affected by El Nino-Southern Oscillation  events  and that it would be helpful to know how the next season's climate would be different.
A South Carolina study of Extension professionals  showed that forecasts that include freeze alerts, plant moisture stress, ENSO phase, and growing degree days would be the most useful to Extension professionals.
If we in Extension expect farmers to make decisions based on forecasts, then the forecasts must be reasonably accurate and connected to specific recommended actions.
Adaptation  Adaptation included mentions of planting dates, crop selection, and decision support tools.
Those mentioning planting dates did so by discussing the need for farmers to be flexible in their planting dates in response to climate variability.
A state faculty member said that planting dates are "a very critical issue for corn producers," especially for dryland farmers.
Adjustments in planting dates were also discussed in terms of pest and disease management and planting earlier to avoid higher temperatures.
A county agent noted that because of recommendations from a peanut specialist, farmers were planting peanuts earlier that year.
The agent went on to explain that the recommendations to move up the planting of peanuts had been based on "tomato spotted wilt diseases and the warm temperatures." Respondents pointed out that farmers need to adjust their crop selection in response to climate variability and its subsequent influence on water availability and temperatures.
An administrator summed up the adaptation needs expressed by many respondents: "It changes your cropping systems because a lot of the crops that you can grow are tied to the season.
If you have warmer springs, then you want to maybe fall back and plant certain crops earlier, and there may be the potential to double-crop some crops, some new crops, like sorghum." Even though the interview questions specifically engaged respondents in identifying climate-related issues, respondents frequently indicated that management solutions were among their priorities.
Morris, Megalos, Vuola, Adams, and Monroe  discussed how Extension can fulfill its mission by addressing the "symptoms" of climate variability and extreme weather by focusing on "how best to use familiar management tools to maximize resource health, productivity, and resilience in changing future conditions" ("Successful Extension Climate Change Program Delivery," para.
Conclusion Our study revealed that Extension professionals consider scarcity of water resources, temperature fluctuations, pest and disease pressures, forecast challenges, seasonal variability, and adaptation strategies to be among the most important climate-related issues affecting agriculture in the Southeast.
With more than 90% of Extension professionals interviewed believing climate change will continue to affect agriculture at least a moderate amount, a continued emphasis on management options for responding to climate variability is a practical strategy for climate research and education.
However, other researchers have asserted that climate adaptation may have limited effectiveness in addressing large and unpredictable changes associated with long-term climate change and may even increase future vulnerability to climate change.
In addition, researchers have argued that the direct provision of education to farmers is not the most efficient or effective way to deliver Extension knowledge, recommending that Extension instead serve as an intermediary between farmers and other agricultural advisors, making more efficient use of scare resources in the Extension system.
Regardless of whether training is provided directly to farmers or through intermediaries, we propose that Extension has a critical role to play in climate training and that the foundation for this knowledge rests on a clear understanding of the present issues facing farmers.
The Extension professionals interviewed focused on the immediate concerns of farmers, a scenario that is consistent with previous research that led us to conclude that climate training for Extension professionals should emphasize "basic climate concepts through applied agricultural examples tailored to both their content areas and the needs of their clients, enhancing the ability of Extension agents to address producer concerns" (Diehl et al., 2015, p.
Similarly, Morris et al.
suggested that Extension should tailor climate information to clientele needs that enhance producer resilience and profitability.
Beyond the specific issues in any given region, however, a larger lesson is that local and regional assessments of the climate-related agricultural needs of farmers should be conducted so that immediate farmer concerns define appropriate solutions-based content for Extension education.
Continued research on Extension's role related to climate variability and change in agriculture should include quantitative studies involving larger samples of Extension professionals and farmers, allowing for subgroup analyses and the analysis of relationships among variables.
Such research might include more explicit attention to farmer beliefs about the ways in which climate affects agriculture and how Extension can best communicate with farmers to develop adaptation strategies that work in specific conditions.
Given the results of our study, it seems important to include localized research identifying the climate issues of interest as well as localized evaluation of Extension's ability to engage farmers in adaptation strategies and, ultimately, to assess the effectiveness of these strategies.
Cooperative Extension has traditionally struggled to address potentially controversial topics such as climate change, which may conflict with the personal views of stakeholder groups and elected officials.
By linking discussions of climate variability and climate change to management strategies, Extension can reduce the possible tensions associated with the issue of climate change.
This suggestion is consistent with previous research indicating that adaptation success is seen "when measures that address climate change risks are incorporated into existing decision structures related to risk management, land use planning, livelihood enhancements, water and other resource management systems, development initiatives, and so on" (Smit & Wandel, 2006, p.
Extension can play a critical role in identifying knowledge gaps, setting research priorities, developing adaptation technologies and risk management strategies, and disseminating these strategies to producers, helping them become more resilient in the face of climate variability and climate change.
Adapting agriculture to climate change: A review.
Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 113, 225-245.
Climate change beliefs, concerns, and attitudes toward adaptation and mitigation among farmers in the midwestern United States.
Climatic Change, 117, 943-950.
Agriculture and climate change in the Southeast USA.
Anderson , Climate of the Southeast United States: Variability, change, impacts, and vulnerability (pp.
Washington, DC: Island Press.
AgClimate: A case study in participatory decision support system development.
Climatic Change, 87, 385-403.
The Cooperative Extension Service as a boundary organization for diffusion of climate forecasts: A five-year study.
Extension agent knowledge and perceptions of seasonal climate forecasts in Florida.
Southeast Climate Consortium technical report series, 06-001.
Vulnerability and adaptation to climate change and variability in semi arid rural southeastern Arizona, USA.
Natural Resources Forum, 33, 297-309.
Toward engagement in climate training: Findings from interviews with agricultural Extension professionals.
Journal of Rural Social Sciences, 30, 25-50.
The dynamics of vulnerability: Why adapting to climate variability will not always prepare us for climate change.
Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climate Change, 6, 413-425.
From climate variability to climate change: Challenges and opportunities to Extension.
AgClimate: A climate forecast information system for agricultural risk management in the southeastern USA.
Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, 53, 13-27.
Farmer beliefs about climate change and carbon sequestration incentives.
Climate Research, 56, 157-167.
Agricultural advisors as climate information intermediaries: Exploring differences in capacity to communicate climate.
Weather, Climate, and Society, 7, 83-93.
Meyer , Climate change 2014: Synthesis report (pp.
Climate of the Southeast USA: Past, present, and future.
Anderson , Climate of the Southeast United States: Variability, change, impacts, and vulnerability (pp.
Washington, DC: Island Press.
Using stakeholder needs assessments and deliberative dialogue to inform climate change outreach efforts.
Rancher and farmer perceptions of climate change in Nevada, USA.
Climatic Change, 122, 313-327.
Harnessing homophily to improve climate change education.
Environmental Education Research, 21, 221-238.
Cooperative Extension and climate change: Successful program delivery.
Extension's role in disseminating information about climate change to agricultural stakeholders in the United States.
Climatic Change, 130, 261-272.
Agricultural advisors: A receptive audience for weather and climate information?
Weather, Climate, and Society, 5, 162-167.
agricultural producer perceptions of climate change.
Journal of Agricultural and Applied Economics, 45, 701-718.
Climate change and U.S.
agriculture: The impacts of warming and extreme weather events on productivity, plant diseases, and pests.
Feature JOE 55 Boston: Center for Health and the Global Environment, Harvard Medical School.
Adaptation, adaptive capacity and vulnerability.
Global Environmental Change, 16, 282-292.
Usefulness and uses of climate forecasts for agricultural Extension in South Carolina, USA.
Regional Environmental Change, 14, 645-655.
A general inductive approach for analyzing qualitative evaluation data.
American Journal of Evaluation, 27, 237-246.
Glossary of climate change terms.
Retrieved from http://www.epa.gov/climatechange/glossary.htm U.S.
Global Change Research Program.
Understanding interobserver agreement: The kappa statistic.
Family Medicine, 37, 360-363.
Intensification of summer rainfall variability in the southeastern United States during recent decades.
Journal of Hydrometeorology, 11, 1007-1018.
Message in a bottleneck?
Attitudes and perceptions of climate change in the Cooperative Extension Service in the southeastern United States.
Journal of Human Sciences and Extension, 2, 51-70.
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June 2017 // Volume 55 // Number 3 // Feature // v55-3a3
 Learning, as a term and concept, has become nearly ubiquitous in our everyday language.
The concept of learning describes processes, practices, and outcomes in relation to individuals, organizations, and communities.
The term is employed in Extension educational philosophies, such as experiential learning  and service learning , and in relation to the organization, such as in discussions about transforming Extension into a learning organization.
Because human learning is complex, and the term learning is used broadly, it is easy to overlook its theoretical foundations and practical application.
The purpose of this article is to define learning in the context of Extension and expand "what counts" as learning.
We summarize key aspects of the educational research literature by comparing two prevailing metaphors for learningacquisition and participation, and we share a definition of learning we developed on the basis of those metaphors.
We also discuss the related implications for program and curriculum development, pedagogy, professional development, and assessment of learning.
Scientific research on educationthe discrete yet intertwined concepts of teaching and learningbegan in the latter part of the 19th century and grew in part from the work of prominent researchers including Edward Thorndike , Lev Vygotsky , Kurt Koffka , Jean Piaget , John Dewey , and Jerome Bruner.
The literatures on education, cognition, learning, and the mind are extensive and encompass multiple lineages and specific learning theories.
A comprehensive summary of learning theories is beyond the scope of this article; instead, we recommend that readers consult National Research Council , Merriam and Bierema , or Iby, Brown, Lara-Alecio, and Jackson.
Theories of learning advance implicit assumptions of "what counts" as learning  and link recommended approaches for achieving these valued learning outcomes.
Many theories of learning exist, and educational researchers have distinguished between two prevailing metaphors to describe learning: acquisition and participation.
These two metaphors are not binaries; rather they may be used together as a heuristic for understanding various learning theories.
Theories of learning are often more like acquisition or more like participation relative to associated world view, assumptions, goals, pedagogies, and motivations of learners.
Table 1 contrasts aspects of the prevailing metaphors.
Overall, the metaphors help us understand "what counts" as learning, "for whom," and "under what conditions."
 Theories of learning more like acquisition focus on the individual mind where "concepts are to be understood as basic units of knowledge that can be accumulated, gradually refined, and combined to form ever richer cognitive structures" (Sfard, 1998, p.
These theories include behaviorism  and constructivism  and their extensions, such as inquiry-based learning.
The theories include both transmission and construction models of learning wherein concepts are basic units of knowledge that are acquired, constructed, internalized, and transmitted.
Teaching is a way to help learners make a predefined concept their private property.
Acquisition is coupled with the idea of decontextualized transfer, where "once acquired, the knowledge, like any other commodity, may now be applied, transferred , and shared with others" (Sfard, 1998, pp.
These concepts are measured and assessed to determine what one has learned.
The second metaphor is that of participation in situated activity where "ongoing learning activities are never considered separately from the context within which they take place" (Sfard, 1998, p.
Learning theories more like participation employ terms such as doing, practice, and discourse to describe a person's interest, identity, abilities, and participation, along with social and cultural factors influencing such participation in communities of practice.
The participation metaphor is aligned with situated cognition , cultural-historical activity theory , and other sociocultural perspectives of learning.
Sociocultural theory advances the idea that learning and development are mediated through culture; hence, learning is situated in cultural communities in which one participates.
Cultural communities are, broadly, groups of people who have specific practices, traditions, and routine ways of doing things.
Extending the learning metaphors to the design of learning environments, Barab and Duffy  argued that to fully meet educational goals, learning opportunities must be structured in a way that allows participants to become legitimate participants in a community of practitioners.
They advanced the use of the terms practice fields to describe acquisition-like learning environments and communities of practice to describe participation-like learning environments.
They argued that "practice fields are separate from the real field, but they are contexts in which learners, as opposed to legitimate participants, can practice the kinds of activities they will encounter outside" a designed learning environment  (Barab & Duffy, 2012, p.
Learning in practice fields can be stimulated through pedagogical approaches such as problem-based learning and anchored instruction and teaching practices that promote ownership of inquiry and opportunity for reflection and emphasize collaborative work.
However, practice fields do not fully prepare learners to participate in an authentic community.
In contrast, a community of practitioners is a group of people "sharing mutually defined practices, beliefs, and understandings over an extended time frame in the pursuit of a shared enterprise" (Barab & Duffy, 2012, p.
Learning in a community of practice is evidenced by a person's changing involvement with and new ways of engaging in the community's activities.
Sfard  argued that within a participation-metaphor learning environment, learning is "a process of becoming a member of a certain community" and that that process "entails, above all, the ability to communicate in the language of [the] community and act according to its particular norms" (p.
Learning a domain involves learning the discourse, values systems, and accepted ways of knowing and doing and seeing oneself as a member of the community .
In contrast, in a practice field, learners become members of a community of learners  because educational activities are divorced from an authentic practice or community.
A mission of Extension is to develop, design, and evaluate educational programming that meets the needs of youths, families, and communities (U.S.
Department of Agriculture, 2016).
Extension needs to be intentional in how it positions educational programs within specific theories of learning because such positioning has important consequences for planning, implementation, and evaluation.
We conducted an analytical literature review to develop a definition of learning applicable to Extension and grounded in the scholarly literature.
Early versions were revised on the basis of feedback from the U.S.
Department of Agriculture's National 4-H Learning Working Group.
After revising, we arrived at the following definition of learning within the context of Extension:
 Learning is the progressive and purposeful familiarity, use, and transformation of cultural tools and practices that influence one's changing and continuous capacity to act in and on the world.
Learners construct and develop their own understandings, dispositions, identities, and motivations through sense making of experiences.
Learning is mediated and oriented through culture, is situated in the cultural communities in which one participates, and emphasizes culturally determined learning outcomes leading to culturally valued development.
The definition strives to balance the acquisition and participation metaphors with attention to the individual's mind within a cultural context.
First, learning is positioned not just as the acquisition of knowledge or skills, but also as a person's mastery of cultural tools where these tools themselves become intertwined with cognition.
Cultural tools include both physical objects  and symbols.
Such mastery ultimately allows the learner to transform the tool itself.
Second, learning is both deeply individualistic and interpreted socially as learners make sense of new experiences through application of prior experience and sociocultural perspectives.
Third, evidence of learning is a person's changing involvement with and new ways of engaging in the activities, practices, traditions, and routines of a cultural community.
Learning outcomes are not static or predetermined, but change depending on their emphases within cultural communities.
This scenario, in turn, promotes specific kinds of development that vary from place to place.
Cultural communities change over time, and learning goals, accordingly, change as well.
Through our review of the literature, and in line with our proposed definition of learning, we identified indicators of learning outcomes advanced by researchers.
Herein we describe examples of indicators that may be of interest to Extension and that move beyond traditional outcomes such as knowledge, skill, and affect .
On the basis of the two metaphors, our proposed definition of learning, and indicators of learning relevant to Extension, we offer implications and recommendations for program and curriculum development, pedagogy, professional development, and assessment of learning.
Our definition of learning encourages Extension professionals to consider a broader ecosystem of learning that includes the transformational relationships among learner, educator, learning environment, community, and society.
The definition challenges us to become intentional in our adoption of theories of learning.
In particular, we advocate that Extension identify and think about adopting community of practice models that engage clientele in authentic and relevant educational experiences situated in authentic cultural communities.
To engage learners in communities of practice, program activities must be situated in cultural values and norms that provide meaning and legitimacy.
This requirement includes attention to relevant vocabulary, mature behavior, and practices in accordance with norms of the larger group.
Extension programs will benefit from the embedding of education in a larger community with a common purpose, common cultural heritage, interdependent systems, and a reproduction cycle.
For example, in a water quality science program, an approach may be connecting learners to scientists to help with a research project; indeed, this strategy is common in public participation in scientific research, also known as "citizen science".
The definition of learning also has implications for curriculum design.
Curriculum is not a book or physical artifact, but instead becomes one of many tools educators can use with learners on learning pathways to guide their experience and active roles within the community of practice.
Authentic learning pathways will spark, deepen, and sustain learners' interest and development.
Curriculum materials, experiences, and relationships should be selected, adapted, or developed to provide direct connections between the learning activities and a larger purpose in the community.
Our definition of learning has multiple implications for teaching.
First, it reemphasizes the importance of reflective practice.
Educators need to model and facilitate reflection and explicitly connect learning activities with their real-world communities.
Reflection is a strategy to support the learner in making meaning from the educational experience.
Rather than a formulaic approach, reflection is a fluid process of creating meaning, applying it to known and novel situations, and revising understanding.
This reflection must be progressive and cyclic, connecting learning experiences to each other so that learners can both build on prior knowledge and create foundations for future learning.
Educators need to guide learners through individual and group reflection where meaning can be deepened through social engagement.
Reflection also supports positive human development; as people define meaning for themselves, they develop agency and capacity.
Additionally, the definition of learning shifts pedagogy from information transfer approaches  to relationship-based strategies.
Recommended strategies include autonomy support , metacognitive support , and emotional coaching.
Professional development should be situated in communities of educators where participants share ideas and learn from one another.
Drawing on community of practice theory , Smith et al.
have recommended a fundamental redesign of professional development in Extension that has educators "engaging in a community of practice with other educators" as opposed to "having experts working on educators" ("Discussion," para.
Within these communities, educators should engage in reflective practice and share work with one another and the larger world.
These opportunities should explicitly address prevailing metaphors of learning, learning theories, and expanded definitions of learning outcomes.
Helping educators expand their conception of "what counts" as learning has the potential to improve learning of Extension clientele, and thus, Extension's ability to demonstrate positive community impacts.
Expanding the definition of learning outcomes challenges Extension to move beyond evaluating information acquisition and consider alternative assessment strategies.
The definition calls for renewed focus on the relationship between educator and learner, with an eye on articulating the relationship between educator competencies and desired learning outcomes.
Furthermore, the definition provides opportunities to use embedded and authentic evaluation strategies that move beyond surveyssuch as portfolios, presentations, work products, and self-reflection toolsso that learners can articulate what they have learned.
These artifacts can provide a deeper and wider view of the learner's experience and program impact beyond what is commonly assessed through traditional evaluation methods.
Extension's focus must shift to including the whole activity as the unit of analysis.
This approach entails placing the sociocultural activity as the unit of analysis and incorporating broader cultural practices, assorted roles in activities, and other artifacts, all of which vary from setting to setting.
Additionally, researchers should avoid the tendency to attribute differences among participants to stable group characteristics.
Instead, evaluators should treat a participant's background as a "constellation of factors" and not as control variables.
Holding variables constant does not take into account the "dynamically changing configuration of relevant aspects of people's lives" (Gutirrez & Rogoff, 2003, p.
23), including aspects of identity and participation.
For Extension educational programs to meet the educational needs of today's youths, families, and communities, Extension needs to expand "what counts" as learning.
We advocate for a reorientation in how Extension positions educational programming that involves recognizing and articulating a broader range of learning indicators than typically found in a traditional logic model.
We need to move beyond privileging knowledge, skills, and affect to including other indicators of learning, such as identity and contribution to valued community endeavors.
We acknowledge the U.S.
Department of Agriculture 4-H Learning Working Group, Leslie Forstadt, and Heather Worker for reviewing earlier drafts of this article.
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October 2020 // Volume 58 // Number 5 // Feature // v58-5a7
 During the past decade or so, there has been an increase in consumer demand for locally grown, sustainably produced, and organic meat and produce, especially in California.
This demand has led to a rise in the number of small-scale farms and the subsequent direct marketing of agricultural products through farmers markets .
Although this rise in direct-to-consumer sales may have a positive economic and social impact, concerns about food safety risks associated with directly marketed food have been posed.
On farms, differences in food safety practices as well as the potential for contamination and cross-contamination of products as a result of agricultural practice and handling factors  contribute to food safety risks.
Additionally, food safety practices during harvest and after harvest  may affect the presence of foodborne pathogens in FM products.
California plays a substantial role in U.S.
and international agricultural production and crop distribution.
A growing sector of this production is led by small-scale farms, reflected by the approximately 800 FMs in operation in California.
Of those FMs, 687 are part of the CDFA Certified Farmers' Market  Program.
This program, started in 1977, allows farmers to directly market their products and exempts them from packing, sizing, and labeling requirements.
The program benefits the agricultural community by enabling farmers to cut out middlemen and take a price premium and allowing consumers to meet farmers and learn how their food is produced.
California farmers choosing to direct market their products have various opportunities to do so but also encounter a host of associated regulations.
For example, farmers selling agricultural products  at a CFM must hold a CDFA certified producer certificate, as supervised by the County Agricultural Commissioner's Office.
This certification is part of the CDFA CFM Program and ensures that farmers comply with certain rules intended to verify that all products are grown by the farmers selling them.
Farmers selling animal products are also subject to U.S.
Department of Agriculture  regulations , CDFA regulations , and county-level legislation.
Additionally, within California, there are several FM associations, each of which has specific food safety and good agricultural practice  guidelines for vendor members, such as requiring an annual farm visit for each vendor.
California farmers also can sell cottage foods under the California Homemade Food Act and California Cottage Food Operation certification program.
Because of such complexities, Extension educators and specialists in California have been playing an important role in extending knowledge and training in different areas for small-scale farmers, including agricultural diversification, business and marketing, processing , and distribution of agricultural products sold at FMs.
Unfortunately, the combination of federal, state, county, and organizational regulations creates a complex set of rules for vendors and FM managers, making it difficult for them to standardize their practices across various FMs and to comply with different requirements.
The implication of this heterogeneity on FM practices, management, and regulations regarding food safety in FMs in California has not been fully studied to date.
In the study described in this article, we aimed to characterize the food safety practices and related practices  used by FM vendors and assess the need for food safety training among FM managers.
The information gathered here will help Extension professionals and educators with the development and implementation of programs addressing food safety in FMs in California and may be of value to those in Extension elsewhere as well.
We compiled a list of CFM managers in California using available lists from FM associations and official websites  and distributed an online survey  via email in July 2018 and via a follow-up email in September.
An alternative hard-copy version of the survey was made available upon request.
We pretested the survey with professionals affiliated with Cooperative Extension and the FM associations.
The survey was accessible from July 2018 to October 2018.
It consisted of 37 questions  and was divided by topic into five parts: introduction; knowledge about on-farm practices; food safety, storage, and cooling; FM information; and requirements to become a vendor.
A copy of the survey is available upon request.
The survey instrument was reviewed by the institutional review board administration (University of California, Davis; Davis, CA; No.
We analyzed quantitative data using descriptive statistics in R software, version 3.5.2.
We calculated relative frequencies and percentages on a per-question basis, using total respondents for each question as the denominator.
After identifying and contacting 370 FM managers, we received 90 online responses.
We excluded from the analysis 22 surveys with an overall question response rate below 5%.
Of the 68 remaining responses, mean survey progress reached 80.4% , with 58.8% of respondents completing all survey questions.
Forty-four of the 68 respondents finished the survey in less than 15 min, and the mean response time overall was 10 min.
Responses to the survey question about FM size  indicated that the median number of vendors per market was 30.
Five respondents answered this question per market.
In this subgroup, the median number of vendors per market was 23.
The number of vendors per market during peak harvest season varied, with FM managers reporting that figure as being less than five , between six and 15 , and above 16.
Nearly three fourths of the FM managers  reported not being part of an FM association.
The most common items sold at FMs were fresh fruits and vegetables ; herbs, flowers, and plants ; honey, nuts, jams, jellies, and preserves ; and baked goods.
Also common were prepared foods  and other processed foods.
Although animal products were less popular, they were still present in approximately two thirds of FMs.
The most commonly used label  for produce at FMs was "certified organic" , but other labels were also used , specifically "locally grown" , "pasture raised/free range" , "chemical/pesticide free" , "hormone/antibiotic free" , "natural" , "humanely raised" , and "biodynamic".
Slightly more than two thirds of the FM managers reported that producers could sell other farms' products using a second certificate  and that producers could sell farm products from outside the local area.
A lesser number of FM managers  reported that the variety of items that could be sold at their FMs  was limited.
Almost one third of respondents  operated in a permanent facility whereas over two thirds  operated in temporary facilities.
The two most effective advertising methods used by FMs were social media and signs and banners on markets; the least popular was advertising on TV.
Other methods reported by participants were word of mouth, bus and transit advertising, solicited free print exposure, promotion of local food and markets through partnering with other nonprofits and governmental agencies, and large decals on market vehicles.
We calculated percentages by dividing the number of respondents who ranked the specified advertisement venue by the total number of responses for that option.
Most FM managers  reported that they were the ones who had developed the requirements for vendors for their FMs; others indicated that requirements for vendors were developed by the city, the county, or a municipal government agency ; a community or nonprofit association ; the FM board of directors ; or a service organization.
Almost two thirds of respondents to the relevant set of questions  selected more than one option.
Most respondents did not ask vendors questions related to on-farm food safety practices.
Specifically, large proportions of respondents did not ask vendors about  whether sanitation training is available to farm workers ,  whether they use sanitizers on cleaning surfaces that touch fruits or vegetables after harvest ,  whether they post materials with information about sanitation procedures at their farms ,  whether they test the agricultural water on their farms ,  whether they use animal manure in their vegetable production ,  whether domestic animals  or wild animals  have access to their vegetable production areas and what procedures are used to harvest vegetable crops , and  whether they provide handwashing facilities  and restroom facilities  within short walking distances of fields and packaging areas.
FM managers required vendors to provide several certifications or licenses to sell fresh fruits, nuts, vegetables, shelled eggs, or meat products at their markets.
However, between two and five FM managers reported that they did not ask for the required CDFA certificate, egg handlers license, or USDA certificate, even when the vendors sold the relevant products.
An individual CFM may set its own rules.
Therefore, FM rules may be more restrictive, are normally stricter than state or county regulations, and are part of the agreement between the farmer and the FM manager.
Given that most surveyed FM managers managed a single market, the varied requirements for becoming a vendor could pose a compliance challenge to vendors/farmers who intend to sell their products at multiple FMs.
Respondents could choose more than one option.
We calculated percentages by dividing the number of respondents who confirmed requiring the specified license or certificate by the total number of responses for that option.
CPC = Certified Producer's Certificate; USDA = U.
Department of Agricultureinspected documentation; CDFA = California Department of Food and Agricultureinspected documentation; CDPH = California Department of Public Health Cannery License Number.
Most respondents  allowed sampling of products at their markets.
Relative to sampling, these FM managers generally required the use of disposable utensils/toothpicks, handwashing stations, covered containers, gloves, and food holders.
Percentages are based on the total number of survey participants responding to the question of whether sampling is permitted at the farmers market.
Respondents could choose more than one option.
"Other" includes proper practices related to health and hygiene, food temperature, and sanitation.
Forty-nine FM managers reported that vendors sold fruits and vegetables at their markets.
According to the FM managers, most of these vendors did not use a cooling method during transport or during transport and storage, although some used portable coolers filled with ice during transport and storage.
With regard to temperature control methods for frozen meat and poultry, FM managers reported that vendors used ice cooling, electric coolers, and prechilled or frozen ice chests during transport or during transport and storage.
When respondents were asked whether they were interested in obtaining food safety training materials for vendors, only 13.5%  answered no.
Among the 45 who were interested, the most appealing training method was printed fact sheets , followed by in-person training , online training modules , YouTube videos , and videos and DVDs.
In an effort to support the food safety of products sold directly to consumers at FMs, we characterized and described CFMs in California by means of a survey.
We identified a need for and interest in food safety training by FM managers.
Our findings can serve as a basis for development of collaborative educational options by Extension educators, regulatory agencies, and FMs regarding food safety training and outreach targeting stakeholders involved with FMs.
Extension professionals and educators can play a proactive role in these training opportunities.
Although our study was conducted in California, our findings may apply to other states.
Our results suggest that most FM managers supervise only postharvest food safety practices of vendors at their markets and refrain from asking vendors about on-farm preand postharvest practices.
Similarly, Harrison et al.
reported that only small percentages of FM managers  asked vendors about on-farm practices at FMs in Georgia, Virginia, and South Carolina.
The findings of our study could be an indication of managers' reliance on preharvest certification programs, such as the national organic program , the GAP program , CDFA small farm food safety guidelines , and federal and state regulations (U.S.
Food and Drug Administration, 2015).
Extension professionals should encourage FM managers to include assessment of GAPs as part of their FM vendor agreements and to visit vendors at their farms to ensure that they are following GAPs.
Through our survey, we observed a wide range of practices and protocols regarding transportation, storage, sanitation, and sampling of products at FMs.
These differences may compromise food safety of fresh products sold and sampled at FMs.
Studies yielding similar results have been conducted in other states.
However, comparisons to FMs in California should be made with care, as FMs in the state are highly regulated.
For example, in California, FMs are required to separate areas for agricultural products sold by CDFA-certified and organic-certified farmers from crafts and food stand areas, with FM managers generally in charge of implementation and enforcement of the certified and noncertified sections.
On the other hand, California FM managers tend to rely on the farmer/vendor to be in compliance with various county, state, and federal regulations.
This circumstance may be because of the complexity of the regulations or because they view each vendor as an independent business.
Additionally, vendors offering sampling at FMs must follow local department of environmental health regulations and the California health and safety code to minimize microbial contamination and maximize consumer safety.
Thus, compliance and interpretation vary from county to county, market manager to market manager, and farmer to farmer.
There is an opportunity for Extension professionals to develop resources to proactively assist FM stakeholders in understanding and navigating the complex maze of regulations and food safety guidelines and to make those resources more readily available to FM managers and vendors.
Currently, most outreach and Extension resources on food safety are tailored to farmers and vendors selling agricultural products at FMs.
Therefore, there is a need to extend these resources to FM managers, nonfarm vendors, and other stakeholders involved in direct marketing.
Our study shows that there is an opportunity for Extension professionals to expand their outreach programs to other stakeholders, including FM managers, directors, and staff as well as other individuals involved in supporting the success of direct marketing.
Those materials could be made easily available and could be integrated into the certification process for FM managers and farmers via collaboration by Extension specialists, Extension educators, FM association representatives, and government agency personnel.
The training could be delivered through social media, printed fact sheets, and in-person or online sessions.
Such training should aim to increase food safety for products sold at FMs, thereby reducing the possible occurrence of foodborne illnesses and upholding state standards for food safety and public health.
For example, in Sonoma County, California, Extension professionals have developed fact sheets for vendors who are getting started selling at FMs and have held meetings annually with FM managers, county and state regulatory agencies, and other FM stakeholders to review regulatory changes, build relationships, and increase support for CFMs.
This approach has helped increase FM managers' understanding of regulations; enhance agencies' awareness of how their own regulations intersect, interact, and contradict other regulations at FMs; and increase mutual understanding between enforcement agencies and FM managers.
One limitation of our study is that our survey did not reach FM managers without email addresses and FM managers who were not part of the CDFA CFM Program.
Another limitation is that the participation rate could have been affected by survey mode (i.e., web-based instrument vs.
in-person interview), a phenomenon defined as the mode effect.
In an attempt to increase the participation rate, we used a mixed-mode survey design and offered both web-based and hard-copy options.
For future studies, other efforts, such as engaging FM associations in the study design and survey enrollment, could improve participation rates.
As FMs and other direct-to-consumer marketing channels continue to increase in popularity, it is crucial to support assurance of the food safety of animal products and fresh produce sold at FMs.
The information we gathered can inform how FM managers and FM associations can better implement organizational policies and practices that support food safety.
Our study will provide the foundation for developing targeted training, communication, and outreach activities through Extension in California to help ensure the food safety of products sold at FMs, with the ultimate goal of minimizing the transmission of foodborne pathogens and preserving the success of small-scale farmers, FMs, and direct-to-consumer market channels.
The work reported here was funded by U.S.
Department of Agriculture Project CA-V-PHR-4063-H.
Any opinions, findings, conclusions, or recommendations expressed in this article are those of the author and do not necessarily reflect the views of the U.S.
We thank Jasmin Torres for technical assistance.
We also thank Judy Harrison from the University of Georgia and Catherine Nettles Cutter from Pennsylvania State University for sharing their survey and Erin DiCaprio and Carle Brinkman for their feedback on the survey.
Additionally, we acknowledge the FM managers who participated in our study.
Farmers market food safety [Online course].
California Department of Food and Agriculture.
Certified farmers' market program manager's manual and training guide.
Internet, phone, mail, and mixed mode surveys: The tailored design method.
John Wiley & Sons Inc.
February 2017 // Volume 55 // Number 1 // Feature // v55-1a2
 Agricultural productivity is vulnerable to weather as well as both short-term climate variability and long-term climate change.
Across this time continuum, fluctuations in conditions such as temperature and precipitation can be either beneficial or detrimental to agricultural production; susceptibility to changing conditions depends on multiple factors, including crop grown, crop varieties, location, soil conditions, and water access.
These variations also directly affect the efficiency of field practices, availability of water supplies, irrigation timing, pest and disease pressures, and severity of soil erosion.
In addition, climate extremesheat waves, storms, droughts, heavy rainfalls, and floodsfrequently pose challenges for farmers and may reduce agricultural yields.
Understanding Weather, Climate Variability, and Climate Change Over Time
 Environmental Protection Agency, "Weather," 2014; 2Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2014, p.
Global Change Research Program, "Climate Change," 2014.
There is a rapidly growing and evolving body of research on the general climate beliefs of farmers and their perspectives on the magnitude of future climate impacts on agriculture.
There is also an emerging body of research about the general climate beliefs of Extension professionals , Extension professionals' perceptions of the usefulness of climate forecasting , and the willingness of agricultural advisors to incorporate weather and climate information into their advice to farmers.
Prokopy and colleagues  have examined the perspectives of Extension professionals on the existence of climate change, its causes, and its significance for agriculture as well as the relative utility of weather and climate information over different time scales.
In their survey of midwestern agricultural advisors, Prokopy et al.
found that all advisors, including Extension personnel, strongly supported the ideas that "farmers should take additional steps to protect farmland from increased weather variability," that advisors "should help farmers to prepare for the impacts of increased weather variability," and that "it is important for farmers to adapt to climate change to ensure the long-term success of U.S.
These authors also concluded that despite research showing a diminished influence of Extension on farmers over time, Extension remains a trusted source of information for farmers as well as agricultural advisors and that Extension educators need to be better prepared to deliver information related to climate and agriculture.
We build on this literature by exploring the specific climate-related issues Extension professionals believe to be the most important issues facing agriculture in the southeastern United States.
Fifty Extension professionals from four southeastern states  were interviewed about their beliefs, attitudes, and perceptions regarding climate variability and climate change as well as climate-related agricultural issues.
The semistructured interview was developed by our team and received approval from the institutional review board at the lead institution.
We first identified potential respondents as those whom we knew to participate in climate-related trainings, and we identified additional participants by using snowball sampling.
Efforts were made to sample from four major Extension roles.
This sampling strategy was designed to include Extension professionals engaged with climate issues related to agriculture, such that they had a knowledge base for responding to relevant questions.
The 45to 60-min interviews were conducted via phone, recorded, and transcribed.
The full interview included questions on climate-related issues, training issues in Extension, attitudes about climate change, strategies and practices related to adaptation to climate variability and climate change, and suggestions for project implementation.
The full interview protocol can be obtained from the first author.
For the study described here, respondents were asked "What are the most important climate-related issues that you think are currently affecting agriculture in your state?
Please rank these issues in order of priority starting from 1  to 3." They were then asked to explain why their top issue was important and to provide examples of possible agricultural effects.
Respondents also completed a brief online survey addressing their beliefs related to climate and agriculture.
Responses were qualitatively analyzed through the use of an inductive coding frame, in which codes were directly derived from a reading of the text.
Two individuals independently coded the responses, and intercoder reliability was established at the level of Kappa =.851, defined as "almost perfect agreement" (Viera & Garrett, 2005, p.
Although coding discrepancies occurred infrequently, all were resolved by a three-person team, and full consensus was achieved.
Codes were counted and recorded by number of mentions for each level of priority.
The codes were organized under the major headings of  climate-related risks and  information and management needs.
The most frequently mentioned codes are presented in Table 2 and discussed thereafter.
When identifying the top three climate-related issues facing agriculture in the Southeast, respondents included challenges such as water scarcity, temperature, pests and diseases, and seasonal variability.
Water scarcity was the most frequently mentioned climate issue, with specific subcodes being drought, rainfall patterns, irrigation, multiple , competing use, groundwater availability, and saltwater intrusion.
When talking about drought, respondents provided the simple logic that water is essential to growing healthy plants and to achieving a strong yield.
A state Extension faculty member explained, "Drought affects production, and if you can't produce, you're not going to make money.
That's kind of obvious, but it's not trivial."
 Other interviewees discussed more specific issues, such as the reduction of crop yields and associated expenses.
A state Extension faculty member said that during a drought, "farmers [have] to replant the crop.
so it's increasing fuel expenses, seed expenses, and labor expenses." Many respondents emphasized that drought was especially damaging for dryland farmers.
In discussing drought, several respondents proposed irrigation as a solution.
One county agent said that irrigation makes lack of rainfall "a minor issue." However, some respondents also discussed the limitations of irrigation from the perspective of competing use, with one respondent stating, "Access to water is getting less and less.
And it definitely is affecting agriculture because, I think, there is more demand for the water.
by business, homeowners, and other industry."
 Drought planning and preparation tools also were mentioned.
According to a state Extension faculty member, drought forecasting can be beneficial if used properly: "You can't do much once you are in a drought, but if you [know one is] coming, you can certainly be better prepared.
the issue is to forecast drought in a reasonable time frame."
 Given the susceptibility of the Southeast to drought  and the subsequent pressures on groundwater reserves associated with irrigation , it is not surprising that drought was the highest ranked issue in the water scarcity category.
Respondents recognized these realities, with many explaining how severe drought conditions affect crop yields and the subsequent increase in associated expenses.
Rainfall Patterns 
 Rainfall patterns and timing was the second most frequently mentioned water scarcity issue.
Lack of precipitation can be detrimental to crop yield when plants do not obtain a sufficient amount of water at the right time.
As one state faculty member said, "You can have rainfall all through the year, but if you don't get it, say, for corn at tasseling time, when it's producing the ear.
you won't make much of a crop."
 According to some interviewees, recent rainfall patterns are seen as less predictable.
One researcher noted, "The types of rainfall events that we have are different.
Before, they were longer and more predictable, now perhaps less so." In an analysis of 60-year rainfall data, Wang, Fu, Kumar, and Li  found that the "interannual variance of Southeast summer precipitation decreased from the early twentieth century to the 1960s and then started to increase afterward" (p.
Such rainfall variability contributes to "exceptionally wet and dry summers" (Konrad et al., 2013, p.
9), presenting management challenges for farmers.
Although irrigation was frequently mentioned as a solution to water scarcity issues, some respondents addressed the inherent challenges of irrigation.
One administrator said, "A lot of center pivot irrigation systems have been going in, so you have water issues, adequate use of water, efficient use of water, potential impacts on your aquifers." Other respondents also raised the issue of groundwater depletion, with one researcher saying, "There's more irrigation and so there's less groundwater available." A county agent also identified the issue of competing use, saying, "There's some people that are scrutinizing these water-use situations, and it creates a lot of debate and looking at agriculture and [farmers'] usage and [asking] 'do they really need to use that much?'"
 Consistent with the respondents' attention to irrigation issues, Templeton, Perkins, Aldridge, Bridges, and Lassiter  found that 33 of 49 Extension professionals reported that their clientele could use climate forecasts to improve irrigation management, the highest rated item of all possible management practices in the study.
Temperature was the second most frequently mentioned climate issue overall, with most respondents mentioning challenges associated with higher temperatures.
A county agent stated, "Summers seem to be getting hotter and hotter.
It affects not only the crop, but.
the soil moisture totally evaporates." A researcher said that "excessive heat, particularly.
nighttime temperatures" was problematic, especially for cotton.
Sustained high temperatures also were identified as a challenge.
A county agent said, "Last year, we had about a week to 10 days in May that were above 100 temperatures, and that was very tough."
 Other respondents focused on how temperature fluctuations and the lack of chill hours negatively affect the growing cycle of crops.
A state Extension faculty member who noted that farmers are challenged by temperature fluctuation emphasized, "In many parts of our state, we have fruit which require a certain number of chill hours." According to Fraisse, Breuer, Zierden, and Ingram , "If a crop variety is being grown in a climate near its temperature optimum, a temperature increase of several degrees could reduce photosynthesis and shorten the growing period" ("Potential Impacts of Climate Change on Agriculture," para.
Such increases in temperature, when combined with lack of precipitation "accelerate plant development, reduce grain-filling, decrease nutrient-use efficiency, and increase crop water consumption" (Anwar et al., 2013, p.
Regarding pests and diseases, a county agent said, "What I think is the most important of these climate-related issues is what people can visibly see.
And people can actually appreciate what's going on in their cropping system, and that has to do a lot with pests." Another county agent raised the issue of how drier conditions also can limit the efficacy of herbicides, saying, "If we remain dry during the planting season and do not get the moisture for those herbicides to be activated, then our back is against the wall from day one from a weed control standpoint."
 The Southeast is predisposed to agricultural pest problems, resulting in relatively high pesticide use , and increased frequency of higher temperatures and more precipitation tend to lead to wet vegetation that increases growth of pests and diseases.
Seasonal variability codes fell into three categories: the effects of El Nio and La Nia and long-term oscillations, weather changes from year to year, and the rate of change in the seasons.
One researcher said, "I think the most frequent question is about the seasonal variation, the effect of El Nio and La Nia on issues related to planting or irrigations."
 The respondents who mentioned changes from year to year did so in terms of the effects on planting seasons.
An administrator summed up this concept: "I think the most pressing and current issue would be dealing with the weather variability, the weather risk that we have just within a 1-year growing season." Those interviewees who discussed seasonal change mentioned abrupt changes in the seasons and the lack of cold weather for vernalization of wheat or setting of fruit.
A county agent said, "It seems that we don't have a gradual pattern of changing seasons anymore.
it seems that we go straight from winter to summer, and straight from summer to winter."
 The topic of seasonal variability is an interesting bridge between weather and climate change, anchoring discussions of climate in terms of weather, which is of primary interest to farmers, but also relating these seasonal weather conditions to larger climatic influences.
Respondents articulated that both Extension professionals and producers need improved forecast information and adaptation strategies for dealing with climate variability and change.
Interviewees stressed that agricultural decision makers need reliable, short-term weather forecasting.
A county agent explained that farmers are "trying to make decisions on different chemicals, fungicide applications, and things like that."
 When talking about seasonal forecasting, respondents focused on rainfall.
One county agent remarked that clients frequently ask questions such as "How is the rainfall going to be this year?" and "Are we expecting kind of a wet summer and fall, or are we expecting an extremely dry one?" Two respondents emphasized the importance of forecast accuracy for summer rainfall, with an administrator saying, "If you could really predict the weather for the summer, that might change [producers] from planting corn to planting grain sorghum or something like that."
 Overall, Extension professionals expressed the need for improved forecasts across all time frames: short-term weather, seasonal variability, and climate change.
These findings are consistent with Cabrera et al.
, who reported that Extension agents in Florida agreed or strongly agreed that their work was affected by El NinoSouthern Oscillation  events  and that it would be helpful to know how the next season's climate would be different.
A South Carolina study of Extension professionals  showed that forecasts that include freeze alerts, plant moisture stress, ENSO phase, and growing degree days would be the most useful to Extension professionals.
If we in Extension expect farmers to make decisions based on forecasts, then the forecasts must be reasonably accurate and connected to specific recommended actions.
Adaptation included mentions of planting dates, crop selection, and decision support tools.
Those mentioning planting dates did so by discussing the need for farmers to be flexible in their planting dates in response to climate variability.
A state faculty member said that planting dates are "a very critical issue for corn producers," especially for dryland farmers.
Adjustments in planting dates were also discussed in terms of pest and disease management and planting earlier to avoid higher temperatures.
A county agent noted that because of recommendations from a peanut specialist, farmers were planting peanuts earlier that year.
The agent went on to explain that the recommendations to move up the planting of peanuts had been based on "tomato spotted wilt diseases and the warm temperatures."
 Respondents pointed out that farmers need to adjust their crop selection in response to climate variability and its subsequent influence on water availability and temperatures.
An administrator summed up the adaptation needs expressed by many respondents: "It changes your cropping systems because a lot of the crops that you can grow are tied to the season.
If you have warmer springs, then you want to maybe fall back and plant certain crops earlier, and there may be the potential to double-crop some crops, some new crops, like sorghum."
 Even though the interview questions specifically engaged respondents in identifying climate-related issues, respondents frequently indicated that management solutions were among their priorities.
Morris, Megalos, Vuola, Adams, and Monroe  discussed how Extension can fulfill its mission by addressing the "symptoms" of climate variability and extreme weather by focusing on "how best to use familiar management tools to maximize resource health, productivity, and resilience in changing future conditions" ("Successful Extension Climate Change Program Delivery," para.
Our study revealed that Extension professionals consider scarcity of water resources, temperature fluctuations, pest and disease pressures, forecast challenges, seasonal variability, and adaptation strategies to be among the most important climate-related issues affecting agriculture in the Southeast.
With more than 90% of Extension professionals interviewed believing climate change will continue to affect agriculture at least a moderate amount, a continued emphasis on management options for responding to climate variability is a practical strategy for climate research and education.
However, other researchers have asserted that climate adaptation may have limited effectiveness in addressing large and unpredictable changes associated with long-term climate change and may even increase future vulnerability to climate change.
In addition, researchers have argued that the direct provision of education to farmers is not the most efficient or effective way to deliver Extension knowledge, recommending that Extension instead serve as an intermediary between farmers and other agricultural advisors, making more efficient use of scare resources in the Extension system.
Regardless of whether training is provided directly to farmers or through intermediaries, we propose that Extension has a critical role to play in climate training and that the foundation for this knowledge rests on a clear understanding of the present issues facing farmers.
The Extension professionals interviewed focused on the immediate concerns of farmers, a scenario that is consistent with previous research that led us to conclude that climate training for Extension professionals should emphasize "basic climate concepts through applied agricultural examples tailored to both their content areas and the needs of their clients, enhancing the ability of Extension agents to address producer concerns" (Diehl et al., 2015, p.
Similarly, Morris et al.
suggested that Extension should tailor climate information to clientele needs that enhance producer resilience and profitability.
Beyond the specific issues in any given region, however, a larger lesson is that local and regional assessments of the climate-related agricultural needs of farmers should be conducted so that immediate farmer concerns define appropriate solutions-based content for Extension education.
Continued research on Extension's role related to climate variability and change in agriculture should include quantitative studies involving larger samples of Extension professionals and farmers, allowing for subgroup analyses and the analysis of relationships among variables.
Such research might include more explicit attention to farmer beliefs about the ways in which climate affects agriculture and how Extension can best communicate with farmers to develop adaptation strategies that work in specific conditions.
Given the results of our study, it seems important to include localized research identifying the climate issues of interest as well as localized evaluation of Extension's ability to engage farmers in adaptation strategies and, ultimately, to assess the effectiveness of these strategies.
Cooperative Extension has traditionally struggled to address potentially controversial topics such as climate change, which may conflict with the personal views of stakeholder groups and elected officials.
By linking discussions of climate variability and climate change to management strategies, Extension can reduce the possible tensions associated with the issue of climate change.
This suggestion is consistent with previous research indicating that adaptation success is seen "when measures that address climate change risks are incorporated into existing decision structures related to risk management, land use planning, livelihood enhancements, water and other resource management systems, development initiatives, and so on" (Smit & Wandel, 2006, p.
Extension can play a critical role in identifying knowledge gaps, setting research priorities, developing adaptation technologies and risk management strategies, and disseminating these strategies to producers, helping them become more resilient in the face of climate variability and climate change.
Adapting agriculture to climate change: A review.
Theoretical and Applied Climatology, 113, 225245.
Climate change beliefs, concerns, and attitudes toward adaptation and mitigation among farmers in the midwestern United States.
Climatic Change, 117, 943950.
Agriculture and climate change in the Southeast USA.
Anderson , Climate of the Southeast United States: Variability, change, impacts, and vulnerability (pp.
Washington, DC: Island Press.
AgClimate: A case study in participatory decision support system development.
Climatic Change, 87, 385403.
Vulnerability and adaptation to climate change and variability in semiarid rural southeastern Arizona, USA.
Natural Resources Forum, 33, 297309.
Toward engagement in climate training: Findings from interviews with agricultural Extension professionals.
Journal of Rural Social Sciences, 30, 2550.
The dynamics of vulnerability: Why adapting to climate variability will not always prepare us for climate change.
Wiley Interdisciplinary Reviews: Climate Change, 6, 413425.
AgClimate: A climate forecast information system for agricultural risk management in the southeastern USA.
Computers and Electronics in Agriculture, 53, 1327.
Farmer beliefs about climate change and carbon sequestration incentives.
Climate Research, 56, 157167.
Agricultural advisors as climate information intermediaries: Exploring differences in capacity to communicate climate.
Weather, Climate, and Society, 7, 8393.
Climate of the Southeast USA: Past, present, and future.
Anderson , Climate of the Southeast United States: Variability, change, impacts, and vulnerability (pp.
Washington, DC: Island Press.
Rancher and farmer perceptions of climate change in Nevada, USA.
Climatic Change, 122, 313327.
Harnessing homophily to improve climate change education.
Environmental Education Research, 21, 221238.
Extensions role in disseminating information about climate change to agricultural stakeholders in the United States.
Climatic Change, 130, 261272.
Agricultural advisors: A receptive audience for weather and climate information?
Weather, Climate, and Society, 5, 162167.
agricultural producer perceptions of climate change.
Journal of Agricultural and Applied Economics, 45, 701718.
Adaptation, adaptive capacity and vulnerability.
Global Environmental Change, 16, 282292.
Usefulness and uses of climate forecasts for agricultural Extension in South Carolina, USA.
Regional Environmental Change, 14, 645655.
A general inductive approach for analyzing qualitative evaluation data.
American Journal of Evaluation, 27, 237246.
Understanding interobserver agreement: The kappa statistic.
Family Medicine, 37, 360363.
Intensification of summer rainfall variability in the southeastern United States during recent decades.
Journal of Hydrometeorology, 11, 10071018.
Tips to Create Biodiverse, Urban Communities Mark E.
Given that a majority of people now live in and experience nature in urban areas, landscaping recommendations by Extension professionals should focus on practices that conserve native biodiversity.
We present alternative landscaping approaches to help conserve urban biodiversity.
Introduction Biodiverse communities are residential or commercial developments that conserve or restore land for the benefit of native organisms.
Biodiversity includes species diversity, habitat diversity, and genetic diversity.
Here, we focus on biodiversity in terms of native species.
Native species are plants and animals present within a given area prior to European contact.
Non-native  plants or animals are defined as those species that were not present before European contact.
Endemic species are native organisms only found in a region and do not occur elsewhere in the world.
This article recommends practices that would conserve and restore biodiversity in urban communities.
The tips below can be used for the creation of new, residential communities and also be used for "retrofitting" established yards and neighborhoods.
Why Conserve Urban Biodiversity?
Some may question whether we should care if urban areas affect biodiversity.
Biodiversity benefits people in many ways.
In terms of a utilitarian value, food, fiber, medicines, and just about everything we use on a daily basis benefit from biodiversity.
In addition to material goods, biodiversity provides other ecological benefits, such as clean air and water, recreational, social, and aesthetic benefits, and economic opportunities.
Social and health benefits are derived from the presence of local habitat and wildlife.
From a national survey in 2001, nearly 41.8 million people indicated that they watched birds around their home (U.S.
Department of the Interior, 2006).
Even the sense of place is linked to the presence of wildlife; for example, over 80% of property owners near lakes in Wisconsin indicated that an element of satisfaction with the place they live was associated with the ability to view wildlife populations.
For many, a spiritual value is attached with the natural world.
Coined biophilia, people regard the natural environment as a source of beauty, inspiration, and rejuvenation.
Health benefits exist as well.
For example, nearby natural areas help to protect children from the impact of life stresses children with access to natural environments had superior cognitive functioning, fewer physical ailments, and speedier recovery from illness.
Design and Management Practices for Biodiversity Conservation For new developments or retrofitting neighborhoods, design, construction, and post-construction considerations are important.
The design phase is typically where, among other aspects, lot size and open space are designated and roads are distributed throughout the site.
Next, during construction, built environment professionals  take whatever is on paper and implement this on the ground, constructing homes, streets, waste treatment systems, and landscaped areas.
In the absence of fully trained or engaged contractors or landscapers, many things can happen during this phase that could affect the viability of onsite and nearby natural habitat.
For example, the placement of fill dirt and routes used by heavy construction vehicles could impair the survival of conserved trees.
Smothered tree roots may not be able to acquire nutrients, water, and oxygen, causing trees to die.
In post-construction, buyers purchase the homes, move into the community, and manage their homes, yards, neighborhoods, and common areas.
It is then the responsibility of residents to manage their homes, yards, and neighborhoods in ways that do not compromise biodiversity conservation.
Additional problems can arise if residents are not fully engaged imagine residents moving in and planting invasive exotic plants in each of their yards.
Urban areas are dominated by non-native plants, such as turfgrass and ornamentals, and such landscaping can affect biodiversity in urban and nearby natural areas.
While an obvious recommendation is to reduce the amount of lawns and ornamental plants, we list other practices that are relevant to biodiversity conservation.
Reduce or eliminate the amount of turfgrass lawns.
A number of native groundcovers and even low-maintenance  ground covers are available.
Consider mowing the reduced turfgrass area with a reel mower.
Plant the appropriate native vegetation.
Be sure to inspect your soil and evaluate the shade/sun and water conditions of your site.
Select native plants that provide food and shelter for wildlife and insects.
Increase vertical height diversity of vegetation.
More plant structure between the tops of trees and the ground is beneficial.
Identify and remove invasive exotic plants in your yard.
When buying an exotic plant, make sure it is not a listed invasive exotic plant.
With turfgrass, refrain from managing a total monoculture; allow other plants to coexist with the grass.
Reduce or eliminate the use of fertilizers, pesticides, and herbicides.
Use integrated pest management techniques.
Use low-impact Development techniques, such as rain gardens, natural swales, and pervious pavements.
These techniques help to effectively remove nutrients from stormwater runoff.
Organize neighborhoods to create larger patches of natural habitat.
Many wildlife species need large patches in order to survive.
Do not release pets into the wild, and keep cats indoors and pets on leash because they can affect local wildlife populations.
Add wildlife landscaping components such as bird and bat houses, butterfly gardens, and water features to benefit wildlife.
Where irrigation is necessary, use smart irrigation controllers such as soil moisture sensors.
Overuse of water can draw down local ground water levels, destroying nearby wetlands.
Furthermore, over irrigation promotes runoff and nutrients entering waterbodies.
When creating a subdivision, conserve natural areas both on individual lots and as open space.
Minimize excessive lot clearing and grading.
Fill dirt is not "good" soil for even native plants.
Stemwall construction is a great way to reduce the use of fill dirt.
During construction, implement appropriate practices that protect trees and conserved natural areas.
To engage homeowners, have educational programs implemented within a neighborhood.
References Florida Native Plant Society.
Definition of a Florida native plant.
Water-wise plant recognition program.
[On-line], 43 Article 1IAW5.
exotic landscaping: What should we recommend?
With one stroke of the pen: How can Extension professionals involve developers & policymakers in creating sustainable communities?
[On-line], 20 Article 1TOT1.
Reaching residents of green communities: Evaluation of a unique environmental education program.
Applied Environmental Education & Communication 7:114-124.
Biological invasions: Lessons for ecology.
Why Should You Care About Biological Diversity?
SENCER: Science Education for New Civic Engagements and Responsibilities.
Department of the Interior.
National survey of fishing, hunting, and wildlife-associated recreation.
Nearby Nature: A buffer of life stress among rural children.
Environment and Behavior 35:311-330.
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June 2013 // Volume 51 // Number 3 // Tools of the Trade // v51-3tt6
 The flexibility and freedom of afterschool settings can complement and extend the exploration, curiosity, and discovery that are promoted in classroom curricula.
Many scientists report that non-school environments helped spark their passion to pursue a career in science.
4-H is well positioned to partner and meet the needs of the afterschool provider.
The Massachusetts After-School Research Study reviewed indicators that lead to high-quality programming and found staff quality is the critical component.
Nationwide, afterschool providers indicate a need for training in structured activities, understanding developmental stages, and how to work with parents.
Afterschool providers come from a variety of past experiences with, understandings of, and comfort levels with science.
Nationally, survey responses indicate that approximately 76% of afterschool programs do not have a dedicated science person on staff; typically those who teach science are youth workers with little science background.
4-H has the ability to provide science-based resources, knowing the key to quality childcare is a well-trained provider.
The Maine 4-H Afterschool Academy offers 10 hours of professional development through a combination of face-to-face and Web-based training.
Program components include the following.
Three hundred sixty-nine afterschool providers were trained from seven of the 16 counties in Maine in the first year.
Forty-eight programs reaching nearly 18,000 youth have been influenced by this work.
The Academy helped to expand 4-H Science in the state of Maine while creating connections between schools and the University of Maine to share research-based information and raise youth aspirations.
Seventeen programs participated in the National Youth Science Experiment, and a small number of providers contacted county Extension offices seeking out more research-based resources.
Participants documented increased knowledge and comfort regarding positive youth development concepts and science integration in a post-training survey.
18% response rate 
 Offering a training model that fits the schedules of afterschool providers can be challenging.
When program staff members are excited about professional development opportunities, we find they are more likely to implement the concepts and ideas learned.
Offering a combination of Web-based and face-to-face training allows for individualized flexibility.
Trainings offered on-site so providers could attend without having to manage additional travel worked best.
Technology helps address the time barrier, but provides a challenge for people without high-speed Internet access.
In addition, many participants had little to no experience with on-line webinars, registrations, and surveys.
Data were collected more successfully at the end of each in-person session.
Afterschool providers want easy to use, low-cost curriculum and activities that take little time to prepare.
4-H provides a variety of science-based curricula that works well in the afterschool arena.
Teaching providers how to determine age-appropriateness and how to modify activities can help providers save both time and money.
Ideas for helping providers use science-based activities to connect family learning at home were well received.
Providing time for networking and sharing ideas around this topic engaged learners and inspired them to create personal plans to try a new idea with their own program.
Afterschool providers are eager for professional development, yet have limited time.
Offering a blended approach of face-to-face and Web-based learning can be successfully used as a delivery method with this audience.
Webinars can offer introductory information, while face-to-face trainings need to offer hands-on practice to increase confidence levels.
Providers should be encouraged to act more as a coach or assistant in helping youth explore concepts and find answers to their questions.
With the cadre of resources and curriculum available, 4-H is uniquely positioned to provide such training for afterschool providers.
Science in afterschool market research study.
A study commissioned by the S.D.
Lawrence Hall of Science, University of California, Berkeley.
Strengthening after-school STEM staff development.
A study commissioned by the Coalition for Science Afterschool, Lawrence Hall of Science, University of California, Berkeley.
Tools of the Trade II: Inspiring young minds to be SET ready for life!
Davis, CA: Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources.
Pathways to success for youth: What counts in after school.
Massachusetts after-school research study.
Boston, Mass.: United Way of Massachusetts Bay.
December 2020 // Volume 58 // Number 6 // Research In Brief // v58-6rb6
 Cooperative Extension improves people's lives by providing research-based knowledge to strengthen families', communities', and agriculture enterprises' social, economic, and environmental well-being (U.S.
Department of Agriculture, n.d.).
Extension professionals provide participants with valuable information regarding specific subject areas, such as food, nutrition, water conservation, and natural resources, that may influence or change their behavior and help them solve problems (U.S.
Department of Agriculture, n.d.).
Outdoor landscape water conservation is one subject area that deservedly receives much attention from Extension professionals who focus on water resources given that 9 billion gal of water are applied daily as irrigation to U.S.
yards.
Extension provides education and support and otherwise helps residents adopt the many available water conservation technologies and practices, such as installing rain shutoff devices and calibrating irrigation sprinklers.
The study presented here was conducted to better understand factors that relate to Extension audience adoption of these water conservation practices and behaviors.
For Extension education to be effective, Extension agents need to build their programs on behavior change theories, and one commonly used theory is the theory of planned behavior.
The TPB states that when an individual believes that engaging in some specific behavior will have a positive outcome , trusts that they have the ability to engage in the behavior , and thinks that the people around them will approve , they are likely to intend to engage in the behavior.
According to Ajzen, attitude is an individual's evaluation of whether the results of engaging in a behavior will be positive or negative.
Perceived behavioral control is a person's perception of the ease or difficulty of performing the behavior of interest.
Subjective norms relate to belief about whether most people approve or disapprove of the behavior or to the social pressure to participate.
These three characteristics influence behavioral intention, and the stronger the intention to perform the behavior, the more likely the behavior will be performed.
When applied to our research, the TPB indicates that people will be more likely to intend to  conserve water in their yards if they have positive attitudes about water conservation, believe they can conserve water, and perceive that people important to them will approve of their conserving water.
Subjective norms may be further understood as the sum of injunctive norms, or what people approve of, and descriptive norms, or what people do.
Of these norms, descriptive norms in particular may be more powerful influences.
Recently, descriptive norms from some referent  groups  and especially close peers were shown to increase the power of the TPB in the context of outdoor water conservation intentions.
In a recent study, Warner  compared how descriptive normative beliefs related to behavioral intent among people living in communities with homeowners' associations  and found that neighborhood norms were not significantly related to behavioral intent.
We found this intriguing given the body of literature documenting the power of descriptive norms on landscape practices and wondered whether it was possible that neighborhood-level descriptive norms had already influenced current practices, rendering them less effective on future behaviors.
Therefore the purpose of our study was to explore how the TPB and descriptive norms might relate differently to current and future behaviors.
The specific objectives were to evaluate the relationships of attitude, perceived behavioral control, and subjective norms to current and future outdoor water conservation behaviors and then evaluate how adding descriptive norms from four referent groups might increase the TPB's predictive power when considering current and future behaviors.
The target population was U.S.
residents from across the country 18 years of age and older who made decisions about caring for their yards, which was a subsample of individuals  responding to a larger study.
We employed a professional survey sampling company to access the nonprobability sample in 2019 using quota sampling to ensure that region, sex, and age were represented as reflected in the 2010 Census (U.S.
Our input variables were the three core TPB variables  and four referent group descriptive norms variables.
The outcome variables were current engagement in water conservation and future intent to engage in water conservation.
The outcome variables were operationalized as the sum of water conservation practices in which a respondent was engaged  and the average likelihood of the respondent's engaging in these practices in the future.
We used a series of paired adjectives  separated by five response points to measure attitude and perceived behavioral control.
We measured subjective norms and the four descriptive norms variables using a series of four 5-point Likert-type scales.
We created indexes  ranging from 2  to 2  for all seven variables.
Current landscape water conservation score was the sum of "yes" responses regarding use of 18 different water conservation practices.
We created a future conservation behavioral intent index using the mean likelihood of engaging in these 18 practices in the future.
The 18 behaviors were
 We used an expert panel and a pilot test to ensure face and content validity and to estimate reliability prior to collecting data.
Post hoc Cronbach's alpha exceeded.7 for all indexes.
The TPB by itself predicted current and intended conservation behaviors similarly  but predicted intent slightly better.
The addition of descriptive norms from four referent groups improved prediction of current behavior slightly more than they improved prediction of intent.
When only the TPB variables were considered, all three were significant predictors of current behaviors, but of the three, only subjective norms predicted intent.
When descriptive norms were added to the TPB models, close-peer and state descriptive norms were predictors of current behaviors, whereas none of the descriptive norms variables predicted intent.
Subjective norms was the most powerful predictor across all four models.
We concluded that perceptions of what others are doing  are related only to current practices and not future behaviors.
It could be that the perceptions of whether others are conserving influence individuals at earlier stages and perhaps as they establish their routines.
For example, perceptions of one's friends' conservation habits might come into play while an individual selects irrigation technology when installing a new landscape.
It also may be possible that for many, once these routines are established they are simply continued.
This also begs the question, however, that if descriptive norms do not predict future behavioral intent, what does?
What happens in the time that homeowners live in their homes and make decisions about water conservation behaviors?
What are the intervening variables?
These questions are fertile ground for future research.
Warner and Hobbs  found that when descriptive norms from the four referent groups were considered together, only close-peer norms predicted current conservation practices among Florida residents.
Although this is fascinating, designing communication messages for placement in close-peer networks presents challenges.
How do you find those peer networks, and how can you place relevant messages within them?
In the national study reported here, we considered the norms as an addition to the TPB and found that both close-peer and state descriptive norms were predictors of current conservation, which partially aligns with Warner and Hobbs.
Another Florida study  showed the existence of a negative relationship between state descriptive norms and HOA residents' conservation intent.
Our national findings do not align with that result in that we found no relationship between state norms and conservation intent and that the relationship we identified between state descriptive norms and current practices was positive.
It may be that the impact of state norms on conservation intent varies across states and is affected by state identity.
Florida  has a more transient population than many other states, which may explain the variation in the impact of state norms.
The variation identified by these studies underscores the importance of evaluating descriptive norms within the target audience at the intended scale of an Extension program.
Our findings imply that descriptive norms are best used as a landscape water conservation behavior change strategy early on but may not be as effective once a household has established their irrigation routine or landscape composition.
This conclusion, logically, implies that it is more difficult to make changes to plant materials and irrigation infrastructure once they are installed, making it important for Extension to reach residents as they make initial landscape and irrigation decisions.
Descriptive norms would therefore have more value as a behavior change tool when integrated into education and communications before someone has installed their landscape or established irrigation habits.
Such education and communication efforts may be targeted toward first-time home buyers, residents in new housing developments, and even developers themselves.
Financial incentives for adopting best practices for irrigation or landscape composition might be particularly effective at this stage.
In practice, Extension professionals might distribute materials by mail to new homeowners or partner with local real estate agents so that the agents can distribute messages conveying a conservation norm when residents buy new homes.
Developers, contractors, and landscape designers and managers also are potential partners as they are positioned to convey this norm and offer residents water-saving choices at the point of decision.
Future research may test impact of various message frames in this context, focused on such motivations as cost savings, landscape design, or time to maintain various landscapes.
Extension professionals might also consider promoting educational programs through channels used when individuals establish a new residency, such as the utility company or a hardware store.
Future research should take into consideration the variability in this large national sample.
Subdividing respondents by location  or housing type  could reveal differences in the relationships identified here.
It would also be interesting to examine cultural differences among homeowners to determine whether descriptive norms play a different role for homeowners from various backgrounds.
Finally, it would be interesting to choose one neighborhood and examine the network of homeowners and how they communicate about their landscapes and water conservation behaviors.
Do neighbors discuss these issues with each other?
How are these issues discussed at HOA meetings?
What, if anything, do neighbors notice about the water conservation behaviors of their neighbors?
Does that affect their own attitudes or behaviors?
How do neighbors discuss these issues on platforms such as Nextdoor ?
The research reported here was supported by the University of Florida Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences Center for Landscape Conservation and Ecology.
August 2019 // Volume 57 // Number 4 // Ideas at Work // v57-4iw3
 Starting in the mid-2000s, Maine experienced a rapid increase in new and beginning farmers.
