náma: (lit. 'name'): 'mind',
mentality. This term is generally used as a collective name for the 4 mental groups (arúpino
khandha), viz. feeling (vedaná), perception (saññá), mental
formations (sankhára) and consciousness (viññána). Within the 4th link
(náma-rúpa) in the formula of the paticcasamuppáda (q.v.), however, it
applies only to karma-resultant (vipáka) feeling and perception and a few
karma-resultant mental functions inseparable from any consciousness. As it is said (M. 9;
D. 15; S. XII, 2): "Feeling (vedaná), perception (saññá), volition (cetaná),
impression (phassa), mental advertence (manasikára): this, o brother, is
called mind (náma)." With the addition of 2 more mental factors, namely,
mental vitality (jívita) and concentration (samádhi), here 'stationary
phase of mind' (cittatthiti), these 7 factors are said in the Abhidhammattha
Sangaha to be the inseparable mental factors in any state of consciousness.
For the complete list of all the 50 mental
formations of the sankhára-kkhandha (not including feeling and perception), s.
náma-káya: the 'mind-group' (as
distinguished from rúpa-káya, the corporeality-group) comprises the 4 immaterial
groups of existence (arúpino khandhá; s. khandha). This twofold grouping,
frequent in Com., occurs first in D. 15, also in Pts.M. (I, 183); náma-káya alone
is mentioned in Sn. 1074.
náma-rúpa (lit. 'name and form'):
'mind-and-body', mentality and corporeality. It is the 4th link in the dependent
origination (s. paticcasamuppáda 3, 4) where it is conditioned by consciousness,
and on its part is the condition of the sixfold sense-base. In two texts (D. 14, 15),
which contain variations of the dependent origination, the mutual conditioning of
consciousness and mind-and-body is described (see also S. XII, 67), and the latter is said
to be a condition of sense-impression (phassa); so also in Sn. 872.
The third of the seven purifications (s. visuddhi),
the purification of views, is defined in Vis.M. XVIII as the "correct seeing of
mind-and-body," and various methods for the discernment of mind-and-body by way of
insight-meditation (vipassaná, q.v.) are given there. In this context, 'mind' (náma)
comprises all four mental groups, including consciousness. - See náma.
In five-group-existence (pañca-vokára-bhava,
q.v.), mind-and body are inseparable and interdependent; and this has been illustrated by
comparing them with two sheaves of reeds propped against each other: when one falls the
other will fall, too; and with a blind man with stout legs, carrying on his shoulders a
lame cripple with keen eye-sight: only by mutual assistance can they move about
efficiently (s. Vis.M. XVIII, 32ff). On their mutual dependence, see also paticca-samuppáda
With regard to the impersonality and
dependent nature of mind and corporeality it is said:
"Sound is not a thing that dwells
inside the conch-shell and comes out from time to time, but due to both, the conch-shell
and the man that blows it, sound comes to arise: Just so, due to the presence of vitality,
heat and consciousness, this body may execute the acts of going, standing, sitting and
lying down, and the 5 sense-organs and the mind may perform their various functions"
"Just as a wooden puppet though
unsubstantial, lifeless and inactive may by means of pulling strings be made to move
about, stand up, and appear full of life and activity; just so are mind and body, as such,
something empty, lifeless and inactive; but by means of their mutual working together,
this mental and bodily combination may move about, stand up, and appear full of life and
ñána: 'knowledge, comprehension,
intelligence, insight', is a synonym for paññá (q.v.); see also vipassaná.
of knowledge and vision', is the last of the 7 purifications and a name for path-knowledge
(maggañána), i.e. the penetrating realization of the path of Stream-winning,
Once-returning, Non-returning or Arahatship. Vis.M. XXII furnishes a detailed explanation
of it (s. visuddhi, VII).
In A. IV, 41 ñánadassana
apparently means the divine eye (dibbacakkhu, s. abhiññá), being produced
through concentrating the mind on light.
nánatta-saññá: The 'variety (or
multiformity) - perceptions are explained under jhána (q.v.).
ñána-vipphárá iddhi: the 'power
of penetrating knowledge', is one of the magical powers (iddhi, q.v.).
understanding (or comprehension) of the known', is one of the 3 kinds of full
understanding (pariññá q.v.).
natthika-ditthi: 'nihilistic view'
(a doctrine that all values are baseless, that nothing is knowable or can be communicated,
and that life itself is meaningless), s. ditthi.
is one of the 24 conditions (paccaya, q.v.).
natural morality: pakati-síla
navanga-buddha (or satthu)- sásana:
nava-sattávása: s. sattávása.
naya-vipassaná: s. kalápa
ñáya: 'right method', is often
used as a name for the Noble Eightfold Path (s. magga), e.g. in the Satipatthána
Sutta (M. 10, D. 22).
nekkhamma: 'freedom from sensual
lust', renunciation. Though apparently from nir + Ö kram, 'to go forth
(into the homeless state of a monk)', this term is in the Páli texts nevertheless used as
if it were derived from káma, lust, and always as an antonym to káma. It
is one of the perfections (s. páramí). N. sankappa, thought free
from lust, or thought of renunciation, is one of the 3 kinds of right thought (sammá-sankappa),
the 2nd link of the Noble Eightfold Path (s. magga, 2), its antonym being kámasankappa,
nesajjikanga: one of the 13 dhutanga
neutral, karmically: avyákata
(q.v.); n. feelings, s. vedaná.
'sphere of neither-perception-nor-non-perception', is the name for the fourth absorption
of the immaterial sphere (arúpávacara), a semi-conscious state, which is
surpassed only by the state of complete suspense of consciousness, called 'attainment of
extinction' (nirodha-samápatti, q.v.). See jhána (8).
n'eva-sekha-n'ásekha: 'neither in
training nor beyond training', i.e. neither learner nor master. Thus is called the
worldling (puthujjana, q.v.), for he is neither pursuing the 3-fold training (sikkhá
q.v.) in morality, mental culture and wisdom, on the level of the first 3 paths of
sanctity, nor has he completed his training as an Arahat. See sekha. - (App.).
neyya: 'requiring guidance', is
said of a person "who through advice and questioning, through wise consideration, and
through frequenting noble-minded friends, having intercourse with them, associating with
them, gradually comes to penetrate the truth" (Pug. 162). Cf. ugghatitaññú.
neyyattha-dhamma: A 'teaching
the meaning of which is implicit, or has to be inferred' as contrasted with a 'teaching
with an explicit or evident meaning' (nítattha-dhamma). In A. I, 60 (PTS) it is
said: "Whoso declares a sutta with an implicit meaning as a sutta with explicit
meaning (and conversely), such a one makes a false statement with regard to the Blessed
One." - See paramattha.
Nibbána, (Sanskrit nirvána):
lit. 'extinction' (nir + Ö va, to cease blowing, to become extinguished);
according to the commentaries, 'freedom from desire' (nir+ vana). Nibbána
constitutes the highest and ultimate goal of all Buddhist aspirations, i.e. absolute
extinction of that life-affirming will manifested as greed, hate and delusion, and
convulsively clinging to existence; and therewith also the ultimate and absolute
deliverance from all future rebirth, old age, disease and death, from all suffering and
misery. Cf. Parinibbána.
"Extinction of greed, extinction of
hate, extinction of delusion: this is called Nibbána" (S. XXXVIII. 1).
The 2 aspects of Nibbána are:
(1) The full extinction of defilements (kilesa-parinibbána),
also called sa-upádi-sesa-nibbána (s. It. 41), i.e. 'Nibbána with the groups
of existence still remaining' (s. upádi). This takes place at the attainment of
Arahatship, or perfect holiness (s. ariya-puggala).
(2) The full extinction of the groups
of existence (khandha-parinibbána), also called an-upádi-sesa-nibbána (s.
It. 41, A. IV, 118), i.e. 'Nibbána without the groups remaining', in other words, the
coming to rest, or rather the 'no-more-continuing' of this physico-mental process of
existence. This takes place at the death of the Arahat. - (App.: Nibbána).
Sometimes both aspects take place at one
and the same moment, i.e. at the death of the Arahat; s. sama-sísí.
"This, o monks, truly is the peace,
this is the highest, namely the end of all formations, the forsaking of every substratum
of rebirth, the fading away of craving, detachment, extinction, Nibbána" (A. III,
"Enraptured with lust (rága), enraged
with anger (dosa), blinded by delusion (moha), overwhelmed, with mind
ensnared, man aims at his own ruin, at the ruin of others, at the ruin of both, and he
experiences mental pain and grief. But if lust, anger and delusion are given up, man aims
neither at his own ruin, nor at the ruin of others, nor at the ruin of both, and he
experiences no mental pain and grief. Thus is Nibbána visible in this life, immediate,
inviting, attractive, and comprehensible to the wise" (A. III, 55).
"Just as a rock of one solid mass
remains unshaken by the wind, even so neither visible forms, nor sounds, nor odours, nor
tastes, nor bodily impressions, neither the desired nor the undesired, can cause such a
one to waver. Steadfast is his mind, gained is deliverance" (A, VI, 55).
"Verily, there is an Unborn,
Unoriginated, Uncreated, Unformed. If there were not this Unborn, Unoriginated, Uncreated,
Unformed, escape from the world of the born, the originated, the created, the formed,
would not be possible" (Ud. VIII, 3).
One cannot too often and too emphatically
stress the fact that not only for the actual realization of the goal of Nibbána, but also
for a theoretical understanding of it, it is an indispensable preliminary condition to
grasp fully the truth of anattá (q.v.), the egolessness and insubstantiality of
all forms of existence. Without such an understanding, one will necessarily misconceive
Nibbána - according to one's either materialistic or metaphysical leanings - either as
annihilation of an ego, or as an eternal state of existence into which an ego or self
enters or with which it merges. Hence it is said:
"Mere suffering exists, no sufferer
The deed is, but no doer of the deed is
Nibbána is, but not the man that enters
The path is, but no traveler on it is
Literature: For texts on
Nibbána, see Path, 36ff. - See Vis.M. XVI. 64ff. - Anattá and Nibbána, by Nyanaponika
Thera (WHEEL 11); The Buddhist Doctrine of Nibbána, by Ven. P. Vajiranana & F. Story
'rebirth', is a synonym for patisandhi (q.v.).
-paññá): 'morality (concentration, wisdom) connected with penetration'; s. hána-bhágiya-síla.
of aversion', is one of the 18 chief kinds of insight; s. vipassaná (4), samatha-vipassaná
(2), visuddhi (VI, 5).
perception (or consciousness, or view) of permanency, is one of the 4 perversions
nihilistic view: natthika-ditthi;
exercise' s. kasina.
nimitta: mark, sign; image;
target, object; cause, condition. These meanings are used in, and adapted to, many
contexts of which only the doctrinal ones are mentioned here.
1. 'Mental (reflex-) image', obtained in
meditation. In full clarity, it will appear in the mind by successful practice of certain
concentration-exercises and will then appear as vividly as if seen by the eye. The object
perceived at the very beginning of concentration is called the preparatory image (parikamma-nimitta).
The still unsteady and unclear image, which arises when the mind has reached a weak degree
of concentration, is called the acquired image (uggaha-nimitta). An entirely clear
and immovable image arising at a higher degree of concentration is the counter-image (patibhága-nimitta).
As soon as this image arises, the stage of neighbourhood (or access) concentration (upacára-samádhi)
is reached. For further details, s. kasina, samádhi.
2. 'Sign of (previous) kamma' (kamma-nimitta)
and 'sign of (the future) destiny' (gati-nimitta); these arise as mental
objects of the last karmic consciousness before death (maranásanna-kamma; s.
karma, III, 3).