The number of farms and the number of young farmers  increased in the state by 13% and 18%, respectively, from 2002 to 2007 (U.S.
Department of Agriculture, 2009).
In response to these changes, University of Maine Cooperative Extension offered a 2-day professional development retreat in 2012 for Maine's diverse array of agricultural service providers  to increase their understanding of the unique challenges, opportunities, and resources for beginning farmers and their capacity to serve this group.
The training followed the Reading the Farm program model, whereby participants work as a team to conduct whole-farm analyses of case study farms.
A key issue participants discussed was how difficult it is for beginning farmers and ASPs to know about and navigate the variety of resources that exist for beginning farmers.
Participants identified the need for a statewide network to coordinate agencies and nonprofits working with Maine's beginning farmers.
Six months later, we and other training participants initiated the Beginning Farmer Resource Network of Maine.
According to its mission statement, "BFRN is a coalition of Maine agriculture agencies and organizations working together to connect aspiring and beginning farmers to resources for farm business success".
The 14 original members devised three key guiding principles establishing that BFRN
 Thus, BFRN operates as a "cooperative" network, as opposed to a "coordinating" or "collaborative" network , with member groups maintaining their autonomy and working together for the single purpose of supporting beginning farmers.
For the first 2 years, BFRN had a chair or cochairs who coordinated all meetings and activities.
In 2014, we held a 2-day strategic planning retreat to develop a more sustainable organizational plan that includes committees with specific work plans.
Currently, there are 25 members representing state and federal agencies, nonprofit organizations, and Extension.
BFRN has become a model for maximizing resources and improving farmer services by increasing statewide communication and collaboration among Maine's ASPs.
Effective networks such as BFRN have the capacity to support individual efforts and streamline collective work.
Results from a February 2018 survey indicate the impacts of this network model.
The survey was distributed to 48 current and past members of BFRN, and 24 responses were received.
92% of respondents  reported that participating in BFRN made them more effective in their work as ASPs by facilitating their ability to make new connections with other ASPs, know personally who to refer clients to, keep up to date with programs and resources, and have an online clearinghouse of available resources.
BFRN members reported time savings of, on average, 6 hr per month as a result of BFRN.
BFRN members conducted 11 new educational programs and acquired eight new grants.
Funded-project topics include supporting farm communication, farm business planning, and beginning farmer curriculum training for ASPs.
BFRN maintains a continuously updated online resource directory that garnered 22,865 unique page views in 2017.
Quotes from survey respondents highlight the value of BFRN to their work:
 "I am more effective because: 1) I can provide beginning farmers a personal referral to other service providers, which makes my clients feel well cared for; 2) I feel I am supported and can safely test new ideas and tools with this friendly and wise cohort group of service providers.
3) I have benefited from training.
and 4) I have an 'inside track' when trying to expedite collaboration with another entity."
 "My referrals to other agricultural service providers are wonderfully targeted now.
Also, I have acquired a great understanding of how agricultural service providers can operate as a team on behalf of beginning farmers."
 "The relationship and trust that has formed between BFRN members is really what makes the referral process tick.
It is also inspiring to be part of a team that is pulling for beginning farmers.
It helps you get up and do the work every day, even though it is quite difficult."
 Networks such as BFRN work well when a need is clearly defined.
For BFRN, the Reading the Farm experience provided ASPs from a variety of organizations the opportunity to organically identify a need for coordinated programming, as well as to begin to form working relationships and trust with one another.
The rest of the process was guided by the first leaders who, as skilled facilitators, realized the importance of being intentional about the mission and guiding principles of the network.
The BFRN model has many benefits for individuals, their organizations, and the collective:
 Potential drawbacks to this model include the following circumstances:
 BFRN has become a model for maximizing resources and improving farmer services by increasing statewide communication, coordination, and collaboration among ASPs.
Networks such as BFRN provide a recognizable first point of contact for clients and are particularly valuable in times of need for their ability to offer coordinated programs.
Finally, networks can provide leadership in identifying and responding to emerging issues.
We would like to recognize the members of BFRN's leadership council for their commitment and collegiality, especially Erica Buswell, Abby Sadauckas, and Stephanie Gilbert, who have each cochaired the group.
The 2012 Reading the Farm professional development program and 2014 strategic planning retreat were supported in part by U.S.
Department of Agriculture Northeast Sustainable Agriculture Research and Extension grants SNE11-07 and SNE13-07.
We thank Lily Calderwood for reviewing this article external to the blind peer review process.
Recommendation for Further Reading
 For additional information about forming networks, consult Networks That Work , by P.
Mandell, 2011, Community Partners, Los Angeles, CA.
This book has specific guidance and considerations for groups coming together with a shared purpose in mind.
Networks that work.
Los Angeles, CA: Community Partners.
February 2019 // Volume 57 // Number 1 // Tools of the Trade // v57-1tt2
 The dual crop coefficient approach was proposed as a part of the FAO-56 method for improving the accuracy of ETc estimation using the basal crop and soil evaporation coefficients.
The basal crop coefficient  represents the ratio of ETc for specific vegetation to the reference ET in the cropped areas where soils hold moisture well enough to sustain full plant transpiration.
The soil evaporation coefficient  addresses evaporation from the soil surface.
The relationship among the coefficients is
 where Kc is an actual crop coefficient, Kcb is a basal crop coefficient, Ks is a water stress coefficient, and Ke is a soil evaporation coefficient.
The basal crop coefficient  is expressed as a function of weather variables:
 where Kr is a dimensionless evaporation reduction coefficient dependent on the cumulative depth of water depleted or evaporated from the topsoil, Kc,max is the maximum value of Kc following a rain or irrigation event, and few is a fraction of the soil that is both exposed and wetted.
ET rates are calculated on the basis of the reference ET  and the amount of water infiltrated into the soil in the FAO-56 method.
The ET0 is determined by weather, and it is estimated through use of the Penman-Monteith ET equation.
The infiltration rate may be computed using an infiltration model such as Horton's equation or the Natural Resources Conservation Service's curve number method combined with a continuity equation.
Assumptions are that irrigation and a rainfall event occur early in a day and that a rainfall event is not followed by an irrigation application.
The depth of the surface soil layer that is subject to drying by way of evaporation is set to 0.10 m  in the template, and a user may want to adjust it to somewhere between 0.10 m and 0.15 m depending on soil textures.
The amount of the total evaporable water from the soil and the amount of readily evaporable soil water are calculated automatically on the basis of the soil texture.
The parameter values are determined by data the user enters in the "Crop and Soil Characteristics" section in the template.
For instance, the amounts of total evaporable water that can be evaporated from the soil and readily evaporable soil water are calculated as functions of field capacity, wilting point, and soil depth, which are determined on the basis of soil texture types specified in the template by the user.
Sample applications of the Excel-based template for determining irrigation timing are provided in the supplementary material for this article, and screen captures of two examples that can be found in the template are shown in Figure 1.
In the first example , irrigation is to be applied when the amount of readily available soil water in the root zone is depleted.
The calculation shows that there is no need to apply water to the tomato field with sandy loam soil after the irrigation of 40 mm  on the first day or after the rainfall event  of 20 mm  on the fifth day.
In the second example , the same weather conditions as those of the first example are assumed, but the field will need additional water applications of 13 mm on the fourth day and 14 mm on the ninth day to satisfy the crop water requirement in the sandy soil.
A comparison between the two examples shows that the small field capacity makes the sandy soil require more frequent water application than the sandy loam soil.
Irrigation Timing Calculation Example for a Sandy Loam Soil
  Irrigation Timing Calculation Example for a Sandy Soil
 This article introduces an Excel-based irrigation scheduling template and includes a description of the relevant background theory as well as application examples.
Extension educators can use the template as a handy tool for helping irrigation practitioners and growers save water while maintaining crop productivity.
Copies of the template are freely available in the supplementary material for the article.
Additionally, the Excel template can serve as the basis for smartphone or tablet applications Extension educators and irrigation practitioners can use in developing site-specific crop irrigation schedules.
Using the FAO-56 dual crop coefficient method over an irrigated region as part of an evapotranspiration intercomparison study.
Journal of Hydrology, 229, 2741.
FAO irrigation and drainage paper No.
Rome, Italy: Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations.
The global distribution and dynamics of surface soil moisture.
Nature Geoscience, 10, 100104.
Citrus water uptake dynamics on a sandy Florida Entisol.
Soil Science Society of America Journal, 70, 9097.
April 2020 // Volume 58 // Number 2 // Research In Brief // v58-2rb3
 With rapid developments in artificial intelligence, the application of drone technology has been emerging in agriculture, especially in field surveys for plant disorders and precision farming.
Compared to traditional approaches to remote imaging involving satellites and piloted aircrafts, the use of drone technology is less costly and can provide flexible unmanned platforms in smallor large-scale fields.
In recent years, the application of drone systems associated with high resolution cameras and specific sensors has allowed for generating remote images with very small pixel sizesground sample distance of less than 1 in.
This technology has provided important opportunities related to precision farming, timely decision making and adjustment of management practices in agriculture and forestry, and geosciences applications.
Speaking more specifically, such systems have been used worldwide for the following activities: surveying for and mapping soil properties, estimating vineyard canopy leaf area index, detecting and mapping sunflower nitrogen status, detecting weeds, detecting missing plants or dead spots in vegetable fields, estimating crop biomass with nutrient levels, surveying for plant diseases, spraying agrichemicals, assessing drip irrigation efficiency with thermal sensors, calculating fluorescence, temperature, and narrow band indexes, establishing relationships between photosynthesis and chlorophyll fluorescence, and managing livestock on pastures.
In addition, drone technology has potential application in Extension agricultural programming for adults and 4-H youths.
The applicability of drone technology in agriculture depends on the drone type and the sensing system.
Human eyes are able to see only a narrow band of light, a spectrum ranging from 400 nm to 700 nm.
On the other hand, some sensors can detect invisible light, especially the near-infrared  band, at which the wavelength is beyond 700 nm.
With the development of specified sensors associated with corresponding software for collecting and processing data, more applications of drones in agriculture will be available soon.
In many cases, however, ground verification is still important with use of this technology.
Although it is impossible to completely replace a ground survey, combining a ground survey with drone technology can save time and labor cost due to the need to perform only spot verification versus walking an entire field to conduct a crop assessment or pest scouting.
Tomato is an economically important agricultural commodity in south Florida.
With the state's favorable subtropical climate, tomato is grown throughout the winter season.
Tomato chlorotic spot virus  is a new virus that is causing devastating damage to the tomato industry in Florida and may potentially spread to other regions of the United States.
TCSV was initially detected in south Florida.
Severe outbreaks of the disease have occurred since the 20142015 growing season, causing significant yield loss.
To scout the disease incidence and monitor the spread of the disease, growers conventionally have had to walk through an entire field to check and count every plant with TCSV infection.
When an outbreak of plant disease occurs, growers are eager to obtain help from Extension professionals because time means money in such urgent situations.
However, because conventional scouting is time-consuming, especially on a large scale, Extension professionals can find it challenging to obtain results quickly enough to help growers with their decision making.
The time delays associated with conventional approaches often frustrate growers.
In this article, we describe implementation of a drone system in a field survey assessing the incidence and distribution of the disease caused by TCSV to assist south Florida vegetable producers in rapidly and efficiently addressing the disease.
Findings from our research suggest that Extension professionals can implement such an approach to educate agricultural producers on the use of drone technology in assessing crop diseases, regardless of commodity.
Our case study was a 10-ac field with tomato  planted in early October, 2018, on raised beds.
Prior to planting, we applied granular fertilizer, conducted soil fumigation, placed driplines for irrigation and fertigation, and covered the field with plastic mulch.
Farmworkers transplanted healthy tomato seedlings to each bed 3 weeks after soil fumigation.
They applied a liquid fertilizer weekly through the driplines as fertigation at a nitrogen rate of 1.0 lb per acre per day starting from 6 weeks after planting.
Three times during the season, at different growth stages, they installed metal rebar stakes in each bed to hold plants tied with nylon strings.
They applied irrigation and pest control practices regularly, according to the tomato pest management farm plan in the region.
We used a DJI Phantom 4 Professional drone with a preinstalled multispectral sensor.
This system is able to simultaneously collect images of red, green and blue  color, NIR , normalized difference vegetation index , and normalized difference red edge.
We set up an autonomous flight with a mobile application  downloaded to an iPhone, marked each corner of the selected field, and chose the following parameters : flight overlap 80%, altitude of 200 ft above the ground, speed of 20 mph, and flight orientation initially adjusted toward the wind direction for smooth image capture.
In this case, the flight orientation was adjusted from southwest to northeast because of a light wind  from northeast.
When all the parameters were set properly and satellites were well connected, we launched the drone by tapping the take-off icon.
The data were automatically collected and stored in two separate micro secure digital  cards, one for the drone camera and the other for the sensor.
Upon the drone's completing the flight on December 17, 2018, we transferred the data from both micro SD cards to a computer.
We processed the data with data processing software  by uploading the data to the cloud, via a high-speed Internet connection, for image stitching and data analysis.
To verify the result, the two plant pathologists on our author team conventionally conducted ground surveys three times, on November 15 and November 30, 2018, and January 15, 2019.
Each survey was in a different location in the same field to allow for adequate assessment of the disease incidence via counting the numbers of healthy and infected plants.
We compared the data with the results obtained from the drone system.
We analyzed the data from each ground survey by applying Fisher's protected least significant difference test at p <.05 using SAS software.
Upon completing the processing of the data transferred from the micro SD cards via the FieldAgent software, all individual pictures were stitched together and different layers of images, such as RGB and NDVI mosaic images , were generated.
A set of quick mosaic images was generated immediately, whereas had super high resolution images been needed, we would have had to request those from the company  and paid processing fees.
Full Mosaic Images of Red, Green, and Blue   and Normalized Difference Vegetation Index  
 With FieldAgent, we created management zones for the field from the quick mosaic images based on plant health status  associated with NDVI values.
This version of the image was more meaningful for understanding the severity and distribution of the plant disease.
The imagery within the management zones indicated a clear pattern of the disease incidence.
The severe infection of TCSV started in the northeast corner of the field  and spread south and southwest in the field , displayed as the distribution of red and yellow colors of NDVI.
Management Zones of Normalized Difference Vegetation Index  with Severity and Distribution of Tomato Chlorotic Spot Virus in the Tomato Field
 Note: Red = dead or dying plants, yellow = infected plants, and green = healthy plants.
Verification at different observed spots indicated that the same pattern of disease was shown by the RGB, NIR, NDVI, and NDRE images simultaneously generated by the system.
These images were overlaid with one another, and all showed the same result.
Tomato Plants in Severely Infected Area  Versus Healthy Area 
 Note: RGB = red, green, and blue.
NDVI = normalized difference vegetation index.
NDRE = normalized difference red edge.
The imagery shows that many more plants died or were dying in the infected area as compared to in the healthy area.
These results matched well with both the photographs taken from the ground  and the observations from ground surveys.
For example, the ground photos and survey observations also indicated that the incidence of TCSV infection was greater at the northeast corner of the field and lessened in the south and southwest.
Field Observations of Infected Plants at Field's Northeast Corner  Versus Healthy Plants at Field's Southwest Corner 
 The cause of the TCSV outbreak in this field is unclear, but the distribution pattern of the incidence might be related to the surrounding environment.
In fact, at the northeast corner of the field right across a road intersection, there had been a palm tree grove for about 20 years.
It is unknown yet whether these palm trees are the host of TCSV.
However, massive weeds under the palm trees could be an important contributor of TCSV carried by insect vectors, especially thrips, via wind.
Implementation of drone technology can provide a rapid and convenient approach to surveying the incidence and determining the distribution of a viral disease in a field.
In the case we studied, if applying a conventional approach by walking through the field, one person might cover only about 2 ac in a day.
However, it took only about 1015 min to cover more than 20 ac by drone flight and only about 1 or 2 hr to generate quick mosaic images and identify management zones, indicating great advantages in time savings through implementation of this technology.
The cost of mentioned devices  might be a concern, but the technology has had a trend of decreasing in price.
Application of the technology will soon be one of the important measures Extension professionals can use to help and educate farmers in managing their crops easily and efficiently.
Implementing the drone technology with a multispectral sensing system for plant health was demonstrated.
Detecting the incidence and distribution of TCSV infection shows great potential in disease assessment with rapid, precise, and reliable results.
The drone survey results matched well with the ground survey findings.
By using corresponding software, one can generate management zones on the basis of plant health, demonstrating the important advantage of applying this technology in making decisions about farming practices.
In addition, implementation of a drone system can provide quick, labor-cost-saving, and real-time information for Extension professionals in helping growers manage their crops efficiently, regardless of region or crop type.
We express sincere thanks to Florida Department of Agricultural and Consumer Services for financial support, Dr.
Kelly Morgan and Mr.
James Fletcher at University of Florida Institute of Food and Agriculture Sciences for their coordination of the Statewide Best Management Practice Program, and Mr.
Kern Carpenter at Carpenter Farms for allowing us to use his field in our study.
Characterizing soil salinity in irrigated agriculture using a remote sensing approach.
Physics and Chemistry of the Earth, Parts A/B/C, 5557, 4352.
Measuring sunflower nitrogen status from an unmanned aerial vehicle-based system and an on the ground device.
Proceedings of the Conference on Unmanned Aerial Vehicle in Geomatics, 38, 1/C22.
September 1416, 2011, Zurich, Switzerland.
Introducing a low-cost mini-UAV for thermaland multispectral-imaging.
International Archives of the Photogrammetry.
Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Science, 39, 345349.
Estimating biomass of barley using crop surface models  derived from UAV-based RGB imaging.
Remote Sensing, 6, 1039510412.
Detection of downy mildew of opium poppy using high-resolution multi-spectral and thermal imagery acquired with an unmanned aerial vehicle.
Precision Agriculture, 15, 639661.
Evaluation multispectral images and vegetation indices for precision farming application from UAV images.
Remote Sensing, 7, 40264047.
Twenty-five years of remote sensing in precision agriculture: Key advances and remaining knowledge gaps.
Biosystems Engineering, 114, 358371.
The photogrammetric potential of low-cost UAVs in forestry and agriculture.
International Archives of the Photogrammetry.
Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Science, 37, 12071214.
Development of a low-volume sprayer for an unmanned helicopter.
Journal of Agricultural Science, 7, 148153.
Assessment of drip irrigation sub-units using airborne thermal imagery acquired with an unmanned aerial vehicle.
Stafford , Precision Agriculture, 13, 705711.
Wageningen, Netherlands: Wageningen Academic Publishers.
First record of tomato chlorotic spot virus in the USA.
Tropical Plant Pathology, 37, 333337.
Visualizing and quantifying vineyard canopy LAI using an unmanned aerial vehicle  collected high density structure from motion point cloud.
Remote Sensing, 5, 21642183.
The evaluation of unmanned aerial system-based photogrammetry and terrestrial laser scanning to generate DEMs of agricultural watersheds.
Quantifying efficacy and limits of unmanned aerial vehicle  technology for weed seedling detection as effected by sensor resolution.
Field distribution and disease incidence of tomato chlorotic spot virus, an emerging virus threatening tomato production in south Florida.
Tropical Plant Pathology, 44, 430437.
A flexible unmanned aerial vehicle for precision agriculture.
Precision Agriculture, 13, 517523.
P., & Rosab, F.
Multi-temporal imaging using an unmanned aerial vehicle for monitoring a sunflower crop.
Biosystems Engineering, 132, 1927.
Demonstration of drone technology to improve crop management in vegetable production.
Proceedings of Florida Society of Horticultural Science, 132.
Structure-from-motion photogrammetry: A low-cost, effective tool for geoscience applications.
R., & Martn, P.
Relationships between net photosynthesis and steady-state chlorophyll fluorescence retrieved from airborne hyperspectral imagery.
Remote Sensing of Environment, 136, 247258.
Fluorescence, temperature and narrow-band indices acquired from a UAV platform for water stress detection using a micro-hyperspectral imager and thermal camera.
Remote Sensing of Environment, 117, 322337.
Field evaluation of tomato cultivars for tolerance to tomato chlorotic spot tospovirus.
Plant Health Progress, 20, 7782.
Management of tomato chlorotic spot virus, an emerging tospovirus of tomato causing severe losses in south Florida.
Paper presented at the 2016 Annual Meeting of the American Phytopathological Society, Tampa, FL.
October 2010 // Volume 48 // Number 5 // Tools of the Trade // v48-5tt1
 Biodiverse communities are residential or commercial developments that conserve or restore land for the benefit of native organisms.
Biodiversity includes species diversity, habitat diversity, and genetic diversity.
Here, we focus on biodiversity in terms of native species.
Native species are plants and animals present within a given area prior to European contact.
Non-native  plants or animals are defined as those species that were not present before European contact.
Endemic species are native organisms only found in a region and do not occur elsewhere in the world.
This article recommends practices that would conserve and restore biodiversity in urban communities.
The tips below can be used for the creation of new, residential communities and also be used for "retrofitting" established yards and neighborhoods.
Some may question whether we should care if urban areas affect biodiversity.
Biodiversity benefits people in many ways.
In terms of a utilitarian value, food, fiber, medicines, and just about everything we use on a daily basis benefit from biodiversity.
In addition to material goods, biodiversity provides other ecological benefits, such as clean air and water, recreational, social, and aesthetic benefits, and economic opportunities.
Social and health benefits are derived from the presence of local habitat and wildlife.
From a national survey in 2001, nearly 41.8 million people indicated that they watched birds around their home (U.S.
Department of the Interior, 2006).
Even the sense of place is linked to the presence of wildlife; for example, over 80% of property owners near lakes in Wisconsin indicated that an element of satisfaction with the place they live was associated with the ability to view wildlife populations.
For many, a spiritual value is attached with the natural world.
Coined biophilia, people regard the natural environment as a source of beauty, inspiration, and rejuvenation.
Health benefits exist as well.
For example, nearby natural areas help to protect children from the impact of life stresseschildren with access to natural environments had superior cognitive functioning, fewer physical ailments, and speedier recovery from illness.
For new developments or retrofitting neighborhoods, design, construction, and post-construction considerations are important.
The design phase is typically where, among other aspects, lot size and open space are designated and roads are distributed throughout the site.
Next, during construction, built environment professionals  take whatever is on paper and implement this on the ground, constructing homes, streets, waste treatment systems, and landscaped areas.
In the absence of fully trained or engaged contractors or landscapers, many things can happen during this phase that could affect the viability of onsite and nearby natural habitat.
For example, the placement of fill dirt and routes used by heavy construction vehicles could impair the survival of conserved trees.
Smothered tree roots may not be able to acquire nutrients, water, and oxygen, causing trees to die.
In post-construction, buyers purchase the homes, move into the community, and manage their homes, yards, neighborhoods, and common areas.
It is then the responsibility of residents to manage their homes, yards, and neighborhoods in ways that do not compromise biodiversity conservation.
Additional problems can arise if residents are not fully engagedimagine residents moving in and planting invasive exotic plants in each of their yards.
Urban areas are dominated by non-native plants, such as turfgrass and ornamentals, and such landscaping can affect biodiversity in urban and nearby natural areas.
While an obvious recommendation is to reduce the amount of lawns and ornamental plants, we list other practices that are relevant to biodiversity conservation.
Reaching residents of green communities: Evaluation of a unique environmental education program.
Applied Environmental Education & Communication 7:114-124.
Biological invasions: Lessons for ecology.
Nearby Nature: A buffer of life stress among rural children.
Environment and Behavior 35:311-330.
August 2019 // Volume 57 // Number 4 // Feature // v57-4a3
 Employers and community members wish to see youths thrive in their communities and remain after pursuing higher education.
Youth leadership programs aid youths of all ages in developing effective leadership skills and deploying those skills for the betterment of their communities, such as through involvement with businesses, social services organizations, government entities, faith-based organizations, and families, to make a significant positive impact.
Youth leadership programs offer experiential training to increase understanding and practical application of ethical, effective leadership behaviors and include learning components addressing critical life skills such as communication, career readiness, critical thinking, and teamwork.
Leadership, which has been defined as a "trait or ability, a skill or a behavior and a relationship or process" (Northouse, 2012, p.
9), is needed wherever there are people.
Youth leadership development can be enhanced in various settings and through interactions with teachers, coaches, youth organization sponsors, employers, and community leaders.
In all situations, youths are expected to work through projects and solve practical problems at the personal, familial, and community levels.
Through local leadership development programs, Extension professionals can provide necessary skills training while addressing the need for youths to remain and thrive in communities.
The evaluation reported here focused on the LOOK to Clermont place-based youth leadership program, a local Extension initiative for high school juniors and seniors in Clermont County, Ohio.
The program involves county-based Extension educators from the family and consumer sciences, 4-H youth development, agriculture and natural resources, and community development program areas.
Accordingly, the results of our evaluation have Extension-wide implications, with applicability to similar programs.
The purpose of LOOK to Clermont is to promote workforce preparation and networking with peers and organization/business leaders to prepare the county's teens for leadership and instill within them a sense of community that may encourage them to remain in the county or return there one day to live and work.
Students are selected through nomination by their respective schools.
Agricultural education programs such as FFA and 4-H provide leadership opportunities and develop soft skills for students.
In FFA, students are exposed to experiences designed to enhance leadership development, career success, and personal growth through classroom experience, supervised agricultural experiences, and FFA engagement.
The LOOK to Clermont program follows a similar model by including classroom leadership experience, service learning, and place-based education and encompasses the motto "preparing tomorrow's leaders today." Students strengthen their leadership skills by exploring foundations of leadership, engaging in service learning, and experiencing their community through 10 monthly theme days conducted throughout the county.
Theme day content incorporates experiential learning principles, local community leaders, and the six impacts of community leadership development: personal development, community obligation, purposefulness, community familiarity, civic engagement, and social unity.
The program team helps learners practice personal communication skills using emerging technologies and online learning platforms.
Prior to our study, evaluation activities had been comprised exclusively of short-term monthly theme day evaluations.
Educators using place-based education situate students in businesses and organizations within their communities to provide the knowledge and leadership skills needed "to regenerate and sustain communities" (Gruenewald & Smith, 2008, p.
For the purpose of our study, we defined place-based education as an approach that connects learning to local communitythat is, education based on a particular place or location.
A primary strength of place-based education is that it can be adapted to the unique characteristics of particular places.
Learning in an environment where sense of place is cultivated increases a topic's significance.
Through place-based education programs, students discover the answer to why they need to know certain information by working through tasks to increase their knowledge.
Students can be empowered to become engaged citizens in their communities when assets and needs are available to guide learning.
Evaluations of place-based programming have revealed improved learning and community engagement, demonstrating that students who are engaged in real-world learning are more likely to prosper.
Many place-based education programs incorporate civic engagement and contribute to communities through service learning.
Youth leadership programs have increased community vitality as well as connectivity between government and social groups in time of disaster.
Placed-based leadership development encourages students to build soft skills used by leaders and to return to their home communities to live and work.
One study showed that participation in leadership programs relates to improved leadership skills and indicates that social support, civic engagement, and social interactions are influential to students.
Although some valuable information on these programs and their impacts exists , there is, concerningly, inadequate documentation of place-based youth program impacts.
The purpose of our study was to determine how LOOK to Clermont had performed to date.
The objectives were as follows:
 We used survey methodology to fulfill our study objectives.
The study population comprised individuals who had participated in the LOOK to Clermont program from 2012 to 2017.
We conducted a census because of the small number of program participants to date.
We used a researcher-developed instrument  as we did not find an existing evaluation instrument for place-based youth leadership programs.
We used an expert panel review to minimize threats to face validity.
The panel members, two Extension specialists and three Extension agents, were given instructions to ensure that the language was clear and the instrument measured the intended objectives.
We used a modified tailored design method for web-based questionnaires.
We informed potential respondents about the study using presurvey post cards.
We then sent the questionnaire via an email web link through Qualtrics, followed by reminders sent at 14, 26, 30, and 44 days after the initial distribution to increase the response rate.
We also posted the survey link on the alumni social media page.
We used some students' secondary email addresses due to outdated contact information and examined the responses to ensure that duplicate responses were not recorded.
Twenty-one individuals were inaccessible due to incorrect email addresses, reducing the accessible population to 99 program graduates.
We received 23 completed questionnaires , for a response rate of 23%.
Our response rate aligned with expectations: In 2017, researchers reported average response rates between 21.4% and 24.9% for web-based surveys.
A variety of factors, such as respondents' familiarity with the person sending the survey or lack of interest, could have contributed to the low response rate.
Not all study participants answered every question on the evaluation instrument.
Percentages and frequencies reported herein are based on number of respondents who provided a response for a particular question.
Overall, participants had favorable perceptions of the program and indicated that they had benefited from participating.
Most respondents, 86.6% , provided testimonials about the program that were overall very positive.
For example, Respondent 5 said, "It was a fun and interactive experience that helped open my eyes to the community.
this program was a great way to see the community and to appreciate all that it has to offer." Respondent 4 stated, "LOOK to Clermont made me realize that I can have an impact on my community." Of the respondents who discussed changes to their lifestyle, only 15%  indicated that the program had not benefited them personally.
After the program, most students had attended college and either had stayed in Clermont County to do so or planned to return after graduating.
Approximately 73% of respondents  were still in college, and 9%  were fully employed.
No participants reported that they were unemployed or looking for work.
Further, 52% of respondents  had remained in Clermont County to pursue higher education while living and/or working in the county.
Of the five respondents who identified where they attended college, three stated that they attended local colleges near Clermont County that partner with the program.
Of those participants who went to other states to pursue educational opportunities, 80%  indicated that they were planning to return to Clermont County to live and work.
The experience also provided a way to connect with higher education entities and employers, as evidenced by some lasting connections made by participants.
Respondent 3 said, "Having the program on my resume helped me make a connection with a company, which employed me as a co-op student.
I hope to work there after graduation."
 The program helped participants access opportunities and clarify their aspirations.
Twenty-five percent of respondents  indicated that the program influenced their career intentions.
For example, Respondent 7 stated, "It was one of the most influential experiences of my high school career.
It was not until reflection where I realized the magnitude of impact this program had on myself.
This impact included a new-found appreciation for my county and the citizens.
The program also provided me professional and academic opportunities.
And lastly personal benefits, such as leadership, communication, and interpersonal skills.
It has truly benefitted me in many ways."
 Testimonials illustrated the program's impact on participants' career paths as well.
As an example, Respondent 1 said, "I was not sure what I wanted to do while in the program, but this program gave me a view of all the different types of jobs and backgrounds that are out there and gave me new choices to explore." In addition, Respondent 2 noted, "It gave me the leadership and interpersonal skills that I needed to pursue a career with the intention to evolve into a leader within my professional field.
From the leadership development courses, I found my strengths and aligned them with a career interest." All five respondents who described the program's influence on their career paths explained that it had affected them positively.
Respondents ranked the value of each of the 10 place-based theme days to their long-term success.
They ranked the days focused on team building and personal finance as the most valuable and the orientation and commencement days as least valuable.
There was, however, considerable variability among the participants' responses.
There was also variability in participants' opinions of the three program componentsclassroom leadership experience, service learning, and place-based education.
Respondent 4 focused on leadership development as being beneficial by stating, "This program gave me confidence to emerge as a leader within the community.
It greatly eased my transition to college and the workplace.
Following the completion of this program, my leadership skills, professionalism, and communication skills had greatly improved.
The application of the lessons and skills from LOOK to Clermont allowed me to achieve leadership roles in local non-profit agencies as well as a part-time job in a professional work place." Respondent 8 indicated that place-based education was most beneficial, followed by service learning, saying, "Throughout the program, I gained friendships and truly enjoyed the place-based learning aspect of the program.
I think [the] team building day was essential in building [lasting] relationships.
The service [learning] project was so essential to understanding the need for leadership.
This project was essential in shaping me into a volunteer leader."
 Finally, respondents offered ideas for program improvement.
Thirty-six percent  suggested incorporating more hands-on opportunities into the service learning projects.
Respondent 5 stated, "What I really liked about LOOK to Clermont was hands-on activities.
I believe that [the planning team could] incorporate more hands-on activities to give the students a taste of what it is like to do the jobs [being showcased].
If it is a government building, give us an activity in which a problem arises and how we can solve it.
If it is an educational day, give us a topic that we have to teach to the class.
I believe that doing activities will make a much greater impact to a student than if we sit down for hours listening to someone speak."
 Of the six respondents who addressed the possibility of adding topics to the program, three stated that nothing should be added.
Others mentioned the need to add information on emerging issues in specific careers, and one respondent suggested addressing life skills needed after high school.
For example, Respondent 4 suggested adding topics such as "leadership in healthcare, non-profit sector and overcoming leadership barriers," and Respondent 5 suggested that information on "technology, engineering, cyber security and computers" was needed.
Overall, we found that students were pleased with their experiences and had had the opportunity to use the leadership skills gained through the program.
Because participants are selected through nomination by their respective schools, it is possible that fewer at-risk students have had the opportunity to participate, which is a potential limitation of the program itself.
With regard to our study, the low response rate is a limitation.
Also, evaluating one's own program is a potential source of bias, and we note that this is typical for Extension evaluation.
However, now that we have documented strengths and opportunities, the LOOK to Clermont planning team can take action to improve the program.
LOOK to Clermont participants are remaining in their home county to live and work, possibly because they can access higher education or employment locally.
They also are applying the leadership and service learning skills gained through the program.
Past participants placed the highest value on team building, personal finance, and education theme days.
This does not mean that the other days are not as valuable but implies that participants may not have had the opportunity to apply components of the other theme days at the time of the evaluation.
The findings imply that participants may be looking for more guided learning strategies and reinforced theme day content, which aligns with Fertman and van Linden's  statement that youths desire the experiential guidance to increase understanding and practical application of leadership behaviors and skills.
The program has supported participants' lifestyles by engaging them in experiences that develop their sense of place and leadership skills.
We concluded that the study participants had not yet had the opportunity to apply all skills gained from the program due to their age and minimal time out of high school or in the workforce.
Most of the respondents were still pursuing higher education.
There will be an opportunity for additional evaluation activities once program participants have had time to gain more practical life experience with the place-based leadership concepts.
Multiple recommendations can be made to improve programs such as LOOK to Clermont.
Our evaluation findings suggest that it is important to synthesize a plan to develop program theme days that ensure long-term success.
Program teams also should ensure that experiential learning and service activities are strong components of place-based youth leadership programs.
As well, program teams should carefully consider how students are selected to ensure that at-risk student populations have the opportunity to participate.
As place-based youth leadership programs continue to expand nationwide, Extension professionals can learn from numerous aspects of our project.
Extension professionals who conduct place-based youth leadership programs should perform annual in-depth program evaluations to allow for responsive changes that meet student participants' needs.
An evaluation tool such as the one we designed for our study could be used to evaluate other place-based local leadership programs.
Additionally, Extension professionals may find that there is an opportunity to improve their participant databases and better engage alumni in such programs over the long term to improve communication with and among future cohorts.
Extension professionals can use the findings reported here to communicate the value of place-based youth leadership programs to stakeholders.
Extension professionals also could use these findings to develop an initial framework for new youth leadership programs in their communities.
The LOOK to Clermont program serves as an example of cross-program-area collaboration for all Extension personnel and demonstrates the value of functional communication methods for Extension program alumni engagement.
Another study will be necessary to reevaluate the impact of the LOOK to Clermont place-based leadership program in greater depth.
Additional efforts could be used to control for low response rates in future studies.
Due to the ages of the respondents and short time span following their participation, we believe the evaluation should be repeated in approximately 5 years.
Extension professionals who design these types of programs need to ensure that a long-term evaluation plan and necessary resources are in place.
Evaluating the programs over time will allow more participants to settle into their careers.
There is also a need to research the competencies deemed important by community and business leaders who may employ students in the future.
Documentation of the desired skills and traits would aid in establishing additional intermediate and long-term goals for these programs.
Considerations for future discussion and studies include the need to minimize limitations by controlling for nonresponse and using external evaluators to address common challenges shared by Extension professionals.
The goal of place-based leadership is to develop relevant skills and create place attachment through shared experiences in order to build a connection to place that encourages skilled individuals to remain.
By designing programs that are responsive to local needs and guided by sound evaluation, Extension professionals can build community with youths and contribute to lasting community vitality.
Introduction to research in education.
The 7 habits of highly effective people.
New York, NY: Simon & Schuster Inc.
Internet, mail, and mixed-mode surveys: The tailored design method.
Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley.
The self-aware leaderA proven model for reinvesting yourself.
Alexandria, VA: ASTD Press.
Place-based education in the global age.
New York, NY: Routledge.
[Clermont County needs assessment].
Introduction to leadership concepts and practice.
Los Angeles, CA: SAGE Publications Inc.
Community effects of leadership development educationCitizen empowerment for civic engagement.
Morgantown, WV: West Virginia University Press.
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Placeand community-based education in schools.
New York, NY: Routledge by Taylor & Francis Group.
June 2020 // Volume 58 // Number 3 // Feature // v58-3a4
 Extension works to promote adoption of landscape management best practices among residents across the country, leading to water conservation and better nutrient management.
For those Extension professionals engaged in protecting water resources, the residential lawn and landscape remains an important focus.
Across the United States, Extension professionals are increasingly focused on behavior change above lower level outcomes such as knowledge gain and also are using more innovative strategies to encourage this change among their target audiences.
One innovative behavior change approach supported by extensive research drawn from environmental psychology  is driven by integrating an audience's perceptions of norms, or perceptions among target audience members of what other people approve of and normally engage in.
Extension can use norms to help people adopt desirable behaviors.
For example, highlighting that a majority of people living in a given neighborhood have retrofitted their irrigation systems could influence those who have not yet done so.
Norms also can promote undesired behaviors.
For example, perceived social pressure to have a perfect lawn can serve as a barrier that prevents residents from conserving water.
The concept of norms can be decomposed into subjective norms , injunctive norms , and descriptive norms .
Although different types of social norms seem similar, individuals'  perceptions of each contribute uniquely to behaviors.
For example, Vinnell et al.
found that injunctive norms bolstered support for earthquake-strengthening legislation whereas descriptive norms did not.
The focus of the study we report here was descriptive norms.
Descriptive norms are of particular interest because Extension clientele may inaccurately perceive what others are doing, especially when it comes to environmental behaviors, which are often unseen.
In their classic study, Cialdini et al.
found that parking garage users who encountered a littered parking area when returning to their car  were more likely to litter than those who returned to a clean parking area.
This effect was even more pronounced when individuals observed someone in the act of littering.
used messages to inform individuals of a descriptive norm: "the majority of the people who used this soap helped the environment by turning off the tap while soaping hands" (p.
In this context of water conservation, the researchers found that individuals who received a descriptive norm treatment saved water by turning off the faucet while soaping hands significantly more often than those who did not.
When integrating norms into Extension programming, it is important to consider the type of norms and specify the referent group with which a norm is associated.
For example, a person's classmates, close friends, and coworkers are three distinct referent groups.
Often, the specifics of norms are not considered or defined , which has created a gap in what is known about using social norms as a behavior change strategy that has decreased chances of successfully using this strategy to change behaviors.
Extension professionals should consider ways to help individuals feel similar to and connected with the individuals referenced in a message.
Typically, groups of people closer to an individual  are more influential on the individual's behavior than more distant groups.
However, in a study of university drinking habits, Park et al.
found that United Stateslevel descriptive and injunctive norms influenced intent to limit alcohol consumption whereas university-level norms did not.
Mixed findings such as this highlight the need to closely examine a target audience's perceptions prior to developing any type of Extension strategy for that audience.
Because there is significant promise in integrating norms in behavior change interventions, there is a need to examine how different types and levels of norms can be used in various water conservation contexts.
The purpose of our study was to examine the relationship between descriptive norms and Floridians' engagement in water conservation in their yards.
Our hypothesis was that as compared to their perceptions of the practices of people at more distant  levels, Floridians' perceptions of their close peers' landscape water conservation practices would be more closely related to their own behaviors.
The objectives were  to describe the norms Floridians perceived surrounding engagement in water conservation among specific referent groups  and  to evaluate how perceived descriptive norms from specific referent groups related to landscape water conservation at the household level.
We used an online survey we developed to collect data to address our study objectives in November and December 2018.
The input variables pertaining to the objectives were close-peer descriptive norms, neighborhood descriptive norms, state descriptive norms, and national descriptive norms.
We operationalized close peers as those individuals who were important to the respondent.
Each of the descriptive norm variables was measured using a four-item, 5-point Likert-type scale.
The responses to each set of these items were averaged to create an index.
The outcome variable was landscape water conservation, which was the average engagement across 18 different landscape irrigation conservation practices.
We created dummy variables for each of the 18 practices, where a yes response was coded as a 1 and a no response was coded as a 0.
We calculated the mean of non-not-applicable responses to the 18 items to create a landscape water conservation index.
However, if a respondent indicated not applicable to more than half of the items, we excluded that person's responses from the analyses.
We used Cronbach's alpha to estimate the reliability of the four input variables.
Generally, values of.7 and above are considered appropriate for use in quantitative research , and our reliability values indicated that our scales were acceptable for use.
We targeted residents 18 years of age and older living in Florida.
Our sample indicated that they identified primarily as White and slightly more than half were male.
We used a professional survey sampling company to access a nonprobability sample.
Prior to analyzing the data, we weighted the data using poststratification weighting methods to reduce potential errors associated with nonprobability sampling.
We adjusted each respondent's data so that the person's contribution was consistent with the age, race, ethnicity, sex, and county's population density as reflected in the 2010 Census (U.S.
We used SPSS to analyze the results.
We calculated means and standard deviations for objective one.
We used Spearman correlations to assess whether statistically significant correlations existed between the four descriptive norms and water conservation practices adopted.
Finally, we used a multiple linear regression analysis to evaluate how the four descriptive norms predicted water conservation when considered together.
Prior to conducting the analysis, we checked the data for multicollinearity, normality, and homoscedasticity, and all of the criteria were met.
Perceived descriptive norms ranged from 2.68 to 3.50.
Respondents tended to perceive that those closest to them  were more engaged in water conservation than those at more distant referent levels.
A landscape conservation practices index of.36 indicates that respondents were engaged in six to seven conservation practices on average.
For reference, a mean value of.50 would indicate that a person was engaged in nine of the practices.
Results of the Spearman correlations indicated that there was a significant association between close-peer, rs =.352, p <.001, neighborhood, rs =.236, p <.001, state, rs =.110, p <.001, and national, rs =.070, p =.031 descriptive norms and landscape water conservation practices.
As referent groups became more distant, the strengths of the relationships decreased.
The multiple linear regression analysis showed that the model was significant, R2 =.140, F = 47.361, p <.001, and predicted 14% of the variance in engagement in water conservation practices.
However, of the four variables, a significant relationship existed only between close-peer norms  and landscape water conservation.
The unstandardized beta coefficient associated with close-peer descriptive norms indicated that compared to people with lower perceptions of close-peer descriptive norms , people with 1-unit-greater perceptions of close peers' engagement in water conservation  would be expected to have a.095-unit-greater conservation practices index, which is equivalent to about two more conservation practices.
People have a tendency to misjudge norms as a referent group becomes more distant or dissimilar.
This phenomenon may have been reflected when we asked Floridians to think about others' engagement in landscape water conservation.
Respondents perceived that those closest to them were most engaged in landscape water conservation and believed that more distant groups conserved less.
For this reason , perceptions of conservation at a national level may be most inaccurate, and those for state and neighborhood levels also may be inaccurate to an extent.
We concluded that the more distant the descriptive norm level, the weaker the relationship with adoption, which is consistent with what is known about referent groups.
Close-peer, neighborhood, and state norms each had a significant relationship with adoption of water conservation practices, and close-peer norms had the strongest relationship with conservation when these variables were considered separately.
When we considered the four descriptive norms together, only close-peer norms was a significant predictor of conservation.
The findings supported our hypothesis that as compared to their perceptions of the practices of people at more distant  levels, Floridians' perceptions of their close peers' landscape water conservation practices would be more closely related to their own behaviors.
Descriptive norms provide an innovative way to understand a target audience.
To integrate descriptive norms into a behavior change strategy, Extension professionals should consider increasing the visibility of engagement in positive behaviors.
The findings of our study imply that making Extension clients more aware of how their close peers are conserving water could be the most effective social norms strategy, though this likely would be difficult in practice.
Our recommendation might take the form of Extension programs focused on teaching clients not only how to conserve water but also training them to promote their personal conservation practices among their close-peer groups.
This type of Extension program might be designed in conjunction with volunteer groups such as master gardeners or citizen science programs.
Another possible approach might target Extension clientele with the goal of getting them to ask their close peers about conservation.
We propose that social media campaigns might be exceptionally well suited for inspiring people to ask their close peers how they save water.
There may be some value in promoting descriptive norms at neighborhood and state levels, but the relationship between these norms and conservation is nullified when close-peer norms are introduced.
Importantly, this finding sheds light on how Extension professionals should not use descriptive norms.
According to our findings, a national-level landscape water conservation campaign likely would not be successful.
There could be some value in neighborhoodand state-level campaigns, but promoting close-peer norms is ideal.
Beyond their immediate application, the findings hint at possible elements that could be missing from Extension programs.
If Extension professionals could potentially increase their impact by targeting local norms and teaching Extension clients to share their knowledge with others , then perhaps there are opportunities to better prepare Extension professionals to do these things by providing professional development to build facilitation and community development competencies.
There also may be a need to consider designing programs in different ways, such as providing social opportunities for people to share their practices in contrast to using a knowledge-based educational approach.
The significance of close-peer relationships on conservation practices also could be applied by Extension professionals using diffusion of innovations theory  by targeting opinion leaders  to highlight and promote these local norms.
There may also be an opportunity to correct perceptions of conservation at the more distant levels given the increasingly lower perceptions of conservation.
Extension professionals could consider collectively engaging in national water conservation campaigns to address such misconceptions.
However, as perceptions of the more distant groups' norms do not relate strongly to conservation, this should be a secondary programmatic consideration.
Our findings are limited by our use of a nonprobability sample, although the potential error associated with this type of sampling is reduced due to poststratification weighting.
Further, our data were drawn from Florida residents only, and we believe that water conservation norms may be more visible in this state than other locations in the country, such as those without a year-round growing season.
Replicating this study with a random national sample would be an ideal next step.
Extension professionals in all program areas can apply the concept of descriptive norms to their work.
Illuminating desired behaviors in local areas might be an effective tool for increasing the occurrence of behaviors in topical areas ranging from health and wellness to agriculture to 4-H and community.
Those working in all these areas should consider how they can promote practices using their clients' close-peer networks as well as encourage their clientele to share the knowledge they gain from Extension programs.
Now that relationships between different groups' descriptive norms and water conservation is better understood, Extension professionals can use these insights to develop innovative programming strategies.
Further research is also needed to better understand these findings.
A field study comparing the effect of close-peer, neighborhood, state, and national normative messages would help validate the influence of descriptive norms.
There would be value in next measuring how injunctive norms interact with these descriptive norms and conservation practices.
Researchers might also replicate future analyses using demographic variables  as controls and analyze how demographic variables may interplay with norms and influence conservation behaviors.
The R2 value of the regression model indicated a small but significant explanation of the variance in water conservation behavior, highlighting the fact that there are many other factors driving these behaviors.
Yet explaining 14% of the variance is an important finding given that we considered only specific descriptive norms.
Some of the most used models of behavior explain, on average, 20%30% of the behavior under study.
Additional study could also be conducted to analyze how the addition of descriptive norms can increase the predictive power of known behavior change models such as the theory of planned behavior  and diffusion of innovation theory.
The research reported here was supported by the University of Florida Center for Landscape Conservation and Ecology.
The theory of planned behavior.
Organizational Behavior and Human Decision Processes, 50, 179211.
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Journal of Survey Statistics and Methodology, 1, 90143.
Influences of norm proximity and norm types on binge and nonbinge drinkers: Examining the underexamined aspects of social norms interventions on college campuses.
Journal of Substance Use, 11, 417429.
A focus theory of normative conduct: Recycling the concept of norms to reduce littering in public places.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 58, 10151026.
The Oxford handbook of environmental and conservation psychology.
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It's going to take more innovation than technology to increase water conservation practices.
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Choosing effective behavior change tools.
Social Marketing Quarterly, 20, 3546.
Separating subjective norms, university descriptive and injunctive norms, and U.S.
descriptive and injunctive norms for drinking behavior intentions.
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Environment and Behavior, 51, 376400.
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June 2012 // Volume 50 // Number 3 // Research In Brief // v50 -3rb4
 Broad citizen involvement in water resource management can ensure public support for water policies, provide additional data about pollution sources and abatement options, and reduce pollution loading to streams and rivers.
Extension involves the public in water resource management through volunteer programs, such as Master Naturalist, Watershed Stewards, Water Watch, and Master Gardener, which focus on water pollution sources, pollution prevention, and water conservation.
In the study reported in this article, we examined three types of volunteer programs that include water resources modules: Master Gardener, volunteer water quality monitoring, and water resource protection groups.
We also examined how effective volunteer water resource programs are in reaching the general public and whether participation in these volunteer programs induces citizens to make their daily activities more sustainable.
The main objective of the study was to analyze participation in such programs and its influence on homeowners' yard management practices in the southern United States.
The analysis is based on a public survey conducted by the authors in eight southern states: Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Louisiana, Mississippi, Oklahoma, Tennessee, and Texas.
The survey objectives were to document public awareness, attitudes, and actions toward water resources and to collect baseline data to evaluate current outreach programs and inform future ones.
The survey questionnaire, based on the template used in the Pacific Northwest , was administered as a mail-out survey.
Respondents' participation in volunteer activities was evaluated using the following question:
 This survey question was formulated broadly to reflect the diverse volunteer programs in the region based on households':
 To examine households' decisions related to yard management, the following question was asked:
 Answer choices for question B cover a broad range of actions.
For example, "changed the way your yard is landscaped" can potentially refer to vegetation types and placement, mulching, or changes in mowing practices.
Similarly, changes in the frequency of yard watering can mean installation of smart irrigation technologies, irrigation timer adjustments, or changes in hand-watering practices.
Finally, changes in the use of pesticides, fertilizers, or other chemicals  can imply modification of contracts with professional landscape companies, implementation of integrated pest management techniques, changes in the fertilizer brand, or reduction in fertilizer use.
Therefore, due to the broadness of the survey question, the analysis presented in this paper can only explain general changes in households' yard management.
This can be considered a first step towards the subsequent analysis of household preferences for specific practices.
Target sample sizes for each state were based on state population, and a random sample of residential mailing addresses was purchased from Survey Sampling International.
The survey was administered in the summers of 2008 and 2009.
Initial sample sizes and survey response rates are summarized in Table 1.
Similar to the surveys implemented in other regions , more males than females returned the survey, and the survey respondents were slightly older and more educated than the average residents of the state.
To analyze the responses to the survey's questions we employed logit regression models , which is a standard way to model binary choice responses.
Overall, 13% of survey respondents indicated participation in at least one of the three volunteer activities.
Given that the population in the eight states is 45 million people (25 years old and older, U.S.
Census Bureau, 2010), this result suggests that the programs reached approximately 6 million people.
This number can even be higher if one considers the influences on volunteers' friends and families.
Approximately 5% of respondents participated in each of the volunteer activities.
While there was a correlation among the participation in the three activities, it was small , implying that only a few respondents indicated participation in more than one activity.
Using logit regression analysis, we identified the factors that were correlated with participation in the Master Gardener program in a statistically significant way.
Participation in the program was especially high in Alabama, Florida, and Mississippi, and in the medium-size cities.
Respondents 65 years old or older were more likely to participate in the program.
Finally, preferences for specific learning opportunities were also important: those who preferred to learn about water issues through attending a short course or workshop, taking a course for certification or credit, or learning how to conduct water practice assessment were more likely to indicate participation in the program.
This result is not surprising given the "hands-on" learning opportunities emphasized by the Master Gardener program.
** Statistically significant at the 95% confidence level
 *** Statistically significant at the 90% confidence level
 Similar to the results discussed above, participation in volunteer water quality monitoring activities was higher among older respondents.
In addition, those who preferred to learn about water issues via studying how to conduct a home, farm, or workplace water practices assessment or via attending a fair or festival were more likely to indicate participation in such proactive activity as volunteer monitoring groups.
In contrast, those who preferred to learn about water issues passivelyby reading newspaperswere less likely indicate participation in volunteer monitoring.
Participation in lake, river, bay, wetland, or watershed protection groups  was especially high in five states: Alabama, Arkansas, Florida, Louisiana, and Mississippi.
Respondents living outside the city limits were more likely to indicate participation in protection groups, which may reflect the direct connection between the state of water resources and human well-being in rural areas.
However, given that the population in cities is much larger compared to rural areas, the total number of participants was higher among those living inside city limits.
Participation rate was higher among respondents with at least some college education and lower among female respondents.
Finally, those who reported participation in the protection groups also preferred to learn about water resources through printed fact sheets, bulletins, or brochures; one-time volunteer activities; certification or credit courses; or by understanding how to conduct home, farm, or workplace water practice assessment.
The overwhelming majority  of respondents implemented at least one of the yard management practices to conserve water or preserve water quality.
This result implies high awareness of the public in general about water resource issues and the public's willingness to modify their own behavior to protect water resources.
The majority of respondents  indicated that their households had changed the frequency of yard watering.
Changes in yard chemical use were made by 30%, and changes in yard landscaping by 23% of respondents.
The implementation of these three practices was correlated; however, this correlation was relatively small , implying that relatively few respondents implemented two or more actions.
Participation in the three volunteer activities is positively correlated with reported changes in yard management practices and with the participants significantly more likely to report the changes.
The only exception is the participation in water resource protection groups that increased the likelihood of reporting changes in yard landscaping and yard chemical use practices but not the frequency of yard watering.
Participation in the Volunteer Programs and Changes in Landscape Water Use and Water Management Practices 
 The reported changes in households' practices differed among the states: more respondents from Florida and Texas indicated changes in yard landscaping and watering frequency.
Respondents living in large cities  were more likely to indicate changes in the frequency of yard watering, while those living outside city limits were less likely to indicate so.
This result may be linked to watering restriction ordinances implemented by municipalities in the region.
Older respondents were less likely, while respondents with advanced degrees were more likely, to indicate changes in the way their yards were landscaped.
Female respondents were more likely to indicate changes in yard chemical use.
Finally, sources of news were also correlated with reported changes in yard management practices.
Those who normally get the news from radio or public television were more likely to indicate changes in yard landscaping and chemical use.
Respondents getting the news from magazines and newsletters or local television were more likely to report changes in the use of pesticides, fertilizers, or other chemicals.
Audiences of different news media outlets vary by their views.
For example, public broadcasting and magazines attract more liberals , who traditionally have pro-environmental attitudes.
** Statistically significant at 95% confidence level
 *** Statistically significant at 90% confidence level
 One in eight survey respondents  indicated participation in Master Gardener, volunteer monitoring, or water resource protection groups, implying the broad reach of these programs.
Not surprisingly, these structured volunteer activities are more likely to attract "active learners," those who prefer to take a course or learn how to conduct home, farm, or workplace water practice assessment.
To further increase these programs' reach, special Web-based modules can be developed for those who prefer other methods of learning.
Furthermore, given that the participants of Master Gardener and volunteer monitoring groups tend to be older, additional activities can be developed for younger audiences.
The overwhelming majority  of respondents changed the frequency of yard watering; the use of pesticide, fertilizers, and other chemicals; or the way their yard is landscaped to conserve water or preserve water quality.
This result indicates the public's awareness about water resource issues in the region and their willingness to take actions to protect water resources.
In addition to this general trend, participation in Master Gardener, volunteer monitoring, and water resource protection groups significantly increased the likelihood of respondents reporting changes in their yard management practices to protect water resources.
Among those who participated in these volunteer activities, 85% implemented at least one of the yard management practices listed in the survey.
Can these estimated impacts on yard management practice be interpreted as being caused by participation in the programs analyzed?
For this to be the case, we would need to assume that the control variables available to us  fully control for systematic factors related to participation and yard management practice.
Because this assumption may be a strong one, we refrain from taking a strong stand about the causal interpretation of the estimated impacts.
However, we believe they represent one of the best available indicators of the importance of these programs.
Thus, the significant impact of volunteer activities on citizens' behavior found in the study reported here should be considered when making decisions about alternative water management strategies.
This project was funded by the United States Department of Agriculture, National Institute of Food and Agriculture under agreement 2008-51130-19537, also known as The Southern Region Water Resource Project.
The Southern Region Water Resource Project is a partnership of the Texas AgriLife Extension Service, 21 collaborating land-grant universities in the southern United States, and the USDA National Institute of Food and Agriculture.
The article presents results of a project led by Robert Mahler, Professor of Soil and Environmental Sciences at the University of Idaho, under USDA project 2004-51130-02245.
The project also was supported in part by Leeann DeMouche, New Mexico State University, Donn Rodekohr, Auburn University, Cassel Gardner, Florida A&M University, Karen Loeffelman, University of Idaho, and Alyssa Dodd, Department of Environmental Resources Management, Palm Beach County, Florida.
A guide to econometrics.
Blackwell Publishing, Malden, MA.
August 2011 // Volume 49 // Number 4 // Ideas at Work // v49-4iw2
 President Obama's "Feed the Future" Guide outlines that the delivery of food aid is not enough to feed the hungry internationally.
Steps must be in place to assure food security long term.
With that goal in mind, growing a rainwater supported garden in the arid Southwest can be an avenue for providing fresh produce.
Youth learn to install rainwater harvesting and drip irrigation systems, and gain a basic knowledge of plant germination and garden bed preparation.
Furthermore, youth in the 4H20 Replenish project at Fort Huachuca Army Installation, sponsored by National 4-H Council and the Coca-Cola Foundation, learned technology skills as they created "how to" videos of each step in the implementation of the garden infrastructure, which can be a part of global education efforts.
Arid conditions in the Southwest make it challenging to grow fresh food.
Groundwater can be hundreds of feet below the surface and expensive to pump.
Therefore, the use of rainwater harvesting and gravity drip irrigation systems can be the cornerstone of a financially feasible and sustainable, rural youth gardening experience.
Gardening programs can create demonstration sites for public viewing and learning experiences for youth to design, create and maintain.
To assure the sustainability of this and future gardening projects, local partnerships were garnered , and educational videos were made.
Daily, cameras were shared among participants, so by the time the outdoor garden plots were fully planted, dozens of hours of video had been saved in preparation for the work on the tutorial videos.
Therefore, while the garden was busy growing, the youth and adult participants shifted their focus from constructing the garden infrastructure to creating a series of educational videos that would help others duplicate the project.
Participants prioritized important themes for films.
The videos were story-boarded, and scripts were written and recorded as podcasts.
Video, still photos, and Internet research combined to create films that educated about the science or skills in each process.
Concluding the program, participants held a film premier at the Fort Huachuca Community Theater to share their videos with School Aged Services , parents, community members, and Middle School/Teen Program youth.
In southeastern Arizona, youth gardens are designed with rainwater collected from the roofs of gymnasiums, classrooms, and administrative buildings.
Typically, one or more 2,500 gallon rainwater harvesting tanks are attached to drainpipes.
The pipes are cut and refitted with PVC into the top of the rainwater tanks.
A screening system keeps mosquitoes from laying eggs in the water.
Tanks are black to resist algae growth.
Indoor grow lights germinate seeds for bedding plants, while outdoor garden beds are created.
The 2009 project at Fort Huachuca Army Installation, Middle School/Teen Program  used sunken beds as well as straw bale beds  to provide control and variable plots.
Soils in the area can be rocky and compacted, so amendment additions and rock removal are required.
Straw bale gardens are an option for no-till gardening.
Once the gardening beds are prepared, PVC pipe runs in trenches from the bottom of the rainwater harvest tank to the garden beds.
The Fort Huachuca system was designed to operate on gravity flow and utilized a low pound per square inch  drip irrigation tape.
In arid conditions, drip irrigation is 95% effective and reduces evaporation.
Bedding plants were planted in control and variable plots and were given equal amounts of water.
However, the drip irrigation system was new to participants, and many questions arose with its use.
A lesson was created that measured the square feet of roof that collected rain.
It was multiplied by 0.623 to determine gallons, and then multiplied by an average rainfall.
That total was divided by the four gutters on the building, which demonstrated how much rain would collect in one tank.
Youth tested the drip system by timing the output over a 15-minute period and collecting water from one emitter in a pie plate.
The Arizona Life Skills Assessment Tool was used with 15 youth from the afterschool program in rural southeastern Arizona.
Their responses are captured in Table 2.
The assessment tool is a four point  Likert Scale evaluation.
Arid climates, local or international, call for creative gardening approaches.
Creating rainwater-supported gardens allows for a naturally sustaining source of a precious limiting resourcewater.
Involving youth in building garden infrastructure teaches skills in rainwater harvesting, irrigation, as well as basic gardening.
However, the extension of learning comes with the creation of the "how to" videos as community members as well as international educational opportunities abound through a film rather than text-based learning.
Youth deepen their learning as they research and film the science base to the garden project for future duplication.
Partnerships within the community sustain the project.
Extension is poised to lead communities to sustainable gardening programs through efforts already being undertaken throughout the nation via Master Gardener, 4-H Science, Expanded Foods and Nutrition Education Programs, school-based nutrition education programs, sustainability education, and community development efforts.
It is the integration of these efforts and the addition of video technology that allow this type of programming to have widespread replication.
December 2014 // Volume 52 // Number 6 // Tools of the Trade // v52-6tt8
 Agriculture, nursery, and turfgrass managers depend on an adequate supply of water for irrigation.
With increasing demand for potable water, irrigation managers are turning to alternative, poorer quality sources of water  for irrigation purposes.
Poor quality irrigation water poses many hazards to plant production if not managed properly.
Due to increasing use of poor quality water for irrigation, simple tools are needed to help Extension agents and stakeholders make appropriate irrigation management decisions.
The water quality flow chart  can assist plant managers in making irrigation management decisions.
It should not be the sole reference used to determine water source suitability.
Other stress factors to consider along with the WQFC include:
 Identifying stress factors is especially important for arid regions where salts can build up in soils rather quickly.
Southwestern USA Example :
 Although beneficial in terms of water conservation, the use of poorer quality water for irrigation without proper management can cause soil structure issues and plant growth and quality problems.
The information available about irrigation water quality is very technical , and stakeholders have difficulty identifying proper management strategies.
Water quality reports typically include values for pH, total dissolved salts , electrical conductivity , sodium absorption ratio , adjusted residual sodium , bicarbonate/carbonates, and/or residual sodium carbonate.
These parameters interact in a complex manner, influencing plant growth and soil structure.
To simplify irrigation quality assessment, the WQFC  accounts for pH, salts, and alkalinity concurrently.
This tool will help Extension agents understand water quality reports and the associated irrigation management issues , and, with knowledge of other stressors present, offer management options  to stakeholders.
The following brief overview of water quality parameters and potential irrigation management issues addressed in the WQFC could be given to stakeholders to help evaluate their water quality and irrigation management.
The term "water quality" describes the physical, chemical, and biological components of water and has been extensively examined and reported for drinking water.
Irrigation water quality may impact the health and productivity of plants, soils, and the surrounding ecosystems receiving drainage water.
Reclaimed irrigation water may have higher salt content than municipal, potable water sources.
Poor quality irrigation water can also reduce pesticide efficacy and alter the physical structure of soils.
Monitor irrigation water quality throughout the growing season and over time , and adjust management actions  to maximize plant health while protecting natural resources.
Successful management of production systems  irrigated with poor quality water can only be achieved by understanding potential stressors and accounting for their impacts in determining production inputs.
By following the WQFC, one can determine potential IMIs and MOs; however, stressor addition can create an issue even if the WQFC indicates no issues.
Of all potential stressors, irrigation water quality is commonly the most difficult for stakeholders to understand and manage.
This irrigation WQFC is a tool that will make help Extension agents interpret water quality reports and advise stakeholders about appropriate management options when other potential plant growth stressors are considered
 The authors greatly appreciate the through reviews from Dr.
Bernd Leinauer and Dr.
Water considerations for container production of plants.
North Carolina State University  Horticulture Information Leaflet.
Water quality assessments A guide to use of biota, sediments and water in environmental monitoring.
UNESCO/WHO/UNEP by E&FN Spon.
Water quality changes in golf course irrigation ponds transitioning to reuse water.
Turfgrass and landscape irrigation water quality: Assessment and management.
Taylor & Francis Group.
Irrigation water salinity and crop production.
University of California, Agriculture and Natural Resources.
Managing irrigation water quality for crop production in the Pacific Northwest.
Pacific Northwest Extension Publication.
Irrigation in developing countries using wastewater.
International Review for Environmental Strategies.
Irrigation science and technology In: Turfgrass: biology, use, and management.
Impact of reuse water on golf courses and turfgrass parameters monitored over a 4.5 year period.
Managing saline and sodic soils for producing horticultural crops.
Soil salinity and quality of sprinkler and drip irrigated cool-season turfgrasses.
Soil salinity and quality of sprinkler and drip irrigated warm-season turfgrasses.
August 2002 // Volume 40 // Number 4 // Feature Articles // 4FEA5
 Abstract The article presents the Agriculture Environmental Management System  as a model for the integration of voluntary agriculture environmental management systems into agriculture production operations.
The model can serve as guidance for Extension personnel as they assist operators in focusing on continual improvement of their enterprises' interactions with air, water and land resources; pollution prevention; effective compliance management; and owner/operator involvement, using ISO 14001 standard as a baseline.
Extension can provide owner/operators of animal feeding operations  with a systematic approach to meeting both their business and environmental goals.
Farmers and ranchers are recognized as the leaders and primary stewards of the nation's natural resources.
These producers are also aware that there is growing public concern for environmental protection and sustainable development.
Like professionals in many other businesses and industries, agriculturists are being challenged to demonstrate a commitment to environmental improvement.
Implementation of an Agriculture Environmental Management System  can assist in this effort in variety of ways.
The focus of effective environmental management is the using of a systematic approach to planning, controlling, measuring, and improving an operation's environmental effort.
Deming  has demonstrated that, for most industries, 85% of an operator's effectiveness is determined by the production system, only 15% by the operator's own skill.
The production system is where managers have their greatest leverage for change and improvement.
The potential for significant improvements and cost savings can be achieved by improving the operations management processes.
The crucial point is that not all environmental problems need to be solved by installing expensive pollution control equipment.
Modern agriculture in the United States is characterized by a complex integration of bio-chemical, mechanical, and agronomic systems.
These systems have enabled modern agriculture to become one of the most sophisticated industries in the world.
Specifically, these systems have continually improved agriculture in a manner that has made agriculture essential to U.S.
economic stability, rural community viability and a healthful and high-quality food supply.
An important consideration in this continual improvement cycle is a movement toward sustainable development.
Ritchie and Hayes  defined sustainable development as seeking a balance between economic growth and environmental protection.
This balance will require modern agricultural systems to be integrated with economic, biologic, and human social systems to create a sustainable system of business.
Extension has developed the theories, methods, and tools to assist agricultural producers to meet the challenges of sustainable development.