Usages (1) and (2) are commentarial (s.
App.). In sutta usage, the term occurs, e.g. as:
3. 'Outward appearance': of one who has
sense-control it is said- that "he does not seize upon the general appearance' of an
object (na nimittaggáhí; M. 38, D. 2; expl. Vis I, 54f; see síla).
4. 'Object': the six objects, i.e.
visual, etc. (rúpa-nimitta; S. XXII, 3). Also, when in explanation of animitta-cetovimutti,
signless deliverance of mind (s. cetovimutti, vimokkha), it is said, 'sabba-nimittánam
amanasikárá', it refers to the 6 sense-objects (Com. to M. 43), and has therefore to
be rendered "by paying no attention to any object (or object-ideas)." - A
pleasant or beautiful object (subha-nimitta, q.v.) is a condition to the arising of
the hindrance of sense-desire; a 'repellent object' (patigha-nimitta) for the
hindrance of ill-will; contemplation on the impurity of an object (asubha-nimitta;
s. asubha) is an antidote to sense-desire.
5. In Pts.M. II, in a repetitive series of
terms, nimitta appears together with uppádo (origin of existence), pavattam
(continuity of existence), and may then be rendered by 'condition of existence' (s. Path,
nimmána-rati: the name of a class
of heavenly beings of the sensuous sphere; s. deva.
nine abodes of beings: s. sattávása.
ninefold dispensation: s: sásana.
nippapañca: s. papañca.
corporeality', is identical with rúpa-rúpa, 'corporeality proper', i.e. material
or actual corporeality, as contrasted with 'unproduced corporeality'
(anipphanna-rúpa), consisting of mere qualities or modes of corporeality, e.g.
impermanence, etc., which are also enumerated among the 28 phenomena of the corporeality
group. See khandha, Summary I; Vis.M. XIV, 73.
niraya: lit. 'the downward-path',
the nether or infernal world, usually translated by 'hell', is one of the 4 lower courses
of existence (apáya, q.v.). The Buddhists are well aware that on account of the
universal sway of impermanence a life in hell, just as in heaven, cannot last eternally,
but will after exhaustion of the karma which has caused the respective form of rebirth,
necessarily be followed again by a new death and a new rebirth, according to the stored-up
nirodha: 'extinction'; s. nirodha-samápatti,
of extinction', is one of the 18 chief kinds of insight (vipassaná q.v.). See ánápánasati
nirodha-samápatti: 'attainment of
extinction' (S. XIV, 11), also called saññá-vedayita-nirodha, 'extinction of
feeling and perception', is the temporary suspension of all consciousness and mental
activity, following immediately upon the semi-conscious state called 'sphere of
neither-perception-nor-non-perception' (s. jhána, 8). The absolutely necessary
pre-conditions to its attainment are said to be perfect mastery of all the 8 absorptions (jhána),
as well as the previous attainment of Anágámi or Arahatship (s. ariya-puggala).
According to Vis.M. XXIII, the entering
into this state takes place in the following way: by means of mental tranquillity (samatha)
and insight (vipassaná) one has to pass through all the 8 absorptions one after
the other up to the sphere of neither-perception-nor-non-perception and then one has to
bring this state to an end. If, namely, according to the Vis.M., the disciple (Anágámi
or Arahat) passes through the absorption merely by means of tranquillity, i.e.
concentration, he will only attain the sphere of neither-perception-nor-non-perception,
and then come to a standstill; if, on the other hand, he proceeds only with insight, he
will reach the fruition (phala) of Anágámi or Arahatship. He, however, who by
means of both faculties has risen from absorption to absorption and, having made the
necessary preparations, brings the sphere of neither-perception-nor-non-perception to an
end, such a one reaches the state of extinction. Whilst the disciple is passing through
the 8 absorptions, he each time emerges from the absorption attained, and regards with his
insight all the mental phenomena constituting that special absorption, as impermanent,
miserable and impersonal. Then he again enters the next higher absorption, and thus, after
each absorption practising insight, he at last reaches the state of
neither-perception-nor-non-perception, and thereafter the full extinction. This state,
according to the Com., may last for 7 days or even longer. Immediately at the rising from
this state, however, there arises in the Anágámi the fruition of Anágámiship
(anágámi-phala), in the Arahat the fruition of Arahatship (arahatta-phala).
With regard to the difference existing
between the monk abiding in this state of extinction on the one hand, and a dead person on
the other hand, M 43 says: "In him who is dead, and whose life has come to an end,
the bodily (in-and-outbreathing), verbal (thought-conception and discursive thinking), and
mental functions (s. sankhára, 2) have become suspended and come to a standstill,
life is exhausted, the vital heat extinguished, the faculties are destroyed. Also in the
monk who has reached 'extinction of perception and feeling' (saññá-vedayita-nirodha),
the bodily, verbal and mental functions have been suspended and come to a standstill, but
life is not exhausted, the vital heat not extinguished, and the faculties are not
For details, see Vis.M. XXIII; for texts
s. Path 206.
'analytical knowledge of language', is one of the 4 patisambhidá (q.v.).
nirvana: (Sanskrit= ) Nibbána
nissarana-pahána: 'overcoming by
escape', is one of the 5 kinds of overcoming (pahána q.v.).
nissaya: 'foundation'. The 2 wrong
foundations of morality are craving (tanhá-nissaya) and views (ditthi-nissaya).
Hence there are two wrong bases of morality: morality based on craving (tanhá-nissita-síla)
and morality based on views (ditthi-nissita-síla). (App.)
" 'Based on craving' is that kind of
morality which has come about by the desire for a happy existence, e.g.: 'O that by this
morality I might become a godlike or heavenly being!' (A.IX, 172). 'Based on views' is
that morality which has been induced by the view that through the observation of certain
moral rules purification may be attained" (Vis.M. I).
nissaya-paccaya: 'support', base,
foundation, is one of the 24 conditions (s. paccaya, 8).
nítattha-dhamma: A 'doctrine with
evident meaning', contrasted with a 'doctrine with a meaning to be inferred' (neyyattha-dhamma,
q.v.). See also paramattha.
nívarana: 'hindrances', are 5
qualities which are obstacles to the mind and blind our mental vision. In the presence of
them we cannot reach neighbourhood-concentration (upacára-samádhi) and full
concentration (appaná-samádhi), and are unable to discern clearly the truth. They
1. sensuous desire (kámacchanda),
2. ill-will (vyápáda),
3. sloth and torpor (thína-middha),
4. restlessness and scruples (uddhacca-kukkucca),
5. skeptical doubt (vicikicchá;
In the beautiful similes in A. V, 193,
sensuous desire is compared with water mixed with manifold colours, ill-will with boiling
water, sloth and torpor with water covered by moss, restlessness and scruples with
agitated water whipped by the wind, skeptical doubt with turbid and muddy water. Just as
in such water one cannot perceive one's own reflection, so in the presence of these 5
mental hindrances, one cannot clearly discern one's own benefit, nor that of others, nor
that of both.
Regarding the temporary suspension of the
5 hindrances on entering the first absorption, the stereotype sutta text (e g. A. IX, 40)
runs as follows:
"He has cast away sensuous desire; he
dwells with a heart free from sensuous desire; from desire he cleanses his heart.
"He has cast away ill-will; he dwells
with a heart free from ill-will, cherishing love and compassion toward all living beings,
he cleanses his heart from ill-will.
"He has cast away sloth and torpor;
he dwells free from sloth and torpor; loving the light, with watchful mind, with clear
consciousness, he cleanses his mind from sloth and torpor.
"He has cast away restlessness and
scruples; dwelling with mind undisturbed, with heart full of peace, he cleanses his mind
from restlessness and scruples.
"He has cast away skeptical doubt;
dwelling free from doubt, full of confidence in the good, he cleanses his heart from
"He has put aside these 5 hindrances,
and come to know these paralysing defilements of the mind. And far from sensual
impressions, far from unwholesome things, he enters into the first absorption, etc."
The overcoming of these 5 hindrances by
the absorptions is, as already pointed out, a merely temporary suspension, called
'overcoming through repression' (vikkhambhana-pahána). They disappear forever on
entering the 4 supermundane paths (s. ariyapuggala), i.e. skeptical doubt on
reaching Sotápanship; sensuous desire, ill-will and mental worry on reaching
Anágámiship; sloth, torpor and restlessness on reaching Arahatship.
For their origination and their
overcoming, s. A. I, 2; VI, 21; S. XLVI, 51.
See The Five Mental
Hindrances, by Nyanaponika Thera (WHEEL 26).
niyáma: the 'fixedness of
law' regarding all things; cf. tathatá. - Pañca-niyáma is a commentarial
term, signifying the 'fivefold lawfulness' or 'natural order' that governs: (1)
temperature, seasons and other physical events (utu-niyáma); (2) the plant life (bíja-n.);
(3) karma (kamma-n.); (4) the mind (citta-n.), e.g. the lawful sequence of
the functions of consciousness (s. viññána-kicca) in the process of cognition;
(5) certain events connected with the Dhamma (dhamma-n.), e.g. the typical events
occurring in the lives of the Buddhas. (App.).
niyata-miccháditthi: 'wrong views
with fixed destiny', are the views of uncausedness of existence (ahetuka-ditthi),
of the inefficacy of action (akiriya-ditthi), and nihilism (natthika-ditthi).
For details, s. ditthi; and M. 60, Com. (WHEEL 98/99). - (App.)
niyata-puggala: a 'person with a
fixed destiny', may be either one who has committed one of the 5 'heinous deeds with
immediate result' (ánantarika-kamma, q.v.), or one who follows 'wrong views with
fixed destiny' (niyata-micchá-ditthi, q.v.), or one who has reached one of the 4
stages of holiness (s. ariya-puggala). About the latter cf. the frequent passage:
"Those disciples in whom the 3 fetters (of personality-belief, sceptical doubt and
attachment to mere rules and ritual; s. samyojana) have vanished, they all have
entered the stream, have forever escaped the states of woe; fixed is their destiny (niyata),
assured their final enlightenment."
noble abodes: s. vihára.
noble family, Passing from n.f.
to n.f.: kolankola; s. sotápaññá.
noble persons: ariya-puggala
noble power: ariya iddhi; s.
noble truths, the 4: ariya-sacca;
s. sacca. - The 2-fold knowledge of the n.t.; s. sacca-ñána.
noble usages, the 4: ariya-vamsa
is one of the 24 conditions (paccaya, q.v.).
non-violence: s. avihimsá.
not-self: s. anattá.
corporeality', designates the 4 primary elements (mahábhúta or dhátu), as
distinguished from the 'derived corporeality' (upádá-rúpa), such as the
sensitive organs, etc. Cf. khandha, I.
nutriment: s. ojá, áhára.
- áhára is one of the 24 conditions (paccaya, q.v.) - n.- produced
corporeality; s. samutthána.


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The Power of the Stop Shot (Part 2)
The Power of the Stop Shot (part 2 of 2)
In Part 1 of this 2-part series, we defined the stop shot and all its wonderful benefits. You learned to use the stop shot to calibrate your stroke, stop the cue ball, and control the slide in the early stages of position play. I promised you that once you were able to execute the stop shot from any distance at any speed, then you would always be able to predict which direction the cue ball is going. By now, I’m assuming you’ve had the opportunity to shoot hundreds, maybe thousands of stop shots. Have you mastered it yet? Are you able to consistently get that cue ball to slide and stop at the point of contact? If you’ve grasped the concept of a sliding cue ball then you’re ready for part 2.
In this lesson, we will use the same speed and tip position that we learned, to execute a stop shot, to cut shots. Before, when the shot was lined up straight in, the cue ball had nothing to do but to stop. It transferred 100% of its energy into the object ball. Now, if you apply that same speed and tip position to cause a sliding ball at the point of contact, you can predict which direction the cue ball will be traveling.
Where is Whitey Going?
As a basic rule of thumb, when the cue ball is sliding at the point of contact with the object ball, you can trust it will travel at an imaginary perpendicular line from the line of which the object ball is traveling.
This diagram illustrates the direction the cue ball slides when it contacts the object ball. Obviously, the more extreme the cut angle, the less energy the cue ball transfers to the object ball. Therefore, the cue ball will come off at a greater speed. To keep that cue ball on the perpendicular line while controlling the speed, the same theory applies that we used with the stop shot.
To achieve the same results, LOWER SPEED = LOWER TIP POSITION.
All position play begins with understanding the slide zone. When you know which direction the neutral cue ball is going, you can manipulate that line simply by aiming higher or lower. Aiming above center causes a rolling cue ball and moves the line forward, above perpendicular. Aiming lower to cause backspin brings the cue ball backward below the perpendicular line.
When you’re able to control the rock, not only does it mean you can play better position for your next shot, but think how handy it will be when you need to avoid a scratch or break out a group of balls. These fine points are what keep players from finishing a run out.
Things to Consider
- How clean are the balls? If the balls are dirty they will act as gears upon contact and cling together for a fraction of time before the cue ball slides on the perpendicular line. Likewise, if the balls are newly washed, they can become much more responsive. If the balls were just cleaned, you may want to aim a little higher than you would think or bring your speed down.
- How worn is the cloth? Slippery, new cloth will also make a surprising difference. When a table is freshly recovered, the cue ball tends to slide in place, even though it may be rolling. Therefore, this will shift the slide window. You’ll need to bring your speed down to achieve the desired results.
- Is the cue ball actually sliding at the point of contact? Playing with the Aramith Pro Cup Measle Cue Ball helps you see exactly where the cue ball is sliding at various speeds and distances. You can also easily identify if you’ve inadvertently hit too high or low based on the cue ball’s response after it contacts the object ball.
- Did you cheat the pocket? Object balls can still go in even if they don’t enter the center of the pocket. Whichever side of the pocket the object ball enters will shift the perpendicular line of the cue ball. This can be used to your advantage when you need to create more or less angle but always be specific with exactly where you intend to pocket the ball.
Understanding how to adjust your speed and tip position to manipulate the slide zone will help you predict the path of the cue ball.
The next time you’re in the mile high area and looking for a Denver billiard instructor, be sure to look me up.


A Short History of the Permanent Diaconate
THE EARLY CHURCH
Traditionally, the beginning of the order of deacons is traced back to the story in Acts of the Apostles, Acts 6: 1-6. Whether this pertains to the history of the ordained order of deacons as they developed in the early centuries of the church is in dispute, but it is very much in the spirit in which the diaconate was and has been understood ever since. Very early in the history of the church, deacons were understood to hold a special place in the community, along with bishops and presbyters. The role of all ordained ministries is to be modeled on the life of Christ, and that of deacons especially was and still is, that of Christ the servant. Perhaps the earliest reference to deacons in this sense (ca. 53 A.D.?) occurs in St. Paul's letter to the Philippians in which he addresses "all the saints in Christ Jesus who are at Philippi, with the bishops and deacons".
However, it would be a mistake to interpret the servant role too literally as one of "waiting on tables". One of the seven first deacons, Stephen, was stoned to death because of his bold preaching of the Gospel, Acts 6: 8-15, 7: 54-60 . He is the first recognized martyr of the church, and his feast day is celebrated on December 26. Of the remaining seven, those of whom we have historical knowledge, it is clear that their ministry also quickly broadened to preaching and spreading the Gospel message.
The deacon became the eyes and ears of the bishop, his "right hand man". The bishop's principal assistant became known as the "archdeacon", and was often charged with heavy responsibilities, especially in the financial administration of the local church, above all in distribution of funds and goods to the poor. One measure of the importance of the deacon in the early church is the number of deacons elected pope in the early Middle Ages. Of the thirty-seven men elected pope between 432 and 684 A.D., only three are known to have been ordained to priest before their election to the Chair of Peter. (Llewellyn)
During the first Christian millennium deacons undertook, as the bishops' assistants, the functions that are today those of the vicar general, the judicial vicar, the vicar capitular, the cathedral chapter and the oeconome, or finance officer. In current canon law these are almost exclusively priests' functions. (Galles)
John Collins, writing in Pastoral Review, has this to say about the meaning of "diakonia" as understood in the early church:
"Two final segments: firstly my description of the semantic character of diakon- as applied to deacons in the early church (from Appendix I, Diakonia, p. 337).
As is well known, Vatican II cited this “not unto the priesthood, but unto the ministry” in Lumen Gentium. Thus it was understood that deacons were ordained not for any specific set of duties for serving the needy but to serve the bishop in whatever set of duties he would determine. The circumstances today are, of course, far different than in the early church. The size and complexity of the modern diocese makes such an intimate relationship with the bishop impractical. Although deacons serve in a wide variety of settings, including hospitals and prisons, the focus for today's deacon is normally parish based. However, he retains the historical tie with his bishop, whose "servant" he remains. The major point we should take from a study of early church history and the witness of the early Fathers of the Church is that they acknowledge the importance of the diaconal ministry. Saint Ignatius of Antioch, about 100 AD, says that it would be impossible to have the Church without bishops, priests and deacons. He explains that their task was nothing less than to continue ‘the ministry of Jesus Christ'.
Beginning as early as the fifth century, there was a gradual decline in the permanent diaconate in the Latin church, although it remained, right to the present, a vital part of the Eastern churches, both Catholic and Orthodox. One important factor was simply a failure on the part of both presbyters and deacons to understand the unique value of the diaconate as a distinct order in its own right. Deacons with too much power were often self-important and proud. Presbyters, on their part, were resentful at the fact that often deacons had power over them! St. Jerome demanded to know why deacons had so much power – "After all, deacons could not preside at Eucharist, and presbyters were really the same as bishops". By the early middle ages, the diaconate was perceived largely as only an intermediate step toward the reception of ordination to the priesthood. It was this prevailing attitude of the "cursus honorum" that was most responsible for the decline of the diaconate. The "cursus honorum" was simply the attitude of "rising through the ranks", following a tradition of gradual promotion, inherited from practices of secular government of the Roman Empire. Most older Catholics will be familiar with the many levels of "minor orders" and "major orders". First came the liturgical rite of "tonsure" which conferred upon a man the status of "cleric", and made him eligible for ordination. Then came the minor orders of porter, lector, exorcist and acolyte. These were ordinations but they were not sacraments. Finally came the major orders of sub deacon, deacon and priest. Sub diaconate, although a major order, was not a sacrament. The sub deacon did not receive a stole. Deacon and priest were, of course, sacramental in character. The whole process is well illustrated in a drawing (thanks to Dr. William Ditewig):
"Then, in 1972, Paul VI, following the direction of Vatican II, issued Ministeria quaedam, which realigned these things for the Latin Rite. Tonsure was suppressed, and now a person becomes a cleric through SACRAMENTAL ORDINATION AS A DEACON; this was a change to a pattern of more than 1000 years standing! The Pope also suppressed the minor orders altogether, converting two of them into "lay" ministries no longer requiring ordination; he also suppressed the subdiaconate, shifting the promise of celibacy to the diaconate. That left only two orders, both sacraments, from the old schema. Since Vatican II itself had taught about the sacramental nature of the bishop, we wound up with the three-fold ordained ministry that we have now, all of which are conferred by ordination and all of which confer a sacramental "character." Finally, the three orders are further subdivided by those orders that are sacerdotal (bishop and presbyter) and the orders that are diaconal (bishop and deacon). Yes, right now, presbyters are also deacons because they were ordained transitional deacons on their way to the presbyterate, BUT, as Guiseppe points out, this could be easily changed, and many are arguing for that (it's not likely anytime soon, but the case still needs to be pushed!)" (Ditewig)
The time finally came during deliberations of the Second Vatican Council in 1963, calling for restoration of the diaconate as a permanent level of Holy Orders. In June 1967 Pope Paul VI implemented this decree of the Council when he published the Apostolic letter Diaconatus Ordinem, in which he re-established the permanent diaconate in the Latin Church. The Council in its Dogmatic Constitution on the Church (Lumen Gentium) returns to the roots of the diaconate which we have previously discussed, roots going back to the New Testament and the early church Fathers:
At a lower level of the hierarchy are deacons, upon whom hands are imposed "not unto the priesthood, but unto a ministry of service". For strengthened by sacramental grace, in communion with the bishop and his group of priests they serve in the diaconate of the liturgy, of the word, and of charity to the people of God. It is the duty of the deacon, according as it shall have been assigned to him by competent authority, to administer baptism solemnly, to be custodian and dispenser of the Eucharist, to assist at and bless marriages in the name of the Church, to bring Viaticum to the dying, to read the Sacred Scripture to the faithful, to instruct and exhort the people, to preside over the worship and prayer of the faithful, to administer sacramentals, to officiate at funeral and burial services. Dedicated to duties of charity and of administration, let deacons be mindful of the admonition of Blessed Polycarp: "Be merciful, diligent, walking according to the truth of the Lord, who became the servant of all." (Lumen Gentium para. 29)
And so we have come full circle. The permanent diaconate has proved to be a resounding success, growing at an astounding rate throughout the world, but nowhere so much as here in the United States. The theology of the diaconate has yet to be fully explored, but with the help of the Holy Spirit, it will mature.
An excellent selection of books dealing with both the history and theology of the diaconate is available from the National Association of Diaconate Directors, http://www.nadd.org/publications.html .
For an excellent recent (Nov. 2006) scholarly article dealing with the meaning of "diakonia" see http://www.thepastoralreview.org/cgi-bin/archive_db.cgi?priestsppl-00127 .


An end-stop occurs when a line of poetry ends with a period or definite punctuation mark, such as a colon. When lines are end-stopped, each line is its own phrase or unit of syntax. So when you read an end-stopped line, you'll naturally pause. In that sense, it's the opposite of enjambment, which will encourage you to move right along to the next line without pausing.
Bright Star, would I were as stedfast as thou art—
Not in lone splendor hung aloft the night,
And watching, with eternal lids apart,
Like nature's patient, sleepless Eremite,
See how the lines each have their own units of sense? And they each end in a punctuation mark that indicates a pause. These, Shmoopers, are end-stopped lines. In fact, "Bright Star" is mostly end-stopped, with only two examples of enjambment. Check out the poem, and see if you can find them.


Vinca is very drought-tolerant and has an extremely long blooming season. It can also tolerate the highest temperatures we face during the summer growing season.
Great improvements have been made in vinca flower colors and varieties during the past 25 years. In the 1980s, gardeners had few choices in terms of vinca growth habits, flower colors or disease resistance. In the 1990s, new forms and new flower colors arrived with rapid expansion occurring between 2000-2005.
Vinca flower colors now include pink, deep rose, red, blush, scarlet, white, white with a red eye, lavender blue, peach, apricot, orchid, burgundy and many others. You can have vinca varieties that are upright and vinca varieties that are spreading. Plants generally grow 18-20 inches tall with a spread of 12-14 inches. Spreading types, though, have more trailing or ground cover habits and reach only 6-8 inches tall (at the most) with spreads of 18-14 inches.