Extension has assisted many farms and ranches in adopting management system frameworks such as the Dairy Herd Improvement Program, irrigation water management, feed management, and Integrated Pest Management.
These existing frameworks have similar elements that are also needed in an AEMS.
Thus, much of what is required to implement an AEMS may already be in place.
Integrating environmental management with these existing elements can improve an operations economy and performance.
Due to increased pressure for environmental sensitivity, the United States Department of Agriculture-United States Environmental Protection Agency  adopted the Unified National Strategy for Animal Feeding Operations.
This strategy has serious implications for producers.
Producers view this strategy as being founded on the environmentalist notion that agriculture producers must be pushed into preserving the environment using the command and control model of management.
Ritchie and Hayes  noted that local, state, and federal agencies are struggling with competing political agendas that seek to recreate environmental programs and their administration, with the result that accomplishing goals becomes increasingly difficult.
Finally, Ritchie and Hayes  suggest that producers view environmental programs with prescriptive regulations and standards as incompatible with viable production agriculture.
Managers of modern agriculture production businesses must balance the demand on limited resources among many complicated and interdependent systems.
Examples of these systems include:
 Ritchie and Hayes  state that "increasingly complex environmental regulations only add to managers already overwhelming schedules." They continue by additionally stating that due to uncertainty about the scope of regulations and costs of compliance, many managers believe that environmental management only drains resources and reduces productivity.
These managers are struggling for survival and do not give top priority to sustainability.
There is evidence that improving environmental performance can lead to profitability.
Repetto  found that operations with good environmental performance were just as profitable as operations with poor environmental performance.
He found that getting added value for environmental management was the way to profitability.
He suggests government can lessen the burden of environmental management programs by:
 Ritchie and Hayes  found that managers tend to deal well with the aspects of environmental issues that they understand, but react in crisis mode to those aspects they do not understand.
Extension can influence the mind-set of producers by demonstrating that proactive environmental management can result in more effective operations and improved profitability.
A new producer view toward an effective and efficient environmental management program will evolve.
This new view will be based on long-term planning, not on short-term expediency.
A favorable model that could be used to develop an AEMS is the Environmental Management Systems Model.
This model is based on the International Standards Organization  14000 series of environmental management standards.
Previous efforts and existing programs that agriculture producers have in place can reduce the complexity of setting up an AEMS.
According to Stapleton et al.
, an effective Environmental Management System  will improve the economic performance of an operation by assessing the causes of problems and then providing a means for eliminating them.
An AEMS can serve as an investment in the long-term viability of a farm or ranch.
noted that this viability will be achieved not only by assisting the operation in meeting environmental goals but also by reducing liability, improving regulatory compliance, reducing costs, and improving public perceptions.
The Environmental Management Systems Model
 The AEMS should be a site-specific system tailored to the producer and the operation.
The strength of AEMS is that it establishes a process for achieving environmental quality and can be applied to any size operation.
It does not establish performance standards that must be met.
There are no specifications for how an operation should satisfy requirements, and it does not specify levels to be achieved.
Figure 1 shows the major components of the basic model and the continual improvement cycle required for its adoption.
Phase I: Commitment and Initial Assessment
 Producer commitment is essential to implementing a successful AEMS.
The producer must clearly and enthusiastically communicate their commitment to the program and support the AEMS.
This commitment should include making available the needed resources and being accountable for the successful implementation of the program.
During this phase, Extension could assist the producer in establishing and communicating a vision and policy statement for the AEMS.
This vision is the future to which the operation aspires and is the long-term view that provides the platform upon which the operation is built.
The policy statement should be specific, but not detailed or overly long.
The statement will allow the operation to develop meaningful, activity specific operating policies for such as discharge response.
An initial assessment is part of the overall process and provides a benchmark for evaluating current efforts.
Ongoing assessment demonstrates the operator's commitment and provides for evaluating future progress made toward improvement.
It is critical that producers be actively engaged in operational assessment.
The assessment should consider items such as:
 The producer should perform the assessment and develop a report that thoroughly reviews all of the operation's management options.
The report could also identify specific requirements needed or areas for upgrade.
This assessment will be used to maximize resources and position the operation for success toward reducing any negative impacts to the environment.
Phase II entails process analysis, planning, and documentation.
This is essential for good planning and is an integral part of the continual improvement program.
Process analyses are those activities of the operation that will be broken down into discrete steps, each of which is examined to identify opportunities to eliminate or minimize environmental impacts.
A variety of production agriculture systems that could be included are:
 Most operators tend to think of each of these systems in terms of a task carried out in relative isolation from other work on the operation.
The first step in quality improvement is for operators to look at each of their systems in terms of being part of a continuous process.
A process is simply a sequence of tasks that together produce a product or service.
The best way to understand a process is to draw a flow chart showing all the steps.
When you do this it is possible to visualize work in terms of being a step in a process.
A whole set of new insights opens up.
Once the processes are charted, other components of the AEMS can be developed.
Planning specifications will require the operation to identify any activity, product, or service that can affect the environment ; evaluate these impacts; and use the information gathered to set objectives and targets.
There may be additional legal and regulatory requirements addressed during this phase and prior to implementation of the program.
Documentation is necessary to demonstrate adherence with the AEMS.
Charting the processes could reveal what documentation is needed by the operation.
Supportive documentation should be carefully planned so as not to overwhelm the AEMS process.
Although there are no specific documents required, there are some conventionally accepted methods of keeping records.
Record keeping could take the form of a policy manual that includes the AEMS policy, provides information about the operation, and shows how the operation adheres to the AEMS.
Additionally, procedures for carrying out the AEMS policy should be documented.
The procedures should identify the who, what, when, and where of operations.
These operating procedures are needed for equipment calibration, emergency response, maintenance, manure handling, and any other element of the operations processes that can affect the environment.
The final set of documents to be included should be work instructions.
These instructions should detail how individual tasks, such as box-spreader calibration, should be done.
Equipment manufacturers provide operation and maintenance manuals, and these can be easily included as part of the work instruction documents.
The third phase of the model is implementation of the AEMS.
This is actually an ongoing process that begins with the commitment to develop a system.
However, a fully implemented system is more than having written policies, procedures, and work instructions.
A fully implemented system is operating as documented and is doing what the producer says the system will do.
Good documentation is one way of demonstrating that the AEMS is implemented.
Records to be kept include incident reports, assessment results, and copies of regulations.
During the process analysis phase, record maintenance, by whom, and for how long will be determined.
The producer should develop records that are easy to use, easy to manage, and easily accessible to provide verification of the AEMS process.
This fourth phase entails measurement and evaluation of the AEMS, which will determine whether the operation actually does what the producer says it will do.
The producer should develop a formal review process.
This checking process should include audits to evaluate the AEMS on a periodic and ongoing basis.
Extension could perform unbiased and non-regulatory external audits for producers.
These external audits should be documented and included in the records of the operation.
The final phase is periodic review and revision of the AEMS.
Continual improvement means that the producer will review available data and determine whether the AEMS is meeting established objectives and targets, and, if not, make necessary changes.
The results of this management review should be a return to the continuous improvement cycle.
This should include re-commitment to the process, planning the next improvements, implementing those improvements, and then checking and reviewing the improvements.
Continuous effort with all aspects of the AEMS will be needed to achieve excellence.
It is important to recognize that operators who adopt the AEMS may not necessarily be sustainable, but they are moving in a direction that is believed to be essential to global sustainability.
To many, these steps may appear to be out of touch with the day-to-day pressure facing production agriculture.
Ritchie and Hayes  state that there has been a concerted international effort in the direction of sustainable and restorative commerce.
They continue by saying that one result of these efforts has been the development of the ISO 14000 series of environmental management standards.
Based upon the ISO 14000 series, an AEMS could serve as a method for producers to measure their operations potential impacts in terms of the ecology, economy, and social equity of existing products and services.
Extension can have a role in guiding production agriculture toward sustainable and restorative commerce through assisting producers in developing and implementing an AEMS.
Modern agriculture mechanics.
Danville, IL: Interstate Publishers, Inc.
Out of the crisis.
Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
The ecology of commerce.
New York, NY: Harper Business.
Technology change in agriculture.
Jobs, competitiveness, and environmental regulation: What are the real issues?
A guide to the implementation of the ISO 14000 Series on environmental management.
Upper Saddle River, NJ: Prentice Hall PTR, Prentice-Hall, Inc.
Environmental management systems: An implementation guide for small and medium-sized organizations.
Ann Arbor, Michigan: National Sanitation Foundation.
United States Department of Agriculture, Economic Research Service [USDA-ERS].
Nonfarm input prices, price margins, and consumer food prices.
United States Department of Agriculture, Natural Resource Conservation Service.
Agriculture waste management field handbook.
United States Environmental Protection Agency.
Unified national strategy for animal feeding operations.
World Commission on Environment and Development.
Our common future, 1,8.
Oxford, Great Britain: Oxford University Press.
December 2002 // Volume 40 // Number 6 // Research in Brief // 6RIB1
 All Research in Brief articles  published in JOE  were analyzed using content analysis techniques.
Results showed that not mentioning nonresponse error, not controlling nonresponse error, or not citing the literature were the norm and not the exception.
It is recommended that Extension researchers address nonresponse error when it is a threat to the external validity of their study.
Recommendations for additional study and adoption of methods for handling nonresponse are provided.
A single word that strikes fear or revere in the hearts of many agricultural and Extension professionals when communicating their research to peers and the public.
Social science professionals realize the very nature of reporting quality-laden research lies in the "equality" of said research when viewed by our colleagues in the hard sciences.
Social scientists must strive to assure our peers that research conducted within our discipline is characterized by similar methods and protocols as practiced in the hard sciences.
One important step in achieving this task is to confront the issue of nonresponse error in social science survey research.
In a study by Weiser, five forms of scholarship expanded upon the earlier work by Boyer.
Weiser included Boyer's original scholarship forms , changed the teaching form to learning and teaching, and added creative artistry as the fifth type of scholarship.
These forms of scholarship cannot adequately address what constitutes scholarship for Extension professionals; if they do, then most all faculty members' activities can be considered scholarly endeavors.
Unfortunately, what constitute scholarly works are the criteria, standards, and level of rigor  when reviewed and evaluated by peers in the hard sciences, especially when these scholarly works are being assessed for promotion and tenure decisions.
Social science researchers therefore, must reconsider addressing at least one aspect of their research methodology, the issue of handling nonresponse error in survey research.
Nearly 20 years ago, Miller and Smith  published the bellwether article regarding the treatment of nonresponse error in survey research.
The article, published in JOE, illustrated five generally accepted methods for handling nonresponse error that threaten the external validity of studies employing sampling techniques.
Such efforts to improve our research methods are necessary to ensure the objectivity and vigor of research.
Miller  noted that "numerous improvements can be made in our research"  and suggested that the profession continue to devote personal time to renewing, maintaining, and improving our ability to use appropriate research methods and techniques.
Improving research in agricultural and Extension education requires a periodic examination of research methods and techniques.
In taking a step forward with this critical review of handling nonresponse error, it behooves us to recall the scholarship questions posed by Miller and Sandman : "How do we assure scholarly standards?
" and "How can we assure that new entrants to the field are professionally socialized to contribute to scholarship?" (p.
As JOE board members rethink and reconsider the journal's criteria, standards, and level of rigor to redefine scholarship for Extension , a need exists to demonstrate research relevance to both higher education and the public.
The results of this study provide information that may be useful in this debate.
Specific objectives included describing:
 Data were analyzed using SPSS.
The instrument, developed by Lindner, Murphy, and Briers , used seven coding categories to gather data.
Article types were coded as sampling procedures , while response rate was coded as actual rate achieved.
Mentioning of nonresponse error as a possible threat to external validity was coded as mentioned nonresponse, did not mention nonresponse, and a 100% response rate achieved.
How nonresponse error was handled was coded into categories proposed by Miller and Smith.
Literature cited was coded by actual reference to the literature.
Efforts to control for nonresponse errors were coded as no differences found, differences found, or did not indicate results.
Sampling procedures used were coded in one of nine categories.
Each article was independently read and analyzed by two of the researchers.
Researcher analyses of the data were entered onto the data collection instrument.
To establish reliability of the instrument, results between researchers were compared to determine discrepancies between researchers.
Less than one discrepancy per issue existed.
When discrepancies existed, the two researchers, working together, reanalyzed the data and agreed on the correct code.
Eighty-two Research in Brief articles were published in JOE during 1995-1999.
Approximately 74%  of these articles used sampling procedures.
As revealed in Table 1, sampling procedures used most often were census , convenience , and purposive.
Sampling procedures used the least were cluster  and Delphi.
Three articles did not report their sampling procedures.
Table 2 shows response rates of studies whose results were published.
The average response rate was 71.5% , with a minimum response rate of 14% and a maximum of 100%.
Approximately 18% of the studies reported that 100% response rate was achieved, while about 15% of the studies reported response rates of less than 50%.
Almost 20% of the studies did not report a response rate.
Did not report response rate
 Table 3 shows that about 20% of JOE articles mentioned nonresponse error as a potential threat to external validity.
For almost 20% of these articles, nonresponse error was not a threat to external validity because of a 100% response rate.
About 60% of JOE articles did not mention nonresponse error as a potential threat to external validity.
Of the 50 articles, nonresponse was a threat to external validity in 82% of the studies.
No attempts were made to control for nonresponse error in 40 of the 50 articles.
In six of these articles, JOE authors handled nonresponse error by comparing early to late respondents.
In the remaining four articles, authors attempted to control for nonresponse error by following up with nonrespondents.
In the 10 articles where nonresponse was handled, no differences between respondents and nonrespondents or differences in early/late responses or respondents/nonrespondents were reported in any of the articles.
Less than 100% response rate achieved
 Did not mention nonresponse
 Nonresponse a threat to external validity
 100% response rate achieved
 Mention of nonresponse not necessary
 Nonresponse not a threat to external validity
 A reference citation for the appropriate handling of nonresponse error was not provided in 47 of the 50 articles where nonresponse error was a potential threat to external validity.
Three articles  cited Miller and Smith  as a source for handling nonresponse error.
Based on the results of this study, the following conclusions are drawn.
To ensure the external validity or generalizability of research findings to the target population, researchers must satisfactorily answer the question of whether the results of the survey would have been the same even if a 100% response rate had been achieved.
Nonresponse error can be a threat to the external validity of a study when any of these sampling procedures are used and less than 100% response rate is achieved.
A 100% response rate was achieved in 11 of the articles published in JOE.
Nonresponse, therefore, was a potential threat to external validity in 50 articles.
In approximately 60% of these 50 articles, nonresponse error, as a potential threat to external validity, was not mentioned.
In 80% of these 50 articles, no attempts to control for nonresponse were mentioned.
The external validity of those findings is, therefore, unknown.
Of the articles attempting to do so, nonresponse error was treated primarily by comparing early to late respondents or by comparing respondents with a sample of nonrespondents.
A total of three reference citations were provided in explaining how nonresponse error was handled.
During the 5 years of JOE Research in Brief articles addressed in this article, no differences were found to exist between early and late respondents or between respondents and nonrespondents.
Early respondents were similar to late respondent, and respondents were similar to nonrespondents.
As noted throughout this article, not mentioning nonresponse error as a threat to external validity of a study, not attempting to control for nonresponse error, or not providing a reference to the literature were unfortunately the norm and not the exception.
To ensure external validity of research findings, statistically sound and professionally acceptable procedures and protocols for handling nonresponse error are needed and should be reported.
Also recommended is a replication of this study for articles published in other scholarly publications and with other professions to describe the generalizability of these findings to other populations and the applicability of recommendations.
Future Research in Brief articles reported in JOE should, when applicable, include how nonresponse error was handled.
Based on the findings of this study and the review of literature, the authors conclude a need exists for Extension researchers to better address nonresponse error when it is a threat to the external validity of a study.
Three methods for handling nonresponse errors proposed by Lindner, Murphy, and Briers  are:
 Lindner, Murphy, and Briers suggested that procedures for handling nonresponse issues be implemented when less than an 85% response rate is achieved.
To further reduce the threat of nonresponse error, it is recommended that a minimum response rate of 50% be achieved (L.
Miller, personal communication, December 12, 2001; Fowler, 2001; Babbie, 1990).
Method 1--Comparison of Early to Late Respondents.
One technique to operationally define late respondents is based on responses generated by "successive waves of a questionnaire.
So, we recommend that late respondents should be defined operationally as those who respond in the last wave of respondents in successive follow-ups to a questionnaire.
If the last stimulus does not generate 30 or more responses, the researcher should "back up" and use responses to the last two stimuli as his or her late respondents.
Comparison, then, would be made between early and late respondents on primary variables of interest.
Only if no differences are found should results be generalized to the target population.
If respondents cannot be categorized by successive waves or if a wave of 30 respondents cannot be defined by successive stimuli, then we recommend that late respondents be defined operationally and arbitrarily as the later 50% of the respondents.
Method 2--Using "Days to Respond" as a Regression Variable.
."Days to respond" is coded as a continuous variable, and used as an independent variable in regression equations in which primary variables of interest are regressed on the variable "days to respond.
." If the regression model does not yield statistically significant results, it can be assumed that nonrespondents do not differ from respondents.
Method 3--Compare Respondents to Nonrespondents.
Comparisons between respondents and nonrespondents and differences found should be handled by sampling nonrespondents, working extra diligently to get their responses, and then comparing their responses to other previous respondents.
A minimum of 20 responses from a random sample of nonrespondents should be obtained.
If fewer than 20 nonrespondents are obtained, their responses could be combined with other respondents and used in conjunction with method 1 or 2.
Extension professionals who diligently adhere to one of the aforementioned methods for handling nonresponse error in their future social science surveys will contribute to improving the criteria, standards, and level of research rigor in our profession.
Eventually, our colleagues in the hard sciences will realize that our collective creative works are truly scholastic, contribute new knowledge, and provide valuable information to society.
Due diligence in addressing nonresponse error is a necessary component of reporting quality-laden research and is something all current and future social scientists in Extension must pay attention to if they want their efforts to be viewed as scholarly.
Survey research methods.
Scholarship reconsidered--Priorities of the professorate.
Princeton, NJ: The Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching.
Survey research methods.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
How to design and evaluate research in education.
Handling nonresponse in social science research.
Journal of Agricultural Education, 42, 43-53.
Journal of Agricultural Education, 39, 1-10.
A coming of age: Revisiting AIAEE scholarship.
Journal of International Agricultural and Extension Education, 7, 38-44.
Behavioral mechanisms of non-response in mailback travel surveys.
Paper presented at the 79th Annual Meeting of the Transportation Research Board, Washington, DC.
June 2017 // Volume 55 // Number 3 // Ideas at Work // v55-3iw3
 Regional approaches to conservation and natural resources management are becoming commonplace throughout the United States.
Strategies are being developed and implemented across large landscapes, requiring action from multiple stakeholder groups.
For example, widespread efforts are being made to increase prescribed fire use in the Southeast to support restoration and enhancement of fire-dependent ecosystems, reduce wildfire risk, and promote active land management.
In this article, we describe a framework for evaluating such large-scale strategies.
This framework was used to evaluate prescribed fire efforts across the Southeast in relation to the goals and priorities outlined in two strategic plans: the Southeast Cohesive Wildland Fire Management Strategy   and the Comprehensive Strategy for Prescribed Fire to Restore Longleaf Pine in the Southeast United States: A Vision for 2025 .
This approach is informing both policy and practice, ensuring that the goals and priorities of each strategy are achieved.
North Carolina State University  Extension Forestry developed and used the eight-step framework presented here for evaluating both aforementioned fire strategies.
The framework can be applied during any phase of regional strategy implementation and may be adapted as needed.
Select key stakeholders to participate on an advisory committee.
This committee's role is to regulate bias, assist with data collection efforts, and provide guidance based on expertise.
Include diverse interests and stakeholder groups to promote robust evaluation recommendations.
Also, develop a network of collaborators to provide support in reviewing data quality and ensuring that recommendations are substantiated.
Figure 1 lists the agencies and organizations included in the evaluation of the prescribed fire strategies.
Determining an evaluation frame is paramount when planning assessments of complex regional strategies.
In developing an evaluation frame, consider applicable components of the strategy for evaluation as well as complementary strategies that exhibit similar priorities and goals.
An evaluation worksheet helps individuals organize an evaluation and connect results to the implementation of recommendations.
The worksheet should be based on the function of the evaluation performed.
Figure 2 shows the structure of such an evaluation worksheet.
An environmental scan allows for the identification of current efforts across a region.
Data collection involves online research and input from the advisory committee and collaborative network to ensure increased data validity.
To organize data, use a spreadsheet that includes a description of the effort, classification of functionality, designation of a lead agency or organization, identification of collaborators, and relevant contact information.
Connect the data collected during the environmental scan to the associated strategy or strategies for evaluation by assigning each effort a code that identifies the corresponding strategy and action item.
This approach allows for quantitative analysis of the current state of efforts in relation to goals, priorities, and actions of the strategy of interest.
Figure 3 provides an example of a coded item from the environmental scan for the prescribed fire strategies evaluation.
Follow the environmental scan with key informant interviews to gain insight into on-the-ground experiences from stakeholders in the field.
Extension can leverage its connections and those of the advisory committee to create an initial sampling frame of informants working in priority areas.
To achieve a rich data set, use snowball sampling  for identifying additional informants and, thereby, gaining new insights and perspectives.
To analyze the collected key informant interview data, NCSU Extension Forestry used content analysis  identifying major themes from the data that were also triangulated with the results of the environmental scan.
Using this approach increases the credibility of assertions and recommendations coming from an evaluation.
Leverage the expertise of the advisory committee through facilitated discussion to develop consensus of the evaluation results.
This endeavor allows for multiple interpretations of the data and more robust recommendations based on the breadth of experience and expertise leveraged by the consensus-driven process.
One challenge to this approach is ensuring effective participation among advisory committee members.
This issue is common in collaborative program evaluation and requires effort in familiarizing the committee with the process.
Committee members have limited time to devote to complex evaluation efforts, so it is important to quickly develop the knowledge and skills necessary to facilitate effective involvement.
Focusing on their specific role may prevent advisory committee members from feeling overwhelmed by the extent of the process.
The ability to achieve large-landscape conservation guided by regional strategies is closely linked to the capability of those in charge of oversight to stay in tune with its implementation and overall impact.
For promoting a strategy that is in tune with the on-the-ground reality, it is important to develop a mechanism that allows for adaptive management.
Using a practical approach for evaluating complex strategies is critical in gaining a holistic view of a region's progress toward specific conservation goals.
Inclusive strategies involving multiple key stakeholders allow evaluations to result in robust recommendations that have the potential to create meaningful change.
NCSU Extension Forestry demonstrated this by developing a framework for promoting a collaborative approach by multiple entities in identifying programmatic and resource gaps across a region to inform the potential development of a collaborative prescribed fire initiative.
Others may be able to use the framework for similar endeavors.
Qualitative research methods.
Boston, MA: Pearson Education, Inc.
Large landscape conservation: A strategic framework for policy and action.
Cambridge, MA: Lincoln Institute of Land Policy.
A framework to evaluate ecological and social outcomes of collaborative management: Lessons from implementation with a northern Arizona collaborative group.
Environmental Management, 45, 132144.
Making collaboration work: Lessons from innovation in natural resource management.
Washington, DC: Island Press.
June 2013 // Volume 51 // Number 3 // Tools of the Trade // v51-3tt1
 The public value movement found throughout public administration has spread to Extension work in the last decade.
As a result, numerous presentations and workshops have been conducted to help Extension staff learn the differences between private and public value derived from programming and how to measure and articulate public value through the creation of impact statements and stories.
.
The focus on public value in Extension work appears to be externally fueled by accountability requirements rather than an internal norm to improve Extension programming.
Public value should be included in a variety of ways in the Extension programming cycle and related products to improve programming processes and results.
Figure 1 shows that Extension educators approach programming in a variety of ways.
This model focuses on "process" and "content" as the determinants of approaches to Extension work.
Process refers to the ways educational programs are delivered.
Content refers to the information shared to drive a learner's change in knowledge or behavior.
Combining these two determinants creates four domains describing approaches to Extension work.
Public value most often is realized through the transformative education approach to Extension work.
Social, economic, and environmental condition changes desired for public value require transformative education practices, including critical events and critical reflection.
However, Extension workers sometimes fail to use transformative approaches to realize public value.
They also fail to measure and articulate program value in spite of a variety of potential uses of public value statements and stories to improve programming and gain recognition for their good work.
Most Extension systems have been creating public value statements and stories for reporting program impact to stakeholders.
The development of these stories requires strong and persistent leadership to help staff and faculty change because measuring and articulating public value requires an intentional process and behavior changes that can take time.
Public value stories and statements can be used in many important ways to improve programming by:
 Specific daily uses of public value statements and stories include:
 Public value statements and stories have three important elements: 1) the relevance or issue being addressed, 2) the response by Extension to the issue, and the 3) results of the program including the public value.
Templates are often created for statewide consistency in data aggregation and reporting.
Statements tend to be a few sentences long, while stories are about a page in length and contain more details for each section.
Best practices and lessons learned about creating and using public value statements and success stories have some parallels with those discovered through efforts to improve impact reporting.
These lessons include hiring staff or faculty specifically to measure and articulate public value; training administrators, faculty, and staff; providing individual and small group technical assistance; developing reporting tools; and tying public value reporting to performance and recognition.
Specific best practices have been documented related to public value articulation.
These include creating clear examples of the differences between public and private value derived from Extension programs, creating the case for and urgency of focusing on public value, listing and prioritizing the unit's public values, and using both public value statements and stories depending on the audience and venue.
Kalambokidis  also found the importance of working with Extension program teams to develop public value statements and the benefit of developing multiple drafts of public value statements in workshops, having those statements reviewed by applied economists, and working with program teams to revise their public value statements based on feedback and preparing to present their statements to peers.
All Extension units and employees develops their own best practices regarding the development and use of public value statements and stories over time to fit their context.
It is critical that not every program or educational activity becomes subject to a public value lens.
Some efforts are best described as service or tradition that is compelling to continue for other types of impact.
Private value derived from programming may be appropriate for clients who can afford to pay all costs related to the program.
Some Extension workers have found they enjoy working with others on public value when it is not their personal strength.
Extension has begun to embrace the public value movement that originated in public administration circles.
The motivation behind participation in this movement appears to be driven by external accountability rather than internal interest in improving programming and results.
The development of public value statements and stories can be used throughout the program cycle and for other program and professional tasks to help address internal and external cries for the articulation of public value.
Extension workers should use public value statements and stories in their work on a daily basis in a variety of ways to enhance their effectiveness and the transformative impact of their programs.
The nature of complex organizations: The case of Cooperative Extension.
Rennekamp.Program evaluation in a complex organizational system: Lessons from Cooperative Extension.
New Directions for Evaluation, 120, 5-14.
April 2011 // Volume 49 // Number 2 // Feature // v49-2a8
 Education has long been suggested as a means to foster adoption of techniques to reduce nonpoint source pollution.
To meet the requirements of the Phase II Municipal Separate Storm Sewer System  permit, many smaller municipalities are now required to provide community education about stormwater issues.
Municipalities often do not have experience providing outreach, and are not equipped to deal with this extra responsibility.
Watershed-based educational efforts have been described.
Best Management Practices  are often the focus of the educational campaigns geared towards citizens.
Recommendations for residential homes often center around 1) reducing bacterial contamination by picking up pet waste, 2) reducing nutrient loading  by not washing cars on impervious surfaces, and 3) taking soil tests to determine how much lawn fertilizer is needed, and applying fertilizer properly so it doesn't spread on impervious surfaces.
Some educational campaigns also provide information on how to reduce the effective impervious area of a site , or the area directly connected to the stormwater system, by directing gutter downspouts to lawn, rain garden areas, rain barrels, or cisterns.
Rainwater harvesting is being recommended in the arid and semi-arid west to reduce stormwater pollution.
If performed on a large scale this can be an effective tool to reduce stormwater impacts.
However, other approaches are needed to reduce the large stormwater contributions from the roads, parking lots and driveways that comprise a large percentage of impervious surface in a watershed.
In addition, western water law has made it illegal for individuals to harvest water from their own roof; fortunately this is changing in many states, and in Utah a homeowner can now legally harvest up to 2,500 gallons of water from their own roof.
Intensive training sessions  and media campaigns  have generally been found to be the most effective methods for instigating behavior change.
Other commonly used techniques, such as newsletters, demonstration projects, and use of the Internet, have not been as effective in bringing about behavior change.
Despite the findings reported by Swann , other research has shown that even intensive education efforts may not bring about the desired behavior changes.
For example, in Australia, intensive training sessions resulted in no significant changes in the knowledge or attitudes of the public, and only modest reductions in litter loads.
Similar results were found in Connecticut, where modest behavior changes and only slight improvements in water quality were reported.
Kaysville, Utah is a small municipality with approximately 20,000 residents, in a semi-arid region in northern Utah.
The watershed is mostly developed  and is served by sanitary sewers and a separate stormwater system.
The impervious cover of the watershed was estimated to be 38.2%.
Land Cover Classifications and Percentages in Study Watershed, Kaysville, Utah
 The objectives of the research project reported here were the following:
 Initially, the intent was to use the results from objectives 1 and 2 as background data for objective 3.
Monitoring would have continued after the education effort to determine what changes occurred as a result of the effort.
However, additional funding for this second phase of the project was not obtained; therefore, the findings from objectives 1 and 2 are presented in this article.
Watershed of Ponds  at Utah Botanical Center, Kaysville, Utah.
Star Indicates Location of Monitoring Site, Triangle Represents Location of Rain Gauge
 An existing stormwater outfall at the pond entrance had a concrete sediment/trash trap and a 90o V-notch weir.
Stormwater quantity was measured using a pressure transducer  connected to a Campbell Scientific CR850 datalogger.
Flow was calculated by the datalogger using a standard formula for the weir, and accumulated flow was recorded every 10 minutes.
Water sampling was initiated after a fixed volume of flow had passed the weir, via an ISCO GLS compact sampler.
Ice packs were installed in the sampler to keep samples cool.
Samples were then transported in a cooler approximately 1 hour, frozen, and shipped with ice packs to a laboratory for total phosphorus  analysis.
Flow measurements and grab sampling were also performed at the pond outlet, but these data are not presented in this paper.
Precipitation was measured 0.75 km from the monitoring site using an unheated tipping bucket rain gauge.
Precipitation totals were recorded for 30-minute intervals using a Campbell Scientific CR-10 datalogger.
A survey was mailed to every residence in the watershed in Kaysville.
Addresses for all homes in the watershed were obtained from the city of Kaysville.
The mailing contained a cover letter explaining the project, a survey, and a postage-paid return envelope.
With the hope of increasing the response rate, an incentive was offered to those who completed the survey; they would be entered into a drawing for one of three $100 gift certificates to a local business of their choice.
Survey questions focused mainly on outdoor household management practices.
Specific questions concerning pet waste and oil disposal, fertilization applications, and car washing practices were included in the survey to get an idea of the types of pollutants that may potentially be released into the stormwater system.
Questions were also included to address the respondents' perception of existing water quality in their surrounding area, the value they place on the water resources in their area, whether or not they believe that their actions affect the water quality in the area, and whether they recall receiving educational materials about stormwater.
Water quantity monitoring began on June 20, 2008 at the pond inlet.
High flow rates were observed during storm events, the largest of which was 22.4 mm of rainfall in a 24-hour period.
It should be noted that during extremely heavy flow such as that which occurred during the 22.4 mm storm, some flow may have bypassed the monitoring station just upstream due to water backing up in the sediment trap.
There was only evidence of this occurring one time during the period of study , and the contribution to the long-term flow calculations is likely very small.
Some interesting trends in water quantity can be seen.
Non-storm flow was found to increase throughout the summer months, peaking in September, with a decline noted through the fall and into winter.
It is likely that residential and/or commercial irrigation was overflowing into the stormwater system and causing this flow.
The engineer from Kaysville  also noted that there are substantial tile drains beneath some of the large fields at the schools in the watershed.
These drains are tied in to the stormwater system and were installed to drain shallow groundwater away from the fields.
Inlet Flow and Precipitation for Utah Botanical Center Research Site
 They would also likely channel excess irrigation flows to the system.
The fluctuations noted at the pond inlet seem to indicate that a daily irrigation schedule may be contributing substantial volumes to the pond.
This diurnal pattern was noted from June through September and ceased in early October.
Interestingly, water temperature at the inlet mirrored the diurnal pattern, with slightly higher temperatures  associated with higher flow rates.
This relationship indicates likely surface water/irrigation influence, as groundwater flows would likely have a more stable temperature.
The time of peak flow was always between 2:00 a.m.
and 4:00 a.m., and time of lowest flow was consistently in the afternoon, between 1:00 p.m.
The variation was substantial; low flows in July were around 7.3 L/s, whereas high flows were around 16.7 L/s.
Flow and Water Temperature at Pond Inlet, 7/18/08-7/20/08, Utah Botanical Center
 Numerous precipitation events were noted from September 2008 through June 2009, ranging from 3.3 mm to 22.4 mm.
The flow due to these storms was estimated through graphical base flow separation.
In several instances, precipitation amounts were pooled, as separating stormflow values for each would not be possible due to the short duration of time between measurable precipitation events.
The associated flow values were also pooled.
It also should be noted that snowfall and snowmelt complicate the precipitation/runoff relationship.
The rain gauge used at the site is not a heated gauge, so there may be some error in measurement, or at least a delay in the time of measurement.
Also, snowmelt takes place over several days.
Despite the significant increases in stormflow associated with precipitation events, non-storm flow was found to be 53.7% of the total volume measured at the pond inlet, and flow due to precipitation events was 46.3% of the total.
This finding has significant implications for the possible effectiveness of education and structural changes designed to reduce stormwater volumes entering the ponds, and will be discussed further.
TP concentrations varied somewhat through the year, but no seasonal pattern was noted.
The mean TP concentration of 0.092  0.049 mg L-1 found at the pond inlet  was lower than the median concentration of 0.259 mg L-1 reported for urban areas across the United States , although it is still high enough to cause excessive algal growth in the ponds.
TP export from the watershed was 0.30 kg ha-1 yr-1.
This is less than TP export of 1.48 kg ha-1 yr-1 noted from medium density urban areas around the United States.
TP Concentrations at Pond Inlet, Utah Botanical Center
 When asked about their opinion on the quality of streams, rivers and lakes in their area, respondents felt that they were generally of good quality.
However, the majority  reported that they did not use the water resources within 10 minutes of their home for recreation.
Selected Survey Questions and Responses
 The majority of residents also reported that they had not received any educational materials about stormwater in their city, despite the fact that Kaysville falls under EPA Phase II stormwater regulations and is required to provide some public education.
Chi-square analysis was performed for all surveyed behaviors that would have an impact on stormwater , according to whether the person reported receiving educational materials.
No significant differences were found for any of the surveyed behaviors, demonstrating that people who received information were not acting any differently than those who did not.
This finding is consistent with behavioral research, where the correlation between knowledge of an environmental topic and an associated behavior is weak at best.
It is a common educational practice to provide information to someone and assume that they will change their behavior after learning about the topic.
In Connecticut, even high-intensity educational efforts resulted in fairly low levels of engagement in pro-environmental behaviors.
Engagement in these types of pro-environmental behaviors is increasingly seen to be a result of complex interactions between internal factors such as knowledge, desire to act, emotional responses, and external factors such as economic constraints, convenience of the activity, and social pressures.
When asked to identify which items are sources of water pollution, respondents agreed that their yards were sources of pollution, yet these sources were rated lower than others such as farm field runoff and construction site runoff.
Trash from people and manufacturing plants were reported as the largest sources of water pollution , despite the fact that in reality these sources contribute very little to local water quality problems.
This response is likely due to the visibility of trash in the landscape; people assume that trash causes poor water quality.
This response is consistent with that of the overall population who believe certain environmental myths to be fact.
Mean Responses Identifying Sources of Water Pollution.
Scale is 1  to 5 
 The vast majority of residents reported having a lawn that they mow  and fertilize , although a lower percentage reported using pesticides on their lawn.
Most residents take care of their own yard , although 34.9% reported using a professional service for fertilization.
Very few  residents reported using a soil test to determine if fertilization was necessary.
Fertilization was reported in all seasons of the year, although spring, summer, and fall applications were the most frequent.
Lawn fertilization is another potential source of phosphorus loading to the stormwater system.
Most residents are fertilizing, and only a tiny fraction of residents actually use a soil test to see if fertilization is needed.
Typical application methods result in excess fertilizer being spread on impervious surfaces adjacent to lawn areas.
Rainfall would likely wash accumulated fertilizer into the stormwater system.
Fertilizer would also be washed off impervious surfaces with the excess irrigation that was suspected to be entering the stormwater system during the summer months.
Frequency of Fertilization Applications by Season
 Most residents wash their car infrequently, if at all, at their home.
Of those who do, the majority  reported washing their car in their driveway, and a smaller percentage  washed the car on their lawn.
The impact of car washing in the watershed on water quality is unknown.
However, given the fact that most soaps are phosphate free, it is not likely that car washing would be a large contribution of phosphorus to the stormwater system.
Some respondents  indicated that they changed their own oil in their vehicle, and of those who did, 95.5% reported recycling that oil at a designated facility.
Frequency of Home Car Washes
 Most residents  reported having gutters with downspouts, and the majority of those with gutters  reported that they drain to lawn or garden areas, although 18.5% and 14.1% of residents reported that at least one gutter drained to a sidewalk/driveway, or a pipe in the ground, respectively.
The contribution of roof runoff from houses is expected to be low, considering that the majority of respondents indicated that their downspouts drain to lawn or garden areas; however, disconnecting those downspouts directly connected to the stormwater system would provide some reduction in the stormwater load.
Roof runoff could be directed to rain barrels, to existing lawn/garden areas, or to rain gardens, where appropriate.
Kaysville has not executed an independent stormwater education effort to comply with their MS4 requirements, but they may have contacted the Salt Lake County Stormwater Coalition to assist in this effort.
It is not clear what type of educational materials have been distributed to residents of the city; however, it is clear that the residents do not have much recall of what was actually done.
The survey reported here is the first of its kind to be administered in the city to assess behaviors related to stormwater, and the results highlight the need for further educational efforts in regards to the relationship between homeowner actions and stormwater quality.
A substantial portion  of the inflow to the ponds at the UBC in Kaysville, Utah was non-storm related.
The watershed contains several large athletic fields that had tile drains installed to drain shallow groundwater.
These areas, along with shallow groundwater intrusion into the stormwater system, provide baseflow at the stormwater outfall to the ponds on the UBC property.
This baseflow was highest during the summer months, suggesting that irrigation was contributing to baseflow during this time.
The remaining 46.3% of pond inflow that was storm related was mostly due to the large areas of impervious surfaces present in the watershed.
The areas with the largest amount of paved surfaces in the watershed were at schools and churches.
An evaluation of potential retrofit sites to install bioretention at these locations has been submitted to Kaysville, although the potential reductions in flow from these structural changes would only be about 6% of the annual flow entering the ponds.
The mean concentration of TP entering the ponds was 0.092 mg L-1.
Although this was lower than national means for developed areas, it is still high enough to lead to excess algal growth in the ponds.
Survey results indicated that only 14% of residents acknowledged receiving any educational materials about stormwater, and those who had did not manage their landscape or impervious surfaces any differently than those who had not.
The city of Kaysville does not currently have an independent stormwater educational campaign, and information could not be obtained on what the previous educational effort from the Salt Lake Stormwater Coalition involved.
This lack of knowledge as to what has been done in the city is indicative of the level of effort that has been put into a stormwater education program.
Behavioral changes to reduce flow volumes and TP concentrations such as fertilizing based on a soil test and proper fertilization techniques may result in improved water quality at the UBC ponds.
However, TP concentrations in dry weather flow were also high.
It is possible that misapplication of fertilizer combined with overspray of irrigation water on impervious surfaces was the source of TP in dry weather flow.
Gutter downspout disconnections may have some benefit and should not be discouraged, but in this particular watershed, the impact of disconnecting a small number of downspouts would be minimal.
These findings indicate that.
although broad information about water, watersheds, and stormwater is useful, it is perhaps better to target a small number of target behaviors that will likely result in the largest changes in the stormwater quantity and quality.
For the study reported here, the target behaviors would be proper fertilization techniques  and proper irrigation techniques.
One such effort targeted only the timing of fertilizer application in the Chesapeake Bay watershed, and changes in behavior were reported.
For other watersheds, the targeted behaviors might be slightly different.
For example, an urban watershed with mainly wet weather flows and a high number of directly connected roofs would want to target downspout disconnections to have the greatest impact.
The implication for Extension here is the importance of understanding the watershed and the actions of its residents before initiating an educational effort.
To determine the target behaviors for a particular watershed, the water quantity/quality regime and the behavior of residents should be investigated.
Although there is a cost involved, monitoring over the course of four seasons will provide valuable data to help target educational efforts to behaviors or structural changes that will have the most potential for actual water quality improvements.
This is not to say that information has no value for a community; the authors feel that knowledge of environmental topics should increase across the population.
However, when a fixed amount of funding is available, it would be more efficient to use funds for efforts that will likely lead to a change, rather than supporting efforts that will have questionable impact.
These findings also underscore the importance of planning for new developments; education efforts such as the NEMO program that are targeted at the municipal officials and board members that make land-use decisions can help to avoid some of the problems associated with excessive impervious coverage before developments are even installed.
The NEMO program advocates planning using Low Impact Development  techniques.
This approach, which started in Maryland in the 1990s, highlights the maintenance of pre-development hydrology of a site as part of the design process for new developments.
The LID approach has been demonstrated to achieve this goal , even when residents of the development do not engage in behaviors that are different from residents of other traditional developments.
Although developed in the Maryland, the LID approach has been successfully used in numerous locations around the country, including the arid and semi-arid West.
Extension has a critical role to play in aiding municipalities in meeting their MS4 permit requirements.
There is a large potential for collaboration between local watershed organizations, municipalities, researchers, private citizens, and Extension educators.
Findings from the study reported here highlight the need for careful planning and monitoring in the early stages of educational efforts to maximize actual water quality improvements.
Factors influencing environmental attitudes and behaviors: A U.K.
case study of household waste management.
Environment and Behavior, 39, 435-473.
Urbanization of aquatic systems: degradation thresholds, stormwater detection and the limits of mitigation.
Journal of the American Water Resources Association, 33, 1077-1089.
The Huron River Watershed Council: Grassroots organization for holistic watershed management.
Diffuse Pollution, Water Science and Technology, 39, 331-337.
Environmental literacy in America.
Stormwater runoff and export changes with development in a traditional and low impact subdivision.
Journal of Environmental Management, 87, 560-566.
Education and changes in residential nonpoint pollution.
Environmental Management, 34, 684-690.
New Jersey: Prentice Hall, Inc.
Behavioral determinants of household participation in a home composting scheme.
Analysis and Synthesis of Research on Responsible Environmental Behavior: a meta-analysis.
The Journal of Environmental Education, 18, 1-8.
Effectiveness of integrated stormwater management in a Portland, Oregon watershed.
Journal of the American Water Resources Association, 35, 633-642.
Changing learner behavior through environmental education.
The Journal of Environmental Education, 21, 8-21.
Mind the gap: Why do people act environmentally and what are the barriers to pro-environmental behavior?
Environmental Education Research, 8, 239-260.
Low-impact development design strategies: an integrated design approach: Prince George's County, MD Department of Environmental Resourceso.
Environmental knowledge and attitudes.
Journal of Environmental Education, 8, 10-18.
Nutrient contribution of nonpoint source runoff in the Las Vegas Valley.
Journal of the American Water Resources Association, 40, 1537-1551.
Household Willingness to Recycle Electronic Waste: An Application to California.
Environment and Behavior, 38, 183-208.
Nationwide Urban Runoff Quality data base.
Water Science and Technology, 39, 9-16.
A survey of nutrient behavior among residents in the Chesapeake Bay Watershed.
Paper presented at the National Conference on Tools for Urban Water Resource Management & Protection, Chicago, IL.
Education campaigns to reduce stormwater pollution in commercial areas.
Journal of Environmental Management, 84, 323-335.
Results of the nationwide urban runoff program: United States Environmental Protection Agency.
Document Number NTIS PB84-185552.
Summary of implementation and demonstration projects in bays and estuaries.
United States Environmental Protection Agency.
Document Number EPA 842/B-92/009.
Guidance specifying management measures for sources of nonpoint pollution in coastal waters.
United States Environmental Protection Agency.
Document Number EPA 840-B-92-002.
National water quality inventory, 2000 Report.
United States Environmental Protection Agency.
Stormwater Phase II Final Rule.
Public Education and Outreach Minimum Control Measure.
June 2013 // Volume 51 // Number 3 // Feature // v51-3a4
 Farmers and ranchers are an important target audience in Extension; however, when communicating with this audience on conservation issues, many communication barriers can arise.
The communication gap between those researching environmental behaviors or administering environmental programs and farmer/rancher audiences in Extension programming is well documented.
Breetz, Fisher-Vanden, Jacobs, and Schary  found the key factors contributing to slow adoption of water conservation programs delivered through Extension were trust and communication barriers between farmers and program administrators.
These barriers significantly reduced involvement in such programs despite direct financial incentives available.
In the research arena, similar communication barriers between researchers and farm/ranch participants can result in measurement error and biased research.
This article explores the applicability and power of environmental identity  scales to predict farmer/rancher engagement in conservation easement  agreements.
To predict engagement in a CE agreement , EID was tested as an antecedent independent variable to the variables within the theory of planned behavior.
According to Clayton and Opotow , environmental scholarship has not given enough consideration to the relationship between identity and a connection to the natural environment.
As a result, they developed a 24-item EID scale to detect whether individual differences in EID can predict behavior.
When tested among 73 students to predict behavior, Clayton and Opotow's  EID scale was highly correlated with environmental behaviors.
This analysis controlled for other variables in the model, including environmental attitudes , universal human values , and individualism and collectivism variables.
Clayton and Opotow  define EID as a way in which individuals form their self-concept:
 Thus, they perceive EID as the way in which individuals orient themselves to the natural world.
In an earlier work, Weigert  defined EID as the "experienced social understandings of who we are in relation to, and how we interact with, the natural environment" (p.
Stets and Biga  define EID as "the meanings that one attributes to the self as they relate to the environment" (p.
They measure EID using 11 bipolar statements, where respondents consider how they view themselves in relationship to the environment.
Both Stets and Biga's  and Clayton and Opotow's  EID scales were reviewed by a sample of Florida cattle ranchers to determine their applicability with this target audience.
Following analysis of both scales, a final, altered EID scale was created by the authors to predict cattle rancher engagement in a CE agreement.
The research target audience was Florida cattle ranchers.
Ranches consist of over half  the total farmland in Florida  and are the top target for CE programs delivered throughout the state.
The sample was drawn from cattle ranch members of the Florida Farm Bureau , whose list  separated cattle ranchers from the broader category of "livestock," which included smaller farms not suited for CE agreements, and  was recently updated.
Ranchers were defined as individuals who raise and sell cattle for consumption.
Prior to developing the survey, six in-depth interviews were conducted with ranchers: two who had entered into a CE agreement, two who were in the process of doing so, and two who were approached but not interested.
The Florida Farm Bureau, the Conservation Trust for Florida, and the Florida Chapter of the Nature Conservancy recommended the ranchers as a panel of experts.
The interviews helped determine appropriate survey question wording and EID scale use.
A constructivist theoretical perspective was followed with a semi-structured interview approach.
Each interview lasted between 30 and 90 minutes and was conducted on the participant's property.
Qualitative responses to the interview questions were transcribed verbatim, and themes were extracted from the data using inductive analysis.
Following the in-depth interviews, the survey instrument was developed and peer-reviewed by a panel of 12 experts for face and content validity.
Thereafter, a two-phase pilot test was conducted.
In phase one, three ranchers re-reviewed the instrument for face and content validity.
In phase two, 17 randomly selected ranchers completed the instrument to check for content validity, reliability, and sensitivity.
Construct validity and internal consistency were measured using principal components factor analysis.
Promax oblique rotation was used to aid in data interpretation when necessary.
Internal consistency was checked for each variable using Chronbach's alpha, and factor analysis was used to check for unidimensionality.
Item discrimination procedures were used to measure sensitivity of the items.
Items with a corrected item-total correlation of less than 0.20 were either revised or deleted depending on whether  Chronbach's alpha would increase and  the item was dependent on another within Ajzen's  theory of planned behavior.
Following the pilot test, equal sized stratified random sampling was used to select 1,000 participants based on projected county population growth.
To reduce the potential for measurement error, methods for mail questionnaires outlined by Dillman  were followed.
This included  a personalized prenotice letter;  a personalized cover letter, finalized survey instrument booklet, incentive , and a postage-paid business reply envelope;  a thank you/reminder post card; and  a letter to nonrespondents and replacement survey.
The rancher interviews provided insight into perceptions regarding EID scales.
Following a discussion about CEs and other variables used, respondents were asked to "think out loud" as they read two EID scales.
Stets and Biga's  11-item bipolar EID scale was the first presented.
This scale asks participants to rate how they view themselves in relationship to the natural environment.
Response options range from one  to five.
This scale appears as follows.
One major point of confusion raised by all six participants concerned the definition of "natural environment." Ranchers were confused about whether the natural environment referred to areas on their ranch that were not used at all for production agriculture, or if this meant all land that was unpaved or not built upon.
Ranchers stated that they would answer quite differently depending on the definition of "natural environment."
 All voiced potential issues with items 2 and 3.
Their means of making a living is via a connectedness to the natural environment.
They are then in effect concerned about the natural environment given that bad growing seasons and other pressures would jeopardize their profit.
Thus, their primary connection and concern is due to the fact that this natural environment is their source of income, which they felt was not what the scale was attempting to measure.
The last major point of concern was item 10.
One rancher indicated, "we all want to preserve our land and way of life, but we need to use the environment to survivethis doesn't make sense to me." The interviews demonstrated the great potential for measurement error in using this scale with ranchers.
Following Stets and Biga's  scale, ranchers were asked to read Clayton and Opotow's  24-item EID scale, where respondents strongly disagree  to strongly agree  to a set of statements.
The scale appears as follows.
Between the two scales, Clayton and Opotow's  EID scale produced the least amount of confusion, albeit several changes were suggested.
First, none of the ranchers interviewed liked the term "environmentalist," and it was suggested that this word be changed to "conservationist." All participants interpreted "environmentalist" to mean a disconnected extremist lacking any agricultural experience, yet who imposed regulations on ranchers without understanding their lifestyle.
Five mentioned that if the term environmentalist was used throughout the survey, they would not respond.
"Conservationist" on the other hand, was interpreted as someone who wanted to preserve and protect the land for future generations.
Several items were removed from Clayton and Opotow's  scale as ranchers felt  the items did not make sense given their lifestyle , and  some items sounded too "left wing." Following the critique and revision of this scale, the ranchers later re-reviewed the revised scale for issues, and minor final changes were made.
The finalized scale appeared as follows.
Of the 1,000 participants sampled, a 60.2% response rate was received, with 517 usable surveys.
Item nonresponse was handled prior to data analysis via multiple imputation.
Once missing data was accounted for, nonresponse error was addressed by comparing early and late respondents using selected demographic information and responses to the dependent variable.
Respondents were categorized into three successive questionnaire waves:  following the original questionnaire distribution ,  following the reminder/thank you postcard delivery , and  following the letter to nonrespondents and replacement questionnaire.
Of the 262 early and late respondents, no significant difference existed on their responses to the dependent variable.
Also, there was no significant difference between demographics of early and late respondents and responses to the dependent variable.
The majority of respondents were male , and the average age was 61 years.
Participants had an average number of two  children, and almost all had at least a high school degree.
The average ranch size was between 100 and 299 acres, and years of family ownership ranged from two to 178.
Reliability of the 12 EID items was 0.879.
Corrected item-total correlations ranged from 0.424 to 0.701, indicating satisfactory discrimination.
Principle component factor analysis was applied to recheck the reliability of each construct and ensure validity of the constructs measured.
Two factors were extracted from the EID scale, so Promax rotation was used to aid in interpretation.
Factor 1 consisted of eight items and accounted for 46% of the variance in EID.
Each of these items concerned connection to nature.
Therefore, this factor was termed "nature identity." Factor 2 consisted of four items that accounted for 11.98% of the remaining variability in EID.
Each of these items concerned conservation and sustainability, so this factor was termed "conservation identity." Results of the factor analysis are displayed in Table 1.
Prior to building a regression model to predict engagement in a CE agreement, a correlation matrix was created to examine the relationship between all variables and the dependent variable.
Factor scores were used for all constructs in the correlation matrix.
Given the large sample size in this analysis, almost all variables were listed as "statistically significant".
Therefore, r2 values were tabulated for all variables in the matrix.
Any variable that explained less than 10% of the variance in the dependent variable was removed.
Also, the largest contribution was less than one percent given other variables in the final model.
The remaining variables included:  trust , conservation identity , attitudes , subjective norms , perceived land conservation value , receiving a payment for the CE , estate tax deductions , property tax deductions , ability to keep land in its current use , perpetual  nature of CEs , providing a sanctuary for wildlife , protection from future development , and sale/donation of certain property rights.
Stepwise, forward and backward regression analyses were then conducted to select the best fit.
All three techniques yielded six final independent variables.
These included attitude, subjective norms, trust, estate tax deductions, sale or donation of certain property rights, and perceived land conservation value.
The six variables collectively explained 52.9% of the variance in likelihood of engaging in a CE agreement.
Using the standardized beta coefficients, Figure 1 displays a regression model illustrating the explanatory power of each variable on the dependent variable.
As can be seen, neither conservation identity nor nature identity were significant predictors of rancher behavioral intent to enter into a CE agreement.
Regression Model Illustrating Direct Effects of Significant Variables on Behavioral Intent
 Factor analysis extracted nature identity and conservation identity from the EID scale used.
Although both nature identity  and conservation identity  were moderately correlated with intention to engage in a CE agreement , neither was a significant predictor of conservation behavior among ranchers given the other variables in the model.
This finding is inconsistent with Clayton and Opotow's  research, where EID was highly correlated with environmental behaviors.
The lack of an increase in r2 indicates that nature identity and conservation identity overlapped with the predictors that were already in the model, therefore not explaining any additional variance.
Given this finding, more research is needed on the development of EID scales as significant independent predictors of farm/ranch conservation behavior.
Because two factors were extracted from the 12-item EID scale, research also is needed to develop a comprehensive and single factor EID scale to use among farmers/ranchers.
Furthermore, given that conservation identity  was more strongly correlated with behavioral intent than nature identity , use of an abbreviated conservation identity scale may be more applicable to farm/ranch audiences when predicting conservation behavior.
Research is still needed on the development of an EID or conservation identity scale that is consistently a strong predictor of conservation behavior among farmers/ranchers.
Also, given that 1.
Sustainability is becoming a top programmatic focus for many educators, and 2.
There are strong emotions connected with various sustainability-related terms such as "environmentalist," "steward," and "conservationist," there is a need for further research testing terminology interpretation and preference among various key Extension audiences.
Interview results demonstrated the importance of pilot testing any EID scale or environmental research to predict conservation behavior among farmers/ranchers.
Any misinterpreted wording can result in disgruntled respondents unwilling to reply.
Especially with an agricultural audience, words too strongly associated with environmentalists can create a complete communicate block.
This disconnect helps explain why trust ended up as one of the major predictive variables of intent to engage in a CE agreement.
Extension professionals delivering sustainability or conservation-related workshops to farmers and ranchers would benefit greatly if care were given to establish a sense of trust with this audience, and a great way to do so is to use accepted terminology, such as the term "conservationist" as opposed to "environmentalist."
 The importance in pilot testing EID scales and environmental terminology in general among farmers and ranchers can be summarized via the many written survey comments by this audience, a sample of which is provided below.
, Introduction to research in education, 7th ed.
Belmont, CA: Thomas Wadsworth.
, Trust and communication: Mechanisms for increasing farmers' participation in water quality training.
Land Economics 81: 170-190.
, Identity and the natural environment: The psychological significance of nature.
Cambridge, MA: Massachusetts Institute of Technology.
, Making sense of qualitative data: Complementary research strategies.
Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage.
Conservation Trust for Florida.
, Florida Land Trusts and Florida land conservation organizations and agencies.
Micanopy, FL: Conservation Trust for Florida.
, Introduction to classical and modern test theory.
Belmont, CA: Wadsworth Group/Thomson Learning.
, Mail and Internet surveys: The tailored design method.
Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons Inc.
Doing qualitative research in education settings.
Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
, The moving edge: Perspectives on the Southern wildland-urban interface.
Forest Service: Southern Research Station.
.
Natural Resources Conservation Service.
, Barriers and strategies influencing the adoption of nutrient management practices.
Washington, DC: USDA Social Sciences Institute.
, California farmers and conservation easements: Motivations, experiences, and perceptions in three counties (Research Paper No.
Davis, CA: University of California, Agricultural Issues Center.
, Missing data: Our view of the state of the art.
Psychological Methods 7: 147-177.
Universals in the content and structure of values: Theoretical advances and empirical tests in 20 countries.
In Advances in experimental social psychology, 25, ed.
New York, NY: Academic Press.
, Bringing identity theory into environmental sociology.
Sociological Theory 21: 398-423.
Ecocentric and anthropocentric attitudes toward the environment.
Journal of Environmental Psychology 14: 149-157.
Boulder, CO: Westview Press.
Florida state and county data: 2002 census of agriculture (NASS Publication No.
, Self, interaction, and natural environment.
Albany, NY: State University of New York Press.
August 2013 // Volume 51 // Number 4 // Tools of the Trade // v51-4tt4
 Email is a foundational technology of today's information world.
Although not acclaimed like the more recent social networking, it is the most basic electronic connection to most peopleeven Facebook requires an email.
Extension uses this tool widely, mainly for contacting individuals or groups through email lists.
With automated mailing list management , the use of these lists allows us to contact many individuals quickly and cheaply.
However, there are new ways to improve this tool.
Using a commercial email service, our multi-disciplinary team of Extension specialists built an email system that allows subscribers to receive only the information that they want.
This is done by enabling clientele to choose from 42 interest segments  while subscribing.
They also give information on their occupation and geographic location.
With this information, our team can send out information based on these segments.
We can send one email to multiple segments, for instance apple production and cherry production, but a client signed up for both of these segments would only receive one email.
Subscribers can change their selected segments or unsubscribe at any time by clicking a link at the bottom of each email.
Other vegetables 
 Corn 
 Automation/mechanization of fruit production
 Other grasses, legumes, mixes
 Water availability, water rights
 There are many advantages of such a system, for both the clientele and for Extension.
The creation of this system eliminated email lists maintained by individual Extension educators, which led to clientele receiving emails from multiple WSU Extension sources.
It also eliminated a printed newsletter that did not focus on the specific interests of clientele because it combined articles on too many diverse topics such as tree-fruit, agronomic crop, vegetable, and livestock production.
Now, we have a unified, content-specific system, instead of a shotgun approach to delivering information.
We use the system to deliver pest alerts specified by the target crop, event announcements, timely reminders, informational articles, and links to outside information.
After a little over a year, we have over 940 subscribers.
We needed to build a small team willing to learn a new system and define rules that work for all segments.
To maintain quality control over messages sent from the university, we created a template for all emails and agreed to limit emails to maximum two per week per segment.
Gatekeepers, as we called them, were identified as people willing to send information for specific segments even if the information originated from other sources.
For example, any university faculty may send information to the grape industry through the two gatekeepers for grapes and wine.
This provides quality control of the system and ensures that not all faculty have to learn the email system, just the gatekeepers.
A large initial effort is needed to ensure that clientele subscribe to the system.
Our team of gatekeepers has promoted this service at all commodity and educational meetings.
We have encountered some limitations in using these types of systems.
Some services offer only a limited number of segments, so know how many you will need and compare prices.
We pay extra  for additional segments.
When sending to multiple segments, most systems only allow you to do "OR" combinations, as in Cattle or Sheep.
If you want to be more specific, such as sending only to crop consultants who are also in the alfalfa segment , you will have to find a service that offers this feature and probably pay significantly more.
Most services do not allow email attachments, but links to articles or websites are acceptable.
Graphics are limited to a specific size, but this has not been a problem as we try to keep our emails small.
For a small extra fee, we eliminated all reference to the system provider and have our Extension logo on every email.
Emails sent to numerous clientele through these types of services can be misidentified as spam.
Choose a reputable service with strong spam policies.
This will prevent most of your emails from being rejected by your clientele's Internet service providers.
We have had to work with a few ISPs to unblock our emails, since they do not come from the university system.
Finally, any email system will have to deal with full inboxes.
To attempt to deal with this, we have sent our subscribers information on best practices for managing email and other information they receive.
This is a work in progress, for both our clientele and us.
We pay $414 per year for our service level, which allows us a maximum of 2,500 subscribers, 5.0 MB image library, and 15,000 emails per month.
Examples of companies offering these services are iContact, Constant Contact, Bronto , AWeber, and MailChimp.
All of them are designed for email marketing, but some of them can be adapted for Extension use.
Use their free subscription plans to test each one.
Our team has elected to charge each gatekeeper a nominal fee to pay for these services.
October 2017 // Volume 55 // Number 5 // Tools of the Trade // v55-5tt10
 For those involved in a family business, the family and the business are constantly competing for limited amounts of time, attention, and resources.
The FB-BRAG assessment tool allows users to measure family business functioning from a variety of viewpoints, in a way that holistically incorporates family and business functionality into one assessment.
The questions on the FB-BRAG are modeled after Smilkstein's  family APGAR and work APGAR assessments.
APGAR assessments measure adaptability, partnership, growth, affection, and resolve , whereas the FB-BRAG measures family/business balance, resolve, adaptability, and growth.
Another scale used in family business research is Bjrnberg and Nicholson's  Family Climate Scales questionnaire, which contains 48 questions.
Our aim was to create an assessment developed specifically for family businesses that would not be too cumbersome or time-consuming and would allow for easy comparison of responses across members of the family and the business.
The result was the four-question FB-BRAG; the instrument and its scoring guide are provided in Appendixes A and B.
To ensure that scores on the FB-BRAG would be appropriately differentiated across family businesses , we validated initial results from the FB-BRAG against existing data.
We used data from two family business assessments having questions similar to the FB-BRAG: 712 responses from the 2012 Family Business Succession Survey   and 759 responses from the 2007 National Family Business Survey .
The FBSS involved rural family businesses in four Midwestern states, and the NFBS involved a national representative sample of family businesses.
Questions 13 of the FB-BRAG align with items on the NFBS; question 4 of the FB-BRAG aligns with an item on the FBSS.
We rescaled the responses from the FBSS and NFBS and then tabulated results so that the scoring scale would match that of the FB-BRAG.
By comparing the data sets, we found that both surveys resulted in low rates for the "dysfunctional" category.
The FBSS and NFBS differed with regard to the "moderately dysfunctional" and "highly functional" categories.
Results from the FBSS indicated that 54% of surveyed businesses were in the "moderately dysfunctional" category and 45% of businesses were in the "highly functional" category.
For the NFBS, 30% of businesses were in the "moderately dysfunctional" category and 68% were in the "highly functional" category.
Overall, the FB-BRAG results we used for comparison aligned with the existing data sets, as well as with previously studied APGAR scores, with most businesses falling into the "moderately dysfunctional" and "highly functional" categories.
Administering the FB-BRAG  takes very little time and effort.
Practitioners working with those involved in family businesses can give the one-page assessment form to participants so that they can record their answers to the four questions.
The four questions focus on functionality and on satisfaction people gain from the intersection of the family and the business.
Completing the FB-BRAG takes approximately 5 min.
After participants have completed the assessment, the practitioner can distribute the FB-BRAG scoring guide  so that each individual can score his or her assessment of the family business's functionality and then compare the outcome with those of coworkers and family members.
As the scoring guide indicates, scores for the five response options range from 0 to 4: a "never" response receives 0 points, "hardly ever" receives 1 point, "some of the time" receives 2 points, "most of the time" receives 3 points, and "all of the time" receives 4 points.
The total of the responses to the four questions is an overall score that coincides with an evaluation of "highly functional" , "moderately dysfunctional" , or "dysfunctional".
Danes and Stafford  found that according to the NFBS data, family APGAR scores for family businesses increased over time from 1997 to 2007.
We can interpret this finding to mean that businesses that presumably were successful  had improved family functioning over time.
The questions included in the FB-BRAG directly analyze three of the five properties of a traditional APGAR.
Question 1 measures adaptability, how family businesses adapt the use of resources between the family and the business when the business or its members are in times of stress or crisis.
Question 2 measures growth, the maturity of the family business as evidenced by members' shared support and direction.
Question 3 measures resolve of a family business, or the commitment of members of the family business to nurture and share with one another.
We added question 4 to capture family/business balance, the continuous-motion seesawing between resources and time for the family and for the business.
Although this intersection may sometimes create conflict, the conflict can be healthful if the outcome is positive.
Kaplan, Nussbaum, Becker, Fowler, and Pitts  found that many farm families they studied relied heavily on passive communication, which can easily be misconstrued and misunderstood.
The FB-BRAG helps those involved in family businesses avoid passive communication by giving them a set of talking points.
By comparing results of the FB-BRAG stemming from different viewpoints, members of a family business are able to identify areas in which they seem to be lacking, areas in which they are succeeding, and, most importantly, areas in which they have differing opinions.
The members of the family business can celebrate their successes while also exploring areas that need improvement.
By exploring differences in responses and having associated numbers to refer to, family business members may be more comfortable expressing why they scored something as they did versus merely bringing up an issue without having a prompt.
This article reports results from the Cooperative Regional Research Project NE-167R, Family Businesses: Interactions of Work and Family Spheres, partially supported by the Cooperative States Research, Education, and Extension Service ; U.S.
Department of Agriculture; Baruch College; and the experiment stations at the University of Arkansas, University of Hawaii at Mnoa, University of Illinois, Purdue University , Iowa State University, Oklahoma State University, University of Minnesota, Montana State University, Cornell University , North Dakota State University, The Ohio State University, Utah State University, and University of WisconsinMadison.
This article reports results from the Intergenerational Transfer for Strong and Sustainable Small and Medium-Sized Farm Family Businesses Project, which was supported by Agricultural and Food Research Initiative Competitive Grant no.
2009-55618-05056 from the U.S.
Department of Agriculture National Institute of Food and Agriculture.
The family climate scalesDevelopment of a new measure for use in family business research.
Family Business Review, 20, 229246.
Family social capital as family business resilience capacity.
Sorenson, Family business and social capital (pp.
Cheltenham, UK: Edward Elgar.
Family business succession survey.
The family APGAR: A proposal for a family function test and its use by physicians.
The Journal of Family Practice, 6, 12311239.
Place a check mark in the box that corresponds to the answer of each question.
June 2013 // Volume 51 // Number 3 // Feature // v51-3a7
 Volunteerism is an important element in Extension programs , which are often diverse in nature and call for a variety of skills and involvement across vast geographic areas.
Collaborations between volunteer groups and universities have also become more common, with volunteers providing useful services and faculty and advisors supporting these endeavors with expertise and resources.
In the context of environmental programs, volunteers are often important partners in conservation efforts because of the limited time and resources allotted by government or other institutions to carry out necessary activities and volunteers' vested interest in the protection of local areas.
Water quality monitoring is one type of conservation program that can benefit from involving volunteers.
Extension is a national leader in leading and supporting volunteer water-monitoring programs, sponsoring 36 programs and affiliated with at least 21 others.
Extension's role includes providing educational materials, technical assistance, training, staff, equipment, and funding for these programs.
Additionally, Extension sponsors 22 Master Naturalist programs across the United States.
A primary goal of many of these programs, such as the Alabama Master Naturalist Program, is "to help promote awareness, understanding, and respect of [the] natural world".
Thus, in a similar fashion to Extension's Master Gardener program, participants in Master Naturalist programs receive training about the natural environment.
Then, in order to earn their "Master Naturalist" title, they are required to share their newfound knowledge by serving as volunteer naturalists or otherwise volunteering their time for a natural resources-related service project.
Many Master Naturalist programs promote volunteer water monitoring as an option for these required volunteer service hours.
Monitoring programs like those facilitated by Extension organizations are increasingly useful as U.S.
waterways become more and more threatened.
In Wisconsin, a 2006 assessment acknowledged that the vast majority of waters in the state are affected by human activities that affect water quality.
Yet funding for monitoring of water resources is not increasing in response to these threats to water conservation.
Thus, citizen-based water-monitoring initiatives are one sustainable solution to building capacity for environmental protection efforts and making stakeholders aware of local conservation concerns.
Promoting involvement of local people as volunteer monitors ensures more timely response when water quality thresholds are crossed and enables communities to respond to unwanted, unexpected developments in nearby ecosystems.
Local organizations and state agencies rely on these volunteers for many reasons, including to build community awareness about waterways, collect data on water quality and observe trends over time, and help target restoration efforts, and serve as water advocates.
Training people to monitor water quality cultivates an ecologically educated citizenry, and citizens' efforts are maximized when a stable and growing cadre of individuals continues to stay engaged in these programs.
Therefore, loss of volunteers over time is a top concern for volunteer water-monitoring program coordinators.
Understanding what motivates and retains volunteers, particularly in specific programs, is an essential part of program development and program sustainability.
In social-psychology research, action theories such as the Theory of Reasoned Action or the Theory of Planned Behavior hypothesize how attitudes predict behaviors.
These theories have also been used to explain why individuals volunteer.
Recent research has honed in on this willingness to volunteer to consider how certain "categories" of intention predict behavior as well as how situational factors influence this commitment.
This helps assess what particular cognitions, emotions, perceptions of control, social norms, and other concepts are associated with each other and how they affect individuals' willingness to continue volunteering.
Montada, Kals, and Becker  have suggested that willingness to continue one's commitment to volunteering is associated with categories of beliefs such as the awareness of specific problems, knowledge of a violation of justice, a willingness to accept responsibility to minimize the problem, and a sense of efficacy.
While this research has addressed pro-environmental behavior, studies that explore what motivates those with valuable skill sets and how other contextual factors influence volunteers' involvement are limited.
Given the needs that can be met by volunteer citizen water monitors for Extension and other programs, it is imperative to understand how to encourage volunteers to stay involved.
Past research indicates volunteers desire recognition of their efforts and are more likely to drop out if they think their work is not making a difference.
Interestingly, level of satisfaction with current volunteering seems to have little to do with commitment , but those who stop volunteering are more likely to say their efforts went unrecognized.
Other motivational assessments, such as the Volunteer Functions Inventory  have evaluated individual motivations to volunteer , but generally exclude efficacy perceptions and intention to continue volunteering.
Therefore, our study aimed to examine the specific motivations and perceptions of efficacy of stream-monitoring volunteers, in order to determine how these factors affect volunteers' intention to continue their commitment to a water-monitoring program.
Based on this previous research and our interest in experienced volunteers' intentions to continue their commitment, the study reported here sought to explore how participants rank specific motivations for volunteering, which led to the first research question: RQ1: How do volunteers rate motivations to participate in a citizen stream-monitoring program?
Additionally, we explored how specific motivations for volunteering are associated with each other, representing specific categories of motivations.
We pose the question: RQ2: What motivations to volunteer in a citizen stream-monitoring program are correlated with one another?
As suggested by the Theory of Planned Behavior , one's perception of control over their behavior is also predictive of intention and thus manifest behavior and perceptions of efficacy may be predictors of a volunteer's willingness to stay involved.
Therefore we also explored what perceptions of efficacy are associated with one another to determine a categorization of efficacy types: RQ3: What volunteer perceptions of the efficacy of a stream-monitoring program are correlated with one another?
Finally, after establishing categories of motivations and perceptions of efficacy, we assessed how these categories predict volunteers' continued commitment to the program and pose the questions: RQ4a.
What motivations are associated with ongoing commitment to a citizen stream-monitoring program?
What perceptions of program efficacy are associated with ongoing commitment to a stream-monitoring program?
Based on these research questions, this article explores the unique categorization of volunteers' motivations to participate in a stream-monitoring program, perceptions of efficacy, and how these factors relate to intention to stay involved.
Our goal is that the results help monitoring programs determine how they can effectively retain their volunteers.
In Wisconsin, the Water Action Volunteers  Stream Monitoring Program is a partnership between the University of Wisconsin-Extension and the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources.
The program assists citizens across the state in becoming citizen water monitors and facilitates an educational program to promote the preservation and protection of Wisconsin's 84,000 miles of rivers and streams.
By educating volunteers about the status of Wisconsin's water, the program builds a network of informed citizens who advocate for the management and protection of natural resources.
In turn, the DNR and UW-Extension obtain important water resource data that are used in decision-making and environmental analysis.
Thus far, the program has been successful in educating and retaining a body of informed citizens that provide data on regional streams.
At the time of data collection , there were 96 citizen advanced citizen volunteers  participating in the program who monitor over 120 stream sites throughout the state.
Level 2 volunteers collect data on dissolved oxygen, pH, and transparency at least once per month from April to September.
They also collect continuous temperature data.
Volunteers undergo training every year to refresh their skills and learn new techniques.
Volunteer leaders organize the management of equipment and monitoring schedules to ensure that monitoring is conducted regularly and efficiently.
Level 2 volunteers are considered more advanced water-monitoring volunteers because they have previous stream-monitoring experience and their methods replicate those used by the DNR.
Therefore, this sample represents an important cohort of highly valued, experienced volunteers who collect high-quality data equivalent to what is collected by trained professional biologists.
To survey these volunteers, a Web-based questionnaire was distributed via email to all 96 Level 2 citizen stream-monitoring volunteers in May 2008.
A letter was also mailed to all volunteers to remind them to participate and to reach participants who may not use email frequently.
To assess duration of time involved as Level 2 volunteers, a question was included, "How long have you been a Level 2 Citizen Stream Monitoring volunteer?" with possible responses of "Less than one year," "One to two years," 'Three to four years," and "More than five years."
 Respondents were presented with a series of statements to assess what motivated them to participate in the program.
The statements asked respondents to rank the importance of 11 statements on a 5-point scale.
Volunteers' perceptions of program efficacy are also an important factor that that have been shown to contribute to ongoing commitment.
These perceptions of efficacy and the personal fulfillment volunteers acquire from participation were measured by using 13 items from the questionnaire on a scale from 1-"Not at all" to 5-"Very much." 
 Stream-monitoring volunteers' ongoing commitment to volunteer, the dependent variable, was measured by the item, "I plan to stay involved in the citizen stream-monitoring program for at least the coming year," with responses from 1-"Not at all" to 5-"Extremely."
 Of the 96 Level 2 stream-monitoring volunteers, 51 completed the questionnaire  The sample was 64.7% male and an average age of 52.7 years old; 52.9% worked part-time, 20.3% worked full time, and 27.5% were retired.
In terms of how long they had been involved with the program, 23.1% reported less than 1 year, 7.6% reported 1-2 years; 51.9% reported 3-4 years; and 17.3% reported 5 or more years.
The mean value of intention to continuing volunteering, based on the 5-point scale, was 4.71.
Research Question 1 asked how volunteers rate their motivations for participation in the stream-monitoring program.
The five most highly ranked motivations included "To support conservation of natural habitat" , "To do something worthwhile" , "To detect potential problems in stream health so they can be quickly responded to if needed" , "For my own personal satisfaction and sense of achievement" , and "To increase awareness of existing problems with stream health".
All ratings and their means and standard deviations can be found in Table 1.
Research Question 2 was addressed with 11 items asking volunteers what motivates them to participate in the program, which were analyzed using a principle component analysis.
This type of factor analysis characterizes variables in order to reduce the number of dimensions into more meaningful components.
The PCA was used to construct factors that are unique and represent different dimensions of each concept.
Factors with Eigenvalues  greater than one were selected for inclusion in the model.
The PCA indicated four primary components from the set of 11 motivational factors for participation, explaining 70.8% of variance.
These components represent dimensions of personal motivations, environmental conservation motivations, practical motivations, and local motivations.
These components, factor loading values, and descriptive and reliability statistics are provided in Table 2.
To address Research Question 3, the PCA was also conducted on the 13 efficacy items.
These items addressed volunteers' perceptions of the program's value and effectiveness.
Three components were extracted from this factor rotation, explaining 65.5% of the total variance among the variables.
These factors represent program efficacy, personal efficacy in their volunteer duties, and efficacy of the program's outreach.
Results can be found in Table 3.
An Ordinary Least Squares  regression model was used for Research Questions 4a and 4b, which explore specific motivations and appraisals of personal and program efficacy associated with continued commitment.
The independent measures were reduced into factors to determine how they contribute to ongoing commitment in the citizen stream-monitoring program.
Each independent or explanatory variable's effect on volunteers' ongoing commitment and the overall fit of the model, R2, are presented in Table 4.
Only one item entered into the model was a significant predictor of volunteers' ongoing commitment: volunteers' perception of personal efficacy.
This item, referring to whether volunteers perceive themselves as effective volunteers, suggests that with an increase in volunteers' rating of perceived program efficacy, ongoing commitment is expected to increase.
The model does not provide evidence that program efficacy and outreach, specific motivations, or the length of time involved in the program significantly contribute to continued commitment.
Overall, the model significantly predicts ongoing volunteer commitment in the program F = 3.43, p<.001.
The model's fit, R2, indicates that the items included explain 33.6% of the variance in volunteers' indications that they will continue volunteering in the stream-monitoring program.
The purpose of the study reported here was to better understand the influence of volunteers' motivations and perceptions of efficacy in a statewide citizen-based stream-monitoring program and how these were associated with willingness to stay involved.
These questions are particularly relevant for environmental volunteerism and Extension programs, such as water monitoring, which rely upon volunteers for their success.
Conservation activities generally benefit from a continuous commitment from volunteers, as opposed to objectives that can be fulfilled by a one-time commitment.
Additionally, trained and experienced volunteers who provide trend data used directly for conservation provide a critical service, making it important to understand what may influence their continued involvement.
Our findings of four types of motivations to volunteer and three main categories of efficacy perceptions for these volunteers and that one type of efficacypersonal efficacycontributes to volunteers' intention to stay committed provide practical implications for Extension professionals who depend on committed volunteers to carry out effective programming.
Our assessment of how volunteers rate specific motivations shows volunteers prioritize contributions to conservation and the feeling of accomplishment they get from their monitoring efforts over more practicable outcomes.
Our findings indicate these motivations can be grouped into four categories: the personal fulfillment one achieves from volunteering, the environmental problems that compel them to participate, the functional skills and experiences they achieve from volunteering, and motivation to respond to a local issue or to benefit a specific place in their community.
This systematic grouping of motivations that are germane to volunteers is useful for any administrator who aims to understand and support their volunteers.
An administrator might use these categories to set comprehensive program goal, and use these categories to ensure that volunteers are in fact able to do what they are motivated by and/or that they receive recognition for their efforts in these areas.
For instance, to fulfill volunteers' expectations related to the "personal motivations," they have to do something interesting and worthwhile, and volunteer administrators should strive to make the activity enjoyable and challenging, and ensure that volunteers are personally or publically recognized for their contributions.
Likewise to address "environmental motivations," administrators could remind volunteers how their efforts contribute directly to conservation.
If a volunteer organizer knows which motivations are particularly influential, she or he can set goals based on motivations that are most resonant to volunteers.
Similarly, the findings of the three categories of program efficacy  provide similar knowledge to program administrators.
For instance, ongoing training efforts that improve volunteers' data-collection skills could assist in increasing volunteers' personal efficacy and thus commitment to keep volunteering.
Targeting specific aspects of the program to improve the quality of the data gathered and emphasizing to volunteers the usefulness and importance of their efforts and the data they collect could also address program efficacy perceptions and in turn maintain volunteers' willingness to stay involved.
This acknowledgement of volunteers' efficacy perceptions relates to one of the most important findings of the studythe powerful influence of personal efficacy perceptions on volunteers' commitment to a volunteer program.
This dimension of efficacy that emerged from our analysis significantly contributed to volunteers' intentions to stay involved in the stream-monitoring program.
This suggests that when citizens believe they are effective and empowered volunteers, they are more likely to remain involved in this activity.
Maintaining or improving this perception with ongoing training and skills development opportunities and regularly acknowledging volunteers' contributions should be priorities of program administrators if they want to retain and motivate their experienced volunteers.
Despite practical implications of the study for volunteer program leaders, it is important to acknowledge the study's limitations.
One limitation is the correlational nature of the variables; that is, the statistically significant independent variables of program efficacy do not definitively have a causal relationship with the dependent variable of ongoing commitment.
It is also important to remind readers that the study examined how motivations and self perceived program efficacy are associated with behavioral intention to stay involved in a citizen stream-monitoring program rather than behavioral outcomes.
While behavioral intention is often associated with actual behavior , future research should assess actual behaviorsand not just intentionas the manifest behavior of staying involved as a citizen stream monitor is what is necessary to maintain and expand the influence of the program.
The prediction of behavior from attitudinal and normative variables.
Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, 6, 466487.
The motivations to volunteer.
Current Directions in Psychological Science, 8, 156 -159.
Environmental values, beliefs, and actions A situational approach.
Environment and Behavior, 32, 832-848.
Discovering statistics using SPSS.
London: Sage Publications Ltd.
Satisfaction and change: A survey of volunteers in hospice organization.
Social Science and Medicine, 36, 1625-34.
Emergency squad volunteers: Professionalism in unpaid work.
Thought contents and cognitive functioning in motivational versus volitional states of mind.
Motivation and Emotions, 11, 101-120.
The proposition of a general version of the theory of planned behavior: Predicting ecological behavior.
The Journal of Applied Social Psychology, 33, 586-603.
Willingness for continued social commitment: A new concept in environmental research.
Environment and Behavior, 39, 287-316.
Volunteer stream monitoring and local participation in natural resource issues.
Human Ecology Review, 11, 177-185.
Dispositional and structural determinants of volunteerism.
Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 74: 525-537.
Volunteer environmental monitoring and the role of the universities: The case of citizens' environment watch.
Environmental Management, 31, 561-568.
Volunteer monitoring of E.
coli in streams of the upper Midwestern United States: A comparison of methods.
Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 174, 625-633.
Motivations of adults for non-formal conservation education and volunteerism: Implications for programming.
Applied Environmental Education & Communication, 8, 617.
Resilience thinking: Sustaining ecosystems and people in a changing world.
Washington, DC: Island Press.
Establishing the Canadian community monitoring network.
Environmental Monitoring and Assessment, 88, 409-418.
Annual Review of Sociology, 26, 215-240.
Sociological Forum, 14: 243-272.
October 2001 // Volume 39 // Number 5 // Research in Brief // 5RIB4
 Abstract A study was conducted to determine professional development needs of state Extension specialists employed by Clemson University.
Three constructs, program development and evaluation, research generation and synthesis, and communication and presentation, were examined.
Specialists responded to a survey that contained 35 statements relative to the three constructs, measured on a Likert scale.
Demographic information was also gathered.
Matrix analysis was used to determine critical professional development needs of specialists.
Overall, the matrix analysis yielded 3 critical needs and 11 low level needs.
Critical needs identified were: 1) communicate program impact to key decision makers, 2) communicate client problems to researchers, and 3) view problems from different perspectives.
County Extension agents and program assistants depend on specialists for information and publications.
Specialists have expertise in locating and interpreting complex information for agents.
Specialists are key individuals in providing the technical information that drives county Extension programming.
According to Boyle , the linkage between Extension specialists and county agents is the bridge between people's needs and the knowledge base of the university.
Extension specialists have the responsibility to synthesize, evaluate, integrate, and apply research information and expertise from within the land-grant university system in support of county programming efforts.
Several studies reveal that Extension specialists are one of the primary sources of information for county agents.
Gibson and Hillison  suggest that effective specialists must understand the Extension education process.
In addition, they must understand the human development, learning, and social interaction processes, and they must become knowledgeable about the organization within which they work.
Woeste and Stephens  provide an excellent description of Extension specialists' roles and responsibilities.
They identify three major responsibilities: synthesis of research, leadership, and scholarship.
Within each of the three major responsibilities, they identified several specific roles and duties for Extension specialists.
In recent years, several issues have strongly affected the roles and responsibilities of Extension specialists.
As a result, the uncertainty surrounding the roles and responsibilities of specialists has increased.
Therefore, professional development needs of specialists must be continuously assessed in order to provide meaningful staff development programs.
The overall purpose of the study reported here was to identify and prioritize the professional development needs of Extension specialists in the Clemson University Cooperative Extension Service.
Specific objectives of the study were to:
 The population for the study consisted of all 78 Extension specialists employed by the Clemson University Cooperative Extension Service.
The frame was obtained from the personnel office.
An instrument was developed based on a study conducted by Baker and Villalobos.
The instrument had four sections.
Section one contained 15 statements relative to program development and evaluation.
Section two contained five statements on research generation and synthesis, while Section three contained 10 statements on communications and presentation.
Respondents were asked to rate, using a five-point Likert scale , the importance they place on each statement and the degree to which they possessed the ability.
Section four contained demographic information such as gender, educational level, major area of study, primary area of responsibility, and years of service in Extension.
The instrument was validated for content and face validity by a panel of four experts.
A cover letter and a copy of the instrument were mailed to all the specialists in April of 1999.
After the initial mailing and two follow-ups , a total of 47 specialists responded, for a return rate of 60 percent.
Early and late respondents were compared on variables identified in sections one through three as per procedures suggested by Miller and Smith.
No significant differences were found between early and late respondents.
A post-hoc reliability analysis indicated that the instrument had "excellent" reliability.
Alpha coefficients ranged from a low of 0.74 to a high of 0.87 with an overall of 0.93.
Data were analyzed using descriptive statistics such as frequencies, percentages, means, and standard deviations.
Matrix analysis recommended by Hershkowitz  and Witkin  were used to determine critical professional development needs of Extension specialists.
The following procedures were used.
First, composite means for importance and current ability were calculated for each of the three areas--program development and evaluation, research synthesis and generation, and communications and presentations.
Second, the composite means were plotted on an "X" and "Y" axis of a graph, resulting in the creation of four quadrants.
Third, mean importance and current abilities for each statement within each area were plotted on the graph.
As a result of this procedure, the four quadrants were labeled as:
 Objective 1: Demographic Profile
 A majority of the specialists were male.
Sixty-eight percent of the specialists reported doctorate degree as their highest education level, followed by master's degree , and bachelor's.
Agronomy/horticulture was the primary area of program responsibility for 18 specialists.
4-H youth development was the primary area for six specialists.
Family and consumer science was the primary area for six specialists.
Forestry/natural resources was the primary area for five specialists.
Dairy and animal science was the primary area for four specialists.
Community development/leadership was the primary area for 1 specialist.
And other  was the primary area for seven specialists.
Specialists averaged 14.07 years of Extension experience, with a low of 1 year to a high of 28 years.
Objective 2: Professional Development Needs
 Table 1 shows the perceived level of importance and current ability placed by Extension specialists toward statements relative to program development and evaluation, research generation and synthesis, and communications and presentation.
The matrix analysis in the program development and evaluation area resulted in categorization of one statement as a critical need , seven statements as low level needs , and seven statements as high level success abilities.
The statement "ability to communicate program impact to decision makers" was identified as a critical need.
The seven low level needs identified were:
 Two critical needs emerged in the research generation and synthesis area: the ability to communicate client problems to researchers and the ability to view problems from different perspectives.
In addition, the following low level need was also identified: ability to collaborate with county staff in conducting demonstrations.
Regarding communication and presentation, the matrix analysis did not reveal any critical needs.
However, there were three statements in the low level need  category and seven statements in the high level successful abilities category.
Overall, the matrix analysis yielded three critical needs  and 11 low level needs.
The following conclusions and recommendations were made based on the findings of the study:
 Extension specialists perceive themselves as possessing a high level of competence in nearly half of the professional development needs examined in this study.
This finding confirms a high degree of importance and ability of specialists in developing and implementing Extension programs.
This conclusion supports previous research conducted by Baker and Villalobos.
Based on the results of the quadrant analysis, three critical needs  were identified.
Two of the critical needs, communicating client problems to researchers and viewing problems from different perspectives, were in the research generation and synthesis area, while the other, communicating program impact to key decision makers, was in the program development and evaluation area.
Extension specialists need to step up their efforts to communicate client problems to researchers so that appropriate Extension programs and/or solutions can be offered.
Two aspects need emphasis in light of this finding.
First, good communication among agents, specialists, and research faculty should be emphasized.
Second, a communication network and/or information resource group should be developed.
The recent requirement of integrating research and Extension plans of work under the AREERA Act  may further strengthen the linkage between research and Extension programs and activities.
Both Extension and research directors at Clemson University should work together to facilitate constant and improved communication between Extension and research faculty.
Communicating the impact of Extension programs to key decision makers has become increasingly important because of the emphasis placed by federal and state governments on documenting impact.
Specialists need to develop skills in documenting program impact and also in communicating that impact to their stakeholders.
In future, the need for showing and communicating program impact will increase tremendously because of linking program success to funding.
Extension Staff Development at Clemson University should consider the topic of communicating impact of Extension programs to key decision makers a top priority in meeting the professional development needs of specialists.
Inservice training and/or workshops should be offered relative to assessing and communicating program impact to stakeholders.
Such inservice training should be based on the five Public Service and Agriculture  goals of Clemson University and key program areas of specialists.
Extension specialists also perceived a low level need in 11 professional development topics.
Many specialists have been involved in Extension programming both at county and state levels.
For example, specialists in this study reported an average work experience of 14 years, and thus they may have perceived a low level  need for training in these topics.
However, a closer examination of these 11 topics reveals a need for professional development training in:
 As indicated by Witkin , low level needs should be given importance and reinforced on a regular basis.
It is recommended that these topics be given priority in offering future training programs for specialists.
Finally, two things should be addressed as a result of this study.
First, need for professional development training in the areas identified as critical should be given top priority.
Extension Staff Development should review the findings of this study to plan and deliver professional development programs for Clemson Extension professionals.
Second, the findings may also suggest justification for a closer look at re-prioritization of specialists' roles and responsibilities.
A profile of roles and responsibilities of specialists should be developed to identify professional development training needs.
The profile may then be used to develop a comprehensive training program for specialists.
The following recommendations are offered for further study and/or administrative actions.
Building political support for Extension in the 21st century.
Unpublished paper, Madison, WI.
Self-perceived motivation of Mississippi county extension agents as compared to their performance.
Proceedings of the 42nd Annual Southern Agricultural Education Research Meeting, 101-110.
Reconsideration of the agricultural transfer model.
Journal of Technology Transfer, 8, 47-32.
A regional network: Community needs and system structure.
Report for the Regional Education Service Agency of Appalachian Maryland.
Information related competencies for Montana Extension Service professionals.
(ERIC Document Reproduction Service No.
Adult and continuing education through the Cooperative Extension Service.
Extension Division, University of Missouri-Columbia, Columbia, MO.
Concept of state major programs and design teams.
Florida Cooperative Extension Service.
University of Florida, Gainesville, FL.
The Cooperative Extension Service: A national assessment.
Colorado: Westview Press, Inc.
Assessing needs in educational and social programs.
San Francisco, CA: Jossey-Bass.
Extension specialist's role and responsibility statement.
Florida Cooperative Extension Service.
University of Florida, Gainesville, FL.
June 2010 // Volume 48 // Number 3 // Feature // v48-3a4
 There are at least 2.6 million small artificial water bodies in the United States , most of which are located in central and southeastern states.
Ponds and small impoundments are generally defined as waters larger than 0.4 ha and less than 40 ha in surface area.
These resources are often privately owned, and are built for a variety of reasons, including recreation, irrigation, water for livestock, and aesthetics.
Fishing is a major use of ponds, and pond owners are continuously in need of timely science-based recommendations for managing these systems.
Historically, county Cooperative Extension educators were widely recognized as the key source of information for farm pond management.
However, increased specialization of Cooperative Extension personnel and changes in the structure of individual states' programs have reduced landowner reliance on county-level educators for pond management advice.
The general public and county Cooperative Extension agents are increasingly turning to the Internet for information.
Web-based resources are becoming a primary tool for dissemination of pond management information and offer a conduit for communication between Cooperative Extension specialists, agents, and clientele.
The Internet provides the advantages of being able to address current topical issues quickly, to reach a larger audience, and to be accessible at the client's convenience.
In this evaluation, the first 4 years of a Web-based pond management site in Arkansas are described.
Although the Web site is housed on the University of Arkansas Cooperative Extension Service  server, it differs from similar Web sites in other states in that it is a stand-alone site that is not embedded within a larger Cooperative Extension Web framework.
At the time of writing this article, the Web Site was the number one return on both Google and Windows Live Search using a simple Web search with the key words "farm pond management," indicating that it was easy to locate for clients searching the Web for pond management information.
The goals of this evaluation were:
 Web hit information was collected from the Web site for 4 years.
A standard hit counter was installed on the Web Site home page during construction that identified the number of visits to the home page.
The cumulative number of hits was recorded on the last day of the month every month beginning in September 2004 and continued over the 4-year assessment period.
Additionally, a voluntary survey was used to collect qualitative information on visitors over a 1-year period.
When visitors clicked on the survey link, they were redirected to the survey center on the UACES server.
The survey required about 5 minutes for completion, and responses were anonymous.
Location data  were collected from all respondents, and they were asked if they owned or managed a pond.
A response of "yes" directed them to a series of questions regarding their ponds.
A response of "no" directed them past the pond questions to questions regarding the Web site.
Questions consisted of pull-down menus, yes/no selection, multiple-choice, fill-in blank, and short-answer.
Because it was a voluntary survey, respondents were not randomly selected, and therefore the survey provides a qualitative snapshot of willing participants.
The Web site received over 31,000 hits during the first 4 years, with progressively increasing hit frequency in successive years.
Monthly hits peaked at 509 in May 2004 and doubled to 1,021 in June 2005.
The highest recorded number of hits occurred in April 2008, with 1,361 individual hits recorded.
On average, April was the Web site's busiest month , followed by May  and June.
November was the lightest month for Web hits , followed by December.
Web Site Hit Data for the Arkansas Farm Pond Management Web Site and Major Events Influencing Web Site Usage
 The Web site was linked to the Arkansas Game and Fish Commission's  Web site in April 2004.
In January 2006, a farm pond press release series was initiated that provided topic-oriented articles for county agents that could be submitted to local media outlets.
These articles directed readers to the Web site for additional information, and reinforced the Web site's value to Country Agents.
No other media were used to publicize the Web site.
There were 342 voluntary survey respondents from 2007-2008, representing 3.3% of the total hits during that time.
Only 10  respondents were from outside the U.S.
; the rest were from 37 different states.
Nearly one-third  of U.S.
respondents were from Arkansas, 6.7% from Ohio, 5.2% from Texas, 4.7% from Alabama, 4.0% from Tennessee, and 3.7% each from Georgia, Kansas, and Missouri.
Most  were visiting the Web site for the first time.
When asked if they owned or managed a pond, 309  respondents answered "yes," and 29  respondents answered "no." The mean  number of ponds managed was 1.53  ponds, and the majority  of ponds managed were less than 0.40 ha  in surface area.
Fishing was the most frequently cited  primary use of ponds, followed by aesthetic beauty  and water for livestock .
A balanced bass-bluegill fishery was the most cited  desired management option for fishing ponds, followed by trophy bass  and catfish-only  options.
Primary Pond Usage and Primary Fish Management Goal/Option Reported by Survey Respondents
 Aquatic weed problems were noted by 54.8% of respondents.
Algae were the predominant  problem plant reported , with filamentous algae and Chara mentioned specifically.
Emerged, free-floating, and submerged plants were reported less frequently at similar percentages.
A plurality  of respondents who reported aquatic weed problems were not currently implementing control methods.
Biological, chemical, and physical control, as well as integrated approaches
 Percentage of Respondents Who Answered "Yes" to Having an Aquatic Weed Problem that Reported Using Biological, Chemical, Physical, Integrated , or No Weed Management Approach
 Respondents were asked to select other pond problems that they were experiencing from a list of common issues.
Turbid water was the most common pond issue after weeds, indicated by 27.1% of respondents.
Stunted bass , leaky ponds , and crappie  present in pond  were the leading problems after turbidity.
Individuals who indicated that their ponds contained crappie did not necessarily indicate that they considered crappie to be a problem.
Respondents who indicated undesirable species listed bullheads , large grass carp , golden shiners , bream , bass , crappie , chain pickerel , green sunfish , leeches , snakes , and snapping turtles.
Somewhat surprisingly, fish kills  were the least common issue reported.
Percentage of Respondents Who Answered "Yes" to One or More of the Listed Common Pond Problems
 When queried on the usefulness of the information provided by the Web site, 83.4% of respondents answered "yes" to the question, "Has the Web site improved your understanding of ponds?" Eighty percent of pond owners indicated that "the Web site provided useful information that has improved [their] pond." The respondents were then asked an open-ended question about how they have modified or will modify their pond management based on information provided by the Web site.
Liming , reduced stocking rates  , aeration , and turbidity remediation  were the most commonly listed changes.
Unfortunately, many respondents indicated that they took the survey prior to thoroughly reviewing the Web site and formulating management plans.
Additional topics for the Web site that were suggested by respondents were grouped into nine categories.
More information on pond aquaculture and fee fishing was indicated most frequently , followed by pond repair  , specific weed control recommendations , and more detailed construction information.
Aesthetic improvement guidelines, more detailed instructions for lime application, fish habitat improvement, and drought management were each suggested once.
Web-based resources are becoming an important source of information for stakeholders and Cooperative Extension personnel.
Fiscal restraints, the need for rapidly updated information, and the ease and breadth of electronic information delivery have made Web-based resources more desirable than many traditional sources of written communication.
Written publications are increasingly costly to print, store, and mail.
Furthermore, written publications can spread out-of-date information because older versions are not always destroyed when replaced by updated materials.
Although using electronic media is no longer a novel approach, Web-based Extension is still developing, and many aspects of its relative benefits have yet to be explored.
For instance, Web sites may reduce email and phone requests for print material and one-on-one consultations, while simultaneously expanding the audience in terms of size and diversity.
Further research on these aspects of Web-based delivery is recommended.
The Web site evaluated in the study reported here effectively reached large numbers of stakeholders and Extension personnel.
During the 2007-2008 evaluation year for example, 10,360 visits to the homepage were recorded.
While some of these visits may have been repeat visits by pond owners or Cooperative Extension agents, clearly a large number of stakeholders used this resource.
Anecdotally, the author noted a distinct increase in email contacts following the establishment of the Web site, with many directly referencing the Web site in their communications.
Similar to a pond Web resource evaluation from New York , there was a distinct seasonal pattern of high Web site use during warmer months and lower use during cooler months.
It is probably no coincidence that November was the month of lowest use, as many stakeholders turn their attention to wildlife management and hunting at that time of the year.
Although each study measured a different metric, it is interesting that peak visitation in this evaluation  occurred 2 months before peak user inquiries  to the similar Web resource in New York.
This was likely due to the geographical latitude that each Web site primarily supports, because New York ponds are usually still under ice cover when pond management season begins in Arkansas.
It is unclear to what extent Web site promotion and linkage contributed to the growth in Web site usage, but the number of hits doubled 1 year after linkage with the AGFC Web Site and several months after the initiation of Cooperative Extension agent press releases.
Many pond owners use AGFC as their source of information, and it is reasonable to attribute some of the increases in hits to that exposure, but the bulk of the Web site's expansion followed the implementation of press releases.
The first press release, in fact, was an announcement of the Web site and the information it contains.
Subsequent press releases usually cited the Web site as a source of additional information.
It is important to clarify again that the survey instrument used in this evaluation was not a quantitative instrument due to its voluntary nature.
However, the information gained from this survey can be used to qualitatively characterize stakeholder issues and provide some feedback on the Web site's efficacy.
While the data collected may or may not be an accurate representation of the views of all pond owners, it does characterize the more enthusiastic Web site users who were willing to participate.
It was not surprising that the majority of respondents were from the Southeastern U.S., given the regional nature of most pond management recommendations.
It was somewhat surprising, however, that two-thirds of respondents were from outside of Arkansas, when no attempts were made to advertise outside of Arkansas markets.
This finding suggests that there is a need for similar Web-based resources in other states, because those stakeholders are clearly seeking out information wherever it can be found.
While it is true that most states have available Web-based Extension information, this information may not always be easy to locate.
The high out-of-state usage presents an interesting conflict.
The farm pond recommendations promoted by the Arkansas Cooperative Extension Service may not necessarily be the same as those promoted within the state of the stakeholder and may not be appropriate or legal in other states.
For example, threadfin shad and Florida largemouth bass are included in trophy bass management recommendations in Arkansas, but both species would not survive under extended ice cover to the north.
Grass carp are recommended for weed control in Arkansas, but only sterile grass carp are allowed in some states, and the fish are illegal altogether in others.
The Web site needs to make it clear to out-of-state visitors that they should check with their own state's Cooperative Extension Service to ensure the best management for their pond.
In addition to such a disclaimer, a link to the USDA CSREES Website with an index of state Extension program Web pages would facilitate information delivery.
Most respondents owned or managed a pond.
The remainder may have been considering building a pond, may use ponds that they don't own or currently manage, or may have been simply curious.
Of those who owned or managed a pond, two-thirds reported that fishing was the primary use of the pond and that a balanced bass-bream fishery was the most desired management option.
Trophy bass management was commonly cited, but surprising only 1% of respondents cited trophy bream fishing as their management goal.
Not surprising was that 5% of respondents listed quality crappie as their most desired species management goal, despite the substantial evidence to the effect that crappie are detrimental species for small impoundments.
Crappie are a primary sport fish nationwide, accounting for 21% of all freshwater angling days.
Many Cooperative Extension programs, including in Arkansas, have invested much effort into discouraging crappie in ponds, but the demand continues, and the author's personal experience suggests that the percentage of pond owners who would stock crappie in their ponds if recommended is very high.
Many stock crappie regardless of the warnings.
Perhaps it is time to take a new look at crappie in ponds, particularly focusing on manipulating predator-prey relationships and alternative predators.
Aquatic weeds are often cited by Cooperative Extension agents  as the most common pond issue that their stakeholders have, and the respondents to the Web Site survey were no different.
More than half of respondents reported some form of aquatic weed problem in their ponds, and nearly 45% of the time the problem plant was a type of algae.
It was suggested by respondents that the Web site needed to have more specific weed management recommendations.
This suggestion can probably be expanded to most Cooperative Extension materials on the subject of weed control, which often erroneously assume that the stakeholder will know how to "fill in the blanks." Perhaps we need more cookbook-style recommendations listed for each common weed species.
The Web site has been a valuable resource for pond managers and Extension personnel.
Web-based resources may be superior to traditional Extension materials in respect that they are readily accessible, can be updated frequently, and are without  cost.
However, as Kraft  points out, Web-based resources are only as good as the information provided, and a conscious effort must be made to keep these resources up-to-date.
Furthermore, periodic marketing is required to inform stakeholders of these resources.
With proper development, marketing, and upgrades, Web-based farm pond information delivery can play a valuable role in Extension education.
Web site creation and data collection for this evaluation were conducted while the author was employed at the University of Arkansas at Pine Bluff , and many members of UAPB's Cooperative Extension Program provided helpful insight during Web site development.
The author would like to specifically thank C.
Stone for help in design of the survey instrument.
Lewis was instrumental in survey implementation and data collection.
Hutt provided manuscript guidance while the manuscript was in draft.
Relationships of white crappie populations to largemouth bass and bluegill.
Proceedings of the Annual Conference Southeastern Association of Fish and Wildlife Agencies 35:416-423.
Evaluation of striped bass  white bass hybrids in small impoundments.
Annual Proceedings of the Texas Chapter, American Fisheries Society 4:55-66.
Pages 561-588 in C.
Inland fisheries management in North America, 2nd edition.
American Fisheries Society, Bethesda, Maryland.
Producing a CD-ROM: Preparation of Extension publications.
PENpages: Sharing agriculture and Extension information internationally through the Internet.
Quarterly Bulletin International Association Agricultural Information Specialists 37:97-101.
Distribution and significance of small, artificial water bodies across the United States landscape.
The Science of the Total Environment 299:21-36.
USDI & USDC (U.S.
Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service & U.S.
2001 National Survey of fishing, hunting, and wildlife-associated recreation.
June 2013 // Volume 51 // Number 3 // Research In Brief // v51-3rb7
 Outdoor water conservation is important for municipalities throughout the United States.
As urban and suburban sprawl increases in Oklahoma, large areas of previously non-irrigated pasture and/or croplands are being converted to irrigated homeowner and commercial landscapes.
The consequential increase in irrigated lawn areas across Oklahoma will result in increased landscape water use.
There is a need to conserve Oklahoma water resources through reduced outdoor water use.
Oklahoma City currently treats about 341 million liters of water per day to serve approximately 0.5 million people, with historical peak consumption of 715 million liters per day, which occurred in July 1999.
Water use in Oklahoma City is expected to increase by at least 2% per year.
The City of Tulsa also treats about 340 million liters of water per day to serve approximately 0.5 million people, with a historical peak daily use at 719 million liters per day, which occurred in July 1999.
For municipalities across Oklahoma, maximum domestic water usage occurs during the months of July and August.
This is also the time of year that Oklahoma citizens are likely to have the highest demand for water to irrigate turfgrass and landscape plants.
Water use tends to increase with the sophistication of lawn irrigation equipment.
Those with in-ground sprinkler systems use 35% more outdoor water, and if the system has an automatic timer, they use 47% more water than homeowners without an in-ground sprinkler system.
Therefore, increasing citizen knowledge of proper home lawn irrigation practices, including measurement of irrigation system output, is important for providing acceptable quality yards while conserving water resources.
The Oklahoma State University  Master Gardener Program is a voluntary educational program designed to meet gardening needs in the community.
Its specific aim is to provide information and technical assistance in the areas of gardening and landscape horticulture through the use of qualified and certified volunteers.
Applicants receive up to 60 hours of formal training from OSU Extension professionals in plant science, horticulture, and gardening.
After training is completed, each Master Gardener volunteers at least 40 hours of assistance to their OSU County Extension Office.
As part of their volunteer service, Master Gardeners assist their county Extension educator in responding to horticultural questions from homeowners.
One of the most common lawn extension questions received from homeowners during the summer is "How long should I irrigate my lawn," but the volume of applied irrigation water cannot be directly measured in units of time.
In order to answer the question, "How long should I irrigate my lawn," one needs to determine the irrigation system output by volume.
For precipitation and irrigation, total volume is most commonly expressed in terms of total inches, and the irrigation volume applied over time can be determined as inches per hour.
Typically, this can be achieved through a professional irrigation system audit.
Kopp, Cerny-Koenig, and Lopez  increased professional and large landscape water user knowledge of proper turf irrigation and professional irrigation audits through a series of full-day workshops.
While a professional irrigation audit takes into account several complicated factors and mathematical calculations, a "simple" irrigation audit can be performed by any homeowner with a basic knowledge of mathematics.
Although the simple irrigation audit is not as precise or accurate as a professional irrigation audit, the "simple" process can give every homeowner a good estimate of his or her irrigation output in inches per hour.
It was hypothesized that simple irrigation audit training could be an effective tool to teach citizens how to obtain an estimate of irrigation output in inches per hour.
Therefore, the objective of the Extension project described here was to teach Oklahoma Master Gardeners a simple technique to effectively measure lawn irrigation output through simple irrigation audit workshops.
Three simple irrigation audit workshops were completed across Oklahoma.
The 4-hour workshops were conducted in Oklahoma City , Tulsa , and Claremore , Oklahoma.
The Oklahoma County workshop had 22 participants, the Tulsa County workshop had 27 participants, and the Rogers County Workshop had 27 participants, for a total of 76 Master Gardener participants.
The workshop format included a 2.5-hour classroom portion and a 1.5-hour outdoor demonstration.
The classroom presentation covered key aspects of outdoor water use, turfgrass and landscape plant selection and management, lawn irrigation practices, and lawn irrigation system auditing.
The outdoor presentation was a step-by-step, hands-on demonstration of the simple lawn irrigation audit procedure.
Pre-workshop surveys were given to each participant at the beginning of the workshop prior to any presentations to assess prior subject knowledge.
After completing the workshop, participants were asked to complete a post-workshop survey to assess participant gain in knowledge and workshop effectiveness.
At the end of the workshop, participants were given nine irrigation water measuring cups and were instructed to complete the simple irrigation audit in their home lawns.
After completing the simple irrigation audits in their home lawn, participants were asked to report their irrigation output in inches per hour to the county Extension educator.
Participants were also asked to note the uniformity of their irrigation system by measuring the differences in the volume of water collected in each of their measuring cups.
The surveys collected both qualitative and quantitative data through the use of descriptive survey questions, Likert-type scale questions , and open-ended questions where participants were able to give open, non-guided responses.
Quantitative analysis was completed using SAS 9.1.
The PROC SURVEYFREQ procedure was used to analyze pre-survey response data.
The PROC GLM procedure was used to determine the analysis of variance  between pre-survey and post-survey results among the three counties.
There was no county x survey interaction for 10 of 12 survey questions, and those results were pooled and presented accordingly.
When the criteria for ANOVA were met at P=0.05, mean separation tests were performed using Duncan's multiple range test at the 0.05 significance level.
Qualitative data was analyzed similar to the methods employed by Moss , which were based on mixed-method procedures described by Creswell and Plano-Clark.
All participants who completed the surveys at the three locations were Master Gardeners.
In Oklahoma County, 22 participants completed both the preand post-survey.
In Tulsa County, 27 participants completed the pre-survey, while 26 completed the post-survey.
Twenty-six participants completed both the preand post-survey in Rogers County.
Also, all participants who completed the post-surveys also reported back their individual simple irrigation audit results.
Eighty-percent of respondents watered their lawn during the summer, while 65% stated they believed most Oklahoman's irrigate their landscape during the summer.
Of those who water their lawn during the summer, 49% used an automatic irrigation system, 48% used a water hose with a sprinkler attached, and 3% used a water hose to water by hand.
On the pre-survey, respondents stated they watered their yard on average 2 days per week in Oklahoma and Tulsa Counties and 1 day per week in Rogers County.
Regardless of county, the average respondent lawn watering time was 40 minutes per irrigation event.
However, only 18% of all respondents stated they knew how much water they applied to yard during each irrigation event.
After attending the workshop, participants changed from "uncertain" to "agree" that they could define the phrase "simple lawn irrigation audit".
Also, workshop participants changed from "disagree" to "agree" that they knew how to conduct a simple lawn irrigation audit.
Similarly, 85% responded "yes" when asked if they believed that performing the simple irrigation audit was relatively easy, and 90% responded "yes" when asked if they feel more comfortable about knowing how much to water their yard each week.
These results suggest that the workshop was effective for increasing Master Gardener knowledge and ability to perform the simple irrigation audit for home lawns.
Master Gardener participants "disagreed" with the statement "I believe watering the lawn during the summer is a waste of water" before and after attending the workshop.
Similarly, participants were "uncertain" both before and after attending the workshop for the statements "I believe there should be laws or restrictions for lawn watering during the summer in Oklahoma" and "I believe there should not be laws or restrictions for lawn watering during the summer in Oklahoma".
Means are based upon a five-point Likert-type scale where 1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = uncertain, 4 = agree, and 5 = strongly agree.
*** indicate significance at the P = 0.0001 level and NS indicates no significant difference between pre-survey responses and post-survey responses within a row.
After attending the workshop, participants "agreed" with the statements "I believe a simple irrigation audit can help me to conserve water while irrigating my lawn during the summer," "I believe a simple irrigation audit can help me to save money while irrigating my lawn during the summer," and "I believe a simple irrigation audit can help me to protect the environment while irrigating my lawn during the summer".
Respondents were also asked to respond to the open-ended statement "I believe a simple lawn irrigation is important for water conservation in Oklahoma because." The most typical responses included "to not waste water," "it can save water/money and plants," "it makes one more aware of wasted water," "you can be more accurate on the amount of water used," "to conserve water," "it will save water, money, and time," "too many people waste clean, fresh water," "it is more economical," "time and cost," "it cuts down on waste," "water is a precious commodity," and "knowledge can be obtained as to amount of frequency of water used to irrigate for needs of plants in landscape and consequences of over watering."
  Means are based upon a five-point Likert-type scale where 1 = strongly disagree, 2 = disagree, 3 = uncertain, 4 = agree, and 5 = strongly agree.
There was no county by audit results interaction, and the average irrigation output from all respondents was 0.65 inches per hour.
In the workshop pre-survey, only 18% responded "yes" to the statement "I irrigate my lawn during the summer and I know approximately how much water I apply to my lawn in inches per hour." After the workshop, 100% of participants conducted the simple irrigation audit in their home lawns and reported their lawn irrigation output results in inches per hour.
Therefore, the simple home irrigation audit workshop significantly increased participant knowledge of their home lawn irrigation output in inches per hour from 18% to 100%.
Last, after the workshop, 100% of respondents indicated they would be willing and able to teach homeowners in their respective counties the simple irrigation audit technique.
The results of the study reported here suggest that simple irrigation workshops can increase Master Gardener knowledge of home irrigation system output.
Prior to attending the workshop, participants did not have a clear understanding of how to measure home lawn irrigation output.
However, 80% of participants stated they watered their lawns during the summer with an average watering time of 40 minutes per irrigation event.
In Oklahoma and Tulsa counties, participants stated they watered an average of 2 days per week, or a total of 80 minutes per week.
Based on the average irrigation system output of 0.65 inches per hour, respondents watered on average 0.87 inches of water per week.
However, irrigation audit results ranged from 0.18 to 2.5 inches per hour.
The majority of lawns in Oklahoma are bermudagrass, which has an average irrigation requirement of approximately 1 inch of water per week during the summer.
Using these data, Master Gardener participants can teach homeowners to alter their irrigation practices to apply the proper quantity of water to their lawns during the growing season.
Future work should track Master Gardener's adoption of the simple irrigation audit practices over the long-term and should assess the effectiveness of Master Gardeners in extending the information to additional homeowners in their counties.
Muffled price signals: Household water demand under increasing-block prices.
FEEM Working Paper No.
Designing and conducting mixed methods research.
Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications, Inc.
Peak and off-peak residential water demand.
Water Resources Research, 28, 2159-2167.
Residential end uses of water.
Denver, CO: American Water Works Association.
An undergraduate summer research and mentorship experience for underrepresented students in the agricultural sciences.
NACTA Journal, 55, 32-37.
Demand side management policies for residential water use: who bears the conservation burden?
Land Economics, 74, 343-359.
Predicting and understanding home garden water use.
Landscape Urban Planning, 68, 121-128.
June 2010 // Volume 48 // Number 3 // Tools of the Trade // v48-3tt6
 On-farm data collection has long been used as a tool for Extension research.
Farmer participation has been established as an important aspect of this type of research.
Soil-moisture monitoring is an example of an effective on-farm research tool.
Nahl  found that information need influenced use of the Internet.
Huberman, Pirolli, Pitkow, and Lukose  suggested that visitors of Web sites tend to view additional pages.
The study reported here explores using on-farm data collection research as a tool for encouraging farmers to access the county Extension Web site.
In 2008, 16 sites in Utah's Garfield and Kane counties were equipped with soil-moisture monitoring equipment.
Each site consisted of three granular matrix soil-moisture sensors.
The sensors were placed at 1-foot, 2-foot and 4-foot depths.
Each site was equipped with a data logger connected to the sensors.
The data logger was set to record the soil-moisture readings at all three depths every 8 hours.
The most current soil-moisture reading was available to participants on demand via a small digital display integrated into the onsite data logger.
This allowed farmers to make day-to-day irrigation management decisions based upon current soil-moisture levels.
A history of all readings was recorded in the memory of the data logger.
These records were retrieved from the data logger by attaching a notebook computer to the data logger and downloading the data to the hard drive.
The data was imported into an Excel file.
Using Excel, the data was plotted onto a graph for visual analysis.
The Excel graph was converted into a PDF document.
The PDF document was then uploaded to the county Extension Web site.
A soil-moisture section was created under the agriculture link on the county Web site.
The soil-moisture section of the Web site contained a reference page with detailed information about the soil-moisture monitoring program as well as a page where farmers could access their individual soil-moisture data using a personalized identification number.
Bimonthly, data was retrieved from each site and uploaded to the county Extension Web site.
Participants were sent an email with a personal ID number and a link to the county Extension Web site home page.
Detailed directions were provided to guide the participant from the home page to the individual soil-moisture data page.
This approach provided participants with the opportunity to see other information available on the Web site and encouraged further discovery of what the Web site has to offer.
Thirteen of the 16 participants accessed their individual soil-moisture information on the county Extension Web site.
Previously, only seven of these 13 participants had visited the Extension Web site.
Before the soil-moisture information was posted on the Web site, only five of these 13 participants had visited the Extension Web site twice.
After the soil-moisture information was posted to the Web site, nine of the 13 participants accessed the Web site at least twice.
Before the soil-moisture information was posted on the Web site, only two of the 13 participants had visited the Web site three or more times.
Afterward, five of the 13 participants accessed the Web site three or more times.
All 13 participants who accessed their personal soil-moisture information viewed additional pages of the Extension Web site.
Web Site Usage of Participants
 We concluded that integrating the county Extension Web site with on-farm data collection was an effective process for introducing, reestablishing and retaining farmer interaction with the county Extension Web site.
Furthermore, providing on-farm data on the county Extension Web site increased farmer exposure to other information provided by the Web site.
A strong personal connection to the information was critical to farmer interaction with the county Web site.
Although collecting individualized information has limitations, this type of tool is ideal for programs where individualized information is inherently necessary.
Adding a Web site element to these programs can assist in the dissemination of information for other programs.
Increasingly, user-friendly Web site tools have made this process more practical than ever.
Calibration of granular matrix sensors for irrigation management.
Agronomy Journal, 85, 1228-1232.
Strong regularities in World Wide Web surfing.
Learning the internet and the structure of information behavior.
Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 49, 1017-1023.
Development of more effective conservation farming systems through participatory on-farm research.
American Journal of Alternative Agriculture, 14, 98-102.
August 2007 // Volume 45 // Number 4 // Ideas at Work // 4IAW5
 Abstract Simplicity is the key toward New Mexico residents saving water.
Farmers, ranchers, and residents are more likely to learn and adopt irrigation efficient technologies that are convenient and not management intensive.
They can receive instruction in one such technology through the Community Collaborative Rain, Hail, and Snow network , a community-based network of volunteers working together to measure and map precipitation.
The implementation and growth of this network in New Mexico began with the Master Gardeners Program.
Through the act of routine measurement and spatial comparison of precipitation, participants may gain a better appreciation of their limited water resources.
Despite its generally dry climate, agriculture in New Mexico is a major contributor to the state's economy.
The majority of the productive farmland is located along the Rio Grande, Pecos, San Juan, Canadian, and Gila River valleys, where crops can be irrigated with river water.
The rural, agricultural ambiance of these areas has resulted in their being targeted for development.
Consequently, they have experienced rapid population growth and decreasing municipal groundwater supplies.
Residential or lifestyle agriculture is widespread and is practiced by both newcomers and residents whose roots in the region are hundreds of years old.
Many irrigation technologies and management practices are available to improve water conservation and increase irrigation efficiencies.
Effective precipitation is important in irrigation decisions.
In arid regions such as New Mexico, where little or no rainfall occurs during the growing season, irrigation water can be applied at fairly routine intervals and in routine amounts.
However, adoption level of technologies and management practices is ultimately determined by individuals.
Recent studies  conclude that convenient technologies that are not management intensive and take no extra thought are most likely to be adopted.
While this article does not address the effective use of rainfall to adjust irrigation schedules, it identifies that precipitation is one of the components of the irrigation equation to improve water use efficiencies.
One such technology is the simple and routine measurement of precipitation for use in irrigation scheduling.
By engaging New Mexico residents in a Web-based project of precipitation measurements and mapping, new data resources for water budget calculations are being developed and increased awareness of the spatial variability of water resources is occurring.
The development, implementation, and growth of a statewide rain gauge network in New Mexico began with the Master Gardeners Program, because its participants could use the data and help educate the community about water efficiency practices.
To receive the title of Master Gardener in New Mexico, individuals must:
 Most participants usually donate 100 hours of volunteer time each year.
After graduating the Master Gardener program, volunteers work under the guidance of their local CES agent to perform a variety of extension and outreach activities.
The Community Collaborative Rain, Hail, and Snow Network  was first established in Colorado in 1998 as a grassroots volunteer network of backyard weather observers of all ages and backgrounds working together to measure and map precipitation in their local communities.
By using low-cost measurement tools, stressing training and education, and using an interactive Web site, CoCoRaHS provides high quality data for natural resource, education, and research applications and supplements existing official precipitation networks with more detailed local data.
One of the earliest and most successful efforts in expanding the CoCoRaHS Network in New Mexico has been through the CES agents and the Master Gardeners program.
Since March 2005, CoCoRaHS training has been delivered to approximately 150 Master Gardeners.
Additionally, CoCoRaHS information is being incorporated into new trainees' initial instruction.
Training provided to the Master Gardeners includes:
 Master Gardeners active in the CoCoRaHS program are being credited with one volunteer hour, per month.
Some Master Gardeners' also serve as county coordinators, in which they:
 CoCoRaHS volunteers exist in all counties with active Master Gardeners Programs.
In fact, of the 311 registered volunteers in New Mexico , approximately 47% said that they heard of the project through either their county Extension agent and/or the Master Gardeners Program.
During their volunteer service, Master Gardeners are in an ideal position to recruit new CoCoRaHS volunteers and to educate the community about the importance of taking local precipitation into account when scheduling irrigation.
For example, by simply considering local precipitation to calculate irrigation needs for Santa Fe, Albuquerque, and Las Cruces, over 60 million gallons of water could be conserved in these three cities alone.
Given the current residential water rates in these cities, this translates to an unnecessary water cost of nearly $113,000.
Water use outdoor varies depending on climate and irrigation requirements for lawns and landscapes in New Mexico.
Outdoor water use for New Mexico generally accounts 50% to 70% of the total residential water use.
"In a study of 20 residents in Las Cruces, NM, annual water use for landscape irrigation ranged from 108,000 gallons to 204,000 gallons to irrigate 5219 square feet".
According to the U.S.
Geological Survey, residential water demand in the U.S.
averages more than 26 billion gallons per day, and an estimated 30% is devoted to outdoor use, primarily lawn irrigation.
Whether it is an agricultural field, home lawn, commercial landscape, or athletic field, over watering is a common mistake, which oftentimes occurs simply because individuals irrigate regardless of the environmental conditions outside.
Using the knowledge and expertise of our local Master Gardener's, our future plans for CoCoRaHS include developing:
 What started as a collaborative data collection venture has developed into an exciting community-based, science education program that includes classroom presentations, field trips, training, picnics, and informal seminars.
CoCoRaHS includes over 2,500 active volunteers from New Mexico to Pennsylvania.
The initial development of CoCoRaHS in New Mexico began through the Master Gardener program and is now being expanded to address the issue of efficient water use throughout New Mexico.
Microscale rainfall variations as measured by a local volunteer network.
Paper presented at the 12th Conference on Applied Climatology, Asheville, NC.
Using remotely sensed imagery and GIS for urban evapotranspiration studies.
Applied Engineering in Agriculture, 21, 347-355.
Off-farm work and the economic impact of adopting herbicide-tolerant crops.
Paper presented at the American Agricultural Economics Association Annual Meeting, Montreal, Canada.
Farm size, irrigation practices, and on-farm irrigation efficiency.
Irrigation and Drainage: The Journal of the International Commission on Irrigation and Drainage, 54, 43-57.
A profile of agriculture in New Mexico from the 1997 Census of Agriculture [Electronic version] (Agricultural Experiment Station Technical Report No.
Las Cruces, NM: New Mexico State University.
Does off-farm work hinder "smart" farming?
Agricultural Outlook, 294, 28-30.
Estimated use of water in the United States in 1995.
Geological Survey Circular 1200, U.S.
Geological Survey, Reston, Va., 27.
Water use by categories in New Mexico counties and river basin, and irrigated acreage in 2000.
New Mexico Office of the State Engineer, Technical Report 51, Santa Fe, NM.
June 2010 // Volume 48 // Number 3 // Feature // v48-3a1
 Communities face complex choices related to natural resources, economic development, and the environment.
In times of controversy, they often turn to Extension to facilitate dialogue and public education.
While Extension educators are eager to work with community members on issues of importance, there are risks.
It is difficult to maintain a reputation as unbiased, and long-term relationships with client groups can be a help or a hindrance.
This article relates the experience of a team of Extension and Experiment Station faculty who published a report related to a water conflict in Oregon and California.
We outline our steps and identify key contributors to success, while suggesting improvements in the process.
Our lessons are relevant to anyone undertaking public education on complex, controversial topics.
In April 2001, requirements to conserve endangered and threatened fish, combined with a severe drought, resulted in curtailment of irrigation water deliveries on the Klamath Reclamation Project, an area covering 200,000 acres straddling the Oregon-California border.
The ensuing conflicts among irrigators, federal agencies, Native American tribes, and conservation groups made national headlines.
All of these groups had legal claims to the water.
Endangered Species Act considerations were a major factor leading to the irrigation curtailment in 2001.
Thus, the conflict quickly became characterized as farmers versus big government and farmers versus fish.
Emotions reached a fevered pitch, as irrigators organized bucket brigades and opened irrigation head gates.
Local businesses feared economic collapse.
Competing federal agencies traded accusations, while Indian tribes defended their treaty rights.
Anger about the situation often manifested itself as anger against groups with opposing interests.
Because of Extension's interdisciplinary nature and its credibility within communities, it is well positioned to address complex, controversial issues.
Barrows  makes a case for Extension's involvement in public issues education, stating, "Extension is publicly funded for the specific purpose of applying the knowledge of the land-grant university to improve the quality of life of the people." In 1992, the Extension Committee on Organization and Policy  issued a position statement titled Public Issues Education: The Cooperative Extension System's Role in Addressing Public Issues.
It defined public issues education as "educational programs that have the objective of enhancing the society's capacity to understand and address issues of widespread concern."
 Schumacher and Lloyd  suggest that Extension's role in public policy education is to  "make highly technical information available to farmers and the public in an understandable form;  to provide unbiased information;  to help create a forum in which all stakeholders have an opportunity for input; and  to provide education for our clientele."
 As controversy boiled in the Klamath Basin, Oregon State University  and University of California  faculty participated in meetings throughout the region.
Community membersprimarily the agricultural community and public officialsexpressed concern about the information reported in the media and asked the universities to help develop reliable data on the consequences of the irrigation curtailment.
A team of scientists, local Extension faculty, administrators, and communications specialists from OSU and UC agreed in July 2001 to prepare a report on ecological, economic, social, and policy issues relevant to the controversy.
The report team included the following:
 The report development process can be divided into five stages:
 At each stage, key decisions affected the ultimate success of the report.
In July 2001, the team toured the Klamath Falls area, met with interested parties, and outlined the project.
Group meetings to refine our strategy and timeline continued over the following months.
These discussions focused largely on questions of bias, credibility, and report format.
As educators, we sought to be "unbiased." Yet, Blaine and Patton  argue that "unbiased" or "value-free" education is impossible.
When educators report the results of a particular study, for example, they implicitly show their own bias about what is important or credible.
We felt that we could minimize bias by ensuring input from a wide variety of groups, including farmers, Native American tribes, conservation groups, and federal agencies.
Our initial contacts with some of these groups reflected the difficulty in addressing controversial issues, especially when Extension's traditional clients  are involved.
Some groups saw irrigators as "the other side" and indicated concern that the report would reflect only an agricultural perspective.
Again, ensuring broad public input seemed the best way to build credibility.
Public issues run a gamut from single-question issues to those involving complex, interconnected relationships.
Patton and Blaine  develop a typology of public issues: those with a clear underlying problem and solution , those with a clear underlying problem but multiple possible solutions , and those where there is no consensus on the problem, thus leading to multiple proposed solutions, each addressing the problem as seen by a specific group.
Likewise, public policy educators can choose from a variety of educational approaches.
Barrows  examines an Advocacy model, in which the educator takes a stand, and an Alternatives-Consequences model, in which the educator helps to clarify the issue and outlines policy alternatives and likely consequences.
Goodwin  argues that these approaches are more appropriate for issues with clear options and consequences  than for those involving complex social questions and value judgments.
For this type of issue, he proposes a Contrasting Viewpoints model, in which the educator broadly examines different perspectives, thus helping to moderate viewpoints and improve public understanding.
With multiple parties defining the problem differently and supporting different solutions, the Klamath controversy was clearly a Type III issue in the Patton-Blaine schema.
Thus, the report would need to address the many facets of the problem.
We first decided what we would not do.
There would be no advocacy, and we would not attempt to achieve consensus among authors.
Each author was responsible for the content of his or her chapter.
Although authors were required to consider all comments, no attempt was made to achieve consensus within the team.
The result was a hybrid of public education models: Some authors followed the Alternatives-Consequences model, while others adopted the Contrasting Viewpoints model.
Writing and peer review occurred between July and December 2001, although reviews continued throughout the public comment period.
Team members were encouraged to review all chapters.
Authors obtained external peer review as time permitted.
Massey  stresses the error of focusing on research-based information to the exclusion of community values.
He notes that this approach fails to acknowledge the imperfection of scientific research, ignores diversity, and guarantees that the educator's bias will color the educational program.
As noted above, we felt that broad public input would reduce bias and enhance credibility.
Thus, we made public review an integral part of the project.
We released a draft for public review on December 14, 2001 and presented it at a public meeting at the OSU Klamath County Extension office on December 19.
We invited the public to comment at the meeting, by mail, or by e-mail.
The public comment period ended on January 25, 2002.
The comment period was intense and emotional.
The atmosphere at the presentation was tense, with criticism focused on the science surrounding the status of fish populations in Upper Klamath Lake.
We also received numerous written comments.
Many argued that we had overlooked concerns of Indian tribes and others outside of commercial agriculture, some pointed out minor errors, others questioned methodology and results in the economic and fish biology chapters, and a few attacked authors perceived to be aligned with agricultural interests.
The reviewers included a wide range of citizens and agency scientists.
The project leader reviewed and distributed comments to authors.
Authors were expected to revise their chapters in response to comments.
With the second draft in hand, the editor rewrote phrases that were "red flags" for various groups, checked facts, and ensured consistency.
A greater effort was made to include the viewpoints of Native American tribes.
The editor and project leader again reviewed all public comments to ensure that concerns had been addressed.
The editor, project leader, and individual authors worked together to resolve particularly difficult issues.
The final step was to synthesize our findings in a "Lessons Learned" section.
Because the editor was most familiar with the entire report, she drafted this section and worked with authors on its final wording.
The final report was released in December 2002.
OSU media specialists helped to develop a release plan.
Our goal was to maximize visibility and serious consideration of the report while minimizing political fallout from dissatisfied groups.
We recognized that our effort to be balanced would antagonize some groups that had long supported Extension.
The economic impact results were expected to generate the most controversy.
We anticipated vocal criticism from irrigators, who argued that our community-level assessment of net economic impact overlooked the pain felt by individual farmers.
We followed many of the strategies suggested by Bailey , who noted the challenge of addressing impacts on all stakeholders without alienating traditional client groups.
Among the solutions he suggests are forewarning university administrators and briefing stakeholders before the report is released.
We provided prerelease copies to key interest groups and elected officials, followed by electronic and print publication and delivery to the media.
In addition to preparing press releases and providing counsel regarding the timing of release, an Extension and Experiment Station Communications news writer helped authors prepare for media interviews.
Klamath County Extension faculty and some authors personally delivered the report and presented findings to key groups.
As expected, irrigators reacted strongly to the economic impact conclusion.
The team economists continued to meet with these groups over the coming months to explain the report's findings.
During a post-release debriefing, team members evaluated both their own experiences with the project and public feedback to the report.
This section draws on that evaluation.
With its breadth of expertise, credibility, and local contacts, Extension has a unique capability to produce comprehensive educational materials in a complex, controversial environment.
Such endeavors epitomize the land-grant mission to provide citizens with research-based education and tools to help them solve local problems.
Nonetheless, the investment of time, energy, and emotion in such projects is great.
The margin for error is small, and pressure from interest groups is high.
The process described in this article, along with the suggestions for improvement, may enhance the likelihood of success.
Extension Committee on Organization and Policy.
Public issues education: The cooperative extension system's role in addressing public issues.
Washington, DC: Extension Service, USDA.
April 2014 // Volume 52 // Number 2 // Commentary // v52-2comm2
 Do you have a personal Facebook account?
Maybe you have never asked yourself this question.
Is it to socialize with friends, keep in touch with family, or spy on your kids?
Do you use it to promote your Extension programs?
For whatever reason, now you're connected.
Are you connected to your clients?
Did you have any reservations before you approved their "friend request?"
 Extension "has historically been a leader in adopting new tools and practices , so why not information technology for educational program delivery, content management, and clientele service?".
I urge all Extension agents to grow fluent in social media, specifically Facebook, and capitalize on this widespread technology.
Facebook is an easy way to keep in touch with anyonewhether the relationship is distant or close.
Through Facebook, you can conveniently message or chat directly with connections, tag them in photos, and comment back and forth in public or private.
Facebook must be thought of as a tool to drive traffic to university sites where the public can find Extension's research-based information.
It can also be used to advertise upcoming events, generate interest in programs, and answer questions.
If used correctly, Facebook can become a powerful tool to accomplish the mission of Extension.
Your agenda on Facebook will determine what type of account you should have.
Consider for example, Facebooker A, who doesn't want to mingle his personal and professional lives.
He doesn't connect with clients on his personal account and has high privacy settings.
This is perfectly understandable.
Rather, he sets up a "public figure page" or an "organization page" on behalf of his county Extension office in order to interact and engage clientele, but in this way, he maintains his privacy.
Facebooker B believes that her job is who she is and chooses to connect with everyone on her personal page.
She also has an "organization page" for her county.
She promotes county programs on both pages in order to reach a broader audience.