We do have vinca problems in the landscape, and based on the number of calls with vinca issues this spring, this is a bad year for vinca. This is surprising considering we now have disease-resistant varieties and we had a very dry spring and early summer.
The main disease culprit is a fungus called Phytophthora, which always is present in our soils. It is often responsible for root rots and crown rots, and it attacks many types of plants. This fungus causes a disease seen shortly after planting, but it also can be found later in the year.
Rhizoctonia is another disease common on vinca in Louisiana. It normally shows up in the summer after plants are established. Plant pathologists can also find Botrytis (gray mold) and Alternaria (leaf spot) on vinca in summer and fall.
To get the best performance out of vinca in your landscape, consider the following LSU AgCenter recommendations:
•Begin with good quality plants. Inspect plants obtained from the greenhouse grower or retail garden center for healthy roots.
•Select a full-sun location. Vinca need at least eight hours of direct sun daily for optimum performance.
•Properly prepare the landscape bed to allow for drainage and aeration. Raise the bed at least 6 inches if drainage is questionable. If beds are already established, all debris from the previous planting needs to be removed. Possibly, mulch should be removed also and add another couple inches of landscape soil prior to planting.
•Although late April through early May is the ideal first planting date for the spring, you can continue planting vinca through the summer. The main thing to remember is that vinca love warm soil.
•Plant so that the top of the root ball is level with or slightly higher than the soil of the bed. Proper spacing also is important because a crowded planting limits air circulation and can create conditions more favorable to disease development. Space transplants at least 8-10 inches apart. The more quickly plants grow together, the higher the likelihood of disease moving through foliage later in the year.
•Mulch to decrease splashing of rainfall and irrigation water from soil onto the lower stems and foliage of the plants. Bedding plants should be mulched to a depth of about 1 inch. Pine straw is the preferred mulch material.
•Manage irrigation properly. This is the main culprit in plant decline in commercial landscape beds. Vinca need very little irrigation once they’re established. Avoid regular overhead irrigation. Even if the landscape bed drains very well, an adequate volume once a week is the most water that should be applied.
•Don’t plant periwinkles in the same bed year after year. Rotate them with other summer bedding plants that like sunny locations, such as blue daze, lantana, pentas, angelonia, scaevola, verbena, melampodium or sun-tolerant coleus.
Varieties of vinca available in Louisiana include Pacifica, Cooler, Mediterranean, Victory, Titan, Nirvana and Cora series. Cooler and Pacifica are older varieties that still perform well with correct care. Mediterranean vincas spread and should be planted only in hanging baskets and containers. Titans have the largest flowers of all the vinca groups. The newer and more expensive Nirvana and Cora vincas have genetic resistance to Phytophthora. A few other vincas we have evaluated at the LSU AgCenter recently are not being sold in any significant quantities in Louisiana.
It is late in the bedding-plant season, but pay attention to vinca in landscapes. Are you noticing them looking good or looking bad? Try to figure out why a particular planting is performing well or not performing well. Vinca can have trouble through the summer and fall if proper practices are not followed, so consider the above options to improve your success.
For more information, contact Dr. Chris Robichaux, county agent/area horticulturist, St. Martin/Iberia Parishes, at 332-2181 or 369-4440.


Fans of Lake St. Clair's 420 square miles of water connecting Lake Erie and Lake Huron want to make it the sixth Great Lake. They should forget it.
At 26 miles long and 14 miles wide at its widest, this lake is important as a link and an established part of the Great Lakes waterway system. But a Great Lake? The notion makes no more sense than an effort four years ago to designate Lake Champlain, which lies between Vermont and New York, a Great Lake.
Leading the campaign to promote Lake St. Clair, a puddle in comparison with Lakes Superior, Michigan, Huron, Erie, and Ontario, are two members of the Macomb Water Quality Board. Their aims are as economic as ecological, as connected to sport fishing as to shipping, and to clean water as to biodiversity.
What's behind their petition to the Great Lakes Commission is money. Lake St. Clair's characterization as a “Great,” though it flies in the face of common sense, would entitle it to federal dollars allocated to the real Great Lakes for pollution and weed control, to save wetlands, correct contamination from runoff, and help get rid of noxious marine life such as the gobey and the zebra mussel brought in by foreign vessels.
But Lake St. Clair, because it connects Lake Erie and Lake Huron, may be entitled to some of this money anyway. If the lake is contaminated, if it harbors alien noxious species, they will be quick to spread to the Great Lakes. It is a key part of the system.
Is this money possible? Of course it is. The Great Lakes Commission last year set aside a half million dollars in federal funds to correct chronic pollution in Lake St. Clair.
It could use some of its allocations under the Great Lakes Legacy Act to keep conditions in Lake St. Clair comparable to those in the Great Lakes.
And if there is a reason to fix Lake St. Clair, surely it is easier for Congress to fix it than to see this relatively small body of water declared a Great Lake.
Michael J. Donahue, who heads the Great Lakes Commission, acknowledges that the commission staff has been calling St. Clair the sixth Great Lake for a while, if only to illustrate the importance of the whole water system.
But even he concedes that the name is not the issue, that what Lake St. Clair needs is some kind attention and some recognition because it “might be a lot more important, economically and ecologically, than the five Great Lakes.”
Maybe so, but there are not six Great Lakes, only five.


Christian parents should gather their families together each day for spiritual instruction and prayer. This opportuity must be seized when the children are young. Even a child of two will bow his head, and say "Amen" at the end of a prayer. This Catechism has been made available to help you teach your children the Word of God. Family worship might well include:
1. Two or three verses of a hymn
2. The reading of a few verses of Scripture
3. Catechism questions and answers
4. Prayer need not be tedious or long-winded
Encourage the children to pray. Use your imagination to make family worhsip attractive and interesting. The children will sometimes be ready to discuss the Catechism answers with you. They will enjoy looking up passages of scripture where the Catechism truths are found. Pray for the guidance and help of the Holy Spirit. God will honour you if you are faithful. Remember the promise, "Train up a child in the way he should go: and when he is old, he will not depart from it" (Proverbs 22:6).
1. Q. Who made you?
A. God made me (Gn 1:26, 27, 2:7; Eccl. 12:1; Acts 17:24-29).
2. Q. What else did God make?
A. God made all things (Gn 1, 31; Acts 14:15; Rom. 11:36; Col 1:16).
3. Q. Why did God make you and all things?
A. For his own glory (Ps 19:1; Jer 9:23, 24; Rv 4:11, 4:15).
4. Q. How can you glorify God?
A. By loving him and doing what he commands (Eccl. 12:13; Mk 12:29-31; John 15:8-10; 1 Cor 10:31).
5. Q. Why ought you to glorify God?
A. Because he made me and takes care of me (Rom. 11:36; Rv 4:11; cf. Dan 4:39).
6. Q. Are there more gods than one?
A. There is only one God (Deut 6:4; Jer 10:10; Mk 12:29; Acts 17:22-31).
7. Q. In how many persons does this one God exist?
A. In three persons (Mt 3:16, 17; John 5:23, 10:30, 14:9, 10, 15:26, 16:13-15; 1 John 5:20; 2 John 9; Rv 1:4, 5).
8. Q. Who are they?
A. The Father, the Son and the Holy Spirit (Mt 28:19; 2 Cor 13:14; 1 Pet 1:2; Jude 20, 21).
9. Q. Who is God?
A. God is a Spirit, and does not have a body like men (John 4:24; 2 Cor 3:17; 1 Tim 1:17).
10. Q. Where is God?
A. God is everywhere (Ps 139:7-12; Jer 23:23, 24; Acts 17:27, 28).
11. Q. Can you see God?
A. No. I cannot see God, but he always sees me (Ex 33:20; John 1:18; 1 Tim 6:16; Ps 139; Prov. 5:21; Heb. 4:12, 13).
12. Q. Does God know all things?
A. Yes. Nothing can be hidden from God (1 Chron 28:9; 2 Chron 16:9; Lk 12:6, 7; Rom. 2:16).
13. Q. Can God do all things?
A. Yes. God can do all his holy will (Ps 147:5; Jer 32:17; Dan 4:34, 35; Eph 1:11).
14. Q. Where do you learn how to love and obey God?
A. In the Bible alone (Job 11:7; Ps 119:104; Is 8:20; Mt 22:29; 2 Tim 3:15-17).
15. Q. Who wrote the Bible?
A. Holy men who were taught by the Holy Spirit (2 Pet 1:20, 21; Acts 1:16; 2 Tim 3:16; 1 Pet 1:10, 11).
16. Q. Who were our first parents?
A. Adam and Eve (Gn 2:18-25, 3:20, 5:1, 2; Acts 17:26; 1 Tim 2:13).
17. Q. Of what were our first parents made?
A. God made the body of Adam out of the ground, and formed Eve from the body of Adam (Gn 2:7, 21-23, 3:19; Ps 103:14).
18. Q. What did God give Adam and Eve besides bodies?
A. He gave them the breath of life and they became living souls (Gen. 2:7; Job 33:4; Eccl 12:7; Zech 12:1).
19. Q. Have you a soul as well as a body?
A. A soul is not something a person has, it is the person. Man was not given a soul, but rather he became a soul. (Gen. 2:7; Mk 8:34-37, 12:30).