Her main agenda on her personal Facebook page is promoting her programs and sharing information on Extension related topics, but approximately 25% of the time she posts things about her personal life.
Every time she posts she asks herself "Is this appropriate for me to post as a representative of my university?" Most professionals using Facebook will fall somewhere between these examples.
Be conscious of what your profile picture says about you; it carries weight in how your image is conveyed.
Do you look professional?
Or like a party animal?
Remember your privacy settings.
On the Facebook Timeline you can categorize your friends into groups, and with each post you can select which group is going to see that post in their "news feed." Privacy settings are tricky and frequently updatedstay on top of it.
What information is available on your profile?
Consider removing the details that might inhibit connections.
Depending on how you decide to leverage social networks, keeping political and religious views private is usually a good idea, same with your interests, favorite movies, and TV shows.
As a figure in the public eye, the things you publish online will affect you, whether you are friends with your clientele or not.
Use good sense in every social network you belong to.
Facebook makes friend recommendations for you, which makes it an excellent tool to expand your influence and agenda.
Through social media friends can "comment on" and "share" Extension resources that you post with their friends, instantly.
A personal referral from a friend is the single most powerful tool.
Imagine how your reach could spread: "one post can theoretically be spread worldwide and viewed by millions within minutes, if not secondswith audienceswhom we don't have traditional connections".
Clients want simple, easy to find, proven resources that they can apply to their lives.
Analyzing a few organizations that are engaging clients via social media will shed some light on other strategies that are successful.
For example, the Wisconsin Milk Marketing Board sponsors The Cheese & Burger Society's Facebook page takes an innovative approachfans are asked to post pictures of themselves and their burgers.
People love to share pictures, especially of themselves.
The Cheese & Burger Society has been especially successful because links, videos, and pictures get a better "EdgeRank," which is the algorithm Facebook developed to determine which posts will be displayed at the top of fans' "news feeds".
Another organization that has been a hit through social media is IdeaPaint, which sells a specialty paint that changes boring walls into dry-erase writing surfaces.
IdeaPaint shares "How-To" videos for its products on Facebook.
How many factsheets have you written that can be turned into a "How-To" video?
A great way to start sharing would be to dissect the content you have already written and start posting it piece-by-piece on your website.
Facebook can then be used as a tool to drive traffic to your website.
"A key to creating ongoing engagement on your [Facebook page] is to use variety in your posts".
Many organizations use questions, quotes, contests, and news articles in their posts to connect with fans.
Marketing through Facebook may sound very compelling, but those with whom you connect will also be invited into your personal life.
This can be a good thingsome people want to know that you are a real person with family, friends, and a sense of humor.
Be forewarned, however; those same features that make social media so convenient and useful when building relationships with Extension clients and reaching their contacts, can also have an adverse impact on your image.
This is where it gets difficult to separate your professional role in Extension with your personal life.
How do you know if you should or should not confirm a "friend request" on Facebook from clients?
The answer is really up to you and your level of social comfort online.
If you don't want to be personally connected with people, direct them to an alternative page such as your county page, with a tactful message.
People may become offended if they are simply "denied "as a friend.
Holmes  warns of the "friend factor." This is when a "friend" you are connected to "shares" something you have posted with their social network without your approval or permission.
This type of sharing through "social media communicationsmay lead to potential disciplinary actions for you if [your] University's civil rights policies are violated.
What you do or fail to do when employing social media could have serious ramifications for you, Extension or [your] University." Having to "untag" your name from a picture or delete a comment on your "wall'" are just some of the hassles involved with allowing your life to be viewed publicly online.
You may not desire to chat on Facebook.
If this is the case, go "offline" in your account settings so clients cannot send you instant messages.
If you do not, some could get the impression you are ignoring them if you do not respond.
No public figure can escape negative comments.
Connecting to clients opens you up to the possibility of criticism and negative feedback regarding your service.
Always remember to respond positively and thank the person for bringing the information to your attention.
It may not be appropriate to address detailed concerns publically on Facebook; consider telephoning the person to follow-up if there is an issue.
If you decide to connect with clients on Facebook, expect to change the way you share and post.
You will have to think about your social contributions more earnestly by asking yourself "Will this post or comment be allowable if one of my clients were to read it?"
 My Facebook account has been extremely useful in growing my county programs.
A personal policy I use for posting is: 40% work related, 25% family and personal related, and 35% hobbies and interests.
Posting work-related events and articles attracts the attention of my friendswho are also prospective members and volunteers in my programs.
Facebook is also a great way to stay in contact with 4-H youth, especially to remind them about upcoming events.
How you use Facebook to advance Extension programs and the extent you wish to share your personal life with clients is contingent on your comfort leveland your reasons for using social media in the first place.
The way "the world communicates is changing and requires Extension to change as well.
Social media provides abundant opportunities to interact with and meet our clientele's needs on platforms that they are using and embracing in their everyday lives".
December 2002 // Volume 40 // Number 6 // Research in Brief // 6RIB2
 Abstract As Extension educators and agriculture education teachers address the sensitive issues of livestock show ethics and quality assurance of the food animals produced and marketed to the public through the youth livestock program, they must ensure that their educational efforts are effective.
Everyone has an opinion about what should or should not be done in order to improve the situation related youth livestock ethics.
This study examines the effectiveness of a video educational program that has been in widespread use since its inception in 1996.
The issue of livestock show ethics gained public attention in 1994 as residues of clenbuterol were discovered in several major livestock shows in the United States.
The Food and Drug Administration  acted on concerns about possible adverse effects of clenbuterol residues on public health.
In a provocative 1990 study of 1,945 participants of the Houston Livestock Show and Rodeo, Murphy, Norwood, and Dubes  found that 25% of the respondents had knowingly used illegal drugs in preparing market animals for show ring competition.
Even though "steroids" are contraband in this country, 7.9% of respondents indicated they had given these substances to market animals.
Of those responding, 42.5% had illegally used tranquilizers in their animals, and 37.5% admitted to falsification of data on livestock registration certificates.
The authors of this article noted that Murphy, Norwood, and Dubes  referred to the compound clenbuterol as a "steroid" even though it is not actually classified as a steroid, but as a beta-agonist.
Also, while clenbuterol was cleared for use in the United States for the treatment of horses in 1998, at the time of the study the drug was a contraband substance.
These unscrupulous practices not only threaten the future existence of 4-H and FFA youth development programs involving livestock, they also threaten consumer confidence in a safe and wholesome food supply.
As a result, ethics educational efforts have been implemented in many states nationwide.
The essence of livestock show ethics education is expressed as Coffey and Goodwin  stress the importance of breaking the "curtain of silence" that the unethical few work behind.
Many states have aggressively implemented ethics educational efforts to 4-H and FFA audiences.
The question at hand, then, is does the effort of presenting such educational programs result in a positive difference in the actions of individuals at youth livestock shows?
The purpose of the study reported here was to determine the effectiveness of a videotaped ethics educational effort directed to individuals involved in youth livestock shows.
To accomplish this purpose, the research objective was to determine livestock show participants' ability to correctly sort a list of livestock showing practices as either ethical or unethical.
This ability was assessed both before and after exposure to a livestock show ethics education video program.
Three questions were used to determine if a particular practice was ethical or unethical.
If any of the three questions are answered yes, the practice in question is ethically unacceptable based on the constructs proposed in this study.
These questions were developed through an analysis of the available literature for use in the ethics education video "Line in the Sand".
This video has been adopted for use in all 50 states since its introduction in the fall of 1996.
The ethical test offered in the video is a three-step test composed of three questions to assist individuals in discerning whether or not a particular practice involved in the showing of livestock is acceptable.
This presumption, that the construct offered above is a valid test of the ethical or unethical nature of a practice, has been scrutinized by a wide variety of audiences in many states.
There has never been a valid argument against the three "Line in the Sand" questions reported by a presenter of the information in the United States to the producer of the video.
The producer of the video has presented the three-question test to over 5,000 people in 10 states and has never had an audience member contest the validity of the three-question ethical test.
As stated by Ann Swinker, Extension Equine Specialist at Colorado State University, "The three-question ethical test in the 'Line in the Sand' video has become the standard on which livestock showing practices are now measured in the state of Colorado, where the video is in use in every county in the state".
During the first nine months of 1997, 918 individuals involved in youth livestock shows in six states participated in this study.
Data were collected from 4-H and FFA members, parents, FFA Advisors, and Extension Educators in Oklahoma, Idaho, Alabama, Washington, Oregon, and Ohio.
A posttest-only control group experimental design was utilized in the study.
Participants in the study were randomly selected into the treatment or the control group based on where they sat in the rooms used to deliver the ethics education programs.
In half the cases, those sitting on the left-hand side of the presenter were selected as the Treatment group, while in the other half, those on the right were so selected.
This selection procedure has been criticized.
The most valid of these criticisms has been that two people, entering the room together, would not have the same probability distribution surrounding their selection into the Treatment group.
.
This is certainly true, and in the strictest of interpretations may well invalidate the principles of random assignment.
The reader may want to consider this fact a limitation of this study and use caution when generalizing to other populations.
The authors contend, however, that the reader should consider the following when judging the reliability of this sampling technique.
Many of the rooms used in this study were livestock show arenas--they were round.
There are a few situations in which the side of the room is chosen for reasons other than random assignment.
At weddings, for example, the choice of sitting on one side or another has underlying meaning.
If there is no underlying reason to sit on one side or another, then two people entering together may well have different probability distributions for being chosen into the Treatment group, but the two other people entering right behind them would not.
Finally, these were relatively large samples.
Control group participants were asked to sort a list of eight livestock showing practices as either ethical or unethical prior to the audience being exposed to the experimental treatment.
The treatment group participants sorted the same list of practices after exposure to the treatment.
The eight livestock showing practices included on the instrument to be sorted as either ethical or unethical included the following.
According to the three "Line in the Sand" questions proposed as a guide to determine the ethical or unethical nature of a livestock showing practice, situations 2 and 6 are ethical, and situations 1, 3, 4, 5, 7, and 8 are unethical.
These were considered the "correct" responses to the instrument for the purposes of this study.
As an indication of internal consistency, Cronbach's Alpha was calculated for the eight questions included on the instrument and found to be.64.
This would indicate that measures of correlation between items on the instrument were in the acceptable range.
While the treatment was randomly assigned, this study involved intact groups who were, in some manner, self-selected through their participation in an ethics education presentation.
Caution is warranted in making inferences beyond the sample population described here.
When analyzed together , the participants did quite well on the test.
The mean score of the control group was 91.75% , while that of the treatment group was 95%.
There was a statistically significant difference between the control and treatment groups' ability to correctly sort the eight livestock showing practices.
While the treatment was clearly effective in increasing the mean score achieved on the instrument by the participants, in the judgment of the researchers, only a perfect score could indicate the presence of the desired level of ethical cognition.
In this view, one either possesses the necessary level of ethical reasoning, or one does not.
The degree to which a given respondent lacked the prerequisite cognitive ability to behave ethically was deemed unimportant.
To investigate this hypothesis, a new variable was created.
A "0" was assigned to those individuals who missed even one of the eight questions, and a 100 to those who correctly sorted all eight livestock showing practices.
Additional tests were conducted to determine the number of perfect scores in the sample populations before and after the treatment and the probability that any differences in the sample populations occurred by chance.
The Chi-Square statistic did exceed the tabulated value at the alpha established apriori , thus the null hypothesis  was rejected.
The treatment resulted in a higher-than-expected percentage of perfect scores.
In the control group, 64.1% of the subjects  achieved a perfect score.
On the other hand, 79.6%  of the subjects exposed to the treatment achieved a perfect score.
Subjects in the treatment group were better able to correctly identify all eight of the livestock showing practices as either ethical or unethical.
So the treatment was deemed effective in altering the subjects' knowledge about acceptable and unacceptable practices.
The fact that 64.1% of the control population achieved a perfect score tends to support Coffey and Goodwin's  supposition that the majority of livestock show participants behave ethically.
For some people, this could lead to a conclusion that the comparatively small number of people involved reduces the significance of the problem.
Unfortunately, history has demonstrated that a small number, or even one unethical act, can trigger an overwhelming response in the form of public outcry and governmental regulation.
No claims are made regarding the change of unethical behavior at youth livestock shows as a result of exposure to the educational program serving as the experimental treatment in this study.
However, the authors contend that a change in ethical cognition did occur in the treatment group and that this change was due to the treatment.
The authors also contend that this change in ethical cognition or knowledge is essential and prerequisite to positive changes in attitude and, finally, behavior.
Because ethical behavior is the desired outcome of all ethics education efforts, additional research is needed to determine the relationship between ethical cognition and ethical behavior regarding the particular issue of livestock show ethics.
A complete reporting of this study can be found in the Proceedings of the 26th Annual National Agricultural Education Research Meeting in Orlando, Florida.
Educational research: An introduction.
White Plains, New York: Longman Publishers.
Ethics in exhibiting and showing livestock--Facing reality.
The Agricultural Education Magazine, 68, 10-11.
The line in the sand [Videotape].
Available from Instructional Materials Service, Mail Stop 2588, Texas A&M University, College Station, Texas 77843-2588,  845-6601.
Measuring the ethical cognition effect of a videotape livestock show ethics education program.
Proceedings of the 26th Annual National Agricultural Education Research Meeting, 26, pp.
Unethical fitting and showing practices in junior livestock shows.
Texas Journal of Agriculture and Natural Resources, 5, 99-106.
The role of USDA in residue avoidance.
National Youth Livestock Program Ethics Symposium Conference Proceedings.
Livestock Conservation Institute, 1910 Lyda Drive, Bowling Green, Kentucky 42104-5809.
June 2013 // Volume 51 // Number 3 // Tools of the Trade // v51-3tt5
 Previous reports  involved providing useful information to Extension professionals related to communicating factual information when there are serious issues of significant impact to their region.
Factual information should include not only what occurred but also the perceived consequences and what is being done.
Although some details of the factual information may not generally be used, it is important to know the information in depth so that one has the ability to speak beyond the journalistic jargon  with the media, the harvester/grower or processor, and the consumer.
This article illustrates interaction with various media based upon the principles described as a consequence of the BP oil spill.
The first media contact was an email from an Internet "news service" asking for an expert opinion related to current seafood safety.
The fire on the Deepwater Horizon oil platform had not even been extinguished.
At this point, the situation was under evaluation by state and federal authorities, and it was too soon to have any factual information.
This email request was forwarded to the Sea Grant Communications Director for a response.
The second media contact on June 2, 2010, was from the producer of a leading network evening news program.
It went like this.
Questioner: "How many people will this seafood kill?"
 The fishery is closed, and none of the seafood is being harvested."
 Questioner: "How sick will the people feel?"
 Specialist: "People will not become sick because the affected waters and those adjacent have been closed to fishing activity due to an abundance of caution."
 Questioner: "What are the symptoms from eating this contaminated seafood?"
 Specialist: "There should not be any symptoms because no seafood from waters closed to harvest will be entering into commerce."
 Questioner: "Well, just how many people will this contaminated seafood kill?"
 Specialist: "Ma'am, as I have explained, no seafood impacted by the oil spill will be entering commerce; there should be no illness resulting because it cannot be harvested and consumed.
I will be happy to discuss the healthful benefits of seafood consumption following the advice of Cartwright, Case, Gallagher, and Hathaway to be positive."
 Questioner: "Thank you for your time" and a sharp click of the telephone.
In the first year after the explosion, fire and 87-day oil spill, the national and international media were primarily interested in hearing negative information.
Extension specialists should present the facts rather than a scare.
Once the initial fervor had abated, there was the opportunity for more objective media attention.
There was an opportunity for positive press when some academics were trained in sensory evaluation of seafood tainted with known levels of crude oil at the National Marine Fisheries Service  Laboratories in Pascagoula, MS in June 2010.
Those in academia were interviewed and filmed for television pool newscasts while conducting sensory evaluation of tainted seafood.
NMFS personnel were also interviewed in the presence of communicators from their communications department.
We were cautioned to remember that if a camera is in view, it is probably powered up and even whispers can be recorded.
This specialist subsequently pursued a formal training session related to dealing with the media, as suggested by Brown.
Local media tended to be more responsible in their reporting for one simple reason.
They all live in the affected area; they know the area, economy and local industries.
Regardless, an hour interview would be reduced to 90 seconds on the evening news.
It is also important to note that a local media interview is not necessarily destined for only one market, especially after one has been identified as an expert.
An interview with a Baton Rouge CBS station was aired on sister  and competing  affiliates as far west as Lubbock, Texas, and east Cape Girardeau, Missouri, to the mid-Atlantic  and north to Cincinnati, Ohio.
Jargon local to an area, in this case Louisiana, may be misunderstood in other regions of the country.
Try to avoid it.
Radio interviews were usually, so it was necessary to anticipate questions and prepare short, factual responses in advance.
"Dead air" on the radio is not only dreaded, but it also leads the listener to conclude that the interviewee may not be either familiar or comfortable with the subject matter.
Specialists must work with their Extension communicators to better hone their ability to speak in sound bites to maintain their credibility.
Radio and television may visit the university.
National Public Radio , the British Broadcasting Corporation , and Fox News Network had well-known personalities conduct extended interviews.
Although these interviews took 60 to 120 minutes, they were edited into a shorter format for a given news bite , program length , or a two-part series.
Louisiana Sea Grant and campus communicators were present to keep them informed and to photograph the interviews.
A photo with the NPR personality and this specialist was on the cover of the BP Oil Spill Report to Congress.
The presence of professional communicators, as facilitators allows quick reaction to regain a situation should something go awry  during interviews with media, and especially, major media.
Central sources of information provide consistency and accuracy.
The Sea Grant website, because it is dedicated to seafood, wetlands, marine water quality, and fisheries, became the official site for posting factual information.
Short technical bulletins describing "Determining Seafood Safety" and "Seafood Frequently Asked Questions" were posted to better inform the public.
Also, a video was made on the "Sniff Test" procedure to determine seafood taint and received almost 900 hits after posting on You Tube.
Credible Extension specialists get invited to display their expertise in national forums.
This specialist received an invitation by NOAA to be a panelist at the Smithsonian Institution National Museum of Natural History on "Demystifying the Ocean: One Year After the BP Oil Spill" before a live audience event  and with multiple media outlets present.
CSPAN taped the entire event, which is in their archives.
The Director of NOAA, two processors, the co-chair of the President's Commission on the Oil Spill, and an actor and activist were also panelists.
This specialist sought and received media training from the Cooperative Extension Communications Division, the main campus Communications Office, and the Institute of Food Technologists  and held practice sessions prior to the event.
Best practices in public health risks and crisis communication.
Journal of Health Communications, 8, 5-8.
Seafood safety during an oil spill and the sniff test.
August 2019 // Volume 57 // Number 4 // Tools of the Trade // v57-4tt2
 More than ever, those involved with Extension programs across the country are being tasked with providing evidence that demonstrates the impacts of their programming.
Extension educators, facilitators, and volunteers are expected to obtain this evidence through scholarly efforts to evaluate and report program impacts.
Unfortunately, some Extension personnel and others expected to conduct research in the form of program evaluation may have little or no exposure to or training in effective research design and practices.
This issue can be addressed through professional development and/or collaboration with non-Extension researchers, including research faculty at their respective universities.
These collaborations can be mutually beneficial to Extension professionals who need to evaluate their programs and research faculty who need programs and participants to study.
However, such a partnership requires that both sides develop an understanding of the other's priorities and challenges in order to function effectively.
For instance, non-Extension research faculty must be aware of the challenges faced by Extension professionals and the facilitators and volunteers with whom they workchallenges such as time, labor, and financial constraints.
Conversely, Extension professionals, facilitators, and volunteers must recognize the importance of fidelity in implementing research methods and designs to ensure the accuracy of evaluation findings.
A balance of realistic expectations for the evaluation process and fidelity to research methods is essential for both the partnership and the process.
Herein, we describe strategies for promoting fidelity in program evaluation that were identified through a collaborative effort by Extension and non-Extension faculty.
In 2012, Washington State University Extension 4-H Adventure Education faculty and Washington State University Human Development faculty began development of a new program evaluation process for Adventure Education programs in the state.
The purpose of this partnership between Extension and non-Extension faculty was to examine participant outcomes specific to the programs' goals.
Our intention was to design a process comprising effective research procedures that could be implemented by trained Extension program facilitators.
After initial success with the evaluation process, we noticed that previously effective outcome measures began to demonstrate reliability issues.
In the second round of data analysis, a measure of the internal consistency of the scale variables used to measure program outcomes dropped to a problematic level.
In examining possible causes, we confirmed our suspicions that the problems likely were due to a couple of key factors:  program facilitators' lack of fidelity to the evaluation process  and  administration of the survey to program participants who should not have been included in the survey sample.
The solution to these fidelity issues was a careful retraining of the program facilitators.
Subsequently, only facilitators who had been present at the training were allowed to administer the survey.
We offer lessons learned from this experience to other Extension and non-Extension research faculty who involve persons unfamiliar with research design and practicesbe they Extension educators, facilitators, or volunteersin data collection.
Our collaboration presented the following implementation concerns:
 Our collaboration presented the following fidelity concerns:
 Our experiences revealed the following strategies for successful implementation:
 Collaboration between Extension and non-Extension research faculty can be a mutually beneficial partnership but requires careful attention to the needs and challenges of all parties involved.
The lessons learned in our collaboration include identification of valuable strategies for avoiding possible problems and moving toward effective approaches to the program evaluation process.
Practical program evaluation: Theory-driven evaluation and the integrated evaluation perspective.
Los Angeles, CA: Sage Publishing.
SPSS for Windows step by step: A simple guide and reference 11.0 update.
Boston, MA: Allyn & Bacon.
Introducing evidence-based principles to guide collaborative approaches to evaluation: Results of an empirical process.
American Journal of Evaluation, 37, 193215.
June 2017 // Volume 55 // Number 3 // Feature // v55-3a2
 Covering 107 million ha, family forests are critical to forest sustainability.
These lands are key sources of timber supply and provide myriad ecosystem services.
However, the extent to which these lands are intentionally managed toward maintaining or enhancing these or other beneficial outcomes is limited.
Of the 10 million landowners nationally, only 4% have prepared a written management plan and 14% have asked for the advice of a resource professional.
Because of the lack of prevalence of such actions, invasive species, poor harvesting practices, or uninformed decisions may adversely affect forests and threaten the interests of both landowners and society.
These potential threats and a commitment to forest sustainability have led the forestry community, through public policy and private endeavors, to target resources  toward improving forestry practices.
Forestry Extension educators have explored a range of engagement pathways that assist landowners in achieving their goals or advance broader public policy goals.
The challenge faced by the forestry Extension community in effectively reaching target audiences and moving them toward action is not unique.
Extension educators and other professionals across diverse domains can face similar challenges in promoting educational and engagement strategies that enhance individual or societal well-being.
One tool that has emerged in accessing outreach audiences is social marketing.
In this article, we share findings from a large-scale field test involving use of this approach for reaching family forest owners.
The findings illustrate the potential and challenges of using social marketing to reach an important, but not necessarily engaged, audience.
Social marketing involves applying traditional commercial marketing techniques to public good outcomes.
Early practice and research primarily focused on public health outcomes , but both practice and research have spread to other domains, including environmental protection and natural resources management.
In the context of family forests, social marketing has generally been focused on using social science data to better understand landowners and thereby implement more effective engagement strategies.
Notable early work applied social marketing to stewardship planning to target those owning very small parcels in New England.
Social marketing in practice is an iterative process of data-driven refinement and targeting for the purpose of achieving specific behavioral outcomes.
As is the case for many domains whose practitioners and researchers are interested in behavior change, the forestry literature is rich in studies that identify and segment landownerskey steps in social marketing.
Of note, the work by Butler et al.
exemplifies these steps and stands out as offering actionable insights for two reasons.
First, through segmenting landowners using data from the National Woodland Owners Survey, the researchers found four distinct subgroups present throughout the United States.
Second, they recognized that any engagement strategy requires prioritization and modeled "prime prospects" to identify those who are most likely to engage in active management.
Lacking in the literature, if not in practice, though, are efforts that move these foundational elements  into social marketing campaigns and test the efficacy of such approaches.
Since 2011, the Driftless Forest Network , through My Wisconsin Woods, has been doing just this.
In this article, we present the results of three direct mail social marketing campaigns that sought to reach landowners with little or no previous engagement in forestry.
The DFN is a collaboration of local, state, and national partners working to increase landowner engagement in the Driftless Area in southwest Wisconsin.
Applying and testing social marketing techniques intended to move landowners toward active forest management is central to the DFN's activities.
As such, the Driftless Area is a laboratory in which to test various engagement strategies that typically include marketing campaigns presenting landowners with some type of offer.
The DFN's offers are not tied to specific ecological outcomes; rather, they are intended to promote the adoption of any practice that might contribute to good forest stewardship.
Social marketing requires some degree of targeting that links a marketing message and offer to a select group  who might find the message and offer attractive.
To help identify segments, the DFN relies on an extensive landowner database.
Data include public records on landownership , purchased marketing data , DFN partner data , and action and relationship data.
Analyses of these data allow the DFN to identify and select segments that should be more likely to respond to a particular message and offer, over simply relying on a generic message and delivery to a random sample of landowners.
Herein, we share  the results of three social marketing campaigns and the relative effects of message, offer, and segment in reaching family forest owners and  descriptions of how those marketing campaigns evolved.
Taken together, the results and details about the evolution of the campaigns provide useful insights for operationalizing and learning from social marketing campaigns to advance engagement by landowners, and presumably other Extension clients.
Over an 18-month period, the DFN completed three direct mail social marketing campaigns.
The common threads across all three campaigns were  two distinct offers,  standard four-wave mailing, and  experimental design to test response.
Varied across the three campaigns were segment  and the messaging frame used on the materials to encourage response.
The common threads are described next, followed by descriptions of designs and results of the campaigns and explanations of how information gained from each campaign served as groundwork for the next.
Landowners were randomly assigned to one of two possible promotions: a free visit by a My Wisconsin Woods forester who would walk the land with the owner or a free woodland handbook.
The responding My Wisconsin Woods forester was either associated with the DFN or employed by the Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources.
The goals of a forester visit were to help the landowner better understand his or her land and to offer recommendations for future actions.
The handbook is a full-color, 80-page softbound book that provides basic forest ecology and management information.
When a forester visit or handbook was requested, DFN staff scheduled the visit or sent the handbook as appropriate.
Each campaign followed a four-wave approach , similar to that used in survey research.
First-class postage was used for each wave of mailings.
When a recipient accepted an offer, no further waves were sent.
Campaigns were conducted in spring 2012, fall 2012, and fall 2013.
Each campaign was a discrete experiment of offer acceptance , followed by analysis of the effects on offer acceptance of landowner segmentation  and message framing.
Statistical analyses of each campaign included a chi-square goodness-of-fit test to assess differences by offer and a logistic regression model to test for effects of segment and message frame on each offer.
Odds ratios were calculated for significant segments, message frames, and interaction effects.
The different experimental designs are summarized in Table 2 and further described in the "Campaign Designs and Results" section.
In reporting results, we interpret significance and indicate level of significance.
Data were analyzed through the use of SAS/STAT software, version 9.4 of the SAS System for Windows.
Our research questions were as follows: Does acceptance differ by offer?
Do broad segments and aligned messages increase offer acceptance?
Preliminary survey data and analysis identified and segmented two primary audience typologies from the National Woodland Owners Survey.
The "working the land" and "woodland retreat" types accounted for, respectively, 50% and 44% of landowners in the study area.
The spring 2012 campaign targeted these two segments and followed a 2-by-2 between-subjects experimental design for each offer.
Sample size per cell  ranged from 422 to 434, with a total of 3,417.
Each mailing piece was tied to a message and offer, and the two messages  were designed so that each would be more attractive to one of the segments.
The free handbook offer was accepted at a rate roughly 4 times that of the free forester visit offer.
In estimating the experimental segment and message effects, we found that neither was significant for the handbook offer and only segment  was moderately significant for the forester offer.
Those landowners segmented as "working the land" had odds of accepting a free forester visit 1.2 times more than those segmented as "woodland retreat." Interaction effects were not significant for either offer.
Our research question was as follows: Are there alternative segmenting approaches, in particular landholding size, and associated messages?
Post-hoc analysis of the spring 2012 campaign indicated that although National Woodland Owners Survey typology was a significant factor in offer acceptance, limits in acquired data prevented segmentation of all landowners in the database.
The post-hoc analysis also showed that the key factor driving whether someone was segmented as "working the land" or "woodland retreat" was the size of his or her landholding: 1024 ac and 2596 ac, respectively.
Landholding size is a long-recognized factor in models of landowner behavior.
Hence, for the fall 2012 campaign, we used landholding size category to segment landowners.
To reflect the potential financial interest of those owning larger parcels, we added a financial message to the original two messages.
The resulting design for each offer had two experimental effects  with three levels for each effect.
Initial sample sizes for the cells varied due to limited numbers of landowners in the different landholding size categories.
Across the three categories , sample sizes ranged from 86 to 154 per offer, with a total sample of 2,010.
The range is wide due to the limited number of medium and large ownerships in the broader population.
Similar to the spring 2012 campaign, handbook offers were accepted at nearly 4 times those for forester visits.
Unlike the previous campaign, there were no significant main or interaction effects for the forester offer and for the handbook offer, segment  and interaction effect were moderately significant.
Compared to those in the small landholding segment, those in the large landholding segment were 1.3 times less likely to accept the handbook offer and those in the medium segment were 1.3 times more likely to accept the handbook offer.
There were more pronounced effects, however, within the large landholding segment.
Those in the large landholding segment receiving the financial message had odds of accepting the handbook 1.4 times higher than those in the large landholding segment receiving the wildlife message.
Also for the large landholding segment, landowners receiving the general message were 1.7 times less likely to accept a handbook than those receiving the wildlife message.
In essence, for those owning large parcels, the financial message outperformed the wildlife message, which, in turn, outperformed the general message.
No other interaction effects were significant.
Our research question was as follows: Does more targeted messaging within a segment affect offer acceptance?
Results from the previous two campaigns suggested that there was a consistent trend in offer response and that segment, more than message, was a factor in acceptance.
However, the success of the financial message with the large landholding segment suggested a linkage between segment and message, which was of continued interest to the DFN.
For fall 2013, the emphasis would be on a single message: hunting.
Segments of landowners representing three hunting interest levelslow, medium, and highwere identified through a hunting interest score that was part of the purchased marketing data.
The hypothesis was that those with a higher hunting score  would be more likely to take an offer.
The sample size for each segment was approximately 500, with a total of 2,996.
As with the previous two campaigns, acceptance of the handbook offer exceeded that of the forester visit, but, in this case, by a factor of nearly 8 times.
The difference in offer acceptance between the third campaign and the previous campaigns is reflected in the poor acceptance rate for the forester offer, which was less than 3%.
The effect of segment on response was highly significant for the forester offer, but not for the handbook.
Those with a high hunting score were 1.9 times as likely to accept the forester offer as those with a medium hunting score.
Taken together, these three campaigns reflect the DFN's intention to apply social marketing toward family forest owner outreach and engagement.
Key results include the consistent performance of the two offers  and the inconsistent effects of segment and message frame.
Across all three campaigns, landowners accepted the free handbook more frequently than the free forester visit.
Although the forester visit might be considered to have higher value , it also presents a higher investment threshold for the landowner.
For example, a landowner must navigate the logistics of setting up the visit and the opportunity cost of spending time with the forester versus doing something else.
Moreover, although a forester visit is expensive, a landowner may not appropriately value it if the landowner is not sufficiently interested in forestry or his or her land at that time.
For the handbook offer, the landowner returns a postcard and receives a handbook a week or so later.
The landowner is not obligated to read or do anything with the handbook; thus, this is a much simpler exchange.
The value to the DFN of a forester visit is that it can provide a clear deliverable: direct forester contact with a landowner on his or her land.
It also offers the potential for creating a personal relationship between the landowner and a forester, a basis on which to develop a deeper tie that would be expected to lead to active management.
A landowner's acceptance of the handbook potentially creates a relationship between the landowner and My Wisconsin Woods and offers the opportunity for the DFN to engage that landowner in the future with a different offer.
An important goal of the DFN is to explore possible pathways that lead to active forest management by family forest owners by attempting to meet landowners where they are and move them forward through a series of interventions along those pathways.
As we note above, the forester offerand similar "high-demand" offers such as cost shares, peer mentors, and so onmay be too much too soon for some landowners.
Further work of the DFN and others interested in using social marketing might involve identifying a particular mix of "low-demand" interventions  that could facilitate uptake of "higher demand" offers.
Notably, the three campaigns presented here relied on a recipient's willingness to engage professional services or to read, as opposed to other offers that might target different learning styles and engagement preferences.
This approach represents a shift from how Extension, state agencies, and others think about their outreach activities.
The question shifts from "What was the impact of my specific workshop or visit?" to "How does my intervention help move my target audience toward active engagement in the desired behavioral or attitudinal change?"
 Somewhat surprisingly, segment and message had inconsistent effects on offer acceptance.
When main effects were significant, they were always associated with segment.
The message frame was not significant in either of the two campaigns that included different messages.
The former finding suggests that certain segments are more likely to respond to offers than other segments.
The latter finding, lack of a message effect, suggests that no specific message outperformed another across all segments and campaigns.
Of course, the ultimate goal of market segmentation is to develop message frames that are more appealing to members of specific segments.
Given the designs of our first two campaigns, significant interaction effects would indicate that message frames were connecting with specific segments.
This outcome was evident in the fall 2012 campaign, in which the financial message resonated with those owning more acres.
For the fall 2013 campaign, the message was targeted toward hunters, and the main effect suggests that the forester offer connected most with those having high hunting scores.
This situation might be termed modest success, but it also suggests that additional work on message frame development  could yield still higher responses.
At the same time, findings for the fall 2013 campaign also indicate the downside of a mismatched segment and message frame, as that campaign had the lowest overall forester offer acceptance rate of the three campaigns.
A marketing message targeted toward a specific segment may not appeal to others.
Worse, it may be viewed as negative, which could have a negative effect on the brand.
Key elements not tested in the three DFN campaigns were promotioneither through offer or messageof a specific desired forestry practice, such as timber harvesting or invasive species removal, and specific ecological outcomes, such as oak restoration or deer habitat.
Target activities were referenced in communications with landowners but not identified as desired outcomes.
This is a direction DFN could pursue, but doing so would represent a shift in strategy.
There is a difference between encouraging "good forest stewardship" and encouraging something more specific.
First, a generic stewardship message is applicable to nearly all forest owners.
More targeted outcomes likely will require better targeted marketing based on ecological conditions as well as demographic ones.
In addition, connecting message and segment is more crucial for practices and outcomes that require more active and intense management activities.
Therefore, it is all the more important to thoroughly test and develop messages, approaches, and timing before fielding this type of campaign.
The DFN is moving in this direction for two reasons.
First, we believe we have developed sufficient knowledge and experience to do so.
And, second, the funding organizations (e.g., U.S.
Department of Agriculture Forest Service and Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources) are interested in specific ecological and behavioral outcomes.
The DFN began with a novel premise: Apply social marketing techniques to reach family forest owners through large-scale field trials.
Carrying out this endeavor required unprecedented coordination among agencies and organizations and new ways of doing business.
The results presented here reflect some of the initial learning that emerged from careful design, testing, and measuring of performance.
Our results are promising and suggest that "unengaged" landowners are interested in forest management and that social marketing can pay dividends.
However, more work is needed to determine when social marketing might be most effective in reaching Extension audiences.
We appreciate the assistance of Holly Schnitzler and all the DFN partners for making the campaigns discussed herein possible.
The American Forest Foundation, Wisconsin Department of Natural Resources, and Renewable Resources Extension Act provided financial support.
Understanding and reaching family forest owners: Lessons from social marketing research.
Journal of Forestry, 105, 348357.
Family forest owner of the United States, 2006.
Department of Agriculture Forest Service, Northern Research Station General Technical Report, NRS-27.
Internet, phone, mail, and mixed-mode surveys: The tailored design method.
Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
Identifying policy target groups with qualitative and quantitative methods: The case of wildfire risk on nonindustrial private forest lands.
Forest Policy and Economics, 25, 6271.
The Driftless Forest Network : Innovation, complexity, and evaluation in a regional landowner engagement initiative.
Meyer , UFRO 3.08.00 Small-Scale Forestry Conference 2012: Science for Solutions Conference Proceedings, Amherst, MA, September 2427, 2012, pp.
Social marketing in public health.
Annual Review of Public Health, 26, 319339.
The size of forest holding/parcelization problem in forestry: A literature review.
Decision making among Finnish non-industrial private forest owners: The role of professional opinion and desire to learn.
Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research, 22, 454463.
Motivations and behaviors of new forest owners in Virginia.
Forest Science, 51, 142154.
Fostering sustainable behavior.
Canada: New Society Publishers.
My healthy woods, a handbook for family woodland owners managing woods in southwest Wisconsin.
Baraboo, WI: Aldo Leopold Foundation and American Forest Foundation.
Woodscaping for small landowners in southern New England.
Journal of Forestry, 96, 49.
Hands-on social marketing: A step-by-step guide to designing change for good.
Thousand Oaks, CA: SAGE Publications.
One of the most common water quality concerns for irrigated agriculture is salinity.
Recommendations for effective management of irrigation water salinity depend upon local soil properties, climate, and water quality; options of crops and rotations; and irrigation and farm management capabilities.
All major irrigation water sources contain dissolved salts.
These salts include a variety of natural occurring dissolved minerals, which can vary with location, time, and water source.
Many of these mineral salts are micronutrients, having beneficial effects.
However, excessive total salt concentration or excessive levels of some potentially toxic elements can have detrimental effects on plant health and/or soil conditions.
The term "salinity" is used to describe the concentration of  salt species, generally including: calcium  , magnesium , sodium , potassium , chloride , bicarbonate , carbonate sulfate  and others.
Salinity is expressed in terms of electrical conductivity , in units of millimhos per centimeter , micromhos per centimeter , or deciSiemens per meter.
The electrical conductivity of a water sample is proportional to the concentration of the dissolved ions in the sample; hence EC is a simple indicator of total salt concentration.
Another term frequently used in describing water quality is Total Dissolved Solids , which is a measure of the mass concentration of dissolved constituents in water.
TDS generally is reported in units of milligrams per liter  or parts per million.
Specific salts reported on a laboratory analysis report often are
 expressed in terms of mg/l or ppm; these represent mass concentration of each component in the water sample.
Another term used to express mass concentration is normality; units of normality are milligram equivalents per liter.
The most common units used in expressing salinity are summarized in Table 1.
Table 1.
Units commonly used to express salinity*
 Mass Concentration :
 mg/l = milligrams per liter ppm = parts per million
 Electrical Conductivity :
 conductivity = 1/resistance  millimhos/cm = millimhos per centimeter umhos/cm = micromhos per cm dS/m = deciSiemens per meter 1 dS/M = 1 mmho/cm = 1000 umho/cm
 0.35 X  = osmotic pressure in bars 651 X  = TDS in mg/l* 10 X  = Normality in meq/l 0.065 X  = percent salt by weight
 * Also has been related as: TDS  = EC  X 640 for EC < 5 dS/m TDS  = EC  X 800 for EC > 5 dS/m
 meq/l = milligram equivalents per liter  meq/l = mg/l equivalent weight equivalent weight = atomic weight electrical charge Example: To convert 227 ppm calcium concentration to meq/l: ppm = mg/l; therefore 227 ppm = 227 mg/l Calcium atomic weight = 40.078 g/mol valence: +2  equivalent weight = 40.078 / 2 = 20.04 meq/l = 227 / 20.04 = 11.33 Therefore 227 mg/l = 11.33 meq/l for calcium.
* Compiled from various sources
 Why Is Salinity a Problem?
High salinity in water  causes a high osmotic potential.
In simple terms, the salts in solution and in the soil "compete" with the plant for available water.
Some salts can have a toxic effect on the plant or can "burn" plant roots and/or foliage.
Excessive levels of some minerals may interfere with relative
 availability and plant uptake of other micronutrients.
Soil pH, cation exchange capacity  and other properties also influence these interactions.
High concentration of sodium in soil can lead to the dispersion of soil aggregates, thereby damaging soil structure and interfering with soil permeability.
Hence special consideration of the sodium level or "sodicity" in soils is warranted.
How Do You Know if You Have a Salinity Problem?
Water and soil sampling and subsequent analysis are key to determining whether salinity will present a problem for a particular field situation.
If wastewater or manure is applied to a field regularly, or if the irrigation water source varies in quality, soil salinity should be monitored regularly for accumulation of salts.
Water quality and soil chemical analyses are necessary to determine which salts are present and the concentrations of these salts.
Standard laboratory analyses include total salinity reported as electrical conductivity  or as Total Dissolved Solids.
Salinity indicates the potential risk of damage to plants.
General crop tolerances to salinity of irrigation water and soil are listed in Table 2.
These values should be considered only as guidelines, since crop management and site specific conditions can affect salinity tolerance.
Table 2.
Tolerance* of selected crops to salinity in irrigation water and soil.
Crop	Threshold EC	Threshold EC
 in irrigation water	in soil 
 in mmhos/cm or dS/m	in mmhos/cm or dS/m
 0% yield	50% yield	0% yield	50% yield
 reduction	reduction	reduction	reduction
 Alfalfa	1.3	5.9	2.0	8.8
 Barley	5.0	12.0	8.0	18.0
 Bermudagrass	4.6	9.8	6.9	14.7
 Corn	1.1	3.9	1.7	5.9
 Cotton	5.1	12.0	7.7	17.0
 Sorghum	2.7	7.2	6.8	11.0
 Soybean	3.3	5.0	5.0	7.5
 Wheat	4.0	8.7	6.0	13.0
 * After Rhoades, et.al.
; Fipps  and various sources
 Additional information, including concentrations of specific salt components, indicates the relative risk of sodicity and toxicity.
High sodium can present a risk of toxicity to plants.
It can also indicate a risk of soil aggregate dispersion, which can result in breakdown of soil structure, and hence reduce the soil's permeability.
Relative risk of soil damage due to sodicity is indicated by the Sodium Adsorption Ratio , which relates the relative concentration of sodium [Na+] compared to
 the combined concentrations of calcium [Ca+] and magnesium [Mg*].
SAR is calculated by the following equation:
 SAR = ) / 2) 
 MANAGING IRRIGATION TO MITIGATE SALINITY
 Minimize Application of Salts
 An obvious, if not simple, option to minimize effects of salinity is to minimize irrigation applications and the subsequent accumulation of salts in the field.
This can be accomplished through converting to a rain-fed  production system; maximizing effectiveness of precipitation to reduce the amount of irrigation required; adopting highly efficient irrigation and tillage practices to reduce irrigation applications required; and/or using a higher quality irrigation water source.
Since some salts are added through fertilizers or as components  of other soil additives, soil fertility testing is warranted to refine nutrient management programs.
Some crops and varieties are more tolerant of salinity than others.
For instance barley, cotton, rye, and Bermudagrass are classified as salt tolerant.
Wheat, oats, sorghum, and soybean are classified as moderately salt tolerant.
Corn, alfalfa, many clovers, and most vegetables are moderately sensitive to salt.
Some relatively salt tolerant crops  are more salt sensitive at emergence and early growth stages than in their later growth stages.
Currently crop breeding programs are addressing salt tolerance for several crops, including small grains and forages.
Some field crops are particularly susceptible to particular salts or specific elements or to foliar injury if saline water is applied through sprinkler irrigation methods.
Elements of particular concern include sodium , chlorine , and Boron.
Tolerances to salinity in soil solution and irrigation water and tolerances to Na, CI, and B are listed for various crops in references listed in the Additional Information Resources section.
The classical "textbook" solution to salinity management in the field is through leaching  accumulated salts below the root zone.
This is often accomplished by occasional excessive irrigation applications to dissolve, dilute and move the salts.
The amount of excess irrigation application required  depends upon the concentrations of salts within the
 soil and in the water applied to accomplish the leaching.
A commonly used equation to estimate leaching fraction requirement  is:
 electrical conductivity of irrigation water Leaching fraction = permissible electrical conductivity in the soil X 100 %
 Where irrigation water quantity is limited, sufficient water for leaching may not be available.
The combined problem of limited water volume and poor water quality can be particularly difficult to manage.
Soil additives and field drainage can be used to facilitate the leaching process.
Site specific issues, including soil and water chemistry, soil characteristics and field layout, should be considered in determining the best approach to accomplish effective leaching.
For instance, gypsum, sulfur, sulfuric acid, and other sulfur containing compounds, as well as calcium and calcium salts may used to increase the availability of calcium in soil solution to "displace" sodium adsorbed to soil particles and hence facilitate sodium leaching for remediation of sodic soils.
In soils with insufficient internal drainage for salt leaching and removal, mechanical drainage  may be necessary.
Where foliar damage by salts in irrigation water is a concern, irrigation methods that do not wet plant leaves can be very beneficial.
Furrow irrigation, low energy precision application  irrigation, surface drip irrigation and subsurface drip irrigation  methods can be very effective in applying irrigation without leaf wetting.
Of course, more advanced irrigation technologies  can offer greater achievable irrigation application efficiency and distribution uniformity.
Wetting patterns by different irrigation methods affect patterns of salt accumulation in the seedbed and in the root zone.
Evaporation and root uptake of water also affect the salt accumulation patterns.
Often the pattern of salt accumulation can be detected by a visible white residue along the side of a furrow, in the bottom of a dry furrow, or on the top of a row.
Additional salt accumulations may be located at or near the outer/lower perimeter  of the irrigated zone in the soil profile.
Seedbed and Field Management Strategies
 In some operations, seed placement can be adapted to avoid planting directly into areas of highest salt accumulation.
Row spacing and water movement within the soil can affect the amount of water available for seedlings as well as the amount of water required and available for the dilution of salts.
Light, frequent irrigation applications can result in a small wetted zone and limited capacity for dilution or leaching of salts.
When salt deposits accumulate near the soil surface , crop germination problems and seedling damage are more likely.
In arid and semi-arid conditions a smaller wetted zone generally results in a smaller effective root zone; hence the crop is more vulnerable to salt damage and to drought stress injury.
Although excessive deep percolation losses of irrigation are discouraged for their obvious reduction in irrigation efficiency and for their potential to contribute to groundwater contamination, occasional large irrigation applications may be required for leaching of salts.
Managing irrigation schedules  to support a large root zone helps to keep salt accumulations dispersed and away from plant roots, provides for better root uptake of nutrients, and offers improved protection from short-term drought conditions.
Advantages of Organic Matter
 Organic matter offers chemical and physical benefits to mitigate effects of salts.
Organic matter can contribute to a higher cation exchange capacity  and therefore lower the exchangeable sodium percentage, thereby helping to mitigate negative effects of sodium.
By improving and preserving soil structure and permeability, organic matter helps to support ready movement of water through the soil and maintain higher water holding capacity of the soil.
Where feasible, organic mulches also can reduce evaporation from the soil surface, thereby increasing water use efficiency.
Because some organic mulch materials can contain appreciable salts, sampling and analysis for salt content of these products are recommended.
Special Considerations: SDI maintenance
 Some salts, including calcium and magnesium carbonates that contribute to water hardness, merit special consideration for subsurface drip irrigation systems.
These salts can precipitate out of solution and contribute to significant clogging of drip emitters and other components.
Water quality analysis, including acid titration, is necessary to determine appropriate SDI maintenance requirements.
Common maintenance practices include periodic acid injection  and continuous acid injection.
Some excellent references describing water quality considerations and maintenance recommendations for subsurface drip irrigation systems are available from Kansas State University Extension.
The publication, "Filtration and
 Irrigation Salinity Management Information on the Internet
 This list of references, though not exhaustive on the subject, has been assembled to aid the reader in accessing additional information on salinity management in agricultural irrigation.
Texas Cooperative Extension and Texas Agricultural Experiment Station
 Irrigation water quality: Critical Salt Levels for Peanuts, Cotton, Corn and Grain Sorghum
 What's In My Water?
Maintaining Subsurface Drip Irrigation Systems
 Kansas State University Research and Extension
 Filtration and Maintenance Considerations for Subsurface Drip  Systems
 Subsurface Drip IrrigationSystems Water Quality Assessment Guidelines
 University of Nebraska Cooperative Extension
 Irrigation Water Quality Criteria
 Colorado State University Cooperative Extension
 Irrigation Water Quality Criteria
 University of California Agriculture and Natural Resources
 Irrigation Water Salinity and Crop Production
 The University of Arizona Cooperative Extension
 Saline and Sodic Soil Identification and Management for Cotton
 Fipps, Guy.
2003.
Irrigation Water Quality Standards and Salinity Management.
Fact Sheet B-1667.
Texas Cooperative Extension.
The Texas A&M University System, College Station, TX.
PUMPING PLANT EFFICIENCY, FUEL OPTIONS AND COSTS
 Energy costs have a major impact on production costs in agriculture.
Irrigated agricultural has additional energy sensitivity due to the cost of pumping irrigation water.
As pumping energy costs increase, irrigators have been exploring energy options.
While changing energy sources can sometimes be economical option, it can require large up-front investment costs with little guarantee that the alternative energy source will remain cost competitive.
Before changing energy sources, irrigators should evaluate the performance of their current pumping plants, as wear and changes in pumping conditions over time can cause substantial loss in pumping plant efficiency.
This results in the increased use of fuel for the same or less amount of water pumped.
The irrigation fuel or energy bill is composed of two parts.
The first is related to pumping plant performance and the second is related to crop irrigation management.
Total fuel bill = Pumping cost/Unit Volume of Water X Volume Applied
 The pumping cost per unit volume of water depends on well efficiency, pumping plant efficiency and fuel cost.
The major influences on the total volume applied are related to management issues, such as irrigation schedule for the crop selected and the irrigation system efficiency.
Reducing the total volume applied reduces the fuel bill proportionately, so if the amount of water applied is minimized with good irrigation scheduling and high application efficiency, the fuel bill will be minimized based on pumping volume.
Good irrigation management practices and high system efficiency are the subject of other presentations.
The focus of this discussion will be on the pumping cost per unit volume of water.
Pumping Cost Per Water Volume
 The major factors that influence the pumping cost per volume are: pumping plant efficiency and TDH , which is the total hydraulic resistance against which the pump must operate.
Well efficiency is also a factor, but it is
 largely determined by design and construction factors that were used during the drilling and development processes.
Many wells would produce a greater flow with less drawdown if the screen, gravel pack and development procedure had been better designed, but little can be done to improve the efficiency of a poorly constructed well.
Many wells would also benefit from treatments to remove incrustations on well screens or treatments to control biological growths that can also clog well screens.
If the water's entry into the well through the screen is restricted, more drawdown is needed to produce a given flow.
Performance evaluations indicate that many irrigation pumping plants use more fuel than necessary as compared to a properly sized, adjusted and maintained pumping plant.
For example, a 1990 study in Kansas , found pumping plants performance ratings ranging from 15 to 120 percent of the Nebraska performance Criteria.
Irrigation pumping energy requirements can be estimated using the NPC shown in Table 3.
The NPC is a guideline for a performance of a properly designed and maintained pumping plant.
Some pumping plants will exceed this criteria, but most will not.
In that study, the average pumping plant used about 30 percent more fuel than necessary.
Obviously, some are much worse and others actually exceeded the NPC.
Causes of excessive fuel use include:
 1.
Poor pump selection.
Pumps are designed for a particular discharge, head and speed.
If used outside a fairly narrow range in head, discharge and speed, the efficiency is apt to suffer.
Some pumps were poor choices for the original condition, but changing conditions such as lower water levels or changes in pressure also cause pumps to operate inefficiently.
2.
Pumps out of adjustment.
Pumps need adjustment from time to time to compensate for wear.
3.
Worn-out pumps.
Pumps also wear out with time and must be replaced.
4.
Improperly sized engines or motors.
Power plants must be matched to the pump for efficient operation.
Engine or motor loads and speed are both important to obtain high efficiency.
5.
Engines in need of maintenance and/or repair.
6.
Improperly matched gear heads.
Gear head pump drives must fit the load and speed requirements of the pump and engine.
Pumping plant performance evaluations can be obtained by hiring a consulting firm or contractor to take the measurements, but many farmers are reluctant to spend money to find out if something is wrong.
Energy costs, however, can represent a significant portion of the production cost for a crop.
The following procedure can help an irrigator analyze irrigation fuel or energy bills to see if they are reasonable for the pumping conditions and price of fuel.
If this estimate indicates low pumping plant efficiency, then hiring a firm to repair or replace the pumping plant may be justified.
The irrigator needs to know 1) acres irrigated, 2) discharge rate, 3) total dynamic head, 4) total application depth, 5) total fuel bill, and 6) fuel prince/unit in order to make such an estimate.
Step 1: Determine Water Horsepower
 Water horsepower  is the amount of work done on the water and is calculated by WHP = TDH /3960 where:
 GPM discharge rate in gallons per minute
 TDH = total dynamic head  = Pumping Lift  + Pressure  X 2.31 TDH is usually estimated by adding total pumping lift and pressure at the pump.
Since pressure is usually measured in PSI, convert PSI to feet by multiplying PSI X 2.31.
Step 2: Calculate hours of pumping
 HR = D  /  where: HR = Hours of pumping D = Depth of applied irrigation water  Ac = Acres irrigated GPM = discharge rate in gallons/minutes 450 = a conversion constant 
 Step 3: Estimate hourly NPC fuel use
 FU = WHP/NPC where: FU = Hourly fuel use using the Nebraska criteria WHP = Water Horsepower from Step 1 NPC = Nebraska Performance Criteria 
 Step 4: Estimate seasonal NPC fuel cost
 SFC = FU X HR X Cost Where: SFC = Seasonal Fuel Cost if the pumping plant was operating at NPC HR = Hours of operation from Step 2 Cost = $/Fuel Unit
 Step 5: Determine excess fuel cost
 EFC = AFC SFC where: EFC = Excess Fuel Cost  AFC = Actual Fuel Cost  SFC = Estimated Seasonal Fuel Cost using NPC 
 Step 6: Calculate annualized repair cost
 ARP = INVEST X CRF where: ARP = Annualized Repair Cost INVEST = Investment required to repair or upgrade pumping plant CRF = Capital Recovery Factor 
 The excess fuel cost may be thought of as the annual payment to cover the cost of a pumping plant upgrade or repair.
Repair costs can be annualized by using capital recovery factors.
If the annualized repair cost for the interest rate and return period selected is less than the excess fuel cost, the investment in repair is merited.
This procedure is an indicator of your total pumping plant performance.
It does not indicate the source of the excessive fuel use, but pumping plant tests in Kansas have generally shown that poor performance is generally due to the pump.
The low efficiency may be due to excessive pump clearance, worn impellers, or changes in pumping conditions since the pump was installed.
Figure 1 provides an example farm problem.
The example farm results in an annualized repair cost of $3811 and an excess fuel bill of $4014.
Since $3811 is less than $4014, the investment in repair of the pumping plant would be merited.
The excess fuel use could be divided by the CRF  to indicate the amount you could afford to spend in upgrading the pumping plant.
Figure 1: Example Farm Problem
 Acreage: 130 acres Pumping Life: 330 feet System Pressure: 22 psi System Discharge Rate: 600 gpm Total Irrigation Application: 16.5 inches per acre Fuel Type: Natural Gas Price $9.00 per MCF Total Fuel Bill: $16500
 Step 1: Determine Water Horsepower WHP = TDH X /3960 =  X /3960 = 53.2 WHP
 Step 2: Calculate Hours of Pumping HR = D/GPM/450 =  / = 1609 hrs.
Step 3: Estimate Hourly NPC Fuel Use FU = WHP/NPC = 53/61.7 = 0.86 MCF/Hr
 Step 4: Estimate Seasonal NPC Fuel Cost SFC = FU X Hr X Cost = 0.86 X 1609 X 9 = 12486
 Step 5: Determine Excess Fuel Cost EFC = AFC-SFC = 16500 12486 = 4014
 Step 6: Calculate Annualized Repair Cost Estimate of pump repair: $10,000 Desired CRF using 3 years and 7% interest from Table 3: CRF = 0.3811 ARC = INVEST X CRF = 10,000  = $3811
 Irrigation Energy Source Options
 Natural gas has been the dominate energy source for irrigation in Kansas as historically it was readily available and relatively inexpensive in much of the major irrigated areas.
This unfortunately may no longer be true and irrigators have been examining other energy source options, which are primarily diesel, propane, and electricity.
Irrigation pumping costs increase in proportion to energy prices but some of the pumping cost may be due to poor pumping plant performance.
An estimation of the pumping plant performance may be possible using on-farm records, which could help an irrigator to decide on the best course of action for future irrigated crops.
Bulletins and computer software on pumping plant energy are available through K-State Research and Extension.
The Testing Ag Performance Solutions  program is excited to offer a new six-part series focused on water, nitrogen and Effective Conservation Technologies and Management Practices for Corn Production, as the practicum is titled.
When the pumping plant is designed for a center pivot installation, the pump impeller is selected that will deliver a desired flow rate and pressure to the highest elevation in the field with all sprinklers in operation.
CONCEPTS OF IN-CANOPY AND NEAR-CANOPY SPRINKLER IRRIGATION
 Freddie R.
Lamm 1 , Terry A.
Howell 2 and James P.
Bordovsky 3
 The use of in-canopy and near-canopy sprinkler application from mechanical move systems is prevalent in the U.
S.
Great Plains.
These systems can reduce evaporative by nearly 15%, but introduce a much greater potential for irrigation non-uniformity.
Close attention to the design, installation and operational guidelines for these systems can prevent many non-uniformity problems from becoming unmanageable.
In the U.
S.
Great Plains, center pivot sprinkler irrigation  is the dominant irrigation method.
There are far few linear lateral-move sprinkler irrigation systems  and together with CP systems they are jointly termed as mechanical-move sprinkler irrigation systems.
Windy and hot conditions during the growing season affect MM irrigation uniformity and evaporative losses.
As a result many producers have adopted MM sprinkler packages and methods that apply the water at a lower height within or near the crop canopy height, thus avoiding some application non-uniformity caused by wind and also droplet evaporative losses.
However, often these sprinkler package systems are adopted without appropriate understanding of the requirements for proper water management, and thus, other problems such as runoff and poor soil water redistribution occur.
This paper will discuss in-canopy and nearcanopy MM sprinkler irrigation from a conceptual standpoint with supporting data from research studies that have been conducted in the U.S.
Great Plains region.
GUIDELINES, DEFINITIONS AND DESCRIPTIONS
 Traditionally, MM sprinkler irrigation systems have been designed to uniformly apply water to the soil at a rate less than the soil intake rate to prevent runoff from occurring.
These design guidelines need to be either followed or intentionally circumvented with appropriate design criteria when designing and managing a MM system that applies water within the canopy or near
 the canopy height where the full sprinkler wetted radius is not developed.
Peak application rates for in-canopy sprinklers might easily be 5 to 30 times greater than above canopy sprinklers.
A number of sprinkler package systems have been developed that apply water incanopy or near the crop canopy height.
They should be and are classified as systems because they not only involve sprinkler irrigation hardware but also installation and management guidelines.
Table 1.
Near canopy and in-canopy sprinkler package systems and their general installation and management guidelines.
Sprinkler package system &	Typical
 hardware type	Tillage and crop row orientation	applicator
 MESA	Any tillage system and row orientation.
1.2 to 2.5 m.
Controlled traffic desired.
Basin tillage	Above the crop
 180 or 360 Spray head	with ridge-till or reservoir tillage	canopy for most
 Stationary, rotating or oscillating	desirable with or without beds.
No-till,	of season.
plates	ridge-till, or conservation tillage
 LESA	Any tillage system with circular crop	0.15 to 0.6 m
 	rows desired for CP systems.
Within the crop
 180 or 360 Spray head	Controlled traffic desired.
Basin tillage	canopy for most
 Stationary, rotating or oscillating	with ridge-till or reservoir tillage	of season.
plates	desirable with or without beds.
No-till,
 ridge-till, or conservation tillage
 LPIC	Any tillage system and row orientation.
0.15 to 2.5 m
 	Controlled traffic desired.
Basin tillage
 180 or 360 Spray head	with ridge-till or reservoir tillage
 Stationary, rotating or oscillating	desirable, with or without beds.
No-
 plates	till, ridge-till, or conservation tillage
 LEPA	Circular rows required with CP	0.15 to 0.6 m
 	systems.
Controlled traffic desired.
Within the crop
 Bubbler nozzle	Basin tillage with ridge-till or reservoir	canopy for most
 tillage required with beds.
Some	of season.
adjustment of irrigation interval is
 allowable to prevent runoff.
LEPA	Circular rows required with CP	0 m
 	systems.
Controlled traffic desired.
Within the crop
 Any nozzle within drag sock	Basin tillage with ridge-till or reservoir	canopy all
 tillage required with beds (basin tillage
 is more effective).
Some adjustment of
 irrigation interval is allowable to
 Figure 1.
Illustration of the relative heights of MESA, LESA, LPIC, and LEPA concepts in tall and short crops.
Note their can be overlapping definitions.
The low energy precision application  system was the earliest in-canopy sprinkler application system for MM systems although there had been earlier attempts with traveling drip irrigation systems.
A prototype of the LEPA system was developed as early as 1976 by Bill Lyle with Texas A&M University.
Jim Bordovsky joined the development effort in 1978  and the first scientific publication of their work was in 1981.
Although, originally LEPA was used in every furrow, subsequent research  demonstrated the superiority for alternate furrow LEPA.
The reasons aren't always evident, but they may result from the deeper irrigation penetration , possible improved crop rooting and deeper nutrient uptake, and less surface water evaporation.
The seven guiding principles of LEPA were given by Lyle  as
 1) Use of a moving overhead tower supported pipe system 
 2) Capable of conveying and discharging water into a single crop furrow
 3) Water discharge very near the soil surface to negate evaporation in the air
 4) Operation with lateral end pressure no greater than 70 kPa when the end tower is at the highest field elevation
 5) Applicator devices are located SO that each plant has equal opportunity to the water with the only acceptable deviation being where non-uniformity is caused by nozzle sizing and topographic changes
 6) Zero runoff from the water application point
 7) Rainfall retention which is demonstrably greater than conventionally tilled and managed systems.
The other types of in-canopy and near-canopy sprinkler irrigation do not necessarily require adherence to all of these seven guidelines.
However, it is unfortunate that there has been a lack of knowledge or lack of understanding of the importance of these principles because many of the problems associated with in-canopy and nearcanopy sprinkler irrigation can be traced back to a failure to follow or effectively "work-around" one of these principles.
In-canopy and near-canopy application systems can definitely reduce evaporative losses , but these water savings must be balanced against runoff, deep percolation and other soil water non-uniformity problems that can occur when the systems are improperly designed and managed.
Table 2.
Partitioning of sprinkler irrigation evaporation losses with a typical 25 mm application for various sprinkler packages..
Sprinkler package	Air	Canopy	Ground	Total	Application
 loss, %	loss, %	loss, %	loss,%	efficiency, %*
 12 4.3 m height	3	12	15	85
 12 1.5 m height	1	7	--	8	92
 12 0.3 m height	--	--	2	2	98
 * Ground runoff and deep percolation are considered negligible.
There are overlaps in definitions among the in-canopy and near-canopy sprinkler irrigation systems, while at the same time differences in their focused scope.
LEPA and LPIC were both initially developed when there was an intense focus on irrigation energy costs SO it can be understood why they both emphasize aspects of energy within their name.
LPIC was partially developed as an alternative to LEPA for tighter soils and steeper topography where preventing runoff was difficult with LEPA.
Buchleiter  reported that LEPA on 1% sloping silt loam soils had no runoff while runoff exceeded 30% on a slope of 3%.
Runoff from LEPA with basin tillage was approximately 22% of the total applied water and twice as great as MESA  for grain sorghum production on a clay loam in Texas.
Basin tillage created by periodic diking of crop furrow , rather than reservoir tillage created by pitting or digging small depressions , is often more effective at time averaging of LEPA application rates, and thus, preventing runoff.
Increasing the irrigation frequency, and thus lowering the irrigation event amount, is also used to reduce LEPA runoff and deterioration of furrow dikes.
Often LPIC systems will have difficulties strictly adhering to the LEPA Principles 2, 3, 5 and 6, but still many irrigators believe they are obtaining most of the benefits of LEPA.
In fact, many LPIC systems with their spray application are inaccurately called LEPA in the U.
S.
Great Plains.
In a worthwhile attempt to clarify and prevent misuse of the in-canopy and near-canopy irrigation technologies, USDA-ARS at Bushland, Texas developed the new terms MESA and LESA which can essentially replace LPIC..
These terms  both emphasize a spray application
 at a relative height above the ground but not necessarily relative to the crop or to the MM lateral.
Although the terms do not emphasize it in their name, both MESA and LESA can similar operating pressure requirements to LPIC or LEPA.
LEPA is often used in the Texas High Plains for low capacity wells and on relatively level fields, whereas LESA and MESA are predominately used in Kansas and Colorado High Plains region.
The worldwide annual benefit of LEPA has been estimated to be $US 1.1 billion with a $US 0.477 billion benefit to consumers in the United States.
SYMMETRY OF SPRINKLER APPLICATION
 The importance of uniform water application and/or infiltration has been documented by numerous workers.
An increase in uniformity can increase yields and decrease percolation.
Their results show irrigation non-uniformity such as over-irrigation resulting in nutrient leaching or under-irrigation resulting in water stress can cause significant economic reductions.
In some cases where irrigation is deficit or limited, a lower value of application uniformity can be acceptable.
For example, when the maximum water application amount still falls upon the upward sloping line of the yield production function, a crop area deficient of water will be compensated for by an area receiving a larger amount of water.
Overall production for uniform and nonuniform irrigation would be identical because the production function is linear over the range of water applications.
Figure 2.
Hypothetical relationship of relative crop yield and relative water needs for non uniform deficit irrigation  and for uniform deficit irrigation.
Average relative water need is the same for both irrigation schemes and consequently the average relative yield would also be the same.
An excellent conceptual discussion of the need to consider the extent of crop rooting in irrigation design is presented by Seginer.
When the crop has an extensive root system the effective uniformity experienced by the crop can be high even though the actual resulting irrigation system uniformity within the soil may be quite low.
In-canopy and near canopy sprinkler irrigation does not necessarily result in nonuniform application.
Using a LEPA nozzle in the furrow between adjacent pairs of crop rows obeys LEPA Principle 5  of each plant having equal opportunity to water.
Figure 3.
LEPA concept of equal opportunity of plants to applied water.
LEPA heads are centered between adjacent pairs of corn rows.
Using a 1.5 m nozzle spacing with 0.75 m spaced crop rows planted circularly results in plants being approximately 0.38 m from the nearest sprinkler.
After Lamm.
Some irrigators in the U.
S.
Great Plains, are experimenting with wider in-canopy sprinkler spacing  in an attempt to reduce investment costs.
Spray heads which perform adequately at these intervals above bare ground have a severely distorted pattern when operated within the canopy.
Figure 4.
Differences in application amounts and application patterns as affected by sprinkler height that can occur when sprinkler spacing is too wide  for in-canopy application.
CP lateral is traversing parallel to circular rows.
Dotted lines indicate corn rows and stemflow values.
Data from fully developed corn canopy, July 23-24, 1998, KSU Northwest Research-Extension Center, Colby, KS.
Data is mirrored about the centerline.
Hart  concluded from computer simulations that differences in irrigation water distribution occurring over a distance of approximately 1 m were probably of little consequence and would be evened out through soil water redistribution.
Seginer  noted that the overall effect on production of irrigation non-uniformity is related to the horizontal root zone of the crop.
Although Fig.4 shows large application non-uniformity, these differences may or may not always result in yield differences, but they should be considered in design.
Pattern distortion will result in over-irrigation in some areas which may cause runoff or deep percolation and underirrigation in other areas which may cause crop yield reductions.
Some irrigators in the Central Great Plains contend that their low capacity systems on nearly level fields restrict runoff to the general area of application.
If this is so, using the concepts expressed by von Bernuth , this non-uniformity is probably acceptable.
However, nearly every field has small changes in land slope and field depressions which do cause field runoff if the irrigation application rate exceeds the soil infiltration rate.
In the extreme drought years of 2000 to 2003 in the U.S.
Central Great Plains, even small amounts of surface water movement affected sprinklerirrigated corn production.
Figure 5.
Large differences in corn plant height and ear size for in-canopy sprinkler application over a short 3-m distance as caused by small field microrelief differences and the resulting surface water movement during an extreme drought year, Colby, Kansas, 2002.
The upper stalk and leaves have been removed to emphasize the ear differences.
PARTITIONING OF THE APPLIED SPRINKLER IRRIGATION AMOUNT The sprinkler application amount that reaches the crop canopy is partitioned into three major components: stemflow, throughfall, and interception storage.
Throughfall represents any irrigation water that reaches the soil surface by directly or indirectly falling through the plant leaf structure.
Interception storage is the amount of water temporarily remaining on the plant after irrigation, including both water on leaf and stem surfaces and water trapped in the leaf-sheath area.
Although interception storage is eventually lost as evaporation, crop transpiration is temporarily suppressed during the evaporative process.
Stemflow is the predominant flow path to the soil after the corn canopy is fully developed, averaging 55% of the total irrigation amount for corn with a within-row
 plant spacing of 0.18 m.
Thoroughfall averages approximately 42% for the same plant spacing and interception storage is approximately 2 mm for each irrigation event.
When averaged over the entire field there are very little differences in the partitioning process between above-canopy impact sprinklers and MESA at a height of 2.2 m.
However, because of MESA pattern distortion by the crop canopy, there are large partitioning differences between corn rows nearer and further from the applicator head.
The ratio of stemflow to throughfall also increases with increased in-canopy applicator height, effectively allowing the corn plant to serve as a larger funnel.
Figure 6.
Partitioning of a 25 mm applied sprinkler irrigation amount by a fully developed corn canopy  as affected by CP sprinkler package and row location.
The impact sprinklers spaced at 12 m are at a height of 4.1 m and the MESA nozzles spaced at 3 m are at a 2.2-m height within the 0.76-m spaced corn rows with 0.18-m plant spacing.
MESA pattern distortion results in different stemflow and throughfall calculated values for rows 0.38 and 1.14 m way from the nozzle.
Fixed interception storage estimates are provided only for the two major packages..
The direction of travel of the MM lateral with respect to crop row direction has added importance when in-canopy application is used.
It has been recommended for CP systems that crop rows be planted circularly SO that the rows are perpendicular to the sprinkler lateral.
Matching the MM direction of travel to the row orientation satisfies the important LEPA Principles 2 and 5 noted by Lyle.
Some producers have been reluctant to plant row crops in circular rows because of the cultivation and harvesting difficulties of narrow or wide "guess" rows.
However, using in-canopy application for CP systems in non-circular crop rows can pose two additional problems.
In cases where the CP lateral is perpendicular to the crop rows and the sprinkler spacing exceeds twice the crop row spacing, there will be nonuniform water distribution because of pattern distortion.
When the CP lateral is parallel to the crop rows there may be excessive runoff due to the great amount of water being applied in just one or a few crop furrows.
There can be great differences in in-canopy application amounts between the two crop row orientations.
PATTERN DISTORTION AND TIME OF SEASON
 Drop spray heads just below the CP lateral truss rods  have frequently been used for over 25 years in northwest Kansas.
This has had relatively little negative effects on crop yields although the MESA pattern is distorted after corn tasseling.
The reasons are that there is only a small amount of pattern distortion by the tassels and because the distortion only occurs during the last 30 to 40 days of growth.
In essence, the irrigation season ends before a severe soil water deficit occurs.
Compare this situation with LESA at a height of 0.30 to 0.60 m that may experience pattern distortion for more than 60 days of the irrigation season.
Yield reductions might be expected for some corn rows in the latter case because of the extended duration of the pattern distortion.
Lowering an acceptably spaced  MESA spinner head from 2.1 m to 1.2 m or to a LESA height 0.6 can cause significant row-to-row differences in corn yields.
Figure 7.
Differences in application amounts and application patterns as affected by corn row orientation to the CP lateral travel direction.
Dotted lines indicate corn rows and stemflow values.
Data from fully developed corn canopy, July 23-24, 1998, KSU Northwest Research-Extension Center, Colby, KS.
Data is mirrored about the centerline.
Figure 8.
Row-to-row variations in corn yields as affected by sprinkler height for 3.0 m spaced incanopy sprinklers.
Data averaged from four irrigation levels for 1996 to 2001, KSU Northwest Research-Extension Center, Colby, KS.
This report is a joint contribution from the Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station, USDAAgricultural Research Service and the Texas Agricultural Experiment Station.
Contribution Number 06-211-A from the Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station, Manhattan, Kansas.
ENERGY CONSERVATION WITH IRRIGATION WATER MANAGEMENT
 Robert Hill Extension Irrigation Specialist
 Irrigators in Utah experienced rapidly increasing energy costs from the mid 1970s to the late 1980s.
These costs remain relatively high.
Those who are pumping from deep wells are particularly interested in ways to cut back on energy use without doing away with profitability or production.
The general ways where energy conservation can happen with irrigation systems include:
 1.
No pumping-revert back to rainfed cropping.
2.
Pump only what is necessary to meet crop water requirements-use weather, soils and crop information to estimate crop needs.
3.
Evaluate your irrigation system-know how much water you are applying and adjust hardware and management if necessary.
4.
Test your pump operation-adjust to keep efficiency at or above 65 percent.
5.
Practice flow load management-operate the pump at 80 percent or more of design flowrate capacity.
6.
Use low cost energy-take advantage, where possible, of electric power rate reductions for shutting off during the week or for pumping during off peak electrical demand.
This worksheet guides an irrigator through a basic assessment of his irrigation system.
He will compare the answer he gets from the worksheet with his power bill for the season.
The irrigator will then have some idea whether his system is performing at a proper level.
Because electricity serves the majority of pumping in Utah, the worksheet example uses electrically powered pumps.
For other energy sources use appropriate fuel costs and ignore kilowatt conversions.
The most important items to consider with irrigation energy use include:
 * Total dynamic head 
 Hydraulic friction head losses
 Minor Losses in valves and joints
 Elevation differences across farm
 Kilowatt "demand" by pump
 Crop irrigation water needs
 Seasonal hours of operation
 Each of the above areas is calculated in the worksheet or is given an average value for systems that are working satisfactorily.
For example, the pump efficiency is needed to calculate horsepower requirements.
Farmers may not know the pump efficiency.
A "desired" value of 70% is used in the worksheet.
If a farmer's pump is operating at much less than this efficiency, the difference will show up when he compares the worksheet answer to his power bill.
STEPS IN EVALUATING POTENTIAL IRRIGATION ENERGY REDUCTION
 To illustrate, let's determine the seasonal energy requirements of 400 irrigated acres, 260 acres of alfalfa and 140 acres of spring grain, in an area where:
 a.
The normal annual precipitation is 10 inches.
b.
Seasonal alfalfa crop water use  is 36 inches.
C.
Seasonal spring grain ET is 20 inches.
d.
The pumping level in the well is 120 feet.
e.
Average sprinkler operating pressure is 50 psi.
f.
The hydraulic friction headloss, elevation difference and minor losses are 40 feet.
g.
The system was designed to meet a peak period ET rate of 0.30 inches per day at 68% irrigation application efficiency.
DETERMINE SYSTEM FLOWRATE AND SEASONAL OPERATING HOURS
 The seasonal crop water requirement supplied by irrigation equals the crop water use  minus the sum of stored soil water from winter precipitation and effective summer rainfall.
As a rule of thumb, about two-thirds of the winter precipitation and four-fifths of the summer rainfall can be used by the crop.
The required irrigation water delivery to the field equals the irrigation requirements divided by the irrigation system application efficiency.
Stored winter precipitation 0.67 X 6" =	4
 [0.67 X ]
 Effective summer rainfall	0.80 X 4" =	3.2"
 [0.80 X (Apr Sep Rain
 Total usable natural moisture =	7.2"
 
 Crop water use supplied by irrigation equals crop ET minus usable natural moisture.
Alfalfa 	36 7.2 =	28.8"
 Spring Grain 	20 6.0 =	14.0"
 Table 1.
Typical Monthly Alfalfa Water Use  Estimates for Selected Utah Locations.
Location	Peak ET Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Season
 Beaver	.33	0.05	5.29	6.17	7.50	6.73	2.71	28.5
 Blanding	.31	2.80	6.31	5.61	7.54	6.49	3.86	1.70	34.3
 Castle Dale	.35	0.48	5.49	6.95	8.47	7.04	4.52	1.30	34.3
 Cedar City	.32	1.79	6.66	6.13	7.39	7.23	4.19	0.99	34.4
 Corinne	.34	0.19	2.89	5.33	7.78	7.12	6.46	4.70	2.43	36.9
 Delta	.35	2.72	6.53	7.43	7.52	6.55	5.02	0.96	36.7
 Duchesne	.30	1.20	6.56	6.19	7.21	6.43	3.79	1.93	33.3
 Escalante	.31	2.87	7.66	6.27	6.87	7.35	3.90	1.79	36.7
 Farmington	.32	0.27	3.19	5.44	7.08	6.78	5.66	3.73	1.95	34.1
 Green River	.36	3.09	7.45	6.77	7.69	7.96	4.49	2.64	40.1
 Heber	.29	0.13	5.07	6.52	7.58	5.58	4.27	0.33	29.5
 Kanab	.33	0.66	4.03	7.03	7.19	7.01	6.64	4.65	2.33	39.6
 Koosharem	.27	3.04	7.37	6.13	5.94	3.44	25.9
 Logan	.30	2.25	5.92	5.65	6.61	6.60	3.90	0.43	31.4
 Manti	.34	1.20	6.69	6.23	7.77	7.79	4.57	1.31	35.6
 Milford	.34	0.85	6.61	6.57	7.45	6.55	5.00	33.1
 Moab	.34	0.98	4.23	6.88	7.10	7.15	6.05	4.74	3.22	40.4
 Pleasant Grove	.33	2.37	5.97	6.87	6.86	5.61	4.05	1.10	32.9
 Richfield	.32	1.05	6.48	6.25	6.99	6.08	4.43	0.43	31.7
 Roosevelt	.34	1.97	7.15	6.52	7.48	7.07	3.86	0.95	35.0
 St.
George	.39	2.47	4.65	7.24	8.14	8.27	7.26	5.45	3.21	0.38	47.1
 Snowville	.34	0.54	5.67	7.76	7.84	7.54	3.38	1.04	32.8
 Tooele	.32	2.76	5.90	7.60	6.83	6.11	4.28	1.34	34.8
 Vernal	.33	1.62	6.63	6.15	8.14	6.85	3.84	2.53	35.8
 Woodruff	.28	1.93	6.73	6.00	5.77	3.13	23.6
Care should be taken to watch manure salt content  when making applications during the growing season.
This is particularly an issue in swine manure.
VALUE OF CROP RESIDUE FOR WATER CONSERVATION
 Practicing less tillage and retaining more crop residue on the soil surface reduce the rate of evaporation of water from the soil.
These practices also increase the amount of soil water by increasing the amount of water that infiltrates into the soil and by decreasing the amount of water that runs off across the soil surface.
Less tillage and more residue coverage can significantly reduce the amount of irrigation water needed to grow a crop.
When the soil surface is wet, evaporation from a bare soil will occur at a rate controlled by atmospheric demand.
The evaporation rate decreases as the soil surface dries over time.
Water that is deeper in the soil cannot be transported to the surface quickly enough to maintain wet-soil evaporation.
The drying surface soil starts to act as a barrier to water transport.
If the soil surface is covered with residue, it is shielded from solar radiation and air movement just above the soil surface is reduced.
This reduces the evaporation rate from a residue-covered surface, compared to a bare soil.
Surface moisture under the residue will continue to evaporate slowly.
A number of days after the wetting event, the evaporation rate from the covered surface can exceed that of the bare surface.
Eventually, after many days without rain or irrigation, the total evaporation from the bare and residue-covered soil would be the same.
In the conceptual diagram of Figure 1, this point has not yet been reached after 20 days.
In reality, this point is seldom reached, because more frequent wetting events result in more days with higher evaporation rates from bare soil than from residue-covered soil.
The net effect over a season is that total evaporation will be greater from a bare soil.
Residue reduces, but does 1.0 atmosphericdemand not eliminate evaporation, which still takes place from 0.8 the crop canopy, the residue bare soil itself, and the soil every time 0.6 they are wet.
This loss has been estimated to be 0.08 to 0.4 residue-covered soil 0.1 inch for each wetting event.
Therefore, light, 0.2 frequent rains or irrigations are less effective than 0.0 heavy, infrequent ones.
0 2 4 6 Days after wetting 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 Some center pivot irrigators experience runoff on tilled soils so they apply small amounts frequently, typically only 0.5 inch each time.
One tenth of an inch of evaporation out of 0.5 inch is a 20 percent loss.
When adopting continuous no-till, the pivot can apply a greater amount of water before runoff occurs.
With more water applied per event, but less often, the evaporation losses are reduced.
Figure 1.
Evaporation rates, relative to atmospheric demand, from bare and residuecovered soil after a single wetting event  conceptual diagram.
Also, when soils are tilled, they often dry to the depth of tillage.
Each tillage operation can cause 0.5 to 0.75 inch of soil water evaporation.
With multiple tillage events, soil water may not be adequate in the seed zone for uniform germination and emergence, resulting in lower yields, even though there may be sufficient soil water the rest of the year.
Long term no-till management leads to better soil structure, less soil crusting, higher infiltration rates, and less surface runoff.
Crop residue reduces the energy of water droplets impacting the soil surface and reduces the detachment of fine soil particles that tend to seal the surface.
Subsequent soil surface drying can cause further crusting.
This sealing and crusting process reduces infiltration and promotes runoff because precipitation or irrigation rates may be greater than the rates at which the soil is able to absorb water.
Residue also slows the velocity of runoff water across the soil surface, allowing more time for infiltration.
Researchers of the University of Nebraska-Lincoln  used a rainfall simulator at Sidney, Nebraska to demonstrate differences in infiltration and runoff from no-till wheat stubble and plowed soils.
In the experiment, more than 3.75 inches of water was applied in 90 minutes to no-till soils before runoff started compared with 1.0 inch of water applied in 20 minutes on plowed soil before runoff started.
Standing residue can also conserve water by causing snow to settle, rather than blow to field boundaries, by slowing the wind velocity just above the residue.
Subsequent melting snow is more likely to infiltrate because the stubble slows runoff thus storing more water, which can be used for crop production later in the growing season.
CROP YIELD, RESIDUE MASS AND COVER
 The amount of residue produced at harvest by a crop can be estimated from crop yield.
For wheat, yield  is multiplied by 100 to get residue mass in lb/ac.
For example, a 60 bu/ac wheat crop is expected to produce approximately 6000 lb/ac of residue.
For corn, yield is multiplied by 50 and for soybean by 60.
Thus, a 180 bu/ac corn crop is expected to produce approximately 9000 lb/ac of residue.
Figure 2.
Relationship of residue mass to percent residue cover for various crops.
The amount of residue cover is also important to gage the soil and water conservation benefits of the residue.
The relationship of residue mass and residue surface cover is shown in Figure 2.
For example, for wheat, 6000 lb/ac corresponds to a residue cover of almost 100% and 1000 Ib/ac of corn residue corresponds to a cover of 30%.
The thickness of residue also affects conservation benefits and is related to residue mass and residue cover.
EFFECT OF CROP RESIDUE ON EVAPORATION SEVERAL EXPERIMENTS
 Research conducted near North Platte, Nebraska and Garden City, Kansas , showed that soil water evaporation from bare fine sand and silt loam soils can be as much as 30% of evapotranspiration  during the irrigation season of corn and soybean.
The studies suggested that evaporation is 15% of total ET when wheat straw or no-till corn stover completely cover the soil surface from early June to the end of the growing season.
This translates into a 2.5to 3-inch water savings.
Dryland research indicates that wheat stubble can save an additional 2 inches of water during the non-growing season if the soil profile can retain the water.
The water savings in the growing and non-growing seasons would
 combine to a total of 5 inches per year.
Not all of this can be effective for later crop growth and yield.
Assuming that 50% of the 5-inch water savings can contribute to crop yield, yield increases may be as much as 10 bu/ac for soybeans and 30 bu/ac for corn.
EFFECT OF CROP RESIDUE ON SOIL WATER CONTENT AND CROP YIELD NORTH PLATTE EXPERIMENTS
 In 2007, a study was initiated on the effect of crop residue on soil water content and crop yield at the UNL West Central Research and Extension Center in North Platte, Nebraska.
The experiment was conducted on a Cozad silt loam soil with a set of plots planted to corn.
There were two treatments: residue-covered soil and bare soil.
In April, bare-soil plots were created by using a dethatcher and subsequent hand-raking, removing most of the residue.
The residuecovered plots were left undisturbed.
The experiment consisted of eight plots.
Each plot was 40 by 40 ft.
Winter and spring 2007 were very wet at North Platte and the corn was only irrigated three times with a total of 4.5 inches of water on all plots.
The crop was purposely water-stressed, so that any water conservation in the residue-covered plots might translate into higher yields.
Residue cover was measured with the line-transect method  using a 50-ft measuring tape.
Residue hits or misses were evaluated at each of the 50 footmarks.
The tape was laid out over the two diagonals of each plot.
This way, 100 points per plot were evaluated.
The percent residue cover equals the total number of residue hits out of 100 point evaluations.
Residue mass was measured by collecting three  or two  samples from each plot.
The area of each sample was 30 inch  by 20 inch.
Maximum and average residue thickness was measured inside each sample area using a ruler.
The average thickness was area-weighted and was an estimate rather than a measurement.
The residue mass, mostly from previous no-till soybean crops, on the residuecovered plots was slightly greater than 3000 lb/ac in 2007.
In October 2007, the bare-soil plots were no longer bare, because many newly-senesced corn leaves covered the soil surface, explaining the average residue cover of 81%.
Differences in soil water content between the residue-covered and the bare-soil plots were small throughout the growing season.
However, average corn yield was 197 bu/ac in the residue-covered plots and 172 bu/ac in the bare-soil plots.
An additional 2.5 to 3.5 inches of irrigation water on the bare-soil plots would be required to produce the same yield as obtained in the residue-covered plots.
Table 1.
Residue cover, mass, and thickness for bare-soil and residue-covered plots.
Residue cover data is the result of evaluating 100 points for the presence or absence of residue.
Mass and thickness data is the mean of three  or two  samples per plot.
Bare-soil plots	Residue-covered plots
 Cover	Mass	Avg.
Max.
Cover	Mass	Avg.
Max.
plot #	%	lb/ac	inch	inch	plot #	%	lb/ac	inch	inch
 62	2	113	<0.04	0.31	61	63	2950	0.47	1.30
 72	1	216	<0.04	0.59	71	60	3263	0.59	1.50
 81	1	91	<0.04	0.79	82	66	2925	0.47	1.10
 83	3	102	<0.04	0.51	73	63	3873	0.51	1.57
 Mean	2	130	<0.04	0.55	Mean	63	3253	0.51	1.38
 St.
dev.
1	50	0.00	0.16	St.
dev.
2	382	0.04	0.20
 Bare-soil plots	Residue-covered plots
 Cover	Mass	Avg.
Max.
Cover	Mass	Avg.
Max.
plot #	%	lb/ac	inch	inch	plot #	%	Ib/ac	inch	inch
 62	82	1203	0.08	0.20	61	91	2671	0.39	0.98
 72	77	1533	0.08	0.28	71	95	2868	0.47	1.10
 81	79	1153	<0.04	0.39	82	95	3218	0.39	1.38
 83	87	828	<0.04	0.20	73	94	3438	0.35	1.26
 Mean	81	1179	0.04	0.28	Mean	94	3049	0.39	1.18
 St.
dev.
4	250	0.04	0.08	St.
dev.
2	298	0.04	0.16
 Bare-soil plots	Residue-covered plots
 Cover	Mass	Avg.
Max.
Cover	Mass	Avg.
Max.
plot #	%	lb/ac	inch	inch	plot #	%	lb/ac	inch	inch
 62	2	150	<0.04	0.51	61	88	5281	0.51	1.46
 72	1	249	<0.04	0.51	71	89	6854	0.67	2.36
 81	3	503	<0.04	1.18	82	90	4656	0.51	1.77
 83	2	502	<0.04	0.51	73	97	7132	0.71	2.09
 Mean	2	352	<0.04	0.67	Mean	91	5981	0.59	1.93
 St.
dev.
1	155	0.00	0.28	St.
dev.
4	1040	0.08	0.35
 This assumes that the yield difference was entirely due to the corn in the bare plots experiencing more water stress.
There are good reasons for this assumption.
Visually, there were signs that the corn in the bare-soil plots was water-stressed more than the corn in the residue-covered plots: in September the corn on the bare-soil plots turned brown earlier than the corn in the residuecovered plots.
It is unlikely the yield difference was caused by a lack of nutrients in the bare-soil plots, because the corn was fertilized adequately in all plots.
Also, it is unlikely differences in compaction caused the difference in yield because all
 plots had the same history up to the residue removal in April 2007.
Compaction differences may be expected in long-term no-till plots compared to long-term tilled plots, but not over this short time frame.
Figure 3.
Corn yield on bare soil  and residue-covered soil  in 2007 at North Platte on small field plots.
In April 2008, residue was removed from the same four plots as in 2007.
As in 2007, all plots were irrigated at the same time with the same amount of water, but the crop was again somewhat waterstressed.
The average corn yield in 2008 was 186 bu/ac in the residue-covered plots and 169 bu/ac in the bare-soil plots.
It would take an additional 1.5 to 2.5 inches of irrigation water on the baresoil plots to reach the same yield as obtained in the residue-covered plots.
In addition, the residue-covered plots held more water towards the end of the season.
The soil dried out quickly at the shallower depths  during late June and July, especially in the bare-soil plots.
This may have been because of greater evaporation in the bare-soil plots, but most likely also because the corn plants were bigger in the bare-soil plots at this time, therefore using more water than the plants in the residue-covered plots.
This difference in plant development was visually observed in all four replications and likely caused by soil temperatures being cooler in the residue-covered soil in May and June.
A difference in plant size was not observed in 2007 when the weather during the early growing season was warmer than in 2008, thus making cooler temperatures under residue less of an issue for the growth of corn plants.
Two irrigations during late July 2008 caused the soil water content to increase at the shallower depths.
By the first half of August, the bare-soil plots were much drier than the residue-covered plots in the top 4 ft of soil  but not yet at the greater depths.
During late August and September, the soil dried out faster in the bare-soil plots than in the residuecovered plots at the two deepest depths.
At the shallower depths , the bare-soil plots no longer dried out, whereas the residuecovered plots still did.
Apparently, in the bare-soil plots, the corn plants could no longer easily find water at the shallower depths, but they could find it at the deeper depths.
Figure 4.
Mean volumetric soil water content in 2008 at six depths in bare-soil plots and in residue-covered plots.
At the end of the 2008 growing season, there was 1.5 inches more water in the residue-covered plots than in the bare-soil plots in the top 4 ft.
Thus, the combined effect  in 2008 is estimated to be a total of 3 to 4 inches of water savings on the residue-covered plots.
In April 2009, residue was again removed from the same four plots as in the two previous years.
As before, all plots were irrigated at the same time with the same amount of water, but the crop  was again somewhat waterstressed.
The average soybean yield in 2009 was 68 bu/ac in the residuecovered plots and 58 bu/ac in the bare-soil plots.
As in 2008, the residue-covered plots held 1.5 inches more water towards the end of the 2009 growing season in the top 4 ft.
The economic benefits of the water savings discussed here can be calculated.
Less irrigation water needs to be pumped when water is saved with more residue/less tillage.
This translates into a savings in pumping cost.
An example follows:
 Water savings anticipated from more residue/less tillage: 3 inches on a 130-acre field.
Pump discharge pressure: 50 psi.
Performance rating: 80%.
This is a rating according to the Nebraska Pumping Plant Performance Criteria; 80% is an average rating for Nebraska.
Pumping cost savings is shown in Table 2.
Table 2.
Pumping cost savings  resulting from the above conditions for a dynamic pumping lift ranging between 0 and 400 ft and a cost of diesel fuel ranging between $2.00 and $4.00 per gallon.
Lift 	$2.00	$2.50	$3.00	$3.50	$4.00
 0	$1025	1281	1538	1794	2050
 50	1469	1836	2203	2570	2937
 100	1912	2390	2868	3346	3824
 150	2356	2945	3534	4123	4712
 200	2799	3499	4199	4899	5599
 250	3243	4054	4865	5675	6486
 300	3687	4608	5530	6452	7373
 350	4130	5163	6195	7228	8260
 400	4574	5717	6861	8004	9148
 In a deficit-irrigation situation there are economic benefits because of higher yields associated with more residue and less tillage.
For example, corn yield may be 25 bu/ac higher, as was the case in the 2007 experiment at North Platte, described above.
For corn at $3/bu, this would be $75/acre and almost $10,000 for a 130-acre field.
For a soybean yield that is 10 bu/ac higher , with soybean at $10/bu, this would be $100/acre and $13,000 for a 130-acre field.
With more residue cover, less solar energy reaches the soil surface and air movement is reduced near the soil surface, resulting in a reduction of evaporation of water from the soil beneath the residue cover.
Light, frequent rains or irrigations are less effective than heavy, infrequent ones, because, with every wetting event, evaporation takes place from the crop canopy, the residue, and the soil.
In addition to reducing evaporation, higher residue levels and long-term no-till increase infiltration and reduce runoff, thus directing more water to where the crop can use it.
Similarly, in the winter, more standing residue means that more snow stays where it falls, thus storing more water in the soil once the snow melts.
Research at Garden City, Kansas showed that a 5-inch water savings is possible with a cover of wheat straw or no-till corn stover.
Earlier UNL research results at North Platte, Nebraska largely agree with the findings from Kansas.
Another study was initiated in 2007 at North Platte, on the effect of crop residue on soil water content and crop yield.
The crop on residue-covered and bare-soil plots was purposely water-stressed, so that any water conservation in the residuecovered plots might translate into higher yields.
In 2007, the average corn yield was 25 bu/ac more in the residue-covered plots compared to the bare-soil plots.
It would take approximately 3 more inches of irrigation water on the bare-soil plots to reach the same yield as obtained in the residue-covered plots.
Results were similar in 2008 and 2009.
Water conservation of the magnitudes discussed here will help reduce pumping cost significantly, which can amount to a savings of a few thousand dollars on a typical 130-acre field.
But not only irrigators would benefit, because more water would be available for competing needs including those of wildlife, endangered species, municipalities, hydroelectricity plants, and compacts with other states.
USDA, Natural Resources Conservation Service.
2002.
National Agronomy Manual, 3rd ed.
Washington D.C.
Table II.
Total available water in top 4 feet if soil is at field capacity and minimum balances at physiological maturity.
For silt clay or clay, the available water in 1 foot of soil at 100% of available water is 1.6 in/ft, the available water in top 4 feet at 100% of available water is 6.4 in/4 ft, and minimum balance in top 4 feet at 40% of available water is 2.6 in/ft.
For fine sandy loam, silty clay loam, or clay loam, the available water in 1 foot of soil at 100% of available water is 1.8 in/ft, the available water in top 4 feet at 100% of available water is 7.2 in/4 ft, and minimum balance in top 4 feet at 40% of available water is 2.9 in/ft.
For sandy clay loam, the available water in 1 foot of soil at 100% of available water is 2.0 in/ft, the available water in top 4 feet at 100% of available water is 8.0 in/4 ft, and minimum balance in top 4 feet at 40% of available water is 3.2 in/ft.
We are very excited to have this opportunity to learn and engage with producers, technology providers, and others, said Amy Kremen, associate director of the Irrigation Innovation Consortium , which is hosted at CSU.
To get involved, as a participant, sponsor, or otherwise, please contact IIC Director Tim Martin.
Department of Plant Sciences
 IRRIGATION CALCULATIONS III: CAPTURE FACTOR
 February 2023 Lauren Fessler, Department of Plant Sciences Amy Fulcher, Department of Plant Sciences
 Increasing irrigation efficiency continues to be a focus in the U.S.
and worldwide as water quality and availability decrease.
Nursery producers can use capture factor as a tool to refine irrigation scheduling and thereby improve irrigation efficiency and decrease leaching and runoff.
Capture factor  is a measure of the plant canopy's capacity to channel overhead irrigation into the container.
irrigation water captured by planted container CF = irrigation water captured by empty container
 CF is affected by a number of factors, including canopy size and architecture, which are influenced by crop species, severity and frequency of pruning, and plant age; container size and spacing; and emitter type.
A CF of 1 indicates that the plant has
 Little Lime hydrangeas from unpruned to lightly pruned to pruned hard.
CF values for these plants, from left to right, were 1.4, 1.7 and 1.1.A) Side view.
B) Top view.
Image credit: Carolyn Krauss.
no effect on the amount of water captured, a CF greater than 1 indicates that the plant is funneling water into the container, and a CF less than 1 indicates that the plant is shedding water outside the container.
Research conducted at the University of Tennessee found that Yoshino cherries shed water and have a capture factor of 0.8 while Kwanzan cherries funnel water toward their base and have a capture factor of 1.7.
Placed in the same irrigation zone, containers of Kwanzan cherries received more than twice as much water as containers of Yoshino cherries.
This example is based on 5-foot-tall trees in No.
5  containers using impact sprinklers.
The plant species as well as plant size, plant spacing, container size and irrigation type will all affect capture factor.
As this case study shows, capture factors vary widely, even between closely related plant species, and is worth accounting for when deciding what plants to place together in
 1.
Identify and label at least five representative plants within the irrigation zone.
2.
Measure the top diameter of the plant containers in centimeters.
3.
Calculate the surface area  of the top of the plant containers.
a.
Find the radius of each container by dividing the diameter by 2.
b.
Square the radius, then multiply by pi  to get the surface area.
4.
Nest plant containers into tightfitting drainage cans to catch all leachate that drains from the plant containers.
a.
Ensure that irrigation cannot directly enter the drainage cans.
5.
Weigh the nested containers.
6.
Place the nested containers in the irrigation zone.
7.
Measure the diameter of the catch cans in centimeters.
8.
Calculate the surface area of the catch cans (A = Jtr2.
a.
Find the radius of each catch can by dividing the diameter by 2.
b.
Square the radius, then multiply by pi  to get the surface area.
9.
Place the catch cans in the irrigation zone SO that the opening is at the same height as the top of the canopy of plants in the nested containers.
10.
Run a typical irrigation event.
11.
Weigh the nested containers again.
12.
Calculate the amount of irrigation water that entered the plant containers.
a.
Subtract the pre-irrigation weight  from the postirrigation weight.
13.
Multiply by 1,000 to convert kilograms to centimeters cubed.
a.
1 kg = 1,000 g = 1,000 cm
 14.
Calculate the depth of the water collected by the plant containers.
a.
Divide irrigation volume  by the surface area of each plant container.
15.
Using weight or volume, measure the amount of water in the catch cans.
a.
1g = 1 mL = 1 cm
 b.
If there is little water in the catch cans, using a small graduated cylinder to measure volume may be a more appropriate method than weighing, depending on your scale range and resolution.
16.
Calculate the depth of the water collected by the catch cans.
a.
Divide the collected amount  by the surface area of each catch can.
a.
Divide the depth of the water captured by the plant container  by the depth of the water captured by the catch can.
Six plants in containers with a diameter of 16 centimeters were placed into drainage cans.
The nested containers were weighed and then placed in the irrigation zone.
Six catch cans with a diameter of 10 centimeters were also placed in the irrigation zone.
A typical irrigation cycle was run.
Nested containers were then weighed again and the volume in each catch can was measured.
Rep	Nested	Nested	Catch can
 container	container post-	volume
 1	1.25 kg	1.85 kg	157 mL
 2	1.28 kg	1.89 kg	158 mL
 3	1.32 kg	1.91 kg	161 mL
 4	1.35 kg	1.94 kg	153 mL
 5	1.33 kg	1.95 kg	155 mL
 First, find the plant container's surface area:
 Next, find the surface area of the catch can: A r2
 diameter A = A = A = 3.14159 x 2 A = 3.14159 X 25 cm2 A = 78.5 cm2
 Determine the amount of irrigation applied to the plant container:
 Plant container irrigation weight = Post irrigation weight Pre irrigation weight
 Rep	Post-irrigation	Pre-irrigation	Irrigation
 1	1.85 kg	1.25 kg	0.60 kg
 2	1.89 kg	1.28 kg	0.61 kg
 3	1.91 kg	1.32 kg	0.59 kg
 4	1.94 kg	1.35 kg	0.59 kg
 5	1.95 kg	1.33 kg	0.62 kg
 Find the average irrigation weight:
 Avg irrigation weight Irrigation weight 1 + Irrigation weight 2 + + Irrigation weight n
 Convert the plant irrigation weight to volume (1 = 1cm
 Convert plant irrigation volume to depth by dividing by the surface area of the plant container:
 602cm3 201.1cm2 = 3.0cm
 Find the average volume of irrigation collected by the catch cans :
 Avg volume Volume 1 + Volume 2 + + Volume
 157mL + 158mL + 161mL + 153mL + 155mL
 Convert catch-can irrigation volume to depth by dividing by the surface area of the catch can:
 Calculate CF by dividing the plant irrigation depth by the catch-can irrigation depth:
 The CF value is greater than 1, which means that this plant is funneling water into the container.
1.
Based on the given information and the values below, calculate CF.
Small trees were planted in containers with a diameter of 28 centimeters.
Five representative trees were selected and placed in drainage cans.
These nested containers were then weighed and placed in the irrigation zone.
Five catch cans with a diameter of 9 centimeters were also placed in the irrigation zone.
A typical irrigation cycle was run, and the following data were collected:
 A.
Find the surface area of the plant container.
[3.14159 X 2]
 B.
Find the surface area of the catch can.
[3.14159 X 2
 C.
Find the irrigation weight for each plant.
Rep 1 Rep 2 Rep 3 Rep 4 Rep 5
 Rep	Nested container	Nested container	Catch-can volume
 1	3.52 kg	4.55 kg	129 mL
 2	3.48 kg	4.47 kg	128 mL
 3	3.51 kg	4.48 kg	131 mL
 4	3.46 kg	4.42 kg	124 mL
 5	3.53 kg	4.51 kg	125 mL
 D.
Find the average plant irrigation weight.
E.
Convert plant irrigation weight to volume in centimeters cubed.
F.
Convert plant irrigation volume to depth in centimeters.
G.
Find the average catch-can irrigation volume.
H.
Convert catch-can irrigation volume to depth.
I.
Calculate CF.
J.
Does this tree funnel or shed water?
For corn at R4.7, days until maturity is 24 and water use to maturity is 5.0 inches.
If today was 08/26, the date that corn is at maturity would be 09/19.
If the corn experiences weekly rainfall in August in platte county, it would have a 0.7 inches expected rainfall.
If the corn experiences average daily rainfall in August in platte county, it would have a 0.1 inches expected rainfall.
It would have an expected number of 6 days of rainfall in August.
The rainfall in august would be 0.6 inches.
The weekly rainfall in September would be 0.6 inches.
The average daily rainfall in September is 0.09.
The number of days in September that there is rainfall is 19.
The rainfall in September is 1.71 inches.
Rainfall to maturity would be 2.31.
In a scenario with Corn at R4.7 in silty clay soil, the holding capacity at the top 4 feet of soil is 6.4 inches.
The maximum allowed soil water depletion based on 60% is 3.84 inches.
The crop water to maturity is 5.0 inches.
The total rainfall to maturity is 2.31 and the final soil water available is 1.15 inches.
CONSIDERATIONS WHEN CONVERTING FROM SURFACE TO MECHANICAL MOVE IRRIGATION
 Decisions to make when considering converting from surface irrigation to another form of irrigation can be overwhelming.
What type of irrigation to switch to?
What changes will need to be made to my management?
How do I make this as easy as possible?
This paper will focus on suggested steps and irrigation equipment considerations to make the transition easier, more efficient and cost effective when a farmer decides to change to mechanical move irrigation.
The profitability of converting from surface irrigation to a center pivot has been discussed many times in the central plains states  with the focus on differing pumping capacities on crop yield and revenue.
In most of these cases the items considered include the cost of the pumping system and the irrigation system, changes to production costs and potential on yield.
To a lesser extent some discussion has been on the potential labor savings.
The studies date back for many years and include but not limited to Dhuyvetter 1996, Williams, et.al.
1996 and Lamm, et.al.
1997.
These studies focused on the impact of sprinkler irrigation capacity on corn yield potential and economics.
Some manufacturers offer information for the conversion to mechanical move irrigation, Lindsay, 2003 and Valmont 2003.
In recent years with the help of the EQIP program, the economics have changed and incented farmers to consider conversion to other forms of irrigation to reduce on farm water use.
Another driver for conversion is water limitations either through availability or regulation.
This is becoming more and more of a consideration throughout the central plains states.
Grain prices also have a significant impact on considerations of whether or not to convert.
Corn futures are now closing over $5.00 per bushel as compared to corn prices in past studies of $2.50 per bushel.
For a grower today considering conversion to mechanical move irrigation, the following questions need to be taken into consideration: What steps can be taken to ensure the best long term solution?
How might a grower proceed?
What should be part of the considerations for making a major irrigation change in the grower's operation?
To begin the process, one should consider the following steps before talking with an irrigation supplier.
This prepares the grower and helps focus on the items of particular importance to their operation.
Also the irrigation dealer and/or consultants should help encourage the grower to follow through a decision making process to reach the optimum decisions regarding conversion.
The crop consultant can be of assistance at several points during the decision making process to provide data and/or recommendations about the production plan.
1) Start with a review of current management and cropping plans
 a.
Does conversion fit into the long term plan for the operation?
b.
Consider what are the primary reasons for switching?
2) Perform a field resource inventory the crop consultant may have good input at this stage
 a.
Available water supply
 b.
Available power supply
 d.
Field size and shape
 e.
Field 'problems' is there an area that has never yielded the way the grower would like?
Do challenges such as buildings or power lines exist that would hinder a conversion to mechanical move irrigation?
f.
Changes needed to existing farm equipment if conversion is completed
 3) Consider irrigation equipment options that may be a best fit.
At this stage do not rule out any options.
b.
Towable center pivot
 C.
Center pivot with corner arm
 4) Select a partner to help with the conversion process
 a.
Interview potential irrigation equipment suppliers
 i.
Explain what is being considered and your needs
 ii.
Show the information that has been collected
 b.
Look for a partner who:
 i.
Is open to listening to you
 ii.
Understands your needs and your field
 iii.
Understands the value of converting to your operation
 iv.
Has product options for consideration
 V.
Does not immediately jump to make a quotation
 vi.
Has finance options and understand cost share programs
 C.
Consider more than just the sales person of the dealership
 i.
Service and parts support
 ii.
Experience with the options presented
 iii.
Talk with your neighbors about their experiences with the dealer
 d.
Request a proposal to use as part of the comparison look for:
 i.
Does the proposal offer options?
ii.
Is financing and cost share information presented?
iii.
Is operating cost addressed?
iv.
Is the proposal addressing the overall farms needs?
5) Once the partner is selected review goals is it to:
 a.
Maximize the area covered in the field?
b.
Maximize returns from the field?
C.
Maximize returns for the farm?
e.
Minimize labor ?
f.
Minimize operational expense ?
6) Review the management plans and agricultural practices anticipated for the new mechanized irrigation system
 b.
Application of crop production products
 7) Review the options presented by the irrigation dealer
 a.
Type of irrigation equipment
 ii.
Options on the equipment
 iii.
Ease of use
 ii.
Cost share programs
 d.
Life expectancy of the equipment
 f.
Ability to automate
 8) Take the time to consider the long term impacts of the decision
 a.
Well manufactured, designed and applied mechanical move irrigation equipment should last for at least twenty years
 b.
Conversion to mechanical move equipment should make life easier and not harder
 C.
Realize it may take two years to begin to reach the goals
 At this point one should be ready to make a decision on how they want to proceed.
But before proceeding, consideration should be given to the specific type of irrigation equipment.
Many times one automatically assumes the best solution for their situation is a center pivot and it may well be.
But a grower should consider other options and also look for an irrigation equipment supplier who is open to considering options.
Whether the primary goal is maximizing the area irrigated, minimizing operating costs or maximizing profits, several options are available for consideration:
 Maximizes the area covered by using one center pivot over multiple fields
 Can always add a fixed pivot in the future
 Labor will require time to go to the field, prepare the center pivot for towing, actual towing and switching back from tow to operating
 Pumping rate flowrate needs to be more than what is required for the areas irrigated to allow for downtime and towing
 Center pivot with corner arm
 Maximize the area covered corner arm can be folded in and out to dodge obstructions
 Uniform watering over the entire field
 In some situations may have more wheel track issues
 Will maximize the area covered in a square or rectangular field
 Wheel tracks may fit cropping plan better
 If a hose drag, may require labor to switch the hose
 If a ditchfeed, ditch maintenance is required
 Options to consider for all mechanical move irrigation equipment
 Floatation options  to minimize the wheel tracks and avoid getting stuck
 Sprinkler package to maximize productivity from the crop and the soil
 Pipeline materials different options available depending on the crop production products used
 Control panel for off-peak operation
 Automatic changes to manage water applied for different sectors of the field
 Remote monitoring and/or control options
 High speed operation to allow for minimal water applications for germination and application of crop production products.
Decisions to make when considering converting from surface irrigation to another form of irrigation can be overwhelming.
What type of irrigation to switch to?
What changes will need to be made to my management?
How do I make this as easy as possible?
This discussion has focused on eight steps to consider to help make the decision making process simpler.
It is critical for the grower to have a goal in mind as to why to convert and then follow through to see that this goal is met.
Options need to be considered to determine the best equipment solution for the situation.
Lastly, numerous options exist to maximize the coverage with mechanical move irrigation depending on the grower's specific situation.
Irrigation of Forage Crops
 Juan Enciso, Dana Porter, Guy Fipps and Paul Colaizzi*
 I irrigation can increase the production of forages where rainfall is limited.
In planning an irrigation system it is important for farmers to know how to determine the water requirements of the crops they are growing.
Figure 1.
Land resources divisions and irrigated areas.
Source: Durwood, 1960.
Texas Water Board of Engineers.
Geographic location, soil type, time of the season, and the way a crop responds to water all affect the amount of water a particular crop needs.
Farmers should also know the characteristics of different irrigation systems.
Seasonal and Peak Water Requirements
 cool-season annuals ;
 warm-season annuals ; and
 perennials.
Table 1 shows seasonal and peak water requirements of common forage crops in the various regions of Texas.
Water requirements vary during the growing season, as is shown in Figure 2.
The peak water requirement is defined as the amount of water the plant needs each day during the month of the highest demand, which is usually July in Texas.
Peak
 Table 1.
Water requirements for selected forage crops.
Alfalfa and pastures	Sorghum	Corn
 Location	Seasonal	Daily	Seasonal	Daily	Seasonal	Daily
 					
 1.
High Plains	58-66	6.6	21-26	6.2	27-31	6.7
 2.
Trans-Pecos	65-67	6.7	27	6.6	31	8.5
 3.
Edwards Plateau Central Basin	59-67	6.7	23-26	6.1	27-31	8.8
 4.
Rio Grande Plain	50-67	6.8	17-23	5.6	20-27	7.7
 5.
Coastal Prairie	47-49	4.7	18	4.8	21.5	6.5
 6.
East Texas Timberlands	46-49	4.9	19	4.7	21	5.7
 7.
Blackland Grand Prairies	49-51	4.9	20	4.9	23	6.5
 8.
North Central Prairies Rolling Plains	58-62	5.2	25	4.8	27-30	7.3
 Figure 2.
Alfalfa peak and seasonal water requirements.
Source: Pair, et al.
1983.
Irrigation.
water requirements help determine how many acres can be irrigated with a particular canal or well capacity.
The peak water requirement is generally expressed in gallons per minute required per acre, or the inches required per day.
Example 1.
How many acres of fully irrigated alfalfa can be supported with a well yielding 800 GPM if the alfalfa has a peak daily demand of 6.6 GPM per acre in the High Plains?
800 GPM acres = = 121 acres 6.6 GPM/acre
 Forage Yield and Water Used
 Forage yield is influenced by the amount of water the crop receives and by the length of the growing season.
In some areas of Texas the growing season allows six to seven cuttings of alfalfa.
Alfalfa needs 5 to 6 inches of water to produce 1 ton per acre.
With irrigation it may be possible to obtain 12 tons per acre of alfalfa in some years.
Water use efficiency is the crop yield per unit of water applied.
The more water applied to a crop, the lower the water use efficiency because some water will be lost through runoff or deep percolation into the soil.
The type of irrigation system used and its management greatly influence water use efficiency.
Studies in the High Plains have shown that forage sorghum, grain sorghum, and hay grazers can produce 1.1 tons of fresh matter per inch of water applied , when the silage contains 65 percent moisture at harvest.
Irrigation water can be applied by sprinkler, surface and subsurface drip irrigation systems.
Each method has advantages and disadvantages.
Water is distributed through these systems by gravity flow  or by pressurized flow.
When sprinklers are properly designed and managed SO that the amount of water applied does not exceed the amount the soil can hold, runoff and water logging problems can be avoided.
A disadvantage of all sprinklers is the foliar damage that can occur in some crops  if the water has a high concentration of salt.
Sodium  concentrations greater than 350 ppm may cause this problem.
Irrigation must be managed more carefully if the salt concentration is high.
Sprinklers can be classified as permanent, portable, and continuous movement.
Permanent sprinklers are used on small plots of less than 10 acres.
They might also be used where labor costs need to be reduced, on small ranchettes with pastures for horses, or in areas where household waste water is being reused.
The portable systems are either laterals that can be moved manually or mechanically or single big sprinklers commonly called big guns.
Systems with hand-moved laterals are assembled from pipe sections of aluminum tubing connected by quick couplings.
Each pipe has a riser pipe supporting a sprinkler head.
The application rate depends on the sprinkler size and spacing.
The mainline is usually buried in the soil and the laterals take the water from a riser with a hydrant valve.
The change of sprinkler position is facilitated by quick coupling pipe sections at the end of the pipe.
Pipe sections
 Figure 3.
Hydrant valves  and quick coupling aluminum pipe.
Source: Soil Conservation Service.
1971.
usually are 30 or 40 feet long and 2, 3 and 4 inches in diameter.
The pressure in the pipe is usually 75 psi.
Irrigation times are 12 to 24 hours.
Hand-moved sprinkler sets are moved manually from one irrigation position to another as illustrated in Figure 4.
Mechanically moved sprinklers include side-roll and power-roll systems.
The main lines are usually buried and have hydrants in strategic points to connect the laterals.
The system remains connected in one position for some time.
After irrigation is completed in this position, the line is unhooked and moved to the next position.
Typical systems are up to 1/4 mile  long and they are moved every 60 feet, SO an area of 1.8 acres is irrigated in one set time.
One of the problems with these systems is that
 Figure 4.
Movement of a hand-moved lateral system from one position to another.
Figure 5.
Side-roll sprinkler system.
a lot of labor is required to change positions and to keep them aligned.
Hand-moved big guns are sprinklers with large diameter nozzles  that discharge at least 100 GPM.
These sprinklers are rotated with a rocker arm drive and can irrigate an arc.
Because they operate under high pressure , the energy requirements and operating costs are relatively high.
That makes them best suited for supplemental irrigation.
A single big gun sprinkler and a common change of irrigation positions are shown in Figure 6.
This is one of the least efficient kinds of sprinkler systems.
Figure 6.
Big gun  and changing positions with two big gun sprinklers.
Source: Soil Conservation Service, 1971.
The continuous movement systems are the center pivots , linear systems  and traveler big guns.
Center pivot irrigation systems are generally preferred over other sprinkler systems because of their low labor and maintenance
 requirements and easy operation.
Center pivots sprinkle water from a continuously moving overhead pipeline that is supported by towers.
The towers are driven by electric or oil hydraulic motors located at each end tower; these are controlled by a central panel.
The typical distance between towers is 90 to
 Figure 7.
Center pivot sprinkler system.
Figure 8.
Linear moving system with a flexible hose.
Source: Texas A&M University Research and Extension Center at Weslaco.
250 feet.
The most common overall length of a pivot system is 1,320 feet ; this is about the radius of the circular area of approximately 126 acres, often inscribed within a square section of 160 acres.
A system this size usually has 6-inch diameter laterals.
Pivots can be 2,640 feet long  and cover a circular area of 503 acres.
These half-mile pivots are inscribed in a 640-acre square  and usually require 10inch pipe laterals.
Some smaller systems are now available for smaller fields.
While fullscale systems can be shortened, the unit cost  of cut-down systems is often higher.
Corners of square areas can be irrigated with a special corner apparatus attached to the pivot.
Most pivots are permanently installed in the field.
However, some "towable systems" can be moved between fields.
Properly designed and maintained center pivots have very uniform water distribution , making them well suited for fertigation and chemigation.
Linear moving lateral systems can be selfpropelled with diesel motors and directed by guidance systems.
These systems are used to irrigate rectangular fields with uniform topography.
The distribution uniformity of these systems can be very high.
Linear systems can take the water from an open channel or from a hydrant with a flexible hose.
Figure 9.
Traveler big gun irrigation system.
Source: Mexican Institute of Water Technology.
Center pivot and linear moving sprinkler systems can be equipped for MESA , LESA , or LEPA.
LEPA systems are more expensive initially because nozzle spacing is much closer.
However, energy costs are lower and water application efficiency is high with LEPA systems.
A variety of spray nozzles , drop hoses and drag hoses  are available to accommodate different crops, cropping systems, and water management strategies.
The MESA system requires 6 to 30 psi, while LESA and LEPA systems can work with 10 to 15 psi.
Pressure regulators can make distribution more uniform on fields with sloping or undulating topography.
Water application rates are adjusted by changing the speed of travel of the overhead lateral, which makes these systems adaptable to the permeability of the soil and the water needs of the crop.
They are suited to many topographic conditions and soils.
A traveler big gun is a high-capacity sprinkler mounted on a self-propelled vehicle or on a vehicle dragged by the hose as it winds up in a reel.
The self-propelled type pulls itself along by winding in a cable as it drags the hose.
The cable is anchored at one end.
The hosedrawn traveler has a hose reel at the water supply end; a pump supplies the water to the gun and gives the hydraulic energy to the reel to pull it.
Both types irrigate a semi-circular area.
They do not wet the towpaths in which they are moving, but irrigate a strip of the field as they move along the towpath.
As with portable big guns, they have relatively high energy requirements, have low efficiency, and are generally used for supplemental irrigation.
Surface irrigation systems are suited to deep soils  of clay to loam texture.
Surface irrigation efficiency can be improved by using either gated pipe or concrete delivery channels.
This also reduces weed problems on field borders.
The soil should have good water storage capacity because of the relatively long interval between
 irrigations.
The most common surface irrigation systems are 1) sloping or graded furrows and borders and 2) level basins.
Sloping furrows and borders
 Furrows are used to irrigate row crops such as corn, vegetables, cotton and sorghum, while borders are used to irrigate cover crops such as pastures and alfalfa.
With sloping furrows and borders, it is important to balance the speed of water advance and inflow to apply the desired depth of water uniformly.
If water advances too quickly there will be excessive runoff or deep percolation at the downstream end.
If water advances too slowly there will be too much deep percolation at the upstream end.
Deep percolation losses can be managed by irrigating alternate furrows, compacting furrows with tractor wheels before irrigating, or using surge irrigation.
Runoff loses can be reduced by using runoff recovery systems, shorter furrow lengths, and dams at the lower ends of furrows.
The components of a sloping border irrigation system are shown in Figure 10.
Level basin irrigation and level furrows
 The development of laser-controlled grading in the 1970s promoted the adoption of level basin irrigation.
The objective of level basin irrigation is to deliver a uniform depth of water to a level field by flooding it very quickly.
The size of the basin and the infiltration rate of the soil determine the flow rate.
Usually 3 to 5 inches of water are applied, depending on the soil conditions.
A basin must be properly designed and leveled SO that it applies water efficiently and uniformly.
Figure 10.
A sloping border irrigation system.
Figure 11.
A level basin system.
Source: Soil Conservation Service.
1971.
Figure 12.
Installation of a subsurface drip irrigation system.
Subsurface drip irrigation  applies water through buried drip tapes spaced uniformly SO that a uniform amount of water is applied between the drip lines.
The spacing between drip tapes and the depth at which they are buried are important factors in system design.
Soil texture, cultural practices, crops and economics will affect the spacing between drip lines.
Sandy soils usually require a closer spacing than clay soils.
Good results have been observed in pastures, hay and forage crops when lines are spaced 30 inches apart in sandy soils and 40 to 80 inches apart in medium-texture soils.
Tapes are usually buried 13 to 20 inches deep for forage crops.
One of the advantages of SDI is that irrigation can continue during hay cutting and bailing, which often increases productivity and quality.
In fact, studies have shown that crop production can be higher with subsurface irrigation than with sprinkler irrigation.
SDI drip tapes can be clogged by soil or roots and damaged by gophers.
Clogging usually can be prevented with proper filtration, maintenance, and mixing of fertilizers.
To prevent roots from clogging the tapes, a chemical barrier can be created with the herbicides treflan or trifluralin.
Figure 12 shows equipment used for the installation of an SDI system.
Selecting an Irrigation System
 One way to measure the performance of an irrigation system is to calculate its irrigation efficiency.
The irrigation efficiency is the vol-
 ume of water stored in the root zone compared to the volume delivered by the system.
The efficiency must account for deep percolation, evaporation and wind drift, and is highly affected by the uniformity with which the water is applied over the field.
Selecting the right system and managing it well are the keys to good water use efficiency.
When selecting a system, consider economics, site characteristics , crop requirements, and the overall farm operation.
Table 2 lists various factors that affect the selection of an irrigation system, such as field slope, soil texture , and cost.
To select the right system, analyze several options.
For example, compare the cost of land grading for a surface system to the cost of installing a pressurized irrigation system.
If the soil is shallow, some soil cuts during land leveling can diminish production.
Another example is to consider whether the intake rate  for a surface system is SO low that it will take several days to irrigate from one side of the field to the other.
If so, there could be substantial water stress in the crop and a sprinkler system might be more efficient.
Remember that water requirements vary according to the location and time of the growing season, and that yields are affected by the amount of water applied.
The irrigation system selected will influence the productivity per unit of water applied.
Irrigation should be carefully managed along with other agronomic practices such as pest management and fertilization.
Table 2.
Factors considered in selecting an irrigation system.
Factors	Sprinkler systems	irrigation systems	Drip
 Portable	Wheel roll	Solid set	move	Gun	Graded border	Level border	Furrow
 Direction of irrigation	20%	15%	None	15%	15%	0.5-4%	Level	3%	None
 Cross slope	20%	15%	None	15%	15%	0.2%	0.2%	10%	None
 Minimum	0.1	0.1	0.05	0.3	0.3	0.3	0.1	0.1	0.02
 Maximum	None	None	None	None	None	6.0	6.0	3.0	None
 Texture	Medium to	Medium to	Medium to	Fine to	Medium to	Fine to	Fine to	Fine to	Medium to
 sandy	sandy	sandy	sandy	sandy	medium	medium	medium	sandy
 Holding capacity	3.0	3.0	None	2.0	2.0	2.0	2.0	2.0	None
 Soil depth	None	None	None	None	None	Deep	Deep	Deep	None
 Total Dissolved	Severe	Severe	Severe	Severe	Severe	Slight	Slight	Moderate	Slight
 Rate of flow	Low	Low	Low	High	High	Moderate	Moderate	Moderate	Low
 Wind affected	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	Yes	No	No	No	No
 System costs :*
 Capital cost 	400-500	400-500	450-800	400-600	350-400	500-600	650-1000	500-600	800-1200
 Labor cost 	>70	50	50	<10	>70	>70	50	>70	<10
 70-75	70-75	55-70	74-81	62-63	65-82	75-80	50-70	>90
 Head required 	140	140	140	45	185	5	5	5	45
 *The efficiency values for sprinkler and subsurface drip irrigation systems were reported by Cuenca, 1989.
The irrigation efficiencies were reported by Clemmens, 2000.
Source: Irrigation Water Use in the Central Valley of California.
1987.
Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of California.
Department of Water Resources, State of California.
"Center Pivot Irrigation." B-6096, Texas AgriLife Extension Service.
Cuenca, Richard.
1989.
Irrigation System Design: An Engineering Approach.
Prentice Hall.
Irrigation Water Use in the Central Valley of California.
1987.
Division of Agriculture and Natural Resources, University of California.
Department of Water Resources, State of California.
Soil Conservation Service.
1971.
Planning for an irrigation system.
Ed.
AAVIM.
What is a rain garden?
Is a rain garden right for me?
Key questions to ask myself
 How do I begin?
How do | design my rain garden?
How do I construct my rain garden?
What kind of plants may I use?
How do | plant my rain garden?
How do | care for my plants?
What kind of maintenance is required?
Design, Construction, and Maintenance
 Suzette Walling, Tracy Farmer Institute for Sustainability and the Environment; Ashley Osborne, Environmental and Natural Resource Issues; Brad Lee, Plant and Soil Sciences; and Richard Durham, Horticulture
 Stormwater runoff carries pollutants such as fertilizers, oil, animal waste, and dirt to local streams, lakes, and ponds and may contribute to flooding during heavy rainfall events, putting added stress on the receiving bodies of water and their ecosystems.
Excess discharge impacts streams by causing erosion, destroying habitat, and deforming natural channel flow.
Utilizing storage devices such as cisterns or rain barrels will minimize stormwater volume leaving your property.
Contaminants discharged to streams can cause illness, impair ecological health, and increase water treatment costs.
What is a rain garden?
Rain gardens are manmade landscape features that include a shallow  depression designed to capture and reduce stormwater runoff.
By installing a rain garden homeowners can intercept stormwater and keep it on their property, allowing it to soak into the soil rather than moving to a nearby ditch or stream.
Rain gardens are particularly important in urban areas because developed land (pavement, buildings, and compacted
 soils) increases stormwater runoff.
Rain gardens are one of several stormwater management practices that homeowners can use to reduce their property's negative impact on water quality and flooding.
Is a rain garden right for me?
ARE OTHER CROPS BETTER THAN CORN UNDER LIMITED IRRIGATION?
Research was initiated under sprinkler irrigation to compare limited irrigation of corn with three other summer crops  grown under no-till practices.
Corn responded the most to increased irrigation.
Because of changes in growing conditions, the crop that is most profitable changes from year-to-year.
Growing different crops when irrigation is limited can reduce risk and increase profitability.
Averaged across the past 8 years, corn has been the most profitable crop at higher irrigation amounts, while at the lowest irrigation level, profitability was similar for all crops.
Most groundwater pumped from the High Plains  Aquifer in western Kansas is used for irrigation, with corn being the predominant crop.
Groundwater withdrawal from the aquifer has reduced saturated thickness and well capacities.
While corn responds well to irrigation, it also requires substantial amounts of water to maximize production.
Therefore, there is increased interest in reducing the amount of irrigation, and increased questions on whether crops other than corn would make more profitable use of limited amounts of irrigation.
A study was initiated under sprinkler irrigation at the Tribune Unit, Southwest Research-Extension Center near Tribune in the spring of 2001.
The objectives were to determine the impact of limited irrigation on grain yield, water use, and profitability of several summer row crops.
Irrigation amounts were 5, 10, and 15 inches annually.
Irrigations were scheduled to supply water at the most critical stress periods for the specific crops and limited to 1.5 inches/week.
All water levels were present each year and replicated four times.
The irrigation amounts for a particular plot remain constant throughout the study regardless of crop.
The
 crops evaluated were corn, grain sorghum, soybean, and sunflower.
The crop rotation was corn-sunflower-grain sorghum-soybean.
All crops were grown no-till while other cultural practices  were selected to optimize production.
Seeding rate  was 30,000 for corn, 80,000 for grain sorghum, 150,000 for soybean, and 23,500 for sunflower.
Soil water was measured at planting, during the growing season, and at harvest in one-ft increments to a depth of 8 ft by neutron attenuation.
The center four rows of each plot were machine harvested after physiological maturity with yields adjusted to 15.5% moisture for corn, 10% moisture for sunflower, and 12.5% moisture for grain sorghum and soybean.
An economic analysis determined economic returns to land, management, and irrigation equipment for all crops and irrigation amounts.
Custom rates were used to determine machinery operation costs.
The costs of inputs  were based on individual year costs for the area and grain prices were harvest prices for the area.
No government program payments or crop insurance costs or proceeds were included in the analyses.
Summer precipitation was near normal when averaged across the 8-yr period.
However, there were considerable differences among years.
June precipitation ranged from about 1 inch to more than 5 inches.
Similar variation was observed in the other months.
Figure 1.
Summer precipitation at SWREC-Tribune Irrigation Field, 2001-2008.
Available soil water in the profile  at planting was affected more by irrigation amount rather than crop.
With 5-in of irrigation, profile available water ranged from 6.5 to 8 inches.
While with greater irrigation amounts profile available water was 10 to 11 inches regardless of crop.
Figure 2.
Available soil water at planting for four summer crops under varying irrigation levels.
SWREC-Tribune, 2001-2008.
Profile available soil water at harvest was about 4 inches for all crops receiving 5 inches of irrigation.
With 10 inches or more of irrigation, profile available soil water at harvest was 8 to 10 inches for all crops.
Figure 3.
Available soil water at harvest for four summer crops under varying irrigation levels.
SWREC-Tribune, 2001-2008.
Crop water use was more affected by irrigation amount rather than crop.
At higher irrigation levels, crop water use tended to be slightly greater with corn and least with sunflower.
Figure 4.
Crop water use for four summer crops under varying irrigation levels.
SWREC-Tribune, 2001-2008.
Water use efficiency  was greater with feed grains than oilseed crops.
For feed grains, corn made more efficient use of water than did grain sorghum.
Corn was also the only crop that had higher WUE with 10 inches of irrigation than with 5 inches of irrigation.
For all other crops, WUE was similar for all irrigation amounts.
Figure 5.
Water use efficiency for four summer crops under varying irrigation levels.
SWREC-Tribune, 2001-2008.
Average grain yields  of all crops responded positively to increased irrigation.
When irrigation was increased from 5 inches to 10 inches, yield increases were 52% for corn, 18% for sorghum, 35% for soybean, and 16% for sunflower.
When irrigation amounts were increased past 10 inches, yield increases were 17% for corn, 11% for sorghum, 12% for soybean and only 4% for sunflower.
Corn yields increased 78% when irrigation was increased from 5 inches up to 15 inches while grain sorghum increased 31%, soybean by 52%, and sunflower by 20%.
Table 1.
Average grain yield  of four crops as affected by irrigation amount, SWREC-Tribune, KS.
Irrigation	Corn	Grain	Soybean	Sunflower
 5	113	94	31	1800
 10	172	111	42	2080
 15	201	123	47	2160
 An economic analysis  found that at the lowest irrigation level, average net returns  were similar for all crops.
At the higher irrigation levels, corn was the more profitable crop.
Corn was the only crop where profitability increased appreciably with more than 10 inches of irrigation.
Figure 6.
Average  net returns to land, management, and irrigation equipment, SWREC-Tribune, KS.
With very limited amounts of irrigation, there are several crops  that can be grown that are as profitable as corn.
These crops may also provide additional benefits in breaking pest cycles (weed, insect,
 and disease) that can arise with production of continuous corn.
However, when irrigation amounts of 10 inches or more annually are available, corn is the most profitable crop.
Acknowledgement: Project supported in part by Kansas Corn, Grain Sorghum, and Soybean Commissions, Groundwater Management District #1, and the Ogallala Aquifer Program.
Irrigation and drainage strategies in salinity problem areas
 Mark E.
Grismer Timothy K.
Gates Blaine R.
Hanson
 Uniform irrigation systems are essential
 Long-term reduction of saline high water tables that cause problems in the western San Joaquin Valley requires simultaneous irrigation and drainage management.
Sufficient water must be supplied for crop needs and leaching of salts, while drainage is required to remove water leached from the crop root zone.
Water table levels must be deep enough to minimize waterlogging and upward flow of salts to the root zone.
One means of determining optimalirrigation and drainage strategies is to find the approach that yields the greatest economic return to growers in the region.
Regional management strategies are important because variability in soil properties and water management practices in a large area may need to be taken into account.
Regional planning permits incorporation of variability into appropriate analyses of benefits and costs.
For example, it has been suggested that regional evaporation ponds could provide more economical disposal of drainage water than numerous on-farm ponds.
To plan and design such facilities, estimates of regional drainage volumes are needed.
Results from a regional analysis can also provide direction in selecting economical water management methods at the farm level.
Our purpose in this report is to describe a simulation model used to determine optimal irrigation and drainage strategies in a hypothetical region of the San Joaquin Valley.
Wealso consider possible field methods and operations necessary to address the best regional water management strategy.
Our conceptual model is for a region of irrigated agriculture underlain by a shallow, saline, perched water table.
The water table is recharged from excess irrigation water leaching and draining the root zone and may supply a part of the crop needs by upward flow.
The water table may also be affected by discharge from subsurface drains, lateral flows across its thickness, and leakage to deeper aquifers.
The crop root zone interacts with the water table through leaching and upward flow.
Other components of the root-zone water balance are irrigation, precipitation, and evapotranspiration.
Mathematical models were used to simulate the processes shown in figure 1.
Proc-
 esses associated with water and salt flows in the root zone were described by semi-empirical and mass-balance equations.
Flow processes in the saturated zone below the water table were described by more sophisticated models, which incorporated variability in soil properties as well as groundwater salinity.
Formulation and selection of particular models were based on simplicity of computation and the level of accuracy necessary for regional planning.
When assembled, the simulation model accounts for the major processes governing behavior of shallow water tables in salinity-affected regions of irrigated agriculture.
In calculating the salt and water balance in the root zone, we considered flows of water and salt entering or leaving the zone.