20. Q. Can a soul die?
A. Yes. The soul that continues in sin shall die. (Ezek. 18:20; Mt 10:28; Mk 8:34-37).
21. Q. What is your soul?
A. My soul includes all of me that should know and love God (Mk 8:34-38; Eph. 3:16-19).
22. Q. In what condition did God make Adam and Eve?
A. He made them holy and happy (Gn 1:26-28; Ps 8:4-8).
23. Q. Did Adam and Eve stay holy and happy?
A. No. They sinned against God (Gn 3:1-7; Eccl 7:29; Hos 6:7 where "men~~ = Adam). 24.
24. Q. What was the sin of our first parents?
A. Eating the forbidden fruit (Gn 2:16, 17, 3:6).
25. Q. Why did they eat the forbidden fruit?
A. Because they did not believe what God had said (Gn 3:1-6; cf. Heb. 11:6).
26. Q. Who tempted them to this sin?
A. The devil tempted Eve, and she gave the fruit to Adam (Gn 3:1-13; 2 Cor 11:3; 1 Tim 2:13, 14; cf. Rv 12:9).
27. Q. What happened to our first parents when they had sinned?
A. Instead of being holy and happy, they became sinful and miserable (Gn 3:14-24, 4:1-24; James 1:14, 15).
28. Q. What effect did the sin of Adam have on all mankind?
A. All mankind is born in a state of sin and misery (Ps. 5 1:5; Rom. 5:12, 18, 19; 1 Cor 15:21, 22; 1 John 5:19).
29. Q. What do we inherit from Adam as a result of this original sin?
A. A sinful nature (1 Kings 8:46; Ps 14:2, 3, 58:3; Eccl 9:3; Mt 15:18-20; John 2:24, 25; Rom. 8:7).
30. Q. What is sin?
A. Sin is any transgression of the law of God (1 John 3:4; Rom. 3:20; James 2:9-11).
31. Q. What is meant by transgression?
A. Doing what God forbids (1 Sam 13:8-14, 15:22, 23; Hos 6:7; Rom. 1:21-32).
32. Q. What does every sin deserve?
A. The anger and judgment of God (Deut 27:26; Rom. 1:18, 2:2; Gal 3:10; Eph 5:6).
33. Q. Do we know what God requires of us?
A. Yes, he has given us his law both in our hearts and in writing (Rom. 2:14-15).
34. Q. How many commandments did God give on Mt. Sinai?
A. Ten commandments (Ex 20:1-17; Deut 5:1-22).
35. Q. What are the ten commandments sometimes called?
A. God's moral law (Lk 20:25-28; Rom. 2:14, 15, 10:5).
36. Q. What do the first four commandments teach?
A. Our duty to God (Deut 6:5, 6, 10:12, 13).
37. Q. What do the last six commandments teach?
A. Our duty to our fellow men (Deut 10:19; Mic 6:8; cf. Gal. 6:10).
38. Q. What is the sum of the ten commandments?
A. To love God with all my heart, and my neighbor as myself (Deut 6:1-15; 11:1; Mt 22:35-40; James 2:8).
39. Q. Who is your neigHeb.or?
A. All my fellow men are my neighbors (Lk 10:25-37, 6:35).
40. Q. Is God pleased with those who love and obey him?
A. Yes. He says, 'I love them that love me' (Prov. 8:17; Ex 20:6; 1 John 4:7-16).
41. Q. Is God pleased with those who do not love and obey him?
A. No. 'God is angry with the wicked every day' (Ps 7:11; Mal 2:17; Prov. 6:16-19; 1 Cor 16:22).
42. Q. What is the first commandment?
A. The first commandment is, You shall have no other gods before Me (Ex 20:3; Deut 5:7).
43. Q. What does the first commandment teach us?
A. To worship God only (Is 45:5, 6; Mt 4:10; Rv 22:8, 9).
44. Q. What is the second commandment?
A. The second commandment is, You shall not make for yourself [a]an idol, or any likeness of what is in heaven above or on the earth beneath or in the water under the earth. You shall not worship them or serve them; for I, the LORD your God, am a jealous God, visiting the iniquity of the fathers on the children, on the third and the fourth generations of those who hate Me, but showing lovingkindness to thousands, to those who love Me and keep My commandments (Ex 20:4-6; Deut 5:8-10).
45. Q. What does the second commandment teach us?
A. To worship God in the right way, and to avoid idolatry (Is 44:9-20, 46:5-9; John 4:23, 24; Acts 17:29).
46. Q. What is the third commandment?
A. The third commandment is, Thou shalt not take the name of the Lord thy God in vain; for the Lord will not hold him guiltless that taketh his name in vain (Ex 20:7; Deut 5:11).
47. Q. What does the third commandment teach us?
A. To reverence God's name, word, and works (Is 8:13; Ps 29:2, 138:2; Rv 15:3, 4).
48. Q. What is the fourth commandment?
A. The fourth commandment is, Remember the Sabbath day to keep it holy. Six days shalt thou labour, and do all thy work: but the seventh day is the Sabbath of the Lord thy God: in it thou shalt not do any work, thou nor thy son, nor thy daughter, nor thy man-servant, nor thy maidservant, nor thy cattle, nor thy stranger that is within thy gates: for in six days the Lord made heaven and earth, the sea, and all that in them is, and rested the seventh day: wherefore the Lord blessed the Sabbath day, and hallowed it (Ex 20:8-11, 23:12; Deut 5:12-15).
49. Q. What does the fourth commandment teach us?
A. To keep the Sabbath holy (Lv 19:20, 23:3; Is 58:13, 14).
50. Q. What day of the week is the Christian Sabbath?
A. The first day of the week, called the Lord's Day (Acts 20:7; Rv 1:10).
51. Q. Why is it called the Lord's Day?
A. Because on that day Christ rose from the dead (Mt 28:1; Mk 16:9; Lk 24:1-6; John 20:1).
52. Q. How should the Sabbath be kept?
A. In prayer and praise, in hearing and reading God's Word, and in doing good to our fellow men (Is 58:13, 14; Acts 20:7; 1 Cor. 16:2; Lk 4:16; Mt 12:10-13).
53. Q. What is the fifth commandment?
A. The fifth commandment is, Honor thy father and thy mother that thy days may be long upon the land which the Lord thy God giveth thee (Ex 20:12; Deut 5:16).
54. Q. What does the fifth commandment teach us?
A. To love and obey our parents (Mt 15:3-6; Eph. 6:1-3; Col. 3:20).
55. Q. What is the sixth commandment?
A. The sixth commandment is, Thou shalt not kill (Ex 20:13; Deut 5:17)
56. Q. What does the sixth commandment teach us?
A. To avoid hatred, all that leads to it, and all that follows from it. (Mt 5:21-24; 1 John 3:15; James 4:1-3).
57. Q. What is the seventh commandment?
A. The seventh commandment is, Thou shalt not commit adultery (Ex 20:14; Deut 5:18).
58. Q. What does the seventh commandment teach us?
A. To be pure in heart, language and conduct (Mt 5:27, 28; Eph. 5:3-5; Phil. 4:8, 9).
59. Q. What is the eighth commandment?
A. The eighth commandment is, Thou shalt not steal (Ex 20:15; Deut 5:19).
60. Q. What does the eighth commandment teach us?
A. To be honest and not to take the things of others (Ex 23:4; Prov. 21:6, 7; Eph. 4:28).
61. Q. What is the ninth commandment?
A. The ninth commandment is, Thou shalt not bear false witness against thy neigHeb.or (Ex 20:16; Deut 5:20).
62. Q. What does the ninth commandment teach us?
A. To tell the truth and not to speak evil of others (Ps 15:1-3; Zech 8:16; 1 Cor 13:6; James 4:11).
63. Q. What is the tenth commandment?
A. The tenth commandment is, Thou shalt not covet thy neigHeb.or's house, thou shalt not covet thy neigHeb.or's wife, nor his manservant, nor his maidservant, nor his ox, nor his ass, nor any thing that is thy neigHeb.or's (Ex 20:17; Deut 5:21; Rom. 7:7).
64. Q. What does the tenth commandment teach us?
A. To be content with what we have (Phil 4:11; 1 Tim 6:6-8; Heb. 13:5).
65. Q. Can any man keep these ten commandments?
A. No mere man, since the fall of Adam, ever did or can keep the ten commandments perfectly (Prov. 20:9; Eccl. 7:20; Rom. 3:19, 20; James 2:10; 1 John 1:8, 10).
66. Q. Of what use are the ten commandments to us?
A. They teach us our duty, make clear our condemnation, and show us our need of a Saviour (1 Tim 1:8-11; Rom. 3:20; Gal 3:24).
67. Q. Does God condemn all men?
A. No. Though he could justly have done so he has graciously entered into a covenant to save many (Rom. 3:19, 20, 23-25; John 17:11, 12; Is 53:11).
68. Q. What is a covenant?
A. A covenant is an agreement between two or more persons (e.g., 1 Sam 18:3; Mt 26:14, 15).
69. Q. What is the covenant of grace?
A. It is an eternal agreement within the Trinity to save certain persons called the elect, and to provide all the means for their salvation (Gn 17:1-8; Rom. 11:27; Heb. 10:16, 11; 13:20, 21; Jer 31:31-34; Ez 36:25-28).
70. Q. What did Christ undertake in the covenant of grace?
A. Christ undertook to keep the whole law for his people, and to suffer the punishment due to their sins (Rom 8:3, 4; Gal 4:4, 5; Heb. 6:17-20, 7:22, 9:14, 15, 13:20, 21).
71. Q. Did our Lord Jesus Christ ever sin?
A. No. He was holy, blameless and undefiled (Heb. 7:26; Lk 23:47; Heb. 4:15; 1 Pet 2:22; 1 John 3:5).
72. Q. How could the Son of God suffer?
A. Christ, the Son of God, took flesh and blood, that he might obey and suffer as a man (John 1:14; Rom. 8:3; Gal 4:4; Phil 2:7, 8; Heb. 2:14, 17, 4:15).
73. Q. What is meant by the atonement?
A. The atonement consists of Christ's satisfying divine justice, by his sufferings and death, in the place of sinners (Mk 10:45; Acts 13:38, 39; Rom. 3:24-26, 5:8, 9; 2 Cor 5:19-21; Gal 3:13; 1 Pet 3:18).
74. Q. For whom did Christ obey and suffer?
A. Christ obeyed and suffered for those whom the Father had given him (Is 53:8; Mt 1:21; John 10:11, 15, 16, 26-29, 17:9; Heb. 2:13).
75. Q. What kind of life did Christ live on earth?
A. Christ lived a life of perfect obedience to the law of God (Mt 5:17; Rom. 10:4; 1 Pet 2:21, 22).
76. Q. What kind of death did Christ die?
A. Christ experienced the painful and shameful death of the cross (Ps 22; Is 53; Gospel records).
77. Q. Who will be saved?
A. Only those who repent of sin and believe in Christ will be saved (Mk 1:15; Lk 13:3,5; Acts 2:37-41, 16:30, 31, 20:21, 26:20).
78. Q. What is it to repent?
A. Repentance involves sorrow for sin, leading one to hate and forsake it because it is displeasing to God (Lk 19:8-10; Rom. 6:1, 2; 2 Cor 7:9-11; 1 Thess. 1:9, 10).
79. Q. What is it to believe in Christ?
A. A person believes who knows that his only hope is Christ and trusts in Christ alone for salvation (John 14:6; Acts 4:12; 1 Tim 2:5; 1 John 5:11, 12).
80. Q. How were godly persons saved before the coming of Christ?
A. They believed in the Saviour to come (John 8:56; Gal 3:8, 9; 1 Cor 10:1-4; Heb. 9:15, 11:13).
81. Q. How did they show their faith?
A. They offered sacrifices according to God's commands (Ex 24:3-8; 1 Chron 29:20-25; Heb. 9:19-23, 10:1, 11:28).
82. Q. What did these sacrifices represent?
A. They were symbolic of Christ, the Lamb of God, who was to die for sinners (Ex 12:46 cf. John 19:36; Heb. 9, Heb. 10; John 1:29; 1 Cor 5:7; 1 Pet 1:19).
83. Q. What does Christ do for his people?
A. He does the work of a prophet, a priest and a king (Heb. 1:1-3; Rv 1:5; Mt 13:57; Heb. 5:5-10; John 18:37).
84. Q. How is Christ a prophet?
A. He teaches us the will of God, reveals God to us, and really was God in human flesh. (Deut 18:15, 18; John 1:18, 4:25, 14:23, 24; 1 John 5:20).
85. Q. Why do you need Christ as a prophet?
A. Because I am ignorant (Job 11:7; Mt 11:25-27; John 6:67-69, 17:25, 26; 1 Cor 2:14-16; 2 Cor 4:3-6).
86. Q. How is Christ a priest?
A. He died for our sins and prays to God for us (Ps 110:4; 1 Tim 2:5, 6; Heb. 4:14-16, 7:24, 25; 1 John 2:1, 2).
87. Q. Why do you need Christ as a priest?
A. Because I am guilty (Prov. 20:9; Eccl. 7:20; Rom. 3:19-23; Heb. 10:14, 27, 28; 1 John 1:8, 9).
88. Q. How is Christ a king?
A. He rules over us and defends us (Ps 2:6-9; Mt 28:18-20; Eph 1:19-23; Col 1:13, 18; Rv 15:3, 4).
89. Q. Why do you need Christ as a king?
A. Because I am weak and helpless (John 15:4, 5; 2 Cor 12:9; Phil 4:13; Col 1:11; Jude 24, 25).
90. Q. What did God the Father undertake in the covenant of grace?
A. By His goodness and mercy, God the Father elected, and deteRom.ined to justify, adopt and sanctify those for whom Christ should die (Ex 33:18, 19; Eph 1:3-5; Rom. 8:29-33; Gal 4:4-7; Heb. 10:9, 10; 1 Cor 1:8, 9; Phil 1:6; 1 Thess. 4:3, 7, 5:23, 24).