Flows entering included irrigation water, precipitation, and upward flow from the water table.
Flows leaving the root zone were evapotranspiration and leaching water.
A specified level of salinity was assigned to irrigation water, upward flow, and leaching water.
Changes in soil water storage and salinity were accommodated in the overall mass balance.
We also included potential soil salt dissolution as a source of salinity in the root zone.
Table 1 summarizes informa-
 tion related to determination of root-zone water balance parameters.
Saline high water tables affect crop yield by inhibiting soil aeration so that root growth is stunted, and by increasing soil salinity, which limits availability of rootextractable soil water and may cause ion toxicity to the plant.
Thus our model of crop yield took water table depth and salinity into consideration.
Generally, as salinity increases or water table depth decreases, crop yield may drop, reducing monetary return to the grower.
Production costs related to water management in this model include the costs of irrigation water, the irrigation and drainage systems, and disposal of saline drain water.
We did not include costs for land, farm management, and property taxes.
When crop yield and the associated economic analysis are included, the complete integrated model describes variability of shallow water table depth and salinity, soil salinity, crop yield conditions, and net economic returns to growers in the region for a specified irrigation and drainage management strategy.
The management strategy was mathematically represented by the regional average irrigation and drainage
 Fig.
1.
Cross-section of a hypothetical tile-drained field with a shallow water table, showing water pathways into and out of the crop root zone.
efficiencies.
Irrigation efficiency is the fraction of the average depth of applied water in the region used to satisfy crop needs, and drainage efficiency is the fraction of deep percolation water removed by the subsurface drains.
By systematically varying irrigation and drainage efficiencies, it is possible to determine which management combination yields the greatest economic return.
Such a combination represents the "optimum" or target irrigation and drainage management planning strategy for the region.
Model response and sensitivity
 analyzed data from several field studies in the Delta-Mendota and Panoche fan areas to obtain all parameter values necessary to run the model.
These studies included examination of cotton water use, data on soil properties, crop yields, rootzone leaching, and expenses of irrigation, drainage, and cotton production.
Thisinformation has been summarized by Gates.
From the collected information, we constructed a hypothetical 5,000-acre region consisting of 60 independently managed cotton fields for which we determined optimal irrigation and drainage management strategies.
We varied key parameters  to determine their impact on the optimal management strategy.
For conditions given in table 2, the greatest average net benefit to growers in the hypothetical region occurred when irrigation and drainage efficiencies were 78 and 85 percent, respectively.
When considering smaller values of average soil permeability in the region, we found that the average net benefits to growers declined substantially at the optimum management strategy.
Increasing the rate of soil salt dissolution also reduced average net benefits over the region.
In addition to varying soil parameters, it is possible to examine the effect of different initial water table and soil salinities on the optimal management strategy and associated net benefits.
As initial water table salinity and soil salinity changed from 15,000 to 11,000 and 12,000 to 8,000 mg/L, respectively, optimal irrigation efficiencies remained constant at 78 percent, optimal drainage efficiencies decreased from 93 to 79 percent, and average net benefits to growers nearly tripled.
Increasing preirrigation in the model  resulted in higher irrigation efficiencies, since with greater leaching of soil salts during the preirrigation season, less leaching would be required during the irrigation season.
Corresponding decreases in drainage efficiency indicated that more upward flow of salts from the water table can be tolerated when leaching from preirrigation is greater.
Expected annual net benefits increased with increasing depth of preirrigation over the range of values considered.
Amounts of drainage water and accompanying salts requiring disposal were similar for the optimal management strategies determined for each alternative depth of preirrigation.
Had the management strategy been fixed at a particular combination of irrigation and drainage efficiencies, decreasing preplant irrigation would have reduced drain water volume.
A decrease in preplant depths would also have resulted in smaller net benefits, because the fixed strategy would no longer have been the optimal combination of irrigation and drainage efficiency.
Increasing fixed costs of drain water disposal decreased regional net benefits, but there was little effect on the optimal management strategy over disposal costs ranging from $120 to $370 per acre-foot.
The lack of effect suggests that, for regional planning purposes, the optimal water management
 TABLE 1.
Rootzone water balance components
 Flow process	How flow was	How salinity
 and origin	quantified	was quantified
 Precipitation	rainfall data	assumed zero
 Irrigation	input data	input data
 Upward flow from empirical	saturated
 water table	equation*	zone model
 Cotton evapo-	input data	assumed zero
 M.E.
Grismer and T.K.
Gates, 1988.
Calif.
Agric.
42 :23-4.
t H.
Bouwer.
1969.
ASCE J.
of Irrig.
and Drain.
95:153-70.
TABLE 2.
Values of physical parameters used in the model analysis
 Water table depth	5.6 ft
 Water table salinity	13,000 mg/L
 Soil water salinity	11,000 mg/L
 Soil salt dissolution	0
 Irrigation water salinity	250 mg/L
 Average permeability of soil, Kh*	0.16 ft/day
 Depth of preplant irrigation	7.1 inches
 Cost of drain water disposal	$250/acre-ft
 Planning period	20 years
 Hill.
1985.
Report to Westlands Water District.
2
 TABLE 3.
Effects of preplant irrigation depths on the optimal management strategy and drainage
 depth	E1*	ED*	Depths	Salts
 5.9	0.75	0.90	2.72	3.12
 7.1	0.78	0.85	2.68	3.08
 7.5	0.79	0.85	2.68	3.08
 8.3	0.80	0.81	2.87	3.28
 strategy is largely dictated by the responses of the crop, root zone, and water table system to irrigation and drainage.
Efficiency of irrigation  and drainage 
 The modeling studies indicate that economically optimal water management strategies typically occur at regional irrigation efficiencies between 75 and 80 percent.
Conceivably, such efficiencies may be achieved with surface irrigation methods.
If so, it may not be economical to invest the capital necessary to upgrade surface sysitems to pressurized systems for low-frequency irrigations subject to water delivery schedules.
We also found that it is not necessary for field drainage systems to extract all of the expected deep percolation.
Rather, it may be advantageous to allow the fraction of deep percolation water not collected to contribute to water table storage and crop use by upward flow.
Research on drain-water reduction with surface irrigation systems has indicated that reducing the irrigation set time and furrow run length to a quarter mile will decrease deep percolation losses.
Surge irrigation methods may also minimize deep percolation losses and increase irrigation efficiency.
Under low-frequency irrigation, large reductions in deep percolation flows are limited by the need to control excess soil salinity resulting from upward-flowing saline groundwate Soil salinization due to upward flow may be reduced or eliminated by high-frequency water applications with highly uniform, pressurized irrigation sysitems.
The costs of installing pressurized irrigation systems must be balanced against those associated with yield losses from exessalinity and with drain-water disposal.
Our modeling efforts suggest that the primary processes affecting crop yield and economic return to growers are water application efficiency, salinity control in the root zone, and soil permeability.
Of particular importance in salinity control is upward flow from the saline water table.
Model results also indicated that, when water delivery schedules result in relatively infrequent applications, surface irrigation systems operated at efficiencies near 80 percent can yield the greatest net benefits to growers in salinity problem areas.
Where water delivery schedules are not a limitation, salinity control and a reduction in drainage water may be achieved by very frequent water applications with highly uniform irrigation systems.
Mark E.
Grismer is Assistant Professor, Timothy K.
Gates is former Post-graduate Researcher , and Blaine R.
Hanson is Extension Irrigation and Drainage Specialist, Department of Land, Air, and Water Resources, University of California, Davis.
Park pivot: Position system parallel to prevailing winds.
Park on level surface not in an old track so the system can expand/contract with the freezing temperatures.
The Pesticide Education Office strongly encourages applicators to prepare for these exams by studying.
Our digital exam prep manuals  are a great way to study.
These combine the text of our traditional print study manuals with the video reviews shown at in-person initial training sessions  by combining the two, you can save a little money.
You must have internet access to use FlipBooks.
Once you feel prepared, you can take your exams at a testing-only session or through the Pearson VUE computerized testing service.
Commercial and noncommercial applicators whose licenses expire in 2023 can recertify online, or through one of these other options.
Table 1.
Percent of fields that had a lower soil water content on Sept.
15 than in August:
 In 2020, 55% of fields experienced their 15-25 inch soil zone get drier.
In 2020, 79% of fields experienced their 25-36 inch soil zone get drier.
Irrigation Efficiency and Uniformity, and Crop Water Use Efficiency
 Suat Irmak, Extension Soil and Water Resources and Irrigation Engineering Specialist, Professor
 Lameck O.
Odhiambo, Research Assistant Professor William L.
Kranz, Extension Irrigation Specialist and Associate Professor Dean E.
Eisenhauer, Professor Department of Biological Systems Engineering
 This Extension Circular describes various irrigation efficiency, crop water use efficiency, and irrigation uniformity evaluation terms that are relevant to irrigation systems and management practices currently used in Nebraska, in other states, and around the world.
The definitions and equations described can be used by crop consultants, irrigation district personnel, and university, state, and federal agency personnel to evaluate how efficiently irrigation water is applied and/or used by the crop, and can help to promote better or improved use of water resources in agriculture.
As available water resources become scarcer, more emphasis is given to efficient use of irrigation water for maximum economic return and water resources sustainability.
This requires appropriate methods of measuring and evaluating how effectively water extracted from a water source is used to produce crop yield.
Inadequate irrigation application results in crop water stress and yield reduction.
Excess irrigation application can result in pollution of water sources due to the loss of plant nutrients through leaching, runoff, and soil erosion.
The efficiency of irrigation water use varies across Nebraska.
In areas where water is limited, available water is used more carefully.
Whereas, in areas of abundant water, the value put on conserving water is less and the
 tendency to over irrigate exists.
Efficient use of water is also influenced by cost of labor, ease of controlling water, crops being irrigated, type of irrigation system, and soil characteristics.
Various terms are used to describe how efficiently irrigation water is applied and/or used by the crop.
Incorrect usage of these terms is common and can lead to a misrepresentation of how well an irrigation system is performing.
Nebraska has more than 8.6 million acres under irrigation with approximately 80 percent under sprinkler  irrigation systems, about 19 percent under surface  irrigation systems, and less than 1 percent under microirrigation  irrigation systems.
In practice, it is seldom possible to deliver every drop of irrigation water to the crop due to water losses between the source and the delivery point.
Irrigation water losses include spray droplet evaporation, weed water use, soil evaporation, furrow evaporation, leaks in pipelines, seepage and evaporation from irrigation ditches, surface runoff, and deep percolation.
The magnitude of each loss is dependent on the characteristics and management of each type of irrigation system.
In Nebraska, the main beneficial use of irrigation water is to meet crop evapotranspiration  requirements.
Another beneficial use is water used for
 chemigation.
In some areas, leaching of salt from the soil is also an important beneficial use.
Perhaps the most non-beneficial use of water is evaporation from water and soil surface, which does not contribute to crop productivity.
Irrigation efficiency is generally defined from three points of view:  the irrigation system performance,  the uniformity of water application, and  the response of the crop to irrigation.
These irrigation efficiency measures are interrelated and vary on a spatial and temporal scale.
The spatial scale may be defined for a single field, or on a larger scale up to a whole irrigation district or watershed.
The temporal scale can vary from a single irrigation event to a longer period such as part of the growing season, or a period of years.
Evaluating Irrigation System Performance
 Irrigation system performance describes the effectiveness of the physical system and operating decisions to deliver irrigation water from a water source to the crop.
Several efficiency terms are used to evaluate irrigation system performance.
These include water conveyance efficiency, water application efficiency, soil water storage efficiency, irrigation efficiency, overall irrigation efficiency, and effective irrigation efficiency.
Water Conveyance Efficiency 
 Irrigation water is normally conveyed from a water source to the farm or field through natural drainage ways, constructed earthen or lined canals, or pipelines.
Many conveyance systems have transmission losses, meaning that water delivered to the farm or field is usually less than the water diverted from the source.
Water losses in the conveyance system include canal seepage, canal spills , evaporation losses from canals, and leaks in pipelines.
The water conveyance efficiency is typically defined as the ratio between the irrigation water that reaches a farm or field to that diverted from the water source.
It is expressed as:
 E =  x 100 
 = water conveyance efficiency 
 = volume of irrigation water that reaches the farm or field 
 V = volume of irrigation water diverted from the water source 
 The water conveyance efficiency also can be applied to evaluate individual segments of canals or pipelines.
Typically, conveyance losses are much lower for pipelines due to reduced evaporation and seepage losses.
In Nebraska, irrigation water is frequently pumped from wells located in the field and carried in pipelines.
Water
 delivery through open canals is also common, especially in the central and western parts of the state.
Since there is minimal water loss in closed/pressurized conveyance systems, the conveyance efficiency can be as high as 100 percent.
Water Application Efficiency 
 Water application efficiency  provides a general indication of how well an irrigation system performs its primary task of delivering water from the conveyance system to the crop.
The objective is to apply the water and store it in the crop root zone to meet the crop water requirement.
E is a measure of the fraction of the total volume of water delivered to the farm or field to that which is stored in the root zone to meet the crop evapotranspiration  needs.
E is expressed as:
 = water application efficiency 
 = volume of irrigation water stored in the root zone 
 V = volume of irrigation water delivered to the farm or field 
 Water losses during sprinkler irrigation include wind drift and evaporation from droplets in the air, from the crop canopy, and from the soil surface.
Wind drift loss is water that is transported from the target area by wind, while droplet evaporation is water loss by direct evaporation of water while in transit from the nozzle to the crop or soil surface.
Wind drift and droplet evaporation losses can be large if the sprinkler design or pressure produces a high percentage of very fine droplets.
In Nebraska, many center pivot systems are designed to operate on low-pressure drop tubes below the center pivot lateral and close to the crop canopy.
Because wind speeds are reduced close to the crop canopy, placing low-pressure sprinkler devices just above the crop canopy reduces the amount of water lost through wind drift and droplet evaporation.
Canopy losses include water that is intercepted by the plant foliage and evaporated back to the air.
When water reaches the soil surface, losses can occur from soil evaporation, runoff, or percolation below the root zone.
Presented in Table 1 are the results of estimates of application water losses in three different sprinkler devices  based on research conducted at the USDA-ARS Conservation and Production Laboratory in Bushland, Texas.
The low-angle impact sprinkler was located on top of the sprinkler main lateral, the spray heads were operated at 5 ft above the canopy, and the LEPA system using bubblers was operated at 1 ft above the ground.
The water loss estimates are based on the irrigation amount of 1 in to mature corn under minimal wind conditions.
Table 1.
Estimates of sprinkler application water losses for 1-inch water application.
Low-Angle Impact	Spray Head
 Water Loss Component	Sprinkler Water Loss	Water Loss	LEPA Water Loss
 Drift and droplet evaporation	0.03 in	0.01 in	0.00 in
 Plant interception	0.04 in	0.04 in	0.00 in
 Net canopy evaporation	0.08 in	0.03 in	0.00 in
 Soil evaporation during irrigation	Negligible	Negligible	0.02 in
 Total water loss	0.15 in	0.08 in	0.02 in
 Water losses during surface  irrigation include runoff, evaporation from water in the furrow channels, evaporation from the soil surface, and percolation below the root zone.
Runoff losses can be significant if tailwater is not controlled and reused.
In cases where runoff water is recovered and reused, the volume of irrigation water delivered to the farm or field  should be adjusted to account for the net recovered tailwater.
In Nebraska, irrigators commonly block the lower end of furrows to prevent runoff.
Blocking furrow ends, however, can result in nonuniform water distribution and excessive deep percolation at both the upstream and downstream ends of the field.
Shown in Figure 1 are examples of infiltration profiles under conventional furrow and blockedend furrow irrigation.
The application efficiency of furrow irrigation is impacted by management practices, stream size, soil characteristics, and field slope.
The normal practice is to supply continuous flow for the entire irrigation set time.
Some farmers use surge irrigation to reduce overall application depths and improve infiltration uniformity along the furrow.
In surge irrigation, water is intermittently applied to the furrows, usually resulting in less runoff and more consistent opportunity time along the furrow.
Because of the losses during application, water application efficiency is always less than 100 percent.
Presented in Table 2 are "potential" values of water application efficiencies for well-designed and managed irrigation systems.
It is possible to have a high E and yet have unsatisfactory irrigation performance.
For example, the amounts of irrigation water applied  may be small to minimize deep percolation and surface runoff losses, but insufficient to satisfy crop ET requirements, causing yield reductions.
It is also possible to apply the correct amount of water  and have very low application losses, but still have yield reduction if the irrigation water is poorly distributed.
Poor water distribution causes water stress in areas receiving relatively low amounts of water and oxygen stress in areas that are waterlogged for several days.
For E to have practical meaning, V needs to be sufficient and well distributed to avoid undesirable water stress and oxygen stress  in the farm or field.
Thus, reporting of both application efficiency and water distribution uniformity would provide
 Table 2.
"Potential" application efficiencies for welldesigned and well-managed irrigation systems.
Linear move	75 85
 Center pivot	75 85
 Traveling gun	65 75
 Side roll	65 85
 Hand move	65 85
 Solid set	70 85
 Furrow 	45 65
 Furrow 	55 75
 Furrow 	60 80
 Basin 	60 75
 Basin 	40 60
 Precision level basin	65 80
 Bubbler 	80 90
 Micro-point source	85 90
 Micro-line source	85 90
 Subsurface drip	> 95
 Surface drip	85 95
 a better indication of overall irrigation system performance.
It should be noted that "potential" application efficiency values presented in Table 2 are a strong function of how a given irrigation system is managed.
The efficiency values presented in Table 2 are also strong functions of soil type, slope, crop growth stage, system/ water delivery capacity, and many other management factors and field and irrigation method characteristics.
Thus, for the same irrigation method, these values can vary substantially from one field or location to another.
Proper irrigation management can increase the
 Figure 1.
Example of infiltration profiles under  conventional furrow irrigation,  typical blocked-end furrow irrigation, and  well-managed blocked-end furrow irrigation.
increase the application efficiency, and poor irrigation management can result in inefficient use of water and reduce application efficiency.
Overirrigation may result in leaching chemicals below the crop root zone, cause yield reduction, and result in wasting water resources.
Improper timing and inadequate irrigation applications that do not meet the crop water requirement may impose stress to the crop and reduce grain yield and yield quality.
The calculation of water application efficiency and other efficiency terms requires measurement of irrigation water stored in the root zone, which requires
EFFECT OF TILLAGE AND IRRIGATION CAPACITY ON CORN PRODUCTION
 KSU Northwest Research-Extension Center 105 Experiment Farm Road, Colby, Kansas Voice: 785-462-6281 Fax: 785-462-2315
 Corn production was compared in 2004 and 2005 for three plant populations  under conventional, strip and no tillage systems for irrigation capacities limited to 1 inch every 4, 6 or 8 days.
Corn yield increased approximately 10% from the lowest to highest irrigation capacity in these two years of relatively normal precipitation and crop evapotranspiration.
Strip tillage and no tillage had 5% and 3% higher grain yields than conventional tillage, respectively.
Results suggest that strip tillage obtains the residue benefits of no tillage in reducing evaporation losses without the yield penalty sometimes occurring with high residue.
The small increases in total seasonal water use  for strip tillage and no-tillage compared to conventional tillage can probably be explained by the higher grain yields for these tillage systems.
Declining water supplies and reduced well capacities are forcing irrigators to look for ways to conserve and get the best utilization from their water.
Residue management techniques such as no tillage or conservation tillage have been proven to be very effective tools for dryland water conservation in the Great Plains.
However, adoption of these techniques is lagging for continuous irrigated corn.
There are many reasons given for this lack of adoption, but some of the major reasons expressed are difficulty handling the increased level of residue from irrigated production, cooler and wetter seedbeds in the early spring which may lead to poor or slower development of the crop, and ultimately a corn grain yield penalty as compared to conventional tillage systems.
Under very high production systems, even a reduction of a few percentage points in corn yield can have a significant economic impact.
Strip tillage might be a good compromise between conventional tillage and no tillage, possibly achieving most of the benefits in water conservation and soil quality management of no tillage, while providing a method of handling the increased residue and increased early growth similar to conventional tillage.
Strip tillage can retain surface residues and thus suppress soil evaporation and also provide subsurface tillage to help
 alleviate effects of restrictive soil layers on root growth and function.
A study was initiated in 2004 to examine the effect of three tillage systems for corn production under three different irrigation capacities.
Plant population was an additional factor examined because corn grain yield increases in recent years have been closely related to increased plant populations.
The study was conducted under a center pivot sprinkler at the KSU Northwest Research-Extension Center at Colby, Kansas during the years 2004 and 2005.
Corn was also grown on the field site in 2003 to establish residue levels for the three tillage treatments.
The deep Keith silt loam soil can supply about 17.5 inches of available soil water for an 8-foot soil profile.
The climate can be described as semi-arid with a summer precipitation pattern with an annual rainfall of approximately 19 inches.
Average precipitation is approximately 12 inches during the 120-day corn growing season.
A corn hybrid of approximately 110 day relative maturity  was planted in circular rows on May 8, 2004 and April 27, 2005.
Three seeding rates  were superimposed onto each tillage treatment in a complete randomized block design.
Irrigation was scheduled with a weather-based water budget, but was limited to the 3 treatment capacities of 1 inch every 4, 6, or 8 days.
This translates into typical seasonal irrigation amounts of 16-20, 12-15, 8-10 inches, respectively.
Each of the irrigation capacities  were replicated three times in pieshaped sectors  of the center pivot sprinkler.
Plot length varied from to 90 to 175 ft, depending on the radius of the subplot from the center pivot point.
Irrigation application rates  at the outside edge of this research center pivot were similar to application rates near the end of full size systems.
A small amount of preseason irrigation was conducted to bring the soil water profile  to approximately 50% of field capacity in the fall and as necessary in the spring to bring the soil water profile to approximately 75% in the top 3 ft prior to planting.
It should be recognized that preseason irrigation is not a recommended practice for fully irrigated corn production, but did allow the three irrigation capacities to start the season with somewhat similar amounts of water in the profile.
The three tillage treatments  were replicated in a Latin-Square type arrangement in 60 ft widths at three different radii  from the center pivot point.
The various operations and their time period for the three tillage treatments are summarized in Table 1.
Planting was in the same row location each year for the Conventional Tillage treatment to the extent that good farming practices allowed.
The Strip Tillage and No-Tillage treatments were planted between corn rows from the previous year.
Each Tillage Trt.
includes 3 plant populations 
 Tillage and Sprinkler Irrigation Capacity Study
 Figure 1.
Physical arrangement of the irrigation capacity and tillage treatments.
Fertilizer N for all 3 treatments was applied at a rate of 200 lb/acre in split applications with approximately 85 lb/ac applied in the fall or spring application, approximately 30 lb/acre in the starter application at planting and approximately 85 lb/acre in a fertigation event near corn lay-by.
Phosphorus was applied with the starter fertilizer at planting at the rate of 45 lb/acre P2O5.
Urea-AmmoniumNitrate  and Ammonium Superphosphate  were utilized as the fertilizer sources in the study.
Fertilizer was incorporated in the fall concurrently with the Conventional Tillage operation and applied with a mole knife during the Strip Tillage treatment.
Conversely, N application was broadcast with the No Tillage treatment prior to planting.
A post-plant, pre-emergent herbicide program of Bicep II Magnum and Roundup Ultra was applied.
Roundup was also applied post-emergence prior to lay-by for all treatments, but was particularly beneficial for the strip and no tillage treatments.
Insecticides were applied as required during the growing season.
Weekly to bi-weekly soil water measurements were made in 1-ft increments to 8ft.
depth with a neutron probe.
All measured data was taken near the center of each plot.
These data were utilized to examine treatment differences in soil water conditions both spatially  and temporally.
Table 1.
Tillage treatments, herbicide and nutrient application by period.
Period	Conventional tillage	Strip Tillage	No Tillage
 1) One-pass chisel/disk	1) Strip Till + Fertilizer
 Fall	plow at 8-10 inches	 at 8-10 inch depth,
 2003	with broadcast N,	November 13, 2003.
2) Plant + Banded starter	2) Plant + Banded	1) Broadcast N + Plant +
 N & P, May 8, 2004.
starter N & P, May 8,	Banded starter N & P,
 Spring	2004	May 8, 2004
 2004	3) Pre-emergent	3) Pre-emergent	2) Pre-emergent
 herbicide application,	herbicide application,	herbicide application,
 May 9, 2004.
May 9, 2004.
May 9, 2004.
4) Roundup herbicide	4) Roundup herbicide	3) Roundup herbicide
 application near lay-	application near lay-	application near lay-
 Summer	by, June 9, 2004	by, June 9, 2004	by, June 9, 2004
 5) Fertigate , June 10,	5) Fertigate , June10,	4) Fertigate , June
 2004	2004	10, 2004
 1) One-pass chisel/disk	Too wet, no tillage
 Fall	plow at 8-10 inches	operations
 2004	with broadcast N,
 1) Strip Till + Fertilizer
  at 8-10 inch depth,
 Spring	2) Plant + Banded starter	2) Plant + Banded	1) Broadcast N + Plant +
 2005	N & P, April 27, 2005.
starter N & P, April 27,	Banded starter N & P,
 2005	April 27, 2005
 3) Pre-emergent	3) Pre-emergent	2) Pre-emergent
 herbicide application,	herbicide application,	herbicide application,
 May 8, 2005.
May 8, 2005.
May 8, 2005.
4) Roundup herbicide	4) Roundup herbicide	3) Roundup herbicide
 application near lay-	application near lay-	application near lay-
 Summer	by, June 9, 2004	by, June 9, 2004	by, June 9, 2004
 5) Fertigate , June 17,	5) Fertigate , June	4) Fertigate , June
 2005	17, 2005	17, 2005
 Similarly, corn yield was measured in each of the 81 subplots at the end of the season.
In addition, yield components  were determined to help explain the treatment differences.
Water use and water use efficiency were calculated for each subplot using the soil water data, precipitation, applied irrigation and crop yield.
Summer seasonal precipitation was approximately 2 inches below normal in 2004 and near normal in 2005 at 9.99 and 11.95 inches, respectively for the 120 day period from May 15 through September 11.
In 2004, the last month of the season was very dry but the remainder of the season had reasonably timely rainfall and about normal crop evapotranspiration.
In 2005, precipitation was above normal until about the middle of July and then there was a period with very little precipitation until the middle of August.
This dry period in 2005 also coincided with a week of higher temperatures and high crop evapotranspiration near the reproductive period of the corn.
Seasonal evapotranspiration for both years was very near the long term average of 23.09 inches.
Figure 2.
Corn evapotranspiration and summer seasonal rainfall for the 120 day period, May 15 through September 11, KSU Northwest ResearchExtension Center, Colby Kansas.
Irrigation requirements were lower in 2004 with the 1 inch/4 day treatment receiving 12 inches, the 1 inch/ 6 day treatment receiving 11 inches and the 1 inch/8 day treatment receiving 9 inches.
The irrigation amounts in 2005 were 15, 13, and 10 inches for the three respective treatments.
Figure 3.
Seasonal irrigation for the 120 day period, May 15 through September 11, 2004 for the three irrigation treatments in an irrigation capacity and tillage study, KSU Northwest Research-Extension Center, Colby Kansas.
Figure 4.
Seasonal irrigation for the 120 day period, May 15 through September 11, 2005 for the three irrigation treatments in an irrigation capacity and tillage study, KSU Northwest Research-Extension Center, Colby Kansas.
Crop Yield and Selected Yield Components
 Corn yield was relatively high for both years ranging from 198 to 262 bu/acre Table 2 and Table 3, Figure 5).
Higher irrigation capacity generally increased grain yield, particularly in 2005.
Strip tillage and no tillage had higher grain yields at the lowest irrigation capacity in 2004 and at all irrigation capacities in 2005.
Strip tillage tended to have the highest grain yields for all tillage systems and the effect of tillage treatment was greatest at the lowest irrigation capacity.
These results suggest that strip tillage obtains the residue benefits of no tillage in reducing evaporation losses without the yield penalty sometimes associated with the higher residue levels in irrigated no tillage management.
Table 2.
Selected corn yield component and total seasonal water use data for 2004 from an irrigation capacity and tillage study, KSU Northwest Research-Extension Center, Colby, Kansas.
Irrigation	Capacity	System	Tillage	Population		Plant	bu/acre	Grain	Yield	Population	Plant		Kernels	/Ear	Weight	Kernel	g/100		Water	Use
 1 in/4 days	Conventional	26	229	27878	550	37.1	23.0
 	30	235	29330	557	36.2	22.6
 34	234	32234	529	34.6	22.0
 Strip Tillage	26	245	27588	537	38.9	23.5
 30	232	30492	519	37.0	24.4
 34	237	33106	514	35.5	24.3
 No Tillage	26	218	25846	548	37.7	22.0
 30	226	29330	539	36.8	23.6
 34	251	33686	553	33.8	23.2
 1	in/6 days Conventional	26	226	25265	557	39.0	23.0
 	30	222	29621	522	34.9	23.6
 34	243	32525	522	36.0	23.9
 Strip Tillage	26	235	27298	558	36.9	23.3
 30	224	28750	556	35.0	24.4
 34	237	33396	487	35.6	24.4
 No Tillage	26	225	26426	537	37.8	24.5
 30	222	29040	556	34.6	25.0
 34	229	32234	545	32.8	23.4
 1 in/8 days Conventional	26	198	24684	509	37.5	22.1
 	30	211	29330	531	34.5	22.4
 34	216	31654	494	34.9	22.0
 Strip Tillage	26	227	25846	644	34.2	23.8
 30	229	29911	518	35.6	21.8
 34	234	32815	507	35.1	23.2
 No Tillage	26	220	27007	541	36.6	22.5
 30	225	29621	528	34.5	23.2
 34	220	32815	506	32.2	22.6
 Table 3.
Selected corn yield component and total seasonal water use data for 2005 from an irrigation capacity and tillage study, KSU Northwest Research-Extension Center, Colby, Kansas.
Irrigation	Tillage	Plant	Grain	Plant	Kernels	Kernel	Water
 Capacity	System	Population		bu/acre	Yield	Population		/Ear	Weight	g/100		Use
 1 in/4 days Conventional	26	218	23813	644	37.9	28.3
 	30	238	27588	594	37.3	28.6
 34	260	30202	579	37.1	27.3
 Strip Tillage	26	238	24394	620	39.6	28.3
 30	251	27878	590	38.3	26.6
 34	253	31073	567	36.8	29.1
 No Tillage	26	228	24974	628	38.3	28.1
 30	254	26717	660	37.4	27.7
 34	262	31363	606	35.8	28.5
 1 in/6 days Conventional	26	203	24684	546	37.7	26.4
 	30	221	27588	544	37.5	25.8
 34	208	31073	472	36.2	25.3
 Strip Tillage	26	226	24394	604	38.9	26.7
 30	207	28169	487	38.4	27.1
 34	248	31944	560	36.0	26.2
 No Tillage	26	205	24684	565	38.2	26.7
 30	224	29040	547	36.6	27.2
 34	234	31654	512	37.1	25.7
 1 in/8 days Conventional	26	187	24394	523	37.5	22.8
 	30	218	27298	536	37.5	22.5
 34	208	31654	452	37.3	24.8
 Strip Tillage	26	212	23813	648	34.9	23.8
 30	216	27588	579	35.8	24.1
 34	240	31363	537	36.1	24.5
 No Tillage	26	208	24103	608	37.4	24.6
 30	211	27588	537	36.2	22.9
 34	216	31073	502	36.4	24.7
 Figure 5.
Corn grain yield as affected by irrigation capacity and tillage, 20042005, KSU Northwest Research-Extension Center, Colby Kansas.
Figure 6.
Corn grain yield as affected by irrigation capacity and plant population, 2004-2005, KSU Northwest Research-Extension Center, Colby Kansas.
The number of kernels/ear was lower in 2004 and relatively consistent between tillage systems and irrigation capacities compared to 2005.
The potential number of kernels/ear is set at about the ninth leaf stage  and the actual number of kernels/ear is finalized by approximately 2 weeks after pollination.
Greater early season precipitation in 2005  than 2004 may have established a higher potential for kernels/acre and then later in the 2005 season greater irrigation capacity or better residue management may have allowed for more kernels to escape abortion.
The time the actual kernels/acre was being set in 2005 was a period of high evapotranspiration  and also coincided with multiple irrigation events for the 1inch /4 days irrigation capacity.
Figure 7.
Kernels/ear as affected by irrigation capacity and plant population, 2004-2005, KSU Northwest Research-Extension Center, Colby Kansas.
Final kernel weight is affected by plant growing conditions during the grain filling stage  and by plant population and kernels/ear.
Deficit irrigation capacities often will begin to mine soil water reserves during the latter portion of the cropping season, so it is not surprising that kernel weight was increased with increased irrigation capacity.
Tillage system also affected kernel weight, but it is thought by the authors that the effect was caused by different factors at the different irrigation capacities.
At the lowest irrigation capacity, final kernel weight was highest for conventional tillage because of the lower number of kernels/ear.
However, this higher kernel weight did not compensate for the decreased kernels/ear, and thus, grain yields were lower for conventional tillage.
Strip tillage generally had higher kernel weights at higher irrigation capacity than the conventional and no tillage treatments for some unknown reason.
Figure 8.
Kernel weight as affected by irrigation capacity and plant population, 2004-2005, KSU Northwest Research-Extension Center, Colby Kansas.
The changing patterns in grain yield, kernels/ear, and kernel weight that occurs between years and as affected by irrigation capacity and tillage system may be suggesting that additional factors besides differences in plant water status or evaporative losses is affecting the corn production.
There might be differences in rooting, aerial or soil microclimate, nutrient status or uptake to name a few possible physical and biological reasons.
Total seasonal water use in this study was calculated as the sum of irrigation, precipitation and the change in available soil water over the course of the season.
As a result, seasonal water use can include non-beneficial water losses such as soil evaporation, deep percolation, and runoff.
Intuitively, one might anticipate that good residue management with strip tillage and no-tillage would result in lower water use than conventional tillage because of lower non-
 beneficial water losses.
However, in this study, strip tillage and no-tillage generally had higher water use.
The small increases in total seasonal water use  for strip tillage and no-tillage compared to conventional tillage can probably be explained by the higher grain yields for these tillage systems.
Another possibility is that there were increased deep percolation losses in 2005 because of the higher early season precipitation.
Figure 9.
Total seasonal water use  as affected by irrigation capacity and plant population, 2004-2005, KSU Northwest Research-Extension Center, Colby Kansas.
Corn grain yields were high in 2004 and 2005 with near normal precipitation and crop evapotranspiration.
Strip tillage and no tillage generally performed better than conventional tillage.
Increasing the plant population from 25,400 to 32,000 plants/acre was beneficial at all three irrigation capacities.
The study will be continued in 2006 to determine if the production trends will remain as residue levels continue to increase.
This paper was first presented at the 18th annual Central Plains Irrigation Conference, February 21-22, 2006, Colby, Kansas.
Contribution No.
06-192-A from the Kansas Agricultural Experiment Station.
Applying strip tillage treatments in the fall of 2005 in preparation for 2006 cropping season, KSU Northwest Research-Extension Center, Colby, Kansas.
Chemigation is the practice of applying agrichemicals to cropland using an irrigation system to distribute both the water and chemical.
UNDERSTANDING YOUR HOUSEHOLD WATER TEST REPORT
 Osu Soil, Water and Forage Analytical Laboratory offers a low cost Household Water Test to help homeowners evaluate their general water quality and to help determine treatment needs and cost.
This lab does not offer bacteriological, trace metals and pesticide tests, which are very important to your drinking water quality.
You should consult the Oklahoma Department of Environmental Quality  or your local Health Department if you suspect any contamination from bacteria, heavy metals, pesticides or other untested items.
How to Collect a Good Water Sample
 Obtain a clean plastic bottle from your local county Extension office to collect a water sample for analysis.
Prior to filling the bottle, turn on the water faucet and let it run for 3 to 5 minutes.
Rinse the bottle three times with the water to be tested.
Fill the bottle to the top, leaving as little air space as possible.
Submit the sample to the lab for analysis through the county Extension office.
What Results do I Get From OSU Household Water Test?
The Household Water Test includes:
 1.
Nitrate nitrogen 
 13.
Electrical conductivity 
 14.
Total dissolved solids 
 What do Those Test Results Mean?
The pH reflects the acidity or alkalinity of the water.
A pH of 7 is neutral.
A pH value below 7 is acid, and above 7 is alkaline.
The pH between 6.5 and 8.5 is considered normal.
Water below pH 6.5 is corrosive and can damage plumbing fixtures or leach metals from pipes and solder.
Above pH 8.5, calcium carbonate may precipitate out and clog water lines.
The water may not be suitable for your lawn, garden or houseplants if the pH is either too low or too high, and extremes may damage your soil or plants.
Total dissolved solids refer to the total amount of salt dissolved in the water.
The salts include substances that form common table salt (sodium
Identify Poultry Water System Contamination Challenges
 Mary Scantling Program Associate Poultry
 Susan Watkins Professor, Extension Poultry Specialist
 Arkansas Is Our Campus
 Optimizing growth rate and feed utilization go hand in hand with reducing stressors in the grow-out environment of poultry production facilities.
Water systems are often overlooked as a stressor, but even enclosed systems can be heavily contaminated with microbial challenges that create health issues which impact growth and feed conversion.
Water systems are the perfect host for many types of bacteria, protozoa, viruses and fungi since water serves as an ideal home for many microorganisms.
Poultry-barn drinker systems have slow-flowing water that is warmed during brooding, making water supplies more conducive for bacterial and fungal growth.
The use of water additives such as electrolytes, vitamins and organic acids provides nutrients that feed the growth.
Once microbes attach to pipe walls, they create biofilms which trap and store nutrients as well as create a protective environment.
Since birds drink twice as much water as they consume feed, it is almost a given that birds will be negatively impacted should the water system contain unhealthy contamination, and it is not easy to predict when contamination will release from a biofilm and impact the birds.
Providing young chicks with the best possible source of water is essential to help assure that they have an excellent start in life.
Even turkeys near market age require a clean, safe water supply.
While most finisherbarn turkey drinkers are not a completely closed water supply, it is still possible to minimize contamination with a good water sanitation program.
Traditionally, water evaluations included recommendations to collect a water sample in a sterile container at the end of the water line to establish a baseline evaluation of how much, if any, bacteria were present.
Yet now we know bacteria and other organisms build a biofilm in water systems which can protect the bacteria and give pathogens a hiding place, even when sanitizers such as chlorine are present in the water at levels okay for the birds to drink.
A water sample taken from the end of a water line or from a well may not accurately reflect the contamination load.
A much better way to determine if microbes exist in drinking water lines in a poultry barn is to swab the inside of the line and compare to a water sample  from the end of the line.
Comparing the two samples gives producers and production personnel a better understanding of how much biofilm may be present, which helps in the development of a plan for effectively cleaning and eliminating contamination from the system.
Results from several years of comparing water lines before and after they were properly cleaned on productionchallenged farms clearly indicate that, when water lines are properly cleaned to remove any microbial contamination and then kept clean with a daily water sanitation program, the performance of flocks grown on the farm is almost always improved.
Taking swab samples from water lines before and after cleaning the lines is also an excellent tool for determining effectiveness of line-cleaning products.
Swabs can be easily made, or pre-made kits are available.
Make the swabs by putting a one-inch dry cellulose sponge into a 50 ml vial that contains 25 ml of Butterfield's Phosphate Diluent.
This acts as a neutralizer for any water sanitizers present, and it also preserves the microorganisms until the samples can be submitted to a microbiology lab.
The sponges/swabs and solution should be sterilized, preferably with an autoclave to assure no contamination.
Each swab is to be used for one individual sample.
Swab kits can also be obtained from the Watkins lab at the Poultry Science Center of Excellence.
Contact the lab at 479-575-8428.
As a starting point, test a minimum of one line per barn and two barns per farm.
Do not resample the same line if evaluating preand post-water sanitation procedures, because once a line has been swiped with a sponge, whatever is present has been physically removed and will most likely be lower with or without cleaning.
1.
Shut the water off to the water line being tested.
2.
Remove the cap from the end of the water line or detach the drain hose from the end of the line and allow excess water to drain out so the sponge will be absorbing biofilm and not just water.
If a valve cap is present, remove it.
Do not sample through the valve cap as it will not be a representative sample.
Sample as close as possible to the standpipe.
3.
Wipe off the outside threads of the water line with 91% alcohol in case your sponge brushes against them when you swab.
4.
Wipe down a pair of extra-long tweezers  with alcohol or dip in alcohol.
Use a flame starter to burn off alcohol and sterilize tweezers.
5.
Remove the cap of the swab vial while being extremely cautious not to touch the edge of the vial or the inside of the cap against anything.
6.
Put the sterilized tweezers into the vial and grasp the sponge.
Push the sponge against the inside of the vial and turn to squeeze out the excess moisture.
7.
Remove the sponge from the vial and insert into the end of the open pipe, being extremely careful not to touch anything as the sponge enters the pipe.
8.
Insert the sponge at least 4 inches into the pipe, twisting it as you go in and back out.
9.
Replace the sponge into the BPD or sterile water in the 50 ml vial and tightly close the cap to prevent leakage.
Vigorously shake the vial to release an even number of bacteria from the sponge into the BPD solution.
Carefully label the sample with a waterproof marker and then store the sample at refrigeration temperature , even in transport until the sample arrives at the lab.
For best results, samples should be submitted to the lab within 24 to 48 hours.
Repeat this procedure for each testing site, being sure to sterilize the tweezers before using them for each sponge.
10.
Once the sample is back in the lab, it is vigorously shaken to evenly distribute the bacteria.
A 1 ml sample is pulled from the sample to plate onto the desired media, for example:
 3M's Aerobic Plate Count, incubated for 48 hrs at 30C.
3M's E.
Coli/Coliform, incubated for 24 hrs at 30C.
3M's Yeast and Mold Films, incubated for 3 to 5 days at room temperature.
11.
Serial dilutions and subsequent plating of those dilutions are performed as well, depending on the expectant load of bacteria (i.e., unsanitized
 Swabbing water lines can be done for any type of line, but just make sure to remove any parts that will prevent you from getting the sponge into the true water line.
pipe samples would dilute out to, say, the fourth or fifth dilution while sanitized samples may only dilute out to the second or third dilution).
According to the guidelines of the company  that makes the product on which the water will be incubated, the bacteria that will appear on the petrifilm are actually more than single bacteria.
They are whole colonies of bacteria and are counted as colonyforming units per milliliter.
Normally the sponge that was used to swab the inside of the water line is not tested for bacteria growth, but it could be done.
Results are shown as CFU/ml or colony-forming units of Total or Aerobic Plate Count bacteria per milliliter.
This can also be listed as APC or TPC.
APC includes all bacteria which require oxygen for survival and does not differentiate between pathogenic and non-pathogenic bacteria.
While 10,000 or
 more APC CFU/ml does not mean the bacteria are harmful, it does indicate that the water line contains contamination.
Samples have been reported ranging from 0 to 20 million CFU/ml for both swab and drip samples.
Desirable results are counts of 0-100 CFU/ml.
Results in the range of 1,000-10,000 CFU/ml indicate that a marginal level of contamination is present.
If results are greater than 100,000 CFU/ml, the water system would benefit from a thorough cleaning.
While at this time there is no firmly established link between water line contamination and farm performance, there is a trend that farms with consistent poor performance do tend to have higher microbial levels in water systems.
And there is a trend that farm performance improves after thorough and effective water line cleaning, provided management and environment are also optimal.
When drinking water lines within the barns are heavily contaminated, it is important to note that underground lines can also serve as a source of recontamination, and it is recommended that they should also be cleaned.
Leaching Fraction: A Tool to Schedule Irrigation for Container-Grown Nursery Crops
 James S.
"Jim" Owen Jr., Nursery Crop Extension Specialist, Hampton Roads Agricultural Research and Extension Center, and Associate Professor, School of Plant and Environmental Sciences, Virginia Tech Anthony V.
LeBude, Nursery Crops Extension Specialist, Mountain Horticultural Crops Research and Extension Center, and Associate Professor, Horticultural Science, NC State University Amy Fulcher, Extension Specialist, Tennessee Cooperative Extension, and Associate Professor, Sustainable Ornamental Plant Production and Landscape Management, University of Tennessee Jane Stanley, Chief of Container Production, Saunders Brothers, Inc.
Lorence R.
"Loren" Oki, Specialist in Cooperative Extension, Environmental Horticulture, Plant Sciences, University of California-Davis, and Co-Director, UC Nursery and Floriculture Alliance
 Irrigation management of nursery crops grown in containers  can be difficult since many factors influence the decision of when and how much to irrigate.
These factors include weather, substrate properties, crop water use, crop canopy, irrigation system performance, and water quality.
In making the decision to irrigate,
 Figure 1.
Image of a Mid-Atlantic container nursery.
leach-ing frac-tion \'lech-in \ 'frak-shen\
 Definition: A measured loss of water and watersoluble minerals from the substrate of containergrown plants due to known amounts of irrigation.
Leaching fraction is calculated as the ratio of water volume that leaches from a container to the volume of water applied by irrigation.
Root words: Leach: water or solution passed through a container.
Fraction: numerical quantity of rational numbers represented by quotient that is produced by the division of two numbers.
many growers rely on their experience with the crop and the substrate in which it is grown, current weather conditions, or forecasts.
In the absence of experience, the irrigation program is usually based on a set schedule and volume to ensure crops are watered thoroughly, which is commonly too much.
Overwatering avoids the risk of crops drying out but can lead to inefficient use of production inputs, including water and agrichemicals, as well as exacerbating pathogen problems in production.
Soilless substrates have a relative high porosity and low water holding capacity when compared to soils.
These physical properties allow growers to apply heavy and frequent irrigation to reduce the perceived risk of crop water stress or salt accumulation.
Therefore, growers do not have to determine whether plants need irrigation because leaching is very high and the potential risks associated with overwatering are low.
However, overapplication of water results in nutrients  leaching from the container, longer pumping times , increased use of chlorine and other water treatments, potential environmental impacts, and decreased access time for workers.
Additionally, overirrigation often favors pathogens that cause root rot.
While these inefficiencies may be less obvious than plants succumbing to insufficient water, overirrigation can negatively affect nursery profitability.
Monitoring leachate can be a helpful tool to successfully schedule irrigation and avoid the inefficiencies associated with overirrigation.
Leachate the volume of water that drains from a container after irrigation is completed can be compared to the volume of water applied during an irrigation event.
This ratio is called the leaching fraction.
Leaching fractions can be used first to survey whether different taxa grown within a single irrigation zone are getting the appropriate amount of water and that information can form the basis for determining the appropriate amount of water to apply.
By comparing the measured leaching fractions with the desired leaching fraction for that zone, producers can adjust the irrigation run time accordingly to apply the desired volume.
Monitoring leaching fraction and using it to manage salt levels in the container substrate solution is a particularly important use of leaching fraction when using saline irrigation water.
Saline water can occur when using recycled water from runoff recycling systems, municipal tertiary treated recycled water, or poor-quality groundwater.
Recycled water is lower quality water compared to potable water, and may include elevated salt concentrations.
In addition, salt-water intrusion or leaching of salts into groundwater  can result in saline source water.
The objectives of this publication are to  describe irrigation scheduling and the factors that affect it,  explain the concept of leaching and methods for measuring leaching fraction and how to use that information to schedule irrigation, and  illustrate how to manage high salinity in irrigation source water through leaching.
Irrigation scheduling determines both the frequency and volume of irrigation to apply to ensure that containergrown crops do not suffer from water stress or high salinity.
This publication will first define the variables that affect irrigation scheduling and then describe two methods to measure leaching fraction.
Both offer a low-cost means to schedule irrigation or control salt buildup from poor water quality using fewer inputs.
As a result, growers will gain a valuable tool for irrigation scheduling that does not require specific information about weather, crops, available water, substrates, or irrigation systems.
Variables That Affect the Frequency and Volume of Irrigation
 Irrigation scheduling must take into account the entire production system.
Factors to consider include the performance of the irrigation system, the changes in day-to-day weather, water quality, substrate, and the crop produced.
An irrigation system applies water at a given rate  and at a certain level of uniformity within an irrigation zone based on irrigation design, maintenance, and routine audits.
A system with poor uniformity does not apply water evenly over the entire irrigation zone.
Growers typically compensate for poor uniformity by increasing the amount of water applied SO that plants in drier spots receive a sufficient amount of water.
Proper irrigation system design and maintenance along with periodic audits increases irrigation uniformity.
When the irrigation system runs efficiently, the amount of time the system operates to irrigate or leach the crop can be minimized.
Both water and energy are saved.
Daily weather drives crop water needs through water lost through transpiration and the evaporative losses from the soil surface.
High temperatures, high light intensity, low relative humidity, and wind increase ET rates causing water in the substrate available to plants to be depleted faster and irrigation to be applied more frequently.
The quality of the water used for irrigation can also affect the volume that should be applied to crops.
The total salinity of the water, as measured by its electrical conductivity, and the crop sensitivity to salinity will directly affect the leaching fraction necessary to maintain salt levels within tolerable levels.
As water is used by plants, salts are left behind in the substrate and are concentrated in the water that remains.
Leaching is necessary to flush water from the container that has accumulated salts.
Table 1.
Recommended leaching fractions  to manage salinity of container media based on electrical conductivity of the water applied.
of applied water	Leaching fraction
 Water use and salinity tolerance differ among nursery crops.
The volume of water needed is also influenced by the time of year because of crop growth patterns, daily changes in the weather, and ET rates.
Furthermore, the size or location of the container, plant spacing, substrate used, plant canopy diameter and height, cultural practices , and use of plant growth regulators and fertilizers will affect water capture and use.
Leaching fraction measurements allow growers to more finely distinguish the variation in plant water use across different taxa.
For example, some plants will use less water than others; measurement of the leaching fraction will indicate this regardless of substrate, container, or weather.
Using this information, growers are able to group plants into irrigation zones to more effectively minimize water application and agrichemical leaching and to increase oxygen availability to plant roots by not overwatering.
Leaching fraction is a good indication of whether or not the volume of water applied through irrigation is reaching its intended target, saturating the substrate,
 Figure 2.
After irrigation, the substrate holds the maximum amount of water.
Irrigation replaces the water depleted from the substrate due to evapotranspiration.
Additional water  also needs to be applied so that salts dissolved in the substrate water will be removed  from the container.
and adequately leaching salts.
Technically, the leaching fraction is the volume of water leached from the bottom of a container divided by the volume of water applied to that container.
Volume-Based Measure of Leaching Fraction
 To measure the volume of water applied, an open container is placed near the plants being irrigated to capture the applied water.
Place a similarly sized container  or a bucket with tight seal under the test plants  to make sure that no water enters either the empty or planted container from the sides.
One hour after the entire irrigation cycle is completed , measure the volume of the water leached from the planted container and the empty container.
From these two measurements, the leaching fraction can be determined.
For example, if 1,000 mL of water is applied via irrigation  and 250 mL leaches from the bottom of the planted container, that is a leaching fraction of 0.25.
Crop Canopy Affects 'Capture Factor' During Irrigation
 Crop canopy architecture can greatly affect leaching fraction when using overhead irrigation.
Plants with a vase-shaped architecture  can act as funnels and capture more water than other crops by harvesting water that would otherwise fall outside the edge of the container.
This results in more water directed toward the substrate than would otherwise fall there.
Consequently, a volumebased leaching fraction can exceed 1.0, which is equivalent to capturing more than 100% of the water applied to an open container without a plant.
Plants with umbrella-shaped canopies  shed water away from the container, thus not capturing as much water as an open container without a plant.
Leaching fractions will be reduced in this instance.
When irrigating different plants within the same irrigation zone, growers can determine which plants are harvesting more, less, or the same amount of water as applied to that zone.
Growers can regroup plants in the future according to canopy architecture and water use.
The volume-based method is a rough estimate of leaching fraction because the true volume of water entering the planted container is not known only the
 Figure 3.
Setup of empty, unplanted container  and planted container  nested in 5-gallon buckets with holes cut in the lids to measure volume-based leaching fraction.
Volume of micro-irrigation water applied by placing spray stake in a 1-gallon milk jug and placing the planted container on pipe ring in a plant saucer  to measure volume-based leaching fraction.
Weight measurement of solid  container to catch leachate  and planted container nested in leachate-collecting container.
Determining Leaching Fraction Using the Volume Method
 1.
Place container-grown plants snugly in similarly sized buckets to ensure all water applied to the plant must drain through the substrate and leach out the bottom of the container.
If leak-proof buckets are not available, line a production container of the same diameter with a plastic bag.
2.
Place a corresponding bucket or plastic-baglined container adjacent to each container used in Step 1.
If using micro-irrigation, place emitter in a milk jug or rinsed bottle to capture all water applied 
 3.
Operate a normal irrigation cycle.
4.
One hour after irrigation ceases, collect and measure water leached from containers with plants.
5.
Measure water collected in the empty containers.
6.
Calculate leaching fraction for each plant by dividing water leached  by the amount of water applied.
Equation:
 Leaching planted container leachate  = fraction empty container with water 
 amount that leaches out.
Measuring leaching fraction using the weight-based method will measure the change in weight between irrigation events; thus, the difference is the volume of water applied to that plant.
These numbers can also account for the effect of the canopy architecture on harvesting water, which is known as the "capture factor."
 Weight-Based Measure of Leaching Fraction
 A grower can calculate a leaching fraction, less than or equal to 1.0, accounting for the capture factor, by using an industrial or wash-down bench scale to measure leaching fraction via the weight-based method.
In the metric system, 1 milliliter of water  weighs 1 gram ; therefore, when we measure a plant's weight in grams and then irrigate and re-weigh, the difference in weight  is the volume  of water applied.
Prior
 to irrigating, weigh the empty bucket or container manufactured without drainage holes  that will collect the leachate and the planted container.
Then, nest them, being sure there is a tight seal between the bucket and container sidewalls; this ensures that water only enters the bucket after it has infiltrated and flowed through the substrate.
To ensure leachate is not reabsorbed by the substrate during the one hour that drainage is occurring after irrigation, a grower can place a spacer between the plant container and the container collecting the leachate.
Initiate the irrigation event and wait one hour after irrigation ends.
Unnest the containers and weigh the bucket with leachate and subtract its pre-irrigation weight to get the weight of just the leachate.
Then weigh the planted container again and subtract its pre-irrigation weight to determine the weight of the water that was retained in the planted container.
Add the weight of the leachate with the weight of the water retained in the planted container to determine the weight of the irrigation water that was applied.
Calculate leaching fraction by dividing the weight of the leachate by the weight of the irrigation water that was applied.
Figure 4.
Photos illustrate  saucer,  plastic bag,  caulked bucket, and  plastic skirt method employed at nurseries to accurately capture water and leachate for small and large containers when using the volume-based leaching fraction method.
Determining Leaching Fraction Using the Weight-Based Method
 1.
Weigh an empty bucket that will capture leachate.
2.
Weigh the planted container.
3.
Nest the plant container inside the empty bucket.
4.
Operate irrigation for a normal cycle.
5.
One hour after irrigation ceases, unnest the containers.
6.
Weigh the bucket with leachate and subtract the pre-irrigation weight in Step 1 to get the leachate weight.
7.
Weigh the planted container and subtract its preirrigation weight  to get the weight of the water retained in the container.
8.
Add the weight of the leachate  with the amount retained in the container  to determine the total amount of irrigation water applied.
9.
Divide the leachate weight  by the weight of the total amount of irrigation water applied  to get the leaching fraction.
Equation:
 Leaching weight of leachate  fraction = of weight water applied 
 Measure as many plants as practical in each zone to estimate its average leaching fraction.
Include a minimum of three plants across the irrigation zone in different areas such as near an irrigation riser and near the edge of a bed.
By measuring several plants within the zone, a more accurate estimate of leaching fraction can be calculated.
Try using different species as well, especially ones with different water needs, canopy types, and cultural practices  within the same zone.
Measuring multiple plants of a single species will also allow you to make an inference about irrigation uniformity within a block of plants.
If a large amount of variability occurs when measuring one species within a production block, the nursery manager should investigate if there are system inefficiencies.
Inefficiencies can be caused by poor distribution uniformity, poor crop uniformity, and variation in potting practices that can affect how much water a container retains.
Measurements should be taken approximately one hour after an irrigation event or the last cyclic irrigation cycle on clear, sunny days with average or above-average temperatures.
Avoid conducting tests after rain events that fully saturate substrates, as this does not mimic a normal irrigation event.
These tips will ensure results that reflect maximum water use.
Leaching Fraction as a Tool To Adjust Application Volume
 Leaching fraction measurements can be used to schedule irrigation.
To do so, a grower must have first conducted a LF measurement during the previous irrigation event and calculated an average measured LFM [, that is typically 0.15  to 0.30 , based on irrigation system, desired moisture of substrate, and routine use or timeliness of using leaching fraction method to adjust application volume.
Higher leaching fractions mean more water is being passed through containers, and thus, higher volumes of irrigation.
LF M is used to calculate the amount of time the irrigation clock should be adjusted  to achieve the target leaching fraction  at the next irrigation.
If LF M is higher than LF T' , the length of the next irrigation event should be reduced.
This method
 works best when LF, M and LF, do not differ widely, and continued use will improve LF-based irrigation scheduling.
If LF M and LF.
differ greatly or weather differs greatly from day to day, adjustments will need to be more frequent, and/or the calculated irrigation volume adjustments may be inaccurate.
When initially using leaching fraction for irrigation scheduling, maintain a high leaching fraction  and evaluate two to four crops with varying canopy architecture and water requirements within a zone.
In the beginning, measure leaching fraction frequently  until a better understanding is developed of how water use increases as plants grow past the container edge through the growing season.
Once comfortable with managing irrigation based on leaching fraction, try reducing the leaching fraction to approximately 0.15 to 0.30  as suggested by nursery best management practices.
When maintaining a 30% or lower leaching fraction, the nursery manager will have to monitor more frequently to ensure that plants are adequately watered.
It will be important to monitor electrical conductivity by using the pour-through method to ensure salts remains below damaging thresholds.
When weather changes quickly, it can be difficult to maintain the target leaching fraction and keep plants watered adequately.
For example, if unseasonably hot temperatures occur while plants are leafing out in the Southeast U.S., crop water use can change considerably in a short period of time.
Caution should be used when scheduling irrigation using leaching fractions immediately after potting new liners into larger containers.
Leaching fractionbased irrigation that is calculated before liners root out can result in overly wet growing conditions.
This has been observed in taxa such as hydrangea, in which the plant roots will proliferate  at the surface rather than explore the entire container, causing issues throughout the production cycle.
A pitfall of using the volume-based method to schedule irrigation is that leaching fractions near or greater than 100% , as a result of capture factor, will provide incorrect time adjustments for the suggested duration of irrigation.
In this situation, the length of time irrigation is applied and subsequent leaching fraction should be reduced at the grower's discretion until leaching is less than 1.0.
How to Schedule Irrigation Using Leaching Fraction
 Use the following formula:
 T = time adjustment needed for the next irrigation 
 t = length of time the last irrigation ran 
 LFT = target LF
 LFM = average measured leaching fraction of the previous irrigation event
 Example: If t = 90 min, LF, 0.3, and LFM=0.65,
 min X.
-31.5 rounding down to 31 min.
Reduce the length of time the last irrigation event ran by 31 minutes.
Therefore, the next event will run for 90 min 31 min = 59 min.
To reach the target LF identified by the grower, run the irrigation system for 59 minutes.
Check the leaching fraction again after approximately three to five days to ensure that the new target leaching fraction is achieved.
After a few days of using this new regime, evaluate success and target level by measuring leaching fraction again on the same plants measured in the previous test.
Saunders Brothers Nursery is a commercial wholesale nursery located in central Virginia with approximately 75 acres of container crop production.
Facing economic pressures as a result of the 2008 recession, the nursery began to explore ways to decrease their inputs and production costs.
By adjusting irrigation practices for all woody crops to yield a leaching fraction of 1020%, Saunders Brothers Nursery reduced their water use in 2012 by an average of 43% over the previous
 three years.
They made adjustments to irrigation based on both short-term  and long-term  changes in plant water needs.
Short-term adjustments dealt with changes in water usage due to weather, specifically temperature, solar radiation, and ET.
Long-term adjustments dealt with changes due to crop status, specifically spacing, pruning, and crop age.
Through these approaches, the nursery recorded a decrease in chlorine and electricity usage.
Also, reduced leaching of nutrients from excess watering, along with a drier substrate surface between irrigation events, decreased weed seed germination.
The nursery was able to reduce fertilizer inputs by 25-35% for certain crops and lengthen time between herbicide applications.
The cost per LF measurement was estimated to be $1.19.
The nursery measured eight zones each week  at an estimated annual cost of $1,490.
Saunders Brothers estimated that reduced input costs and reduced plant losses due to improved irrigation practices have saved the company in excess of $70,000.
Figure 5.
Satellite image of Saunders Brothers, Inc.
container nursery from Google Earth.
Downloaded Jan.
2019 from Google Earth.
Determining leaching fraction is a simple, quick, and inexpensive method to evaluate irrigation management.
Monitoring leaching fraction allows nursery managers to gain insight on current irrigation practices that account for the production system , facility infrastructure , and management.
This measurement can be used effectively to manage irrigation, minimize runoff of nutrients and water, and consequently decrease the bottom-line cost of operating a nursery.
The program is open to all, but space is limited to the first 35 registrants.
Applications for Certified Crop Advisor  credits have been submitted.
Participant cost for the practicum is $150.
All educational materials and noon meals are included.
Participants are responsible for all travel and lodging expenses.
Registration is requested by Monday, Dec.
20.
For more information and to register, please visit the registration page or contact Krystle Rhoades, TAPS Program Manager.
STATE POLICY ON CONSERVING GROUND WATER IN KANSAS
 SUSAN STOVER, L.G.
MANAGER, HIGH PLAINS UNIT KANSAS WATER OFFICE TOPEKA, KS 66614 PHONE: 785-296-0876 FAX: 785-296-0878 SUSAN.STOVER@KWO.KS.GOV
 The policy to conserve and extend the life of the Ogallala High Plains aquifer was first adopted into the Kansas Water Plan in 2001.
The Kansas Water Plan also has the objective to reduce the water level decline rate within the Ogallala and implement enhanced water management in targeted areas by 2010.
Management of ground water outside the low-recharging Ogallala is to be guided by the Kansas Water Plan objective to achieve sustainable yield management of Kansas surface and ground water sources by 2015.
There are a number of efforts on-going to implement the guidance, particularly in the High Plains aquifer.
One aspect is improving the knowledge about the aquifers.
Hydrologic computer modeling of the High Plains and interconnected alluvial aquifers and streams helps define the water budget and project future conditions.
Models are done or under development in Northwest Kansas GMD4, Southwest Kansas GMD3, Big Bend GMD5, and the North and South Fork of the Solomon River.
Practical saturated thickness is also being defined in many areas of the High Plains aquifer.
There are the on-going annual water level measurements, which indicate the decline trends.
Complimenting that information are three index wells in the High Plains aquifer which provide hourly, year round data on aquifer levels.
Under development is a Master Well Inventory to link all state databases for any individual fresh water well.
Voluntary, incentive based programs are available to help conserve ground water.
These include the Upper Arkansas River Conservation Reserve Enhancement Program , a federal-state program; the state funded Water Right Transition Assistance Program ; a USDA program to convert irrigated lands to dryland agriculture through Environmental Quality Incentive Program.
In the new Farm Bill, EQIP also has an Agricultural Water Enhancement Program , that can be used for water quantity or quality concerns, with the Ogallala cited as a priority area.
Efforts are also underway, led by Kansas State University, to develop crop response yield curves that could be used by USDA Risk Management Agency, to allow them to offer crop insurance for limited irrigated fields.
WATER SAVINGS FROM CROP RESIDUE MANAGEMENT
 Corn growers who irrigate in the Great Plains face restrictions in water, either from lower well capacities or from water allocations, and/or rising energy costs.
They need water management practices to maximize grain production.
When there is not enough water available to produce full yields, the goal for water management is to maximize transpiration and minimize non-essential water losses.
One avenue for reducing non-essential water use is to minimize soil water evaporation.
Evapotranspiration is the combination of a two processes, transpiration and soil water evaporation.
Transpiration, water consumed by the crop, is essential for the plants and correlates directly with grain production.
Non-productive soil water evaporation has little utility.
Soil water evaporation rates from bare soil are controlled by two factors.
When the soil surface is wet, atmospheric energy that reaches the ground drives evaporation rates.
As the surface dries, evaporation rates are limited by the movement of water in the soil to the surface.
In sprinkler irrigation during the growing season, most of the evaporation results from the energy limited process because of frequent soil wetting.
Crop residues insulate the surface from energy limited evaporation.
Crop residues which are left in the field have value for soil and water conservation during the following non-growing season and the growing season of the next crop.
Crop residues that are removed from the field after harvest are gaining value for livestock rations, livestock bedding, and as a source of cellulous for ethanol production.
The water conservation value of crop residues needs to be quantified so that crop producers can evaluate whether or not to sell the residues or keep them on their fields.
Reducing soil water evaporation in sprinkler management is one of the values of crop residues.
This project was designed to measure soil water evaporation with and without a growing corn crop.
1.
Determine the water savings value of crop residues in irrigated corn.
2.
Measure soil water evaporation beneath crop canopy of fully and limited irrigated corn.
a.
From bare soil.
b.
From soil covered with no-till corn residue.
C.
From soil covered with standing wheat residue.
3.
Calculate the contribution of evaporation to evapotranspiration.
4.
Quantify soil water evaporation from partially covered soil with no crop canopy.
5.
Predict potential economic savings from reducing evaporation with residues.
Soil water evaporation was measured beneath a growing corn crop during the summers of 2004, 2005, and 2006 at Kansas State University's Research and Extension Center near Garden City, Kansas.
The soil at the research site was a Ulysses silt loam.
Mini-lysimeters were used for the primary evaporation measurement tool.
They contained undisturbed soil cores 12 inches in diameter and 5.5 inches deep.
The soil cores were extracted by pressing PVC tubing into the soil with a custom designed steel bit.
The PVC tubing became the sidewalls for the mini-lysimeters.
The bottom of the cores were sealed with galvanized discs and caulking.
Therefore, water could only escape from the soil by surface evaporation, which could be derived from daily weight changes of the minilysimeters.
Weighing precision produced evaporation measurements with a resolution of + 0.002 in/day.
Volumetric soil water content was measured bi-weekly in the field plots to a depth of 8 ft in 1 ft increments with neutron attenuation techniques.
The change in soil water, form the start to the end of the sampling period, plus measurements of rainfall and net irrigation were the components of a water balance to estimate crop evapotranspiration.
Measurements of crop residue coverage on the soil surface were adapted from line transect techniques.
A coarse screen was laid over a mini-lysimeter.
Observations of the presence or absence of residue were recorded for each intersection of screen material.
The fraction of the presence of residue and total observations was converted into a percentage of coverage.
Four replications of bare, corn stover, or wheat stubble surface treatments were placed in high and low frequency irrigation treatments.