91. Q. What is election?
A. It is God's goodness as revealed in his grace by choosing certain sinners for salvation (Eph 1:3, 4; 1 Thess. 1:4; 1 Pet 1:1, 2).
92. Q. What is justification?
A. It is God's regarding sinners as if they had never sinned and granting them righteousness (Zech 3:1-5; Rom. 3:24-26, 4:5, 5:17-19, 8:33; 2 Cor 5:21; Heb. 8:12; Phil. 3:9).
93. Q. What is righteousness?
A. It is God's goodness as revealed in his law, and as honored in Christ's perfect obedience to that law. (Ex 33:19, 34:6; Ps 33:5; Hos 3:5; Rom. 11:22).
94. Q. Can anyone be saved by his own righteousness?
A. No. No one is good enough for God (Prov. 20:9; Eccl. 7:20; Rom. 3:10-23; Eph. 2:8-10; Phil. 3:8, 9).
95. Q. What is adoption?
A. It is God's goodness in receiving sinful rebels as his beloved children (John 1:12; Eph. 1:5; Eph. 5:1; Gal 4:7, 31; 1 John 3:1-3).
96. Q. What is sanctification?
A. In sanctification God makes sinners holy in heart and conduct so that they will demonstrate his goodness in their lives (John 17:17; Eph. 2:10, 4:22-24; Phil. 2:12-13; 1 Thess. 5:23).
97. Q. Is this process of sanctification ever complete in this life?
A. No. It is certain and continual, but is complete only in heaven (Phil. 3:12-15; 2 Pet 1:4-8; 1 John 3:1-3).
98. Q. What hinders the completion of sanctification in this life?
A. The Scripture says "The flesh lusts against the Spirit so that you cannot do the things you would" (Gal. 5:17).
99. Q. Since we are by nature sinful, how can one ever desire to be holy and to gain heaven where God lives?
A. Our hearts must be changed before we can be fit for heaven (Eph. 4:17-24; Col 3:5-12).
100. Q. Who can change a sinner s heart?
A. Only the Holy Spirit can change a sinner's heart. (John 3:3; Rom. 8:6-11; 1 Cor 2:9-14; 2 Thess. 2:13, 14; Titus 3:5-6).
101. Q. What did the Holy Spirit undertake in the covenant of
A. He regenerates, baptizes, and seals those for whom Christ has died (Eph. 2:1-8; 1 Cor 12:13; Eph. 1:13, 14; Eph. 4:30; 2 Cor 1:22).
102. Q. What is regeneration?
A. It is a change of heart that leads to true repentance and faith (Gal 5:22; Eph. 2:5-8; 2 Thess. 2:13).
103. Q. Can you repent and believe in Christ by your own power?
A. No. I can do nothing good without God's Holy Spirit (John 3:5, 6, 6:44; Rom. 8:2, 5, 8-11; 1 Cor 2:9-14; Gal 5:17, 18; Eph. 2:4-6).
104. Q. How does the Holy Spirit baptize believers?
A. He puts them into the body of Christ by making them a living part of all those who truly believe in Him (1 Cor 12).
105. Q. How does the Holy Spirit seal believers?
A. He comes to live within them to guarantee that they will receive the wonders God has promised those who love Him (Rom. 8:9-11; Eph. 1:13, 14; Eph. 4:30; 2 Tim 1:9; 2 Cor 1:22).
106. Q. How can you receive the Holy Spirit?
A. God has told us that we must pray to him for the Holy Spirit (Lk 11:9-13; John 4:10, 16:24); but the evidence of His presence is seen most clearly in our trusting and loving the Lord Jesus Christ. (Lk 12:8-10; John 3:3-5, 16, 20, 21, 14:17-21; 1 Cor 12:3; 1 Pet 1:2; 1 John 5:6-12). Part 117
107. Q. What is prayer?
A. Prayer is talking with God (Gn 17:22, 18:33; Neh 1:4-11, 2:4; Mt 6:6; Rom. 8:26, 27).
108. Q. In whose name should we pray?
A. We should pray in the name of the Lord Jesus (John 14:13, 14, 16:23, 24; Heb. 4:14-16).
109. Q. What has Christ given to teach us how to pray?
A. The Lord's Prayer (Mt 6:5-15; Lk 11:1-13).
110. Q. Can you repeat the Lord's Prayer?
A. "Our Father who is in heaven, Hallowed be Your name. Your kingdom come. Your will be done, On earth as it is in heaven. Give us this day our daily bread. And forgive us our debts, as we also have forgiven our debtors. And do not lead us into temptation, but deliver us from evil."
111. Q. How many petitions are there in the Lord's Prayer?
112. Q. What is the first petition?
A. "Hallowed be thy name" (Mt 6:9; Lk 11:2).
113. Q. What do we pray for in the first petition?
A. That God's name may be honored by us and all men (Ps 8:1, 72:17-19, 113:1-3, 145:21; Is 8:13).
114. Q. What is the second petition?
A. "Thy kingdom come" (Mt 6:10; Lk 11:2).
115. Q. What do we pray for in the second petition?
A. That the gospel may be preached in all the world, and believed and obeyed by us and all men (Mt 28:19, 20; John 17:20, 21; Acts 8:12, 28:30, 31; 2 Thess. 3:1).
116. Q. What is the third petition?
A. "Thy will be done in earth, as it is in heaven" (Mt 6:10; Lk 11:2).
117. Q. What do we pray for in the third petition?
A. That men on earth may serve God as the angels do in Heaven (Ps 67, 103:19-22; John 9:31; Rv 4:11).
118. Q. What is the fourth petition?
A. "Give us this day our daily bread" (Mt 6:11; Lk 11:3).
119. Q. What do we pray for in the fourth petition?
A. That God will give us all things needful for our bodies (Ps 145:15, 16; Prov. 30:8, 9; 1 Tim 4:4, 5).
120. Q. What is the fifth petition?
A. 'And forgive us our trespasses, as we forgive them that trespass against us" (Mt 6:12; Lk 11:4).
121. Q. What do we pray for in the fifth petition?
A. That God will pardon our sins, and help those who have sinned against us (Ps 51: Mt 5:23, 1 John 4:20, 21). us to forgive 24; 18:21-35;
122. Q. What is the sixth petition?
A. 'And lead us not into temptation, but deliver us from evil" (Mt 6:13; Lk 11:4).
123. Q. What do we pray for in the sixth petition?
A. That God will keep us from sin (1 Chron 4:10; Ps 119:11; Mt 26:41).
124. Q. How does the Holy Spirit bring us to salvation?
A. He uses the Bible, which is the Word of God (1 Thess. 1:5, 6, 2:13; 2 Tim 3:15, 16; James 1:18; 1 Pet 1:22, 23).
125. Q. How can we know the Word of God?
A. We are commanded to hear, read and search the Scriptures (1 Pet 2:2; Rv 3:22; Mt 21:42, 22:29; 2 Tim 3:14-17).
126. Q. What is a church?
A. A church is an assembly of baptized believers joined by a covenant of discipline and witness who meet together regularly to minister to one another that they might grow "in the grace and knowledge of the Lord" (Mt 18:20; Acts 2:42).
127. Q. What two ordinances did Christ give to his Church?
A. Baptism and the Lord's Supper (Mt 28:19; 1 Cor 11:24-26).
128 Q. Why Did Christ give these ordinances?
A. To show that his disciples belong to him, and to remind them of what he has done for them (Mt 28:19; 1 Cor 11:24-26)
129. Q. What is Baptism?
A. The dipping of believers into water, as a sign of their union with Christ in his death, burial, and resurrection (John 3:23; Acts 2:41, 8:12, 35-38; Col 2:12).
130. Q. What is the purpose of baptism?
A. Baptism testifies to believers that God has cleansed them from their sins through Jesus Christ (Acts 22:16; Col 2:11-14).
131. Q. Who are to be baptized?
A. Only those who repent of their sins, and believe in Christ for salvation should be baptized (Acts 2:37-41, 8:12, 18:8, 19:4, 5).
132. Q. Should babies be baptized?
A. No; because the Bible neither commands it, nor gives any example of it.
133. Q. What is the Lord's Supper?
A. At the Lord's Supper, the church eats bread and drinks wine to remember the sufferings and death of Christ (Mk 14:22-24; 1 Cor 11:23-29).
134. Q. What does the bread represent?
A. The bread represents the body of Christ, broken for our sins (Mt 26:26; 1 Cor 11:24).
135. Q. What does the wine represent?
A. The wine represents the blood of Christ, shed for our salvation (Mt 26:27, 28; 1 Cor 11:25).
136. Q. Who should partake of the Lord's Supper?
A. The Lord's Supper is for those only who repent of their sins, believe in Christ for salvation, receive baptism, and love their fellow men (Mt 5:21-24; 1 Cor 10:16, 17, 11:18, 20, 27-33; 1 John 3:24-27, 4:9-11).
137. Q. Did Christ remain in the tomb after his crucifixion?
A. No. He rose from the tomb on the third day after his death (Lk 24:45-47; 1 Cor 15:3, 4).
138. Q. Where is Christ now?
A. Christ is in heaven, seated at the right hand of God the Father (Rom. 8:34; Col 3:1; Heb. 1:3, 10:12, 12:2).
139. Q. Will the bodies of the dead be raised to life again?
A. Yes. 'There shall be a resurrection of the dead, both of the faithful and unfaithful' (Acts 24:14, 15; John 5:28, 29; 1 Corinthians 15:54-57; Dan 12:2).
140. Q. What will happen to the wicked in the day of judgment?
A. They shall perish and be destroyed in the Lake of Fire which is the second death (Psalm 1:6 Psalm 145:20; John 3:16; Ps 9:16, 17; Lk 12:5; Rom. 2:8, 9, 12; 2 Thess. 1: 9; Rv 20:12-15).
141. Q. What will happen to the righteous in the day of judgement?
A. They shall receive eternal life and live with God forever (John 3:16; John 12:25; Rom. 2:8, 9, 12; 1 Thess. 4:17; Rv 21:3-4).
142. Q. In light of these truths, what should you do?
A. I should cry out to God for mercy, repent of sin and believe savingly in the Lord Jesus Christ (Lk 13:23, 24; John 6:27; Acts 16:31).


Some individuals with disabilities require assistive technology (AT) in order to access computers. Hundreds of Windows AT third-party products are available, making it possible for almost anyone to use Windows® applications, regardless of their disabilities. The Microsoft® Windows® operating systems also provides a core set of basic accessibility features and AT applications, which can be deployed on all computers in a computer lab or classroom without additional cost. These applications provide students with basic accessibility features from any workstation, maximizing the inclusiveness of the learning environment.
It should be noted that the AT applications that are bundled with Windows provide only a minimum level of accessibility, not the full set of features that many users require for equal access to the operating system, educational programs, and other software applications. Therefore, many educational entities deploy the standard set of Windows AT on all workstations by default, but additionally 1) provide a small number of dedicated workstations that are equipped with commonly requested third party AT, and 2) are prepared to purchase and install additional AT as needed by specific students.
It should also be noted that the availability of AT does not itself guarantee accessibility. Software applications must be designed in a way that is compatible with AT and other accessibility features of the operating system. For information about purchasing software products that are accessible, see the AccessIT Knowledge Base article How can I tell whether a software application is accessible?
The following is a list of basic accessibility features that are included with Windows XP. Previous versions of Windows also included several of these same features.
Display and Readability:
These features are designed to increase the visibility of items on the screen.
- Font style, color, and size of items on the desktop—using the Display options, choose font color, size and style combinations.
- Icon size—make icons larger for visibility, or smaller for increased screen space.
- Screen resolution—change pixel count to enlarge objects on screen.
- High contrast schemes—select color combinations that are easier to see.
- Cursor width and blink rate—make the cursor easier to locate, or eliminate the distraction of its blinking.
- Microsoft Magnifier—enlarge portion of screen for better visibility.
Sounds and Speech:
These features are designed to make computer sounds easier to hear or distinguish - or, visual alternatives to sound. Speech-to-text options are also available.
- Sound Volume—turn computer sound up or down.
- Sound Schemes—associate computer sounds with particular system events.
- ShowSounds—display captions for speech and sounds.
- SoundSentry—display visual warnings for system sounds.
- Notification—Get sound or visual cues when accessibility features are turned on or off.
- Text-to-Speech—Hear window command options and text read aloud.
Keyboard and Mouse:
These features are designed to make the keyboard and mouse faster and easier to use.
- Double-Click Speed—choose how fast to click the mouse button to make a selection.
- ClickLock—highlight or drag without holding down the mouse button.
- Pointer Speed—set how fast the mouse pointer moves on screen.
- SnapTo—move the pointer to the default button in a dialog box.
- Cursor Blink Rate—choose how fast the cursor blinks—or, if it blinks at all.
- Pointer Trails—follow the pointer motion on screen.
- Hide Pointer While Typing—keep pointer from hiding text while typing.
- Show Location of Pointer—quickly reveal the pointer on screen.
- Reverse the function of the right and left mouse buttons—reverse actions controlled by the right and left mouse buttons.
- Pointer schemes—choose size and color options for better visibility.
- Character Repeat Rate—set how quickly a character repeats when a key is struck.
- Dvorak Keyboard Layout—choose alternative keyboard layouts for people who type with one hand or finger.
- StickyKeys—allow pressing one key at a time (rather than simultaneously) for key combinations.
- FilterKeys—ignore brief or repeated keystrokes and slow down the repeat rate.
- ToggleKeys—hear tones when pressing certain keys.
- MouseKeys—move the mouse pointer using the numerical keypad.
- Extra Keyboard Help—get ToolTips or other keyboard help in programs that provide it.
The Accessibility Wizard is designed to help new users quickly and easily set up groups of accessibility options that address visual, hearing and dexterity needs all in one place. The Accessibility Wizard asks questions about accessibility needs. Then, based on the answers, it configures utilities and settings for individual users. The Accessibility Wizard can be run again at any time to make changes, or changes can be made to individual settings through Control Panel.
Windows Accessibility Utilities:
- Magnifier—a display utility that makes the computer screen more readable by creating a separate window that displays a magnified portion of the screen.
- Narrator—a text-to-speech utility that reads what is displayed on the screen—the contents of the active window, menu options, or text that has been typed.
- On-Screen Keyboard—displays a virtual keyboard on the computer screen that allows people to type data by using a pointing device or joystick.
- Utility Manager—enables administrator-level users to check an accessibility program's status and start or stop an accessibility programs—automatically, if required.
- Speech Recognition—Vista and newer versions of the OS have built-in speech recognition
For more information about how to access these features and utilities in Windows products visit Microsoft's website Windows Accessibility Resources .
For a comparison of accessibility features across operating systems, see the AccessIT Knowledge Base article How does accessibility differ across operating systems?
-  How can I tell whether a software application is accessible?
-  Windows Accessibility Resources
-  How does accessibility differ across operating systems?


Latiné loqui disce sine molestiá!
Learn to speak Latin with ease! ¡Aprende a hablar latín sin esfuerzo!
Apprenez à parler latin sans peine! Impara a parlare latino senza sforzo! Lernen Sie latein zu sprechen ohne Mühe!
you will need to have the following font installed on your system:
Maybe this font can be downloaded for free from the Internet.
The alphabet used by the Romans of the classical period consisted of the following letters:
A B C D E F G H I K L M N O P Q R S T V X Y Z
It is basically the same alphabet as is still used today by a majority of languages in the world. The ancient Romans already observed a functional difference between the standard I and a more elongated alternative, which would later became J, but didnt conceive of a meaningful distinction between V and U, as was later established, nor did they use other variants like Ç, Ñ or W.
The Romans of the classical period had several styles to write the above letters, greatly depending on the materials used to write. As is true for most scripts, nevertheless, these styles can be grouped into two distinct ones.
There is a formal one, that we now call capitális, that was used on monuments, legal documents, public announcements, books for sale, jewelery, and in general whenever the text was meant to endure and might even have some sort of ornamental value. We can see it below used on stone, bronze, plastered walls, papyrus or, later on, parchment, and on many other surfaces and objects.
There was a second style, the informal one, that we now call cursíva, that was used for everyday transactions with no ornamental value. This is less well known to most people, because of the precarious nature of the materials on which it was used and the lesser artistic value of the objects where we find it; but it was in fact the main style most Romans would have used in their practical lives. We can see it below on waxen or wooden tablets, wall graffiti or bone, and was used on many similar surfaces.
In time there developed a third style, the unciális, which is just a smaller version of the capitális with some strong influence of the cursíva.
The shapes of the letters of the capitális style are practically identical with our present capitals, whereas the cursíva may have influenced the evolution of the former into the unciális, a smaller version which is in turn the predecessor of our lower case characters; but it is important to understand that, in Roman times, the difference between the capitális and the cursíva, or even the later unciális, was not at all comparable to the difference we now make between capitals and lower case when we use capitals at the beginning of some words, or for titles, in texts otherwise written in lower case.
They were just different styles to write the same single case of letters, and were equivalent rather to the duality that exists between our printing and our handwritten letters. They would of course not have been mixed in any one piece of writing, as we would not type some letters and write others by hand within the same text, let alone the same word.
Just like the Arabs or the Japanese, therefore, in spite of a variety of writing styles, the Romans didnt either have an equivalent to our meaningful alternation between capitals and lower case within the same piece of writing in any of them, nor did they write any differently the first letter of a sentence or proper name and the rest.
The Romans, in order to save space, given the high cost of most of the materials they wrote on, used the so called ligátúræ, i.e. groupings of letters written as a cluster by sharing a common stroke. There were many of them: AE could be found as Æ, and similarly AN, TR, VM and many others could appear fused together in groups of two, three and even more letters.
The Romans had only two diacritics, and they didnt use any of the two with any regularity.
The Romans would often write without even separating the words with spaces, as we have seen above in several instances. Moreover, they certainly never distinguished sentences or phrases using commas, semicolons, colons or stops, neither did they know of question or exclamation marks, brackets, inverted commas or any other diacritic we are used to. In fact, the only sign they used, and only in the more elegant writings, like monumental ones, was a dot they used not as final stop, but to separate single words. We have also seen this on the inscriptions above. This dot could sometimes take more sophisticated shapes, as a little ivy leaf, for instance, as below.
The Romans of the most sophisticated period of classical culture used, as much in monumental writing as in more domestic texts, a sign called apex, identical to what we nowadays know as acute accent ( ´ ). This sign, nevertheless, was not used to indicate the accent or stress in the word as in a minute number of modern vernaculars, but to mark long vowels (see the file on pronunciation), as is still done today in languages like Icelandic, Hungarian, Czech and many others.
Latin spelling nowadays
It is obvious that the writing practices of the Romans of the classical period were rather primitive in comparison with present ones. Some people believe for that reason that our spelling habits are vernacular, and therefore somehow spurious and artificially imposed on Latin subsequently. They forget that most of our spelling customs are the natural development of Roman practices and were organically furthered throughout history by people who spoke and wrote in Latin, in order to achieve greater clarity and distinction when reading and writing Latin itself, not the vernacular languages; and these usages passed on from Latin to the vernaculars, and not the other way around.
The ancient difference in shape between a shorter and a more elongated I (i/j), the latter of which, already in antiquity, was frequently used in the cursiva in word-initial position, often corresponding to the consonantal sound, as can be seen in the illustrations above, was formalised in later periods for this useful function specifically, thus allowing for complete transparency as regards the difference in pronunciation between the first sound in janua and in iambus, or in meaning between forms like perjerat and perierat. The previously meaningless difference between the pointed V of the capitalis and the rounded u of some forms of cursiva or of the uncialis was equally put to the service of a more transparent spelling. It was thus finally possible duly to distinguish vowels from consonants. Other variants that could be allocated no distinctive phonetic value, like a taller or shorter T or a more or less stretched S, were either kept for merely aesthetic purposes or eventually dropped as functionally improductive. Some ligatures like æ or were likewise preserved to help distinguish the corresponding diphthongs from the hiatuses ae and oe, whereas many others were abandoned. The separation of words by means of spaces was found to be such a useful device that few contemporaries would be able to read without it; and the rich variety of signs of punctuation introduced also in later stages of the history of Latin helped reading with the necessary pauses, and allowed us to distinguish the component parts of sentences, or to determine beyond doubt whether we are confronted with a statement, an exclamation or a question. Finally, the distinction between capitals and lower case brought in not only a certain elegance, but also some further clarity to grammar (highlighting proper names) and to discourse structure (marking the beginnings of sentences).
There has most unfortunately arisen, nevertheless, and for all the wrong reasons, a fashion of spelling fundamentalism that, abandoning a more than reasonable tradition of centuries of Latin writing, purports to go back to the writing usages of the ancient Romans. This is as absurd as wanting to give up the use of paper or the modern book, and claiming that something is not classical Latin unless its written on papyrus rolls. It should be obvious to anyone that we can be completely respectful of ancient culture and cultivate the purest form of classical Latinity while using more developed methods of writing than our ancestors had at their disposal and which are moreover the result of centuries of Latin tradition. Of course, since fundamentalists rarely guide themselves by reason, the return to the old usages doesnt follow any further criteria than their own arbitrary whim, and they sometimes are purists and sometimes not, as they please. Thus, some have set about eliminating the distinction between i and j as non-Roman, but they are only too happy against all logic to keep that between v and u. Others consider that the use of capitals should be eliminated, and they do use lower case letters at the beginning of sentences, but they then arbitrarily keep capitals for proper names or even adjectives. Of course, none of those purists has dared to admit the fact that a return to ancient usage would imply writing everything rather in capitals than in lower case, and that they would in fact have to stop using any punctuation at all.
The saddest aspect of the modern spelling mess is that it has nothing to do with Latin. It originates in attempts at spelling reforms that seemed to make perfect sense in a vernacular like Italian, but which some people felt the need to force also upon Latin, with deplorable consequences. While most European languages, including Latin, felt very comfortable with the century-old usage of i and j, and v and u, as all those letters represented clearly different sounds or appeared in clearly different syllabic contexts, in Italian the use of i and j had become so complicated by conflicting and arbitrary uses without too much relation with any phonetic reality that people struggled to determine when a word had to be written with i and when with j. Italian being a language with otherwise very straightforward spelling principles, a pressure arose therefore to drop the use of j. Now, this absolutely sensible measure for Italian was unnecessarily applied also to Latin by people who were persuaded that Latin must be spelt as modern Italian. Obviously, they could never have convinced the international Latin using community on such grounds, so they started to contrive specious justifications: that the sound of the vowel and the semivowel were similar enough (even though it is exactly the same difference that i and j have in German and many other languages that have never considered dropping the spelling distinction), that it brought Latin spelling closer to ancient practices (although, as we have explained, the distinction between i and j has in fact a much more ancient history than that of u and v), etc. Of course, they never mentioned that every single one of those reasons applies with exactly equal force to the Latin pair i/j (where [i] differs from [j]) and to the pair u/v (where [u] differs from either [w] or [v], however we care to pronounce it), which the Italians had no intention to simplify because in Italian it made sense to continue to use both letters in the latter case. As the international community began to drop the use of j in a quest for ancient purity, it became more and more obvious to everyone who hadnt given up the human capacity to reason, that it made absolutely no sense in Latin to drop the j without dropping also the v; so, having genuinely assimilated the specious excuses of the Italians to bring Latin spelling closer to Roman times, the best philologists around the world felt it absolutely necessary to do without v too, and many critical editions of classical texts are now published that way. We have thus a traditional i/j/u/v system, which was foolishly undermined and turned into just i/u/v in accordance with some vernacular spelling reforms, but in a move that has now inevitably but most unfortunately backfired (certainly against the expectations of those who promoted the use of i/u/v) into an ugly i/u system as the only reasonably acceptable outcome. Not only that, following the same perverse train of thought, many now feel the need also to drop the use of capitals in Latin texts. Where this absurd nonsense will take Latin spelling is difficult to foresee, but we cannot but lament that the narrow-minded whim of a nation with the most arrogant attitude towards the language of our common civilisation has managed to bring absolute chaos to an elegant, sensible, and century-long Latin spelling tradition.