High frequency irrigation was managed to meet atmospheric demand for full crop evapotranspiration.
The low frequency irrigation treatment received approximately half this amount in half the irrigation events.
An additional experiment was conducted to find the soil water evaporation rates from soil surfaces that were partially covered with crop residues.
A controlled area was established for the experiment where the mini-lysimeters were buried in PVC sleeves at ground level, arranged adjacent to one another in a geometric pattern.
Movable shelters were available to cover the mini-lysimeters during rain events but were open during other times.
There was no crop canopy over the mini-lysimeters, which were surrounded by mowed, irrigated grass.
The minilysimeters were weighed daily.
Two irrigation treatments, that approximated the companion field study, were watered with 1 or 2 per hand irrigations per week.
Partial surface cover treatments had 25%, 50%, and 75% of the surface covered with corn stover which was placed on the mini-lysimeters.
Mini-lysimeters with 100% coverage from corn stover and 85% coverage with standing wheat stubble were the same configuration as the field experiment.
Evaporation results were normalized with reference ET  which was calculated with on-site weather factors and an alfalfa referenced ETr model.
Within Canopy Field Results
 Soil surface cover on the mini-lysimeters was measured at the start of the growing season.
Corn stover and standing wheat stubble completely covered the mini-lysimeters in 2004.
Corn stover continued to completely cover the mini-lysimeters in 2005 and 2006, but the wheat stubble coverage was 9192% in those years.
The 2004 and 2005 wheat crops were shorter in stature due to less fall growth.
This led to less wheat stubble coverage of the mini-lysimeters during the following year.
Table 1.
Crop residue percentage cover at the end of the growing season for mini-lysimeters in corn field plots during 2004-2006 near Garden City, Kansas.
*Percentage of soil surface covered by residue, determined by the modified line transect method.
When data from all years and water frequency treatments were combined, the effects of surface treatments could be isolated.
Average soil water evaporation  from the bare surface treatment was significantly more than Avg E from the two residue covered treatments.
Wheat stubble surface coverage was than corn stover coverage in 2005 and 2006, resulting in more E with wheat stubble.
Daily average ETc and ETr data were the same over all mini-lysimeters since the annual data was averaged over all irrigation treatments.
Bare soil E for the Ulysses silt loam was 30% of ETc, which was the same result as a study with Valentine fine sandy soils in west-central Nebraska.
E as a ratio of ETc or ETr showed that crop residues reduced E by 50% compared with bare soil.
A similar study with silt loam soils in west-central Nebraska showed that bare soil E under a corn canopy during the growing season could be reduced from 0.07 inches/day to 0.03 inches/day by adding a mulch of wheat stubble lying flat on the surface with 100% surface coverage.
Differences in E between bare soil and residue treatments, which were 0.02-0.03 inch per day, may seem small; however, if these daily differences were extrapolated over a 110 day growing season, total differences in E would be 2.23.3 inches.
Similarly, E as a fraction of ETc was 0.30 for bare soil and 0.15-0.16 for the residue cover treatments.
Growing season ETc values for corn can be 2426 inches in western Kansas.
Using the values of E as a fraction of ETc , potential water savings could be 3.7-4.0 inches with full soil surface coverage.
Table 2.
Average soil water evaporation and evaporation as a ratio of crop evapotranspiration  and reference ET  for all bare soil and crop residue covered treatments under a corn crop canopy during 2004-2006 in Garden City, KS.
Surface	Avg E	ETc	E/ETc*	ETr	E/ETr
 Cover	in/day	in/day	in/day
 Bare	0.06a	0.23	0.30a	0.27	0.22a
 Corn Stover	0.03c	0.23	0.15c	0.27	0.11c
 Wheat Straw	0.04b	0.23	0.16b	0.27	0.12b
 LSD.05**	0.003	0.02	0.05
 Means with same letters in the same columns are not significantly different for alpha=.05.
The influence of crop canopy shading canopy on soil water evaporation rates was observed by averaging data over years, surface cover treatments, and irrigation frequency treatments.
Evaporation decreased as crop canopy and ground shading increased.
The trend reversed as the crop matured and shading decreased.
Concurrently, crop ET and reference ET increased from planting through mid-season and then decreased through the rest of the growing season.
The ratio of Avg E to ETc and ETr declined during the growing season when the two factors were combined.
Table 3.
Soil water evaporation  and evaporation as a ratio of crop ET  and reference ET  during the growth stages of corn for all minilysimeter treatments during the 2004-2006 growing seasons at Garden City, KS.
Stage	In Growth Stage	Avg E	ETc	E/ETc	ETr	E/ETr
 in/day	in/day	in/day	in/day
 Vegetative	28	0.06a	0.22b	0.27a	0.35	0.17a
 Pollination	18	0.05b	0.27a	0.20b	0.33	0.15b
 Seed Fill	30	0.03c	0.20c	0.15c	0.25	0.12c
 LSD	.05	0.002	0.02	0.02	0.05
 Means with same letters in the same columns for the same year are not significantly different for alpha = 0.05.
Partial Cover Results from Control Area
 Even though average daily evaporation rates among the bare and 25%, 50%, and 75% residue covered treatments could be measured and were significantly different from one another, the magnitudes of these differences were small.
The 100% covered treatment with corn stover and the standing wheat stubble with 85% cover produced significantly less E than the other treatments.
Lateral heat flow from the bare portion of the partially covered surface could have caused increased surface temperatures under the corn stover.
Similarly, soil water could move from under partially covered surface to the bare portion of the surface, increasing E.
Crop residues that were distributed across the surface, needed to cover more than 75-80% to have an effect in reducing E when there was no crop canopy.
Nearly complete surface coverage influenced E nearly the same with and without crop canopy.
Table 4.
Soil water evaporation during Spring and Fall 2005 and Fall 2006 for full and partial crop residue surface covers at Garden City, Kansas.
a.
Surface Cover	--in/day--
 Bare 0%	0.08a	0.26a
 Corn 25%**	0.07b	0.25b
 Corn 50%	0.07c	0.24c
 Corn 75%	0.07a	0.26a
 Corn 100%	0.04e	0.14e
 Wheat 85%	0.05d	0.18d
 LSD.05	0.002	0.005
 Means with same letters in the same columns for the same variable are not significantly different at alpha = 0.05.
Crop residues can also have an effect on non-growing season.
A field study in eastern Colorado during October-April of the years 2000-2004 showed that corn residues increased stored soil water by 2 inches when compared with conventional stubble mulch tillage in dryland management.
Dryland studies in Nebraska have demonstrated that wheat stubble increased non-growing season soil water storage by 2-2.5 inches when compared with bare soil.
The water savings from crop residues can have one of three impacts on income.
First, if irrigation is applied in excess of water requirements of the crop in a no-till system, there could be no economic benefits from the crop residues.
The excess water could leach past the root zone with no value to crop production.
Second, if water supplies are adequate to grow a fully irrigated crop, pumping costs can be reduced by the difference between tilled and no-till management.
Irrigators in this situation need to monitor soil water during the growing season to find the reduction in irrigation needed from crop residue management and time irrigations accordingly.
Third, if the irrigation system cannot keep up with crop water requirements, the crop may be under water stress all or part of the growing season.
Water savings from crop residues in no-till management can be transferred from bare soil evaporation losses to water that can be used by the crop  for better yield returns.
In this case there would be no change in irrigation pumping.
Irrigation requirements and production costs vary from year-to-year and from one irrigator to another.
Commodity prices also vary from year-to-year.
As demonstrated in this study, nearly full coverage of the soil surface was needed to reduce soil water evaporation and reap benefits from the crop residues.
The following is one example of economic impacts on income for irrigated corn where growing season and non-growing season crop residue management combines for saving 3-5 inches of water annually:
 Situation 1.
Irrigation applications in excess of crop needs can lead to soil water leaching below the root zone and there are no benefits from the crop residues.
Situation 2.
Irrigation requirements are reduced for a fully irrigated crop from crop residue management where pumping is reduced to account for less irrigation needs.
Pumping costs = $9 per acre for each inch pumped Total savings for 3-5 inches less water pumped = $27-45 per acre
 Situation 3.
The irrigation system cannot provide enough water to meet the full water requirements of the crop.
Three to five inches of water savings from crop residue management could shift soil water evaporation to transpiration.
Corn
 yields increase 12 bushels per acre for each inch of water that is transferred from evaporation to transpiration.
When corn price is $4.50 per bushel, 3-5 inches of water savings from reduced evaporation would produce $162-$270 per acre additional income.
Additional growing and non-growing season benefits from crop residues include capturing precipitation, enhancing infiltration, reducing runoff, and reducing soil erosion.
All of these benefits have economic value for crop production and land values, but they are more difficult to measure than direct water conservation effects of crop residue management.
Partial funding for this research was furnished by: the USDA-ARS Ogallala Aquifer Project and the US Department of Interior.
Basics, Terminology and its Importance
 Vivek Sharma Jim Heitholt M.
Anowarul Islam
 B-1293 EVAPOTRANSPIRATION: BASICS, TERMINOLOGY AND ITS IMPORTANCE
 Evapotranspiration: Basics, Terminology and its Importance is a peer-reviewed publication.
Issued in furtherance of extension work, acts of May 8 and June 30, 1914, in cooperation with the U.S.
Department of Agriculture.
Glen Whipple, director, University of Wyoming Extension, University of Wyoming, Laramie, Wyoming 82071.
Persons seeking admission, employment, or access to programs of the University of Wyoming shall be considered without regard to race, color, religion, sex, national origin, disability, age, political belief, veteran status, sexual orientation, and marital or familial status.
Persons with disabilities who require alternative means for communication or program information  should contact their local UW Extension office.
To file a complaint, write to the UW Employment Practices/Affirmative Action Office, University of Wyoming, Department 3434, 1000 E.
University Avenue, Laramie, WY 82071.
EVAPOTRANSPIRATION Basics, Terminology and its Importance
 Vivek Sharma, University of Wyoming Extension, Irrigation Specialist Jim Heitholt, Professor, Crop Physiology M.
Anowarul Islam, Associate Professor, Forage Agroecology
 Increasing concerns have been expressed by crop producers, researchers, and policy makers about the impacts of changing climatic conditions on water supplies for agricultural regions of the United States.
Although Wyoming currently has adequate water supply for agriculture, climate variability and an increasing number of extreme events  threaten our water quantity and quality and agriculture development.
For example, in 2012, Wyoming was ranked as the number-one driest state, with most of the state under exceptional drought during its recorded history.
Such conditions impose more challenges and demonstrate a pressing need to reduce unbeneficial water use through precise water resource planning, strategic water management, and equitable allocation on field, watershed, and regional scales.
In irrigated agriculture, producers, water resource planners, stakeholders, and managers must answer the following questions, such as how to maximize use of available water supplies and how much and at what time irrigation water is required.
Addressing these and similar questions requires quantification, evaluation, and an understanding of crop water use, i.e., Evapotranspiration , which represents the main consumptive use of water in agricultural production.
This bulletin gives an overview of the basic principles of the evapotranspiration process, factors affecting evapotranspiration, evapotranspiration terminology, information on quantification of evapotranspiration, and its importance in agro-ecosystems.
Evapotranspiration  is defined as the combined transfer of water from land surface to atmosphere in the form of water vapor by  evaporation and  transpiration.
Evaporation is a non-biological process in which liquid water converts to water vapor in the atmosphere from water bodies such as lakes, reservoirs, oceans, the soil surface, and from water droplets on plant leaves.
Transpiration is the biological associated evaporation of cellular water from within the plant leaves.
It is defined as the process of movement of moisture through the plant roots to stems and leaves to the atmosphere through plant leaf stomata.
Stomata are the microscopic pores on a leaf surface through which the plant transfers water and gas to the atmosphere.
This process is important for leaf cooling.
ET has an important application in the land surface energy balance and water budgets.
ET is one of the largest fractions of an ecosystem's water cycle.
On average, about 55 to 60 percent of global
 Figure 1.
Basic representation of evapotranspiration  concept and the factors affecting the ET process in a sugarbeet field.
precipitation, about 70 to 75 percent of precipitation in the U.S., and 85 to 90 percent of precipitation in Wyoming, goes back to the atmosphere via ET.
Therefore, the accurate assessment of ET for water resources management and environmental assessments on field, watershed, and regional scales, is critical.
In agro-ecosystems, reliable estimates of ET are vital to develop criteria for in-season water management, particularly in the context of crop production in irrigated agriculture such as scheduling irrigation, predicting soil water status, water allocation, efficient use, longterm estimates of water supply, demand and use, design and management of water management infrastructures, and assessing the impact of land use and management changes on water balances.
For example, when evaporative demand of the atmosphere exceeds precipitation, plant growth may be adversely affected by the soil water deficit.
Under deficit conditions, supplemental irrigation is used to minimize the potential losses in crop production and to fulfill the atmospheric evaporative demand.
Figure 1 depicts the basic process and factors affecting ET under field conditions.
As plant leaves transpire and evaporation occurs from soil and plant surfaces, water moves to the atmosphere in the form of very small water vapor particles.
Evaporation constitutes a considerable part of ET.
Evaporation of soil water is highest early in the growing season and gradually decreases as the crop canopy develops.
Nearing the end of the growing
 season, evaporation increases again when plant leaves senesce.
Many management practices can reduce the evaporation of soil water, such as early planting, adoption of no-till/reduced till, narrow rows, and adoption of cover crops.
Depending upon region and climatic conditions, cover crops can also deplete soil moisture.
Water lost through soil evaporation does not contribute to crop yield.
Water lost through transpiration indirectly contributes to crop yield and biomass production.
Transpiration is minimal early in the growing season when the crop canopy is small and requires less water.
Transpiration increases as the crop canopy develops and decreases again at the end of the growing season.
For irrigated crops, e.g., in the semi-arid west, transpiration is usually about 60-70 percent of the total seasonal actual crop evapotranspiration.
The transpiration rate can be affected by the local climate, type of crop, and by management practices.
Management practices that result in reducing evaporation  makes more water available for plant transpiration.
Generally, transpiration and evaporation are difficult to calculate independently, therefore, under field settings, the two processes are considered together as ET in many applications, including irrigation scheduling.
In general, irrigated crops have greater evaporation and transpiration rates compared to dryland crops.
For example, under dryland condition, the leaf stomata closes when the available soil moisture is depleted to meet the atmospheric demand.
Under these conditions, plants will experience wilting and ET will be reduced.
Seasonal ET of a crop under dryland condition will usually be close or equal to the sum of the available soil water and precipitation.
Also, irrigation can affect the micro-climate of the crop field.
The average air temperature near the canopy of an irrigated crop field may be as much as 8-10 degrees F lower than a non-irrigated field.
This difference in air temperature and availability of more soil moisture and plant water affects the relative humidity and vapor pressure deficit and, hence, ET.
The rate and movement of water to the atmosphere by ET depends on many factors, which we can divide into three major categories:  climatic and
 edaphic variables;  crop parameters; and  management practices.
The movement is mainly determined by wind speed and direction.
The rate of ET mainly depends on the climatic conditions, such as air temperature, relative humidity, solar radiation, and wind speed.
For example, on a daily basis, ET rises with increases in temperature and solar radiation, which are the two primary drivers of ET.
Wind speed generally increases ET, but not always.
Above certain wind speeds, leaf stomata close due to wind stress reducing transpiration and ET.
Wind can also cause mechanical damage to the plant leaves that can reduce ET due to reduced leaf area.
Similarly, hail can also reduce leaf area and ET.
Increases in relative humidity generally decrease ET because the demand for water vapor by the atmosphere surrounding the plant decreases with increased humidity.
Conversely, reduction in relative humidity  increases ET because low humidity increases the vapor pressure deficit between the vegetative surface and the air.
Higher transpiration and evaporation need to take place to meet the evaporative demand of the air for surface moisture.
Because of this effect, the volume of water lost through ET can be significant when climate conditions are hot, dry, and windy.
On a cloudy and rainy day, relative humidity increases and air temperature and solar radiation generally decrease resulting in a net reduction in ET; however, following the rainy day, ET usually increases due to increased availability of soil water in the soil surface and in the crop root zone.
Under field conditions, many agronomic/crop and management factors such as plant species, planting dates, plant growth stage, canopy characteristics, plant density, soil water availability, irrigation methods, crop residue cover tillage practices, and soil salinity, can also affect the ET rate at a given time.
For example, in a given crop field, variations in soil type, soil water availability, nutrient application, crop germination, amount of residue on the surface and uneven distribution of solar radiation may lead to variation in ET.
Generally, the upper leaves are greener and more active than lower leaves in transpiration as they are exposed to more sunlight.
The lower leaves mature and age earlier due to lack of sunlight.
Figure 2.
Long-term  relationship between daily grass-reference  and alfalfa-reference  evapotranspiration values for Powell Research and Extension Center , Powell Wyoming.
Researchers over the last seven decades have introduced various ET definitions to understand its concept and applications in agricultural water management.
This section provides the descriptions and differences in various terms associated with ET and their uses in agricultural water management, mainly potential evapotranspiration , reference evapotranspiration , and actual crop evapotranspiration , as it can introduce difficulties for many practitioners who wish to understand and compare various terms.
Potential evapotranspiration : The term was first introduced in 1948 by botanist and climatologist C.W.
Thornthwaite, who introduced crop water requirements in the calculation of the drought index  by using PET.
Thornthwaite  defined this term as "the loss of water by a canopy if soil never limits evapotranspiration." In the same year, Penman  published his approach for modeling
 evaporation from short-saturated crops.
He defined this term as "the rate of water vapor loss from a short green crop under the following conditions: grown in a large surface, during an active growth stage, completely covering the soil , of homogeneous height, in unlimited water and nutritional status." In both definitions of PET, the term "potential" is equivalent to maximum possible level of ET under unlimited soil water supply and actual climatic conditions.
The use of PET in agricultural water management, i.e., in agronomy and irrigation sciences, to determine the crop water requirement has resulted in some criticism, as the evapotranspiration rates from well-watered agricultural crops  may be as much as 10 to 30 percent greater than that occurring from a short green crop.
Also, in the definition of PET, the evapotranspiration rate is not related to a specific crop, and there are many types of agronomic and horticultural crops that fit into the description of a short, green crop.
Choosing a short, green crop species is a challenge
 Figure 3.
Comparison of seasonal cumulative alfalfa based reference  and actual sugarbeet crop evapotranspiration for 2014 growing season at Powell, Wyoming.
for researchers and producers.
Consequently, irrigation specialists suggested abandoning the concept of PET and replacing it with the concept of "reference crop evapotranspiration ".
Insufficient spring irrigation increases abnormal splitting of pistachio nuts
 Abnormal pistachio nuts, known as "early-split nuts," have both the hull and shell split while still on the tree, exposing the kernel to invasion by insects and molds.
Deficit irrigation of pistachio trees in April and May resulted in substantial increases in the formation of early-split nuts in late summer, while extreme deficit irrigation in July and August resulted in decreased formation.
However, deficit irrigation during the period of shell hardening, mainly in June, did not affect early-split formation.
Mark A.
Doster Themis J.
Michailides David A.
Goldhamer David P.
Morgan
 Irrigation in commercial pistachio orchards is important to obtain maximum yields.
Microsprinklers are frequently used in California pistachio orchards, although other types of irrigation, such as drip, border and sprinkler, are also used.
Early-split nuts, which have both split hulls and shells, are frequently moldy and damaged by insects.
In contrast, normal pistachio nuts can have a split shell but an intact hull.
P istachio trees  are drought tolerant and can survive with very little water.
For maximum yields, however, substantial amounts of water must be supplied during the growing season.
In the San Joaquin Valley, the total evapotranspiration  for the pistachio growing season is about 42 inches, and the maximum evapotranspiration rate during midsummer is about 0.32 inches per day.
To deliver the needed water to the pistachio trees, drip and microsprinkler irrigation are used on about 90% of the pistachio acreage in California, and border and sprinkler systems on the remaining acreage.
In the orchard, pistachio nuts typically split their shells, which are surrounded by a hull.
Most nuts, however, do not split their surrounding hull and have an intact hull until after harvest.
This distinguishes pistachio nuts from almonds and walnuts, which frequently rupture their hulls in the orchard but typically not the shells.
Unfortunately, a small percentage of atypical pistachio nuts, known as "early-split nuts," rupture both their hulls and shells in the orchard, exposing the kernel to invasion by fungi and insects.
An additional problem is that the rupture of the hull usually results in dark staining of the shell.
Many ripening fruits, including apples, cherries, citrus, grapes, prunes
 and tomatoes, can crack or split prior to harvest.
Similarly, the hulls of pistachio nuts sometimes crack while still on the tree.
This cracking, however, is distinct from the hull-splitting of early-split nuts, and can be distinguished by the location of the cracking.
For early-split nuts, the hull splits only when the shell splits, and the split is always along the shell suture or split, whereas hull-cracking occurs elsewhere and sometimes occurs when the shell has not split.
Another difference is that hull-cracking of pistachio nuts only occurs very close to harvest time, which is why these nuts usually do not have much fungal decay or insect infestation.
The hulls of early-split nuts rupture throughout a period starting in late July and continuing through to harvest, typically in September.
This long period allows the kernels of some early-split nuts to be decayed by molds and infested with the insect navel orangeworm , an important pest of pistachio nuts.
Because of the problems associated with early-split nuts, we investigated the role of irrigation on their formation.
Commercial pistachio orchards were surveyed at harvest from 1991 to 1993 to determine typical incidences of early-split nuts.
In these surveys and in all experiments, the common cultivar 'Kerman' was used.
Nine or 10 orchards located in Fresno, Kern and Madera counties were surveyed in each year.
In each orchard, more than 2,000 nuts on the trees were examined for early-split nuts at harvest time.
Various types of irrigation were represented; depending on the year, between three and five orchards used microsprinklers, two or three used border and three used sprinklers.
Typically, very few pistachio nuts became early-split nuts , although every orchard had some early-split nuts.
In only one instance  was the incidence of early-split nuts less than 0.5%, and only twice  was the inci-
 dence greater than 5.0%.
In general, the type of irrigation used had little effect on the formation of early-split nuts.
For example, in 1991 the mean percentage of nuts that were earlysplit was 2.8%, 2.6% and 2.1% for orchards that were irrigated with microsprinklers, flood and sprinklers, respectively.
Even though the incidence of early-split nuts is typically low, early-split nuts represent a serious problem for processors.
The earlysplit nuts are the major source of nuts with decayed and insect-infested kernels, but they are difficult to remove because the shells cover the kernels and make detecting nuts with poor quality kernels difficult.
Timing of deficit irrigation
 The period during the growing season when deficit irrigation occurred determined whether the formation of early-split nuts increased, decreased or remained about the same compared to irrigating to full or near-full crop evapotranspiration.
Evapotranspiration was calculated using reference crop water-use values from a nearby California Irrigation Management Information System  weather station and crop coefficients previously determined for mature pistachio trees.
In an experiment in 1992, 10 irrigation treatments were applied in a commercial orchard of mature pistachio trees in Kings County.
The treatments consisted of irrigation by microsprinklers at various percentages of the crop evapotranspiration for certain periods during the development of the nuts.
The amounts of water for the deficit irrigation treatments were applied by using different combinations of microsprinkler sizes and system operating pressures.
For each of the six replications, approximately 1,000 nuts on a tree were examined on Aug.
25 for early-split nuts.
orchards for incidence of early-split nuts at
 Even though this experiment had 10 treatments, only the most extreme treatments are presented in table 2.
Deficit irrigation through mid-May  substantially increased early-split formation compared to all other treatments, while deficit irrigation from early July to harvest  decreased early-split forma-
 tion.
However, deficit irrigation during the period of mid-May to early July  only slightly increased  early-split formation compared to the control.
The development of pistachio nuts during the growing season is complex.
Three distinct stages have been identified.
During the first stage, which starts with bloom and lasts until about mid-May, the developing shell increases in size until it reaches almost the final size.
During the second stage, which lasts from mid-May to about mid-June, the nut has little growth but the shell becomes lignified and hard.
Finally, during the third stage, which lasts from late June to harvest, the kernel expands and finally the shell splits.
An important part of the last stage is the separation of the hull from the shell.
The hullsplitting of early-split nuts, which probably results when the shell splits before the hull is sufficiently separated from the shell, occurs during the second half of the third developmental stage, starting in late July and continuing until harvest.
The splitting of the hull that is characteristic of early-split nuts is strongly affected by deficit irrigation during late spring, especially during the period of shell growth.
For example, trees that were deficitirrigated during the first stage of nut development  in the Kings County experiment had only about 4 inches less water applied than the control  but had over three times the incidence of early-split nuts, whereas trees that were deficitirrigated during the third stage  had a much larger difference
 TABLE 1.
Survey of commercial pistachio
 Number of	Among orchards
 Year	surveyed	Mean	Min.
Max.
1991	10	2.5	1.5	3.8
 1992	10	2.3	0.1	8.2
 1993	9	3.3	0.8	5.8
 For most pistachio nuts, the hull remains intact until after harvest, left, whereas a small percentage of nuts rupture their hulls either by cracking, middle, or splitting along the shell suture, which is characteristic of early-split nuts, right.
received deficit irrigation during May had substantially more early-split nuts than the other trees.
Growers can easily underestimate the water needs of pistachio trees in spring because of the difficulty of estimating the contribution of soil stored water and rainfall to crop evapotranspiration.
Also, as temperatures rise, days lengthen and the trees grow in spring, the crop evapotranspiration can increase rapidly, making it easy for growers to fall behind in their irrigation.
County experiment, treatment A  had the highest incidence of both early-split nuts and normal shellsplitting, and treatment D  had the lowest incidences.
In the other experiments, however, even though the treatments resulted in large differences in incidence of early-split nuts, the treatments differed only slightly in normal shell-splitting.
It is not known why early-split formation is sometimes correlated with normal shell-splitting and sometimes not.
Unfortunately, the relationship between the formation of early-split nuts and normal shell-splitting is not clear.
Growers are paid substantially more for pistachio nuts with split shells, SO they would like to maximize normal shell-splitting.
However, because early-split nuts are frequently moldy, damaged by insects and with discolored shells, growers should try to decrease the number of early-split nuts produced.
Orchards with only a few early-split nuts frequently have a relatively low percentage of normal nuts with split shells.
For example, in the orchard surveys of 1992 and 1993 the orchard that had the lowest incidence of early-split nuts also had the lowest percentage of normal shell-splitting, possibly due to deficit irrigation in late
 In order to verify the sensitivity of early-split formation to deficit irrigation during late spring, we selected two commercial pistachio orchards in 1993.
The growers irrigated the orchards as usual, except that replicated blocks were not irrigated during one of the irrigations in spring.
One irrigation was skipped on May 15 in blocks in a flood-irrigated orchard in Tulare County and on May 22 in blocks in a sprinkler-irrigated orchard in San Joaquin County.
For both orchards, the number of early-split nuts was counted in 250 nuts on each of 10 trees for each of three blocks in September
 1993.
For both orchards, the trees that
 in water applied  but only a relatively small difference in the incidence of early-split nuts.
Various experiments have shown that deficit irrigation during stage 2 of pistachio nut development, which is the period of shell hardening, has the least effect on nut quality and yield.
Extreme deficit irrigation during shell hardening  in the Kings County experiment did not substantially increase the incidence of early-
 summer.
Furthermore, in the Kings
 TABLE 2.
Effect of deficit irrigation on incidence of early-split nuts and normal shell-splitting at harvest in a microsprinkler-irrigated orchard in Kings County
 TABLE 3.
Effect of skipping an irrigation application in May on the incidence of early-split nuts and normal shell-splitting at harvest in two commercial pistachio orchards
 Regulated deficit irrigation is an approach to scheduling the irrigation of orchards SO that water is saved with little impact on nut production.
Typically, various stages in fruit or nut development are tested for the effect of deficit irrigation on yield and quality.
For various crops, including almonds, grapes, olives, peaches, prunes and walnuts, the developmental stage has been proposed during which deficit irrigation has a minimal effect on crop yield.
Percentage of crop evapotranspiration applied*
 Stage 1:t	Stage 2:	Stage 3:
 through	May 16-	July 2	Early-split	Normal-split
 Treatment	May 15	July 1	to harvest	nuts	nuts
 A	0 #	100 	100 	2.77 as	85.0 a
 B	100 	0 	100 	1.11 b	61.8 C
 C	100 	100 	100 	0.80 bc	73.8 b
 D	100 	100 	0 	0.45 C	47.8 d
 *The percentages represent the level of irrigation that the researchers attempted to apply.
Because experiment took place during a drought year, water supplies were restricted and slightly less water was applied than full crop evapotranspiration in some cases.
+Stage 1 corresponds to the period of shell expansion; stage 2 to shell hardening; and stage 3 to kernel growth.
Number in parentheses is the actual amount of water applied in inches for the time period.
Statistical analysis was performed on arcsine-transformed data.
Numbers followed by the same letter are not significantly different  by pairwise comparisons using Fisher's LSD.
Orchard	treatment	nuts	nuts
 Sprinkler	Skip one	6.2 a*	82 NS
 (San Joaquin	in May
 Normal grower	3.9 b	79
 Flood irrigated	Skip one	10.5 a	76 NS
 Normal grower	5.7 b	73
 *Statistical analysis was performed on arcsinetransformed data for each orchard separately.
Numbers followed by the same letter are not significantly different 0.05) by pairwise comparisons using Fisher's LSD.
NS = no significant differences.
split nuts.
Furthermore, in this same experiment, a treatment that was the same as the control except for irrigating at 50% crop evapotranspiration during stage 2  actually had a slightly lower incidence of earlysplit nuts.
In an experiment investigating regulated deficit irrigation in a commercial microsprinkler-irrigated pistachio orchard in Kern County, earlysplit nuts were counted in 250 nuts on each of 10 trees for each of five blocks on Sept.
20, 1994.
Deficit irrigation during stage 2  made little difference in early-split formation compared to the control, whereas deficit irrigation during both stages 1 and 2  had a higher incidence of early-split nuts.
Treatments RDI-1 and RDI-2 both resulted in mild to moderate water stress , but RDI-1 resulted in water stress starting in May, whereas RDI-2 did not result in water stress until June.
In another experiment in a commercial microsprinkler-irrigated pistachio orchard in Madera County, regulated deficit irrigation of 25% and 50% of crop evapotranspiration during the period from midMay through late June did not result in increased incidences of early-split nuts in both 1992 and 1993 compared to the control of irrigating at 100% crop evapotranspiration , even though mild to moderate water stress occurred in the trees with deficit irrigation.
Regulated deficit irrigation in pistachio orchards done at the correct time between shell growth and kernel growth does not seem to affect early-split formation and can save water.
Deficit irrigation done earlier in
 TABLE 4.
Effect of regulated deficit irrigation  on the incidence of early-split nuts and normal
 shell-splitting at harvest in a microsprinkler-irrigated orchard in Kern County
 Treatment	Until May 16	July 1	Early-split nuts	split nuts
 RDI-1	50 *	50 	0.81 at	47.7 NS
 RDI-2	100 	50 	0.37 b	45.8
 Control	100 	100 	0.45 b	49.5
 *The number in parentheses is the amount of water applied in inches for the time period.
Approximately the
 same amount of water was applied during the rest of the year after July 1 for each treatment 
 inches, depending on treatment), which represented full crop evapotranspiration.
Statistical analysis was performed on arcsine-transformed data.
Numbers followed by the same letter are
 not significantly different  by pairwise comparisons using Fisher's LSD.
NS means no significant
 TABLE 5.
Effect of regulated deficit irrigation  on the incidence of early-split nuts in a microsprinkler-irrigated orchard in Madera County
 ETc for May 17-	Early-split	ETc for May 16-	Early-split
 Treatment	June 29*	nuts	June 21	nuts
 RDI-1	25 t	0.9 NS#	25 	1.3 NS
 RDI-2	50 	0.9	50 	1.3
 Control	100 	1.2	100 	1.5
 *Percentage of crop evapotranspiration that was applied during the specified period.
Before and after the pe-
 riod of RDI, full crop evapotranspiration was applied to all treatments.
For each treatment in 1992, approxi-
 mately the same amount of water was applied before May 17  and after June 29
 .
Similarly, in 1993 approximately the same amount of water was
 applied before May 16  and after June 21.
The number in parentheses is the amount of water applied in inches for the time period.
Statistical analysis was performed on arcsine-transformed data.
NS = no significant differences.
The normal developmental stages of pistachio nuts are stage 1, the developing shell increases in size, left; stage 2, shell hardens, middle; and stage 3, the kernel grows, the hull separates from the shell, and the shell splits, right.
spring, however, can substantially increase the formation of early-split nuts, resulting in increased levels of moldy and insect-damaged nuts.
Therefore pistachio growers should be careful to provide sufficient irrigation during spring.
M.A.
Doster is Staff Research Associate and T.J.
Michailides is Professor, Department of Plant Pathology; D.A.
Goldhamer is Water Management Specialist, Department of Land, Air and Water Resources; and D.P.
Morgan is Staff Research Associate, Department of Plant Pathology, UC Davis, located at the Kearney Agricultural Center, Parlier.
The authors thank L.D.
Boeckler for her excellent technical assistance and the pistachio growers for their cooperation.
This research was supported by U.S.
Department of Agriculture Cooperative Research Agreement No.
58-53251-194.
Do you know how much water your crop is using on a daily basis?
When I ask this question most guys tell me somewhere between 0.20 0.40 inches per day.
Sometimes they are close but wouldnt it be nice to know for sure?
It is rather simple to figure out if you have the right tools.
Extending grazing and reducing stored feed needs
 Don Ball Ed Ballard Mark Kennedy Garry Lacefield Dan Undersander
 WHY EXTEND THE GRAZING SEASON?.
EXPLOIT FORAGE GROWTH DISTRIBUTION DIFFERENCES
 Grow warm-season and cool-season perennial grasses.
Use legume companion species
 Plant annuals to complement perennials
 Use stockpiled forage efficiently
 TAKE ADVANTAGE OF UNIQUE GRAZING OPPORTUNITIES
 Use other plant growth
 FORAGE OR LIVESTOCK MANAGEMENT APPROACHES
 Match forage quality and nutrient intake to animal needs
 Change the stocking rate
 Use winter annuals in crop rotations or to
 Overseed winter annuals on summer grass sods
 Provide supplemental feed during warm weather
 POSSIBLE PASTURE COMBINATIONS BY REGION
 Why extend the grazing season?
F or most livestock producers, extending the grazing season for their animals, or otherwise filling gaps in pasture forage availability to reduce stored feed needs, should be a high priority objective.
There are several reasons why this is beneficial:
 Better for the environment.
Feeding hay or other stored materials in a barn or other enclosed area concentrates animals, and the manure that accumulates requires expense to remove.
Feeding livestock in pastures often results in hoof damage to the land.
Weather is less of a concern.
Weather is a major concern with hay production, but animals can graze almost without regard to weather.
Higher-quality forage leads to better animal performance.
The forage quality of young, vegetative pasture growth and even leafy autumn residue is usually considerably higher than that of hay, which is produced by cutting older, more fibrous forage.
Consequently, performance is typically better when animals graze properly managed pasture.
Requires less labor.
Less labor is required to have animals graze rather than to provide them with stored feed.
In particular, in contrast to feeding stored feed in an enclosed facility, the labor associated with manure removal is avoided.
Lowers expenses.
Stored feed is almost always two to three times more expensive per animal or per day than pasture.
In livestock budgets, stored feed typically accounts for 25% or more of the cost of production, and producer records often reveal it to be higher.
The quantity of stored feed required is one of the best indicators of profitability for a livestock operation.
In general, the less hay needed, the more cost-efficient the operation.
Clearly, extending the grazing season and reducing the need for stored feed is highly desirable.
Though the best techniques to accomplish this vary with geographic region, type of farming operation, and other factors, this publication outlines strategies that can be used in some or many areas to extend grazing and reduce stored feed needs, thus increasing profit.
Exploit forage growth distribution differences
 Grow warm-season and cool-season perennial grasses
 Most grazing programs are based around perennial forage species, mainly grasses.
In the northern United States, most perennial forages are cool-season species that make most of their growth in spring and autumn.
In the South, warm-season perennials that make most of their growth during warm weather are most common.
Even among species within these categories, the specific dates during which pasture forage will be available for grazing, as well as the total grazing days per year, can vary considerably.
When making planting decisions regarding forage crops, it is always important to take soils, sites, and climatic conditions into consideration and to only plant species that are known to be adapted.
For example, warm-season perennial options are limited in the most northerly states, and cool-season perennial
 options are limited in the Deep South.
However, in many areas of the nation there is an opportunity to have at least some pasture acreage of warmseason perennials and cool-season perennials.
For example, in the area between the upper Midwest/Northeast and the Deep South, tall fescue, orchardgrass, and white clover are some of the more widely grown cool-season perennial forages.
However, several warmseason perennials can be grown as well, including some varieties of bermudagrass, various native grasses, and  weeping lovegrass.
Usually it is best to plant warm-season and cool-season perennials in different fields, but in some areas they may volunteer as mixed stands, or can sometimes be successfully planted and maintained together.
However, mixed stands of cool-season and warm-season species require more careful management; otherwise, the stand of the less-favored species may decline over time.
Where mixtures can be grown, the result is a longer grazing season, a more constant supply of forage through the season, and usually greater total dry matter production than either would produce alone.
In some instances or locations, growth distribution can differ significantly between species within the warmseason and cool-season perennial catlegories.
For example, within warmseason perennial grasses, switchgrass, dallisgrass, and bahiagrass begin growth earlier in spring than bermudagrass.
Within cool-season perennial grasses, tall fescue makes more autumn growth than orchardgrass in the southern portion of its area of adaptation within the USA, though not in the Upper Midwest.
Therefore, as the number of different forage grasses grown on a farm increases, the length of the grazing season also often increases.
Use legume companion species
 Some producers regularly face a forage deficit in summer, most commonly because they live in areas in which cool-season perennial grasses dominate pastures.
Growing a cool-season perennial legume as a companion species to these grasses can help even out forage production.
Red clover is a good example, as it often makes an impressive amount of growth during warm weather.
Alfalfa, with its deep taproot, has an even longer growing season, and in many
 Growing perennial legumes with perennial grasses offers numerous benefits including often extending the grazing period.
areas is a dependable producer of high-quality forage even during dry weather.
Before seeding legumes, the pasture needs to be fertilized and limed according to soil test recommendations, and grasses must be grazed closely or otherwise suppressed just before planting.
Plant annuals to complement perennials
 The cost per unit of dry matter produced is usually higher with annual forages than with perennial forages.
However, annuals may produce higher quality forage and often complement perennials by producing forage when the perennials are dormant or growing slowly.
Warm-season annual grasses such as sudangrass, sorghum-sudangrass hybrids, and pearl millet can complement cool-season perennial forages and offer the advantage of producing a lot of forage quickly, but grazing management of these species can be challenging.
These upright-growing forages should be planted separate from cool-season perennials to prevent excessive shading.
They perform best when planted on a prepared seedbed, although establishment costs are higher and the potential for soil erosion is also greater when using this approach.
Crabgrass is another warm-season annual that is vigorous and widely adapted, but it is sometimes overlooked as a forage crop.
Yield of crabgrass is usually less than that of the summer annual grasses mentioned in the previous paragraph, but forage quality  is quite good by comparison.
Where some tillage can be provided sometime between autumn and spring, it is usually not difficult to get crabgrass to reseed and to provide relatively inexpensive volunteer stands year after year.
Striate lespedeza and Korean lespedeza are warm-season annual legumes that work well in some situations in the Upper South.
Both species typically produce relatively low yields, but are adapted on dry, acid, upland sites where clovers do not persist well.
Furthermore, they produce goodquality forage during summer when the quality and quantity of forage provided by cool-season perennials such as tall fescue is low.
Thus, annual lespedeza can greatly enhance a tall fescue pasture, especially if the fescue is highly infected with toxic endophyte.
till planting them into crabgrass stubble can usually be accomplished earlier than overseeding them on bermudagrass or bahiagrass, allowing earlier grazing.
Numerous winter annual forage crops can be used to complement the grazing seasons of warm-season perennial forages and, depending on which one  is planted, the period during which they make forage growth may be quite different.
Annual ryegrass, which makes most of its growth in earlyto midspring, is a particularly productive winter annual in areas where it is adapted.
By contrast, small grains such as rye, wheat, and oats are more productive in autumn.
In the extreme northern areas of the country, springplanted winter cereals such as spring barley, oats, or triticale may be used to provide forage growth in late spring, summer, and into the autumn.
Weather often dictates planting dates, but it pays to be ready to plant as early as possible within the recommended planting period for a particular crop.
This applies more to annuals than to perennials, but the earlier you can safely plant, the earlier you can begin grazing.
It is important to avoid grazing too early, however, or stand damage may occur.
Winter annuals can be grown on a prepared seedbed, seeded into a warm-season perennial pasture, or into crabgrass stubble.
In any of these situations, total yield and calendar days of grazing will be increased as compared to having only warmseason pasture.
Planting winter annuals on a prepared seedbed, or no-
 Growth distribution differences exist among many varieties within species.
For example, some varieties of annual ryegrass complete growth in midspring, while others can make a substantial amount of growth in late spring.
Some tall fescue varieties  produce more winter growth than others.
Some alfalfa varieties are highly winter dormant and quickly cease growth under cool temperatures, while lessdormant varieties may make a considerable amount of growth under identical conditions.
S tockpiling  can be defined as the managed accumulation of vegetative growth to be used at a later time.
In the context of this publication, stockpiling refers to accumulating standing forage for grazing by livestock.
Most stockpiling is done to extend grazing into autumn and winter, but in some situations it can also be useful in keeping animals grazing when dry periods during the growing season slow forage growth.
A review of variety test data, especially if multiple years of testing have been summarized, allows identification of such growth differences.
Forage distribution should not be the only variety selection criterion, but it deserves consideration, especially if one is deciding between two or more varieties that are similar with regard to other characteristics such as dry matter yield, forage quality, and disease resistance.
Annual legumes, which are widely used in the Deep South, vary from making most of their growth in early spring  to being most productive in late spring and even early summer.
The growing seasons of various annual legumes vary, even for varieties within species.
Nearly any type of forage can be stockpiled, but tall fescue is the species most widely used for this purpose.
Tall fescue typically makes a good amount of growth in autumn, it has a waxy layer on its leaves that makes them resistant to frost damage and weathering, and grazing to a low winter residual height has little effect on its spring regrowth or stand density.
In addition, tall fescue forage accumulates a high concentration of soluble carbohydrates in the fall.
The result is that stockpiled tall fescue not only has good forage quality, it maintains this quality extremely well through the winter.
In fact, the total digestible nutrient  and crude protein  content of stockpiled tall fescue is typically significantly higher than the average hay fed to beef cattle.
Stockpiling may also help reduce the toxicity of endophyte-infected tall fescue.
A 2001 study showed that levels of the toxin ergovaline found in endophyte-infected fescue dropped during the winter grazing period.
In light of the slow decline in protein content and digestibility of stockpiled fescue forage, this makes a strong case for delaying the use of stockpiled toxic endophyte fescue as long as possible into the winter months.
This can be done by grazing winter annuals or stockpiled summer forage first.
Stockpiling other forage crops
 Other cool-season perennial grasses such as orchardgrass and smooth bromegrass can be stockpiled for late fall grazing, but are less desirable than fescue.
The quality of stockpiled forage of these grasses declines more rapidly, plus these species have less persistence under heavy grazing during the winter, and stands may thin
 in subsequent growing seasons.
Stockpiled forage of these species should be grazed within a few weeks after a hard freeze.
Legumes, such as red clover, and coolseason annual grasses, such as annual ryegrass and small grains , may also be stockpiled, but the stockpiled forage deteriorates rather quickly.
These forages usually work best when used for autumn and late winter/spring grazing.
When used in this manner, they provide high-quality grazing before and after the use of stockpiled fescue, and bridge the gap between stockpiled fescue and spring growth of cool-season perennials.
Near the Gulf Coast, cool-season annuals may provide at least some forage growth for grazing essentially throughout the winter.
Warm-season perennial grasses such as bermudagrass, bahiagrass, old world bluestems, big bluestem, indiangrass, and eastern gamagrass, as well as warm-season annual grasses such as crabgrass and sweet sorghum have
 Figure 1.
Comparison of stockpiled tall fescue quality to average hay quality.
Source: Mark Kennedy, Missouri, 1997-2003, and John Jennings, Arkansas, 1998-2002.
Figure 2.
Concentration levels of the toxin ergovaline in stockpiled, endophyte-infected tall fescue.
Source: Rob Kallenbach, University of Missouri, 1999-2001.
also been successfully used for stockpiling forage.
It was once thought that protein and energy levels of stockpiled warm-season perennial grasses drop too low to be of much value as livestock feed, but in studies in Oklahoma with bermudagrass, protein levels stayed above 10% and energy did not drop significantly, especially if harvested by the end of December.
On-farm data collected in Missouri has shown that crude protein levels of stockpiled old world bluestems and native warm-season grasses dropped to 7 to 9%, but TDN  levels generally stayed between 58 and 60%.
Livestock acceptance of stockpiled switchgrass has been poor in some climates, so stockpiling monoculture stands of switchgrass should generally be avoided.
Grazing eastern gamagrass during winter has resulted in some crown damage and subsequent stand thinning.
With these types of grasses, a protein supplement would be needed for most classes of livestock.
However, an approach that has worked successfully in Oklahoma and Missouri is to limit graze cool-season annuals or stockpiled tall fescue for the purpose of using the grass as a protein supplement on dormant warm-season grasses.
Work at the Noble Foundation in Ardmore, Oklahoma has shown that as little as 30 minutes of grazing of a cool-season annual pasture per day can meet livestock protein needs.
Corn is generally considered a summer row crop or silage crop, but it can also be grazed during late summer or autumn or be allowed to mature and then be grazed as standing corn.
Corn seems to have much potential for stockpiling in view of its high energy value and its high yield potential.
However, to prevent excessive waste, daily strip grazing is advisable.
Accumulation of high-quality forage should begin about 60 to 90 days before the end of the growing season.
Figure 3.
Tall fescue stockpile yields at various nitrogen rates and application dates.
aGeographical location will affect the suitability of various dates of application.
Source: Jim Gerrish, University of Missouri, 1997.
TECHNIQUE FOR STOCKPILING TALL FESCUE
 The following steps have proven successful for stockpiling tall fescue forage:
 1.
At 60 to 90 days before the end of the fall growing season, graze or clip pastures leaving 3 to 5 inches of forage growth.
2.
Immediately after grazing or clipping, apply 40 to 80 pounds of nitrogen per acre.
Both the rate and timing of nitrogen fertilizer have an important impact on yield.
Applying fertilizer earlier than 90 days before the end of the growing season will not significantly increase the yield, but quality will be significantly lower.
Delaying initiation of stockpiling will result in higher quality forage, but lower yields.
3.
Defer grazing stockpiled tall fescue forage until late fall or winter.
Be sure to properly use forage growth in other pastures before beginning to use stockpiled forage.
However, lateseason growth of warm-season species may be of low quality and thus may require supplementation.
4.
If possible, stockpile 1 acre per cow.
Under normal conditions this will give a 75to 90-day feed supply if grazed properly.
5.
Although low quality, highly perishable material such as crop residues or stockpiled warm-season forage should be used first, once the use of stockpiled fescue has begun, start with the highest quality stockpiled fescue forage, because weathering causes more value loss in highquality material than in low-quality material.
EXTENDING GRAZING & REDUCING STORED FEED NEEDS
 Regardless of the species stockpiled, accumulation of high-quality forage should begin about 60 to 90 days before the end of the growing season.
Allowing pasture to grow for longer periods will result in low-quality forage , which in turn will translate to poor animal performance.
The same holds true for forage that has been allowed to accumulate in waterways or along field borders.
Unreasonable expectations regarding the forage quality of such material is a common reason for producer disappointment with stockpiling.
Use stockpiled forage efficiently
 Once forage has been stockpiled, using it efficiently is important in developing a low-cost winter feeding system.
The most economical way is to strip graze the pastures.
By allocating forage in strips calculated to be used within 3 days, animals consume 70% or more of the forage; by comparison, when given access to a 2-week feed supply, animals will consume 40% or less of the forage.
That difference allows a significantly longer grazing period of quality forage for livestock.
Many producers like to allocate a new
 strip every other day, which works well.
If stockpiled grass is available, hay will only need to be fed if there is a deep cover of snow.
However, as little as 1/4-inch of ice alone or as a crust on snow may prevent grazing of stockpiled forage.
Take advantage of unique grazing opportunities
 In mixed crop and livestock operations, residue in corn and grain sorghum fields can be used to provide a substantial number of days of grazing.
When grassed waterways, terraces, and field borders are present and are properly managed and used, this option becomes even more attractive.
lowa State University Beef Cattle Center data indicates that for each acre of corn stalks grazed, approximately 1/2 ton of hay will be saved.
Crop residues are normally the least expensive feed source, because most expenses are charged against the row crop enterprise.
The cost of grazing
 Table 1.
Relative amounts and values of corn residue plant parts.
Item	Husk	Leaf	Stem	Cob
 Residue 	12	27	49	12
 Crude protein 	3.6	7.8	4.5	2.2
 In vitro dry matter disappearance b	67	47	45	35
 Palatability	high	high	low	low
 a Includes leaf sheath.
b A measure of dry matter digestibility determined by a laboratory analysis.
corn crop residue is about 5 cents per day according to lowa State University beef cow business records.
In a 4-year summary of experiments, COWS grazing corn crop residue at 2.5 acres/ cow per season for 112 to 174 days required about 1 ton less hay per cow to maintain adequate body condition than COWS maintained in a dry lot.
In a 5-year study conducted by Dr.
Jim Russell at lowa State University, 113 grazing days were obtained when cornfields were grazed after corn harvest with a stocking rate of 1.9 acres per cow.
An entirely different situation may exist in some areas where wheat or other cool-season annual crops are grown in autumn and/or spring and harvested in late spring or early summer.
In such cases, after harvest there may be a combination of straw or other plant material as well as volunteer weeds and grasses that can provide summer grazing.
Crop residues usually represent about half of the pre-harvest plant dry matter.
For example, a field producing 120 bushels of corn grain  will contain 3 to 4 tons of roughage dry matter per acre.
Depending on stocking rate and grazing method, COWS grazing cornstalks or grain sorghum stubble will consume 25 to 30% of the available residue in 30 to 100 days, still leaving enough material to prevent soil erosion.
In the Midwest, corn crop residue will feed animals for an average of 65 to 111 days.
The optimal grazing allowance on corn crop residue fields will depend on the weight gains necessary to obtain a desired body condition.
With low supplementation, cows can maintain body weight with as little as 1/2 acre of corn crop residues per cow per month, but may need as much as 2 acres per cow per month if weight gain is desired.
Livestock select the portions of crop residues with the highest digestibility and protein concentration first , so supplement needs beyond trace mineral salt and vitamin A are likely to be minimal for the first month of grazing.
Providing simultaneous access to stockpiled grass or late summer growth of legume forages may supply protein and energy, and thereby reduce needs for supplementation.
As winter progresses and crop residue quality decreases because of grazing selection and weathering, supplementation of protein and phosphorus may become necessary.
As with stockpiled forage, strip grazing crop residues allows more efficient use, resulting in more grazing days, and helps ensure a high-quality diet over a longer period of time by reducing selective grazing.
A caution associated with grazing corn crop residue: Livestock may overload on excessive amounts of grain left in the field, putting them at risk of founder , a serious digestive problem.
Strip grazing reduces the likelihood of this disorder.
In the northern portion of the United States it is recommended to allow alfalfa growth to accumulate for about 6 weeks before the first killing frost is anticipated.
This allows alfalfa plants to replenish root carbohydrate reserves before winter.
However, once plants are dormant, the accumulated growth can be grazed by livestock.
This should be done promptly, before the frozen leaves drop off.
An added benefit of grazing the frosted forage is that it tends to reduce alfalfa weevil populations the following spring in southern areas.
In northern areas, leave roughly 3 to 4 inches of stubble to catch and hold snow to reduce winter damage and minimize temperature fluctuations that may result in plant heaving.
The need for stored feed is most commonly associated with cold temperatures that limit forage growth during winter, but other climatic conditions such as drought or an unexpected need to pasture more animals than planned may also make supple-
 mental feeding necessary.
In such a situation, it can be advantageous to graze a hayfield provided speciesappropriate residual stubble heights and a suitable rest period are provided..
It usually isn't possible to accurately predict how much hay will be needed.
Thus, it may turn out that a producer will have enough hay whether or not a hayfield is grazed.
Regardless, grazing a hayfield may "buy time" that makes it possible to carefully evaluate the situation and implement other strategies to reduce stored feed needs such as culling of animals, planting of winter annuals, or locating a relatively inexpensive source of hay or an alternate supplemental feed.
Meanwhile, the expense of harvesting the forage as hay has been avoided, and the cost of purchasing hay or other stored feed at a later time may be little more  than making hay from the forage growth that would otherwise have accumulated.
GRAZING CROP RESIDUES: ADDITIONAL POINTS
 Before grazing crop residue fields it is important to check the labels of any pesticides used on the crop to see if they are cleared for grazing crop residues.
Label restrictions should be strictly observed.
It is advisable to make certain no poisonous plants are present in fencerows or other areas adjacent to fields in which crop residues are to be grazed.
Forage produced in fencerows and waterways within row crop fields is of most value if mowed, fertilized, and managed as stockpiled forage, as discussed earlier.
Research conducted at several Midwestern universities shows no difference in the performance of cattle that grazed Bt corn crop residue and those that grazed non-Bt corn crop residues.
Research has been conducted in several Midwestern states to determine if winter grazing of row crops had any impact on crop yields the following year.
Corn and soybean have shown similar yields for grazed and ungrazed fields, particularly if grazed when soils are frozen.
Crop residues can be an inexpensive source of nutrition.
Soybean stubble is low in quality and cannot provide adequate nutrition for beef COWS or stockers.
It should not be used as a feed source unless supplemented substantially.
Use other plant growth
 Grazing animals, especially ruminants, have the unique ability to digest plant material and convert it into meat, milk, and fiber.
Innovative livestock producers around the world who see forage as a resource are always on the lookout for low-cost or free sources of nutrition for their animals.
In some nations it is common practice to graze animals in public areas such as road rights-of-way.
In addition, in some countries shrubs, in addition to grasses and forbs, are cultivated specifically for the purpose of providing nutrition for cattle, sheep, and especially goats.
Here in the United States it is not unusual for producers in some areas to graze volunteer growth in old crop fields, swampy areas, or woodlots.
It is important to meet animal nutritional needs, and to avoid exposing grazing animals to poisonous plants or other dangerous situations, but staying alert to unique grazing opportunities makes sense and can help reduce costs.
Forage or livestock management approaches
 Good grazing management yields numerous benefits, including several that deserve mention here.
First, when pastures are grazed appropriately for the forage species they contain, the plants will be healthier and more productive over a longer period of time, thus reducing the need for other strategies.
Grazing plants too closely will slow regrowth, resulting in lower yields, and will also weaken plants due to depletion of food reserves.
Forage crops such as upright-growing bunchgrasses that store much of their food reserves in stem bases are particularly sensitive to this type of damage.
Healthy plants with good root systems are impacted less by drought and other stresses than are plants that have been weakened by overgrazing.
Good grazing management also reduces forage waste.
If pastures are undergrazed at certain times , losses due to trampling and fouling of forage can be substantial.
A number of grazing practices can reduce forage losses by 20 to 30%, which can in turn lengthen the grazing period.
These techniques include limit grazing , strip grazing , forward grazing , and rotational stocking.
With rotational stocking, it may be possible to begin grazing earlier in the growing season while staying within the realm of good grazing management.
This is because removing animals from an early-grazed pasture allows the grass to rest before being grazed again.
Since the first pastures grazed are likely to be slower to recover, this approach may also help avoid some of the excess growth problems that often occur during the spring flush.
Shortening rotation intervals tends to result in forage growth being better distributed over the growing season as long as pastures are not grazed more closely than recommended for the species they contain.
Grazing management can also help ensure animal nutritional needs are met.
For example, creep grazing allows young animals to obtain a more nutritious diet than their mothers; forward grazing allows groups of animals grazed in sequence to consume forage of differing quality levels; and limit grazing a high-quality pasture  can provide excellent dietary supplementation.
Finally, as grazing management is intensified, there is usually more even distribution of dung, urine, and therefore of recycled nutrients.
This tends to ultimately reduce fertilizer needs, increase the efficiency of fertilizer applications, and keep pastures growing for longer periods of time.
However, under wet soil conditions a concentration of animals may create extremely muddy conditions and result in much pasture stand damage.
A "sacrifice" paddock that can be reseeded later may therefore be justifiable.
Workers in Georgia compared continuous and rotational stocking.
Rotational stocking resulted in dramatic increases in stocking rate and calf gain per acre.
It also resulted in a 32% reduction in amount of hay required per cow by extending the grazing season.
In Missouri, researchers compared strip-grazing intervals of cattle grazing stockpiled tall fescue.
When forage was allocated in a 3-day supply compared to a 14-day supply, cowdays per acre were increased by 32 days, with a 56% increase in carrying capacity.
The extra days on pasture translates to a corresponding reduction in the amount of hay required, reducing the cost of wintering animals.
Pastures often become unproductive or go dormant in midto late summer due to lack of water.
Irrigation may relieve the situation, but before proceeding with this alternative, landowners should thoroughly consider all the issues that contribute to irrigation system cost:
 Table 2.
Comparison of animal gain and winter hay requirements using continuous and rotational grazing systems.
Continuous	Rotational	Change, %
 Stocking rate, cow-calf units/acre	0.50	0.69	+38
 Calf weaning weight, lb	500	496	0
 Total calf gain/acre, lb	248	340	+37
 Cow pregnancy rate, %	96	95	0
 Hay fed/cow, lb	2,570	1,750	-32
 aBeef cattle grazed stockpiled tall fescue.
Source: Dr.
Carl Hoveland, University of Georgia.
Is there an inexpensive source of water available?
Water sources vary greatly in cost, so this should be carefully checked.
During hot weather, some plants require approximately 0.25 to 0.30 inches per day.
Check with a knowledgeable irrigation specialist for water requirements in your area.
One inch on one acre is 27,158 gallons, so the water supply must be able to supply a minimum of 7,000 to 8,000 gallons per acre per day to be effective for irrigating any field or pasture.
Pumping from streams frequently requires a permit from the U.S.
Army Corps of Engineers and/or the state agency or regional water district responsible for natural resources.
If irrigation is desired by a certain time, there should be an assessment as to how long it will likely take to acquire permits and install equipment.
Permit time can be up to 12 months, depending on the on-site physical situation.
Table 3.
Daily and seasonal forage costs for alternative wintering strategies at typical yields, costs, and period of use based on a 100-cow autumn-calving herd.
Winter feeding period from December 1 to April 10.
Item	Hay	Cornstalks	tall fescue	cereal rye
 $/cow/day	100%	4%	23%	46%
 Days of use	130 	60 	90 	90 
 70 	40 	40 
 Wintering cost	100%	71%	41%	63%
 a Expressed as a percentage of hay.
Source: Jim Gerrish, University of Missouri.
Will irrigation of pastures be cost effective?
The quantity and value of forage produced on average must be enough to justify installing the system plus the expense of operating it.
Typically, irrigation must be used hundreds of hours each year for many years to be economical.
Irrigation equipment application efficiency should be considered.
Newer pivot irrigation equipment may have 85% or higher efficiency , but older systems, particularly traveling guns, may only be 60% efficient.
Lower efficiency means more water and more pumping energy is needed to get water application rates and yield responses comparable to higher efficiency systems.
Labor to operate irrigation equipment should be considered.
Pivot irrigation systems are the least labor intensive at about 0.0125 hour per acre.
Traveling gun or tow irrigation systems may need ten times that.
With irrigation automatically comes the need for balanced and often increased fertilization.
Irrigating malnourished pastures is a waste.
In some areas, soil types, or situations, soil compaction caused by the hooves of grazing animals  or eventual soil salinization may be a concern.
If these issues can be resolved, pasture irrigation may be a consideration, but it should be a long-term commitment, not a "knee-jerk" reaction to one or two years of drought.
Forages respond to irrigation at any vegetative stage.
The yield increase is linear to the total water applied up to the amount needed by the plant for daily growth.
The critical question is whether the extra pasture forage that may be produced on average will be worth the cost.
An effective pasture irrigation system is generally not much less expensive per acre than an effective row crop irrigation system.
A simple and cost-effective strategy for extending the grazing period is to maintain a proper fertilization program.
Well-fertilized, vigorous plants begin growth earlier and resist stresses such as drought better than weaker, nutrient-deficient plants.
Soil testing and applying lime and fertilizer to pastures according to recommendations is important.
Fertilizer can be used as a management tool to optimize production when good growing conditions exist, and to increase forage production just before times of slow plant growth.
Thus, application of fertilizer can shift the timing of availability of pasture forage, although this is contingent upon adequate moisture being available for plant growth.
Nitrogen  is the most common limiting nutrient.
Each growth cycle of a pasture generally takes up most of the soil N available, leaving little for the next growth cycle.
This means that periodic applications must occur during the season.
Typically, two or three applications of 40 to 60 pounds of N per acre are recommended during the growing season, with the first application being made at
 greenup of the species most desired in the pasture.
By splitting applications, some of the high points in the growth curve are a bit flatter and forage quality during the growing season tends to be more uniform.
Failure to have adequate N available for plant growth in early spring at the beginning of the growing season of perennial grasses is a common reason for delayed spring forage growth.
In situations where volunteer species that may be considered desirable are present , it may be justifiable to fertilize several weeks earlier than normal.
Conversely, on farms where there is typically a huge excess of spring growth, it may make sense to postpone the first application until later in the season.
In drier areas, providing good fertilization in spring when rainfall is likely may provide stockpiled grass for use during low rainfall periods in summer.
Rotational stocking of pastures results in more even distribution of recycled nutrients  as well as a higher percent utilization of accumulated pasture forage.
Manure, whether directly deposited by livestock or applied, represents a slow-release source of nutrients that favors pasture growth over time.
However, excessive phosphorus, regardless of the source, is environmentally undesirable.
Missing later fertilizer applications may limit growth for late summer grazing or stockpiling.
Initiating fertilizer applications at different times to different paddocks or pastures may result in forage production peaks at different times.
Keeping the soil pH at a level that is suitable for growth of the forages being grown  is also essential for good production and a long grazing season.
The soil pH requirements for growing many legumes is higher than that of forage grasses, and thus it is especially important to lime the soil in accordance with soil test recommendations in order to obtain good legume establishment, production, and persistence.
Match forage quality and nutrient intake to animal needs
 Another strategy can be to carefully match animal needs to forage quality.
Different animal types and classes have different forage quality needs.
You can get the most benefit from your pastures by having animals with higher nutritive requirements graze the best-quality forage and using lower-quality forage in the rations of animals with lower nutritive requirements.
The nutritional needs of breeding female livestock vary greatly during the year, with the greatest nutritional demand occurring during early lactation.
This leads to varying requirements for forage quality and quantity at various times.
For example, in a beef cow/calf operation using a late winter
 or spring calving schedule, calves have high needs for energy and protein to make good gain late in summer, while dry, pregnant COWS can be on a maintenance diet.
Thus, calves should receive good quality pasture while COWS can be supplemented with lower quality hay or pasture.
Having a controlled breeding season and calving at a time that allows animal nutritional needs to match the quality and quantity of available pasture forage are keys to both good animal performance and reduced supplemental feeding.
Depending on calving dates, the ease of providing appropriate quality pasture forage may vary greatly.
In an area where winter annuals can be easily grown, autumn calving  may work well.
Late winter or spring calving may be more suitable for producers who rely primarily on coolseason perennials.
Get the most benefit from your pastures by having animals with higher nutritive requirements graze the bestquality forage.
Figure 4.
Forage quality needs of cattle.
EXTENDING GRAZING & REDUCING STORED FEED NEEDS
 Forage testing-or, in a range or pasture, fecal analysis-is a tool livestock producers can use to make better use of their pasture, hay, and silage.
Knowing the quality of the forage available and matching that to animal needs allows producers to ensure acceptable animal performance while minimizing supplements.
When pasture is running short, grain  rather than hay may be the most costeffective supplement.
Beginning to provide supplementation as pasture growth slows will ensure high energy and good animal response while substituting for some forage.
It may make it possible to stretch the pasture through the period of low production by lowering forage intake.
This, in turn, may keep a pasture from being overgrazed and subsequently being slow to recover.
Change the stocking rate
 It may be beneficial to lower the stocking rate to match pasture growth and production.
The major reason that most beef producers calve in late winter or spring is to have plentiful, high-quality pasture available for the growing calves and milking beef COWS during April, May, and June.
When forage production begins to decline, some method of reducing animal numbers will leave forage available for the remaining animals during the rest of the summer and fall.
Options include:
 Move COWS to an area that provides lower-quality forage.
This effectively reduces the number of animals on a given pasture.
Wean calves early and sell some in midsummer.
As calves  grow, their forage requirement increases at a time when
 pasture production is typically declining.
For a cow-calf producer with a late winteror early springcalving herd, selling the largest calves in early August could free up sufficient pasture to feed the remaining herd for the rest of the season.
Lighter animals sold in early August usually sell for more per pound than heavier animals sold in September when a glut of animals reach the market.
Retain ownership of calves, but move a portion to feedlots in early August.
If managed properly, the remaining herd on pasture may be able to remain longer and be sold at higher prices later in the year.
In a breeding herd, cull open mature animals before the winter feeding season.
Reducing animal numbers in late summer and autumn may also allow stockpiling tall fescue or other forage species.
Some producers might opt to keep a small enough number of breeding animals to allow getting through the winter without needing much stored feed, and then purchase calves or other livestock to graze during the spring flush.
Keep in mind that overstocking usually leads to overgrazing, lower forage yields, and reduced animal performance, as well as to higher amounts of stored feed needed.
On farms where stored feed needs are consistently high, it may be that some reduction in overall stocking rates should be considered.
Use winter annuals in crop rotations or to supplement perennial forages
 In much of the United States, winter annuals can be useful in helping provide an extended grazing season.
On farms where row crops are grown, winter annuals can allow use of cropland all 12 months of the year while providing a cover for the soil during winter.
In combination with crop residues and fall growth of annual crops, this can allow livestock grazing to be extended well into the winter months.
Winter annual crops can also be valuable when planted in areas where lower quality perennial forages dominate or to provide grazing at times when it would otherwise not be available.
However, because winter annual forages are more costly to grow than most perennials, they may be most economical to use primarily for growing and saleable animals unless mature animals are to be second grazers.
Brassicas  are highly productive, digestible forbs that contain relatively high levels of crude protein.
Animals will readily consume the tops and will also grub the root bulbs out of the ground.
These crops are best suited for crop rotation pastures or for being notilled into light sod.
Dry matter yield is variable and highly dependent upon soil type, fertility, time of seeding, and precipitation.
However, continuously growing them on the same land may lead to a high incidence of crown or root rot within a few years.
Note: Sheep producers need to be aware that copper toxicity can be a problem with turnips.