We consider that our spelling usages were developed through millennia according to criteria of utility and clarity, which it is as absurd as it is unnecessary to renounce. Even if some certainly rude spirits could consider giving up aesthetic developments like the distinction between capitals and lower case, it seems absolutely preposterous to eliminate usages that reflect better the pronunciation of the language and help reading.
Indeed, we should avoid as non-transparent spelling those practices which, with the specious excuse of being truer to ancient practices or following vernacular considerations, disregard centuries of legitimate Latin spelling tradition and prefer to hinder learning of the Latin language by failing to represent transparently its different sounds. Using one and the same letter i to represent both the vowel [i] and the consonant [j] may be true to the most ancient practices, but it is as unfortunately as unnecessarily non-transparent because it doesn't allow to distinguish which is which in words like "iam" (where the i represents a semivowel, pronounced as English y in yes) and "iambus" (where the i represents a vowel, pronounced as English i in it), etc. Non-transparent spelling makes that more and more people nowadays fail to learn the language properly as they are preposterously kept in the dark about the sounds the words they read and write actually contain (we've heard many a professor, let alone students, pronounce "iam" rhyming with Ian and "iambus" starting as yummy). Using i for the vowel and j for the semivowel is conversely a much more transparent spelling, which is justified by centuries of Latin spelling tradition and which allows us to see immediately which is which by writing "jam" but "iambus", etc. Equally using the same ae combination both for the diphthong in "aereus" (where the ae represent a diphthong, pronounced in one syllable, rather like English eye) and the hiatus in "aerius" (where the ae represent an hiatus, pronounced in two syllables, rather like English a in father followed by the e in error), etc. is sadly non-transparent (and leads to error just as many). Using æ for the diphthong and ae of the hiatus, or at least ae for the diphthong but aë for the hiatus, is a much more transparent spelling and it allows us to see immediately which is which by writing "æreus" but "aerius" (or "aereus" but "aërius"), etc.
As inconsistent spelling we must avoid spelling practices that choose to be transparent in some cases but not in others with no legitimate phonetic or historical reason to do so in one case and not in the other whatsoever, as when some people choose to distinguish the vowel [u] from the semivowel [w] by writing the former as u and the latter as v, which is a nicely transparent practice, rather than spelling both as u, which would be non-transparent, and they don't care in this case not to be true to ancient practices; but then, with no phonetic or historical reason to do so, they choose not to to distinguish the vowel [i] from the semivowel [j] by writing the former as i and the latter as j, which would be nicely transparent practice, rather than spelling both as i, which is non-transparent. Equally choosing to distinguish the diphthong æ from the hiatus ae in a usefully transparent way, rather than writing both as ae, but at the same time not distinguishing the diphthong from the hiatus oe and writing both non-transparently as oe, would be also inconsistent.
Finally, indicating the length of the vowels in writing was something that the ancient Romans didn't need to do because they just knew which was which, either because they were native speakers or because they could learn to pronounce the words by listening to native speakers. The use of the apex in ancient inscriptions or manuscripts is therefore quite haphazard. For us, on the other hand, using a more thorough form of spelling, consistently marking all long vowels, is much more poignantly required if we aspire ever to learn to pronounce the words correctly. There was one case, nevertheless, when even ancient native speakers advocated that the use of the apex is actually necessary (cf. Quint. Inst. 1,7,2s), and that is when when a difference of length in a vowel can produce a different meaning in a word, as in "malus" and "málus" or "liber" and "líber" or "rosa" and "rosá" or "loqueris" and "loquéris". We must certainly never omit such necessary apices.
It is absolutely unnecesary to give up our spelling lore, on any grounds; and we advocate the full reinstatement of our century-long, sensible spelling tradition, in the interests of transparency, consistency, and thoroughness.


This is another image I found on Google+
All lines are absolutely straight, parallel and perpendicular but why does it appear to have a curvature?
Related: How does this illusion work?
Like these questions :) Many of these illusions come from Prof. Akiyoshi Kitaoka, a japanese Psychologist and expert for Gestalt Psychology. On his website you'll find some more fascinating illusions and questions to ask here ;)
The illusion above is named Cafe Wall illusion and the newest model to explain those illusions is the contrast-polarity model. Short explanation from his webpage:
The paper explained it better to me:
This explains why you perceive a tilt. If you position the smaller squares now in distinct edges of the big squares, you can achieve 2- and 3-dimenional illusions. Here you see a increasing of the tilt due to more smaller squares:
Here you can see that the positioning of the smaller squares is critical to achieve the 3D effect of the orignial bulge effect in your question:
Notice that Gestalt Psychology is a non-reductionistic theory approach and investigates mainly the phenomenology and underlying Gestalt Laws of visual perception. How these Gestalt Laws developed on a deeper level is a question of neurobiological evolution similar to, "why have some species of apes color-vision and some not". The ellipses in the explaining picture above show you, that our cognitive visual machine somehow tries to group divided objects (square and line of same contrast/brightness) in one line and we see a tilt. I'm guessing here, but this is probably due to cognitive brain algorithm that saves things and objects we see and perceive mainly by countor and shapes, rather than pixel by pixel like a computer and digital camera do it, which of course don't perceive any tilt or 3D illusion in any of those trick images :)
Read the papers for more explanations and examples, not behind a paywall:


Giant Marble Harvests Energy From Sun And Moon
It looks like a giant, glass marble. But this globe is no game. It’s a sun-tracking, solar energy concentrator created by Barcelona-based architects Rawlemon and, according to the designers, is able to collect not just sunlight but moonlight as well. The weatherproof sphere is designed to rotate and follow the sun across the sky. It’s so sensitive to light that at night, it can even harvest moonlight and convert it into electricity.
Andre Rawlemon, the architect and designer, says his spherical, sun-tracking glass globe is able to concentrate sunlight and moonlight up to 10,000 times and that the system is 35 percent more efficient than photovoltaic designs that track the sun. One of Rawlemon’s idea is to build these globes into the exterior walls of buildings and use them to generate electricity.
Other products to invest in when this technology reaches full commercialization potential: Bounty and Windex.
Seriously though, the ability alone to convert moonlight to electricity could be a game changer for the manufacturers of photovoltaic cells where typical solar panels offer a range of 8 to 12 hours of usable daylight for the generation of electricity.
Coupled with products that offer greater efficiency and other simple behavioral aspects like turning off computers and monitors (or at least put in stand-by) when they’re not being used could add up to significant savings and longer-term environmental benefits.


Yesterday I responded to novelist Laurie Halse Anderson’s question about whether John Adams actually wrote about 1777 as “the year of the hangman.” I quoted Adams’s words from over a decade later indicating that unspecified, untraceable “Tories” had said that 1777 “had three gallowses in it, meaning the three sevens.”
However, Adams didn’t write “the year of the hangman,” and neither did anyone else I can find in the 1770s. The label doesn’t appear the Archive of Americana database of period newspapers and pamphlets. Nor is it in the Adams family letters, the George Washington Papers, and the other digital databases I usually check for period usage.
In fact, the earliest use of that phrase for 1777 that I found through Google Books is Lynn Montross’s The Reluctant Rebels: The Story of the Continental Congress, 1774-1789, published in 1950. That book includes a chapter titled “Year of the Hangman,” and at one point says, “It was the year of the hangman, and the gallows jokes exchanged in the State House were not so humorous after the imprisonment of [Richard] Stockton...”
As far as I can tell, Montross coined that phrase; I haven’t uncovered an earlier usage. He didn’t say the words came from 1777, only that it reflected how the Patriots saw their situation that year. But then the same words appeared in other books, with the growing implication that it was a genuine period phrase:
- The 1966 Encyclopedia of the American Revolution, edited by Mark Boatner, included an entry on “Hangman, year of the.”
- One part of The River and the Rock: The History of Fortress West Point, 1775-1783, authored by Dave Richard Palmer in 1969, carried that title.
- The phrase “year of the gallows” comes from a character’s mouth in Thomas Fleming’s 1976 novel Liberty Tavern.
- John S. Pancake’s 1777: The Year of the Hangman (1977) quotes Adams’s original letter to explain its subtitle.
- Gary Blackwood’s The Year of the Hangman (2002) is an alternate history marketed to teen-aged readers.
- The strategy game shown above, designed by Ed Wimble, is “an operational study of the campaign for Philadelphia.”
- Most recently, Glenn F. Williams’s award-winning military history Year of the Hangman: George Washington’s Campaign Against the Iroquois was published in 2005.


Scientific name: Coenonympha tullia
Rests with wings closed. Some have row of ‘eyespots’ on underwings, like Ringlet, but some don’t.
The Large Heath is restricted to wet boggy habitats in northern Britain, Ireland, and a few isolated sites in Wales and central England.
The adults always sit with their wings closed and can fly even in quite dull weather provided the air temperature is higher than 14B:C. The size of the underwing spots varies across its range; a heavily spotted form (davus) is found in lowland England, a virtually spotless race (scotica) in northern Scotland, and a range of intermediate races elsewhere (referred to aspolydama).
The butterfly has declined seriously in England and Wales, but is still widespread in parts of Ireland and Scotland.
Size and Family
- Family – Browns
- Small/Medium Sized
- Wing Span Range (male to female) - 41mm
- Listed as a Section 41 species of principal importance under the NERC Act in England
- Listed as a Section 42 species of principal importance under the NERC Act in Wales
- Classified as a Northern Ireland Priority Species by the NIEA
- UK BAP status: Priority Species
- Butterfly Conservation priority: High
- European Status: Vulnerable
- Protected in Great Britain for sale only
The main foodplant is Hare's-tail Cottongrass (Eriophorum vaginatum) but larvae have been found occasionally on Common Cottongrass (E. angustifolium) and Jointed Rush (Juncus articulatus). Early literature references to White Beak-sedge (Rhyncospora alba), are probably erroneous.
- Countries – England, Scotland and Wales
- Northern Britain and throughout Ireland
- Distribution Trend Since 1970’s = -43%
The butterflies breed in open, wet areas where the foodplant grows, this includes habitats such as; lowland raised bogs, upland blanket bogs and damp acidic moorland. Sites are usually below 500m (600m in the far north) and have a base of Sphagnum moss interspersed with the foodplant and abundant Cross-leaved Heath (the main adult nectar source).
In Ireland, the butterfly can be found where manual peat extraction has lowered the surface of the bog, creating damp areas with local concentrations of foodplant.