Technical Report on CDC Guidance for Responses to Influenza for Institutions of Higher Education during the 2009-2010 Academic Year
This website is archived for historical purposes and is no longer being maintained or updated. For updated information on the current flu season, see the CDC Seasonal Flu website.
February 22, 2010 2:00 PM ET
CDC has released guidance to help decrease the spread of influenza (flu) among students, faculty, and staff of Institutions of Higher Education (IHE) and post-secondary educational institutions during the 2009-2010 academic year. The guidance expands upon earlier guidance for these settings by providing a menu of tools that IHE and health officials can choose from based on conditions in their area. It recommends actions to take now (during this academic year), suggests strategies to consider if flu severity is increasing compared with April through December 2009 of the 2009 H1N1 influenza outbreak, and provides a checklist for making decisions. Based on the severity of 2009 H1N1 flu-related illness thus far, this guidance also recommends that students, faculty, and staff with flu-like illness remain home until 24 hours after resolution of fever without the use of fever-reducing medicines. For the purpose of this document, IHE is used to refer to public and private, residential and nonresidential, degree-granting and non-degree-granting institutions providing post-secondary education in group settings regardless of the age of their students. Portions of this guidance pertaining to dormitories and residence halls may be useful for residential (boarding) schools providing primary and secondary education, with adaptations as needed for their younger population. This guidance represents CDC’s current thinking on this topic. It does not create or confer any rights for or on any person or operate to bind the public.
This Technical Report includes a more in depth explanation of the strategies presented in the CDC Guidance for Responses to Influenza for Institutions of Higher Education during the 2009-2010 Academic Yearand gives suggestions on how to use them. The guidance is designed to decrease exposure to regular seasonal flu and 2009 H1N1 flu while limiting the disruption of day-to-day activities and the vital learning that goes on in Institutions of Higher Education (IHE).
More than 17 million students attend the 4,300 degree-granting post-secondary institutions in the United States and more than 3 million people work as faculty and staff. An additional 2,222 non-degree-granting institutions offer vocational post-secondary education. IHEs are extremely varied and include:
- Public and private institutions
- Residential and nonresidential institutions
- Degree-granting and non-degree-granting institutions
- Educational or training programs that last from a few weeks to 4 or more years
- Student population sizes ranging from fewer than one hundred to tens of thousands
- Community colleges and vocational education and training programs that serve their local communities
- Colleges and universities with students from across the country and around the world
Institutions will need to tailor the guidelines to their own unique circumstances, taking into account the size, diversity and mobility of their student body, faculty, and staff; their location and physical facilities; programs; and student and employee health services.
Decisions about which strategies to implement should balance the goal of reducing the number of people who become seriously sick or die from flu with the goal of minimizing educational and social disruption.
IHEs should examine and revise, as necessary, their current crisis or pandemic plans and procedures, including updating contact information for students, their families, faculty, and staff. Communication plans should be shared with students, their families, faculty, and staff before an outbreak so that they know how the IHE will contact them and what types of information to expect. Establishing mechanisms to contact students’ families in the event of a flu outbreak on campus, or to notify them that their student is sick, may decrease the number of inquiries coming into the IHE and therefore the burden on IHE staff.
IHEs also should communicate with vendors who supply critical products or services to plan for continuation of those services throughout the flu season. Critical services may include food service, hygiene supplies, security, and personal protective equipment for staff. This planning is especially important when suppliers may be small businesses in the local area that could also be affected by a flu outbreak. Visit http://www.flu.gov/plan/school/collegeschecklist.html for the Colleges and Universities Pandemic Influenza Planning Checklist.
The purpose of this document is to provide updated guidance for reducing the spread of flu in IHEs. We provide recommendations for the 2009-2010 flu season, assuming that severity of illness is similar to what was seen during April through December 2009 of the 2009 H1N1 flu outbreak, as well as recommendations that could be added if the severity of illness worsens. Flu is unpredictable. CDC will continue to monitor the spread of flu, the severity of the illness it is causing, and for possible changes in flu viruses; CDC will provide periodic updates of these assessments. If the information CDC gathers indicates that flu is causing more severe disease than during April through December 2009 of the 2009 H1N1 flu outbreak, or if other developments indicate more aggressive mitigation measures should be taken, CDC may recommend additional strategies.
Flu Symptoms, Transmission, and Risk:
Symptoms of flu can include fever, cough, sore throat, runny or stuffy nose, body aches, headache, chills, and fatigue, and sometimes diarrhea and vomiting. People may be infected with the flu, including 2009 H1N1 flu and have respiratory symptoms without a fever. Like seasonal flu, 2009 H1N1 flu infection in humans can vary in severity from mild to severe. Visit http://www.cdc.gov/H1N1flu/qa.htm for more information on flu symptoms.
Like seasonal flu, the 2009 H1N1 flu virus is spread mainly from person to person through coughs or sneezes of infected individuals. People may also become infected by touching something – such as a surface or object – with flu virus on it and then touching their mouth, nose, or eyes.
Some people are at higher risk than others for serious complications from flu.
These people include:
- children younger than 5 years old, but especially children younger than 2 years old
- people aged 65 years or older
- pregnant women
- adults and children who have:
- neurological and neurodevelopmental conditions
- chronic lung disease
- heart disease
- blood disorders
- endocrine disorders (such as diabetes)
- kidney, liver, and metabolic disorders
- weakened immune systems due to disease or medication
- people younger than 19 years of age who are receiving long-term aspirin therapy
For more information on people at high risk for flu complications, visit http://www.cdc.gov/h1n1flu/highrisk.htm.
The most important things IHEs can do are to encourage flu vaccination for all those recommended for vaccination; suggest early treatment for people at higher risk for flu complications; facilitate use of respiratory etiquette and hand hygiene by students, faculty, and staff; and to separate sick and well people as soon as possible. Administrators should frequently remind students, faculty, and staff about the importance of these. Educational materials (for example, posters) to enhance compliance with recommendations should be visible in the IHE setting. Examples of these materials are available at http://www.cdc.h1n1flu/flyers.htm. There are many ways to employ these strategies; not all can be described in this document. The following recommendations provide a framework to determine the most appropriate and feasible strategies for each IHE.
Isolating sick people is a critical strategy for addressing 2009 H1N1 flu for two reasons: (1) 2009 H1N1 flu may result in more serious complications for people at higher risk for flu complications and these measures help protect these people (see list below); and (2) a widespread pandemic may result in many more hospitalizations and medical care visits than usually associated with seasonal flu. Measures to limit the spread of flu, if effective, may reduce demand on the healthcare system. Other measures, such as suspending classes, are recommended for conditions of increased flu severity, but might also be necessary during periods of increased flu activity with the same severity as during April through December 2009 of the 2009 H1N1 flu outbreak in the community, on a case-by-case basis, if the IHE is not able to maintain normal functioning.
IHEs should review, and revise if necessary, their current crisis or pandemic plans and procedures; develop contingency plans to cover key positions when staff are absent from work; update contact information for families and staff; and share their plans with students, faculty, staff, and community. Administrators should review and revise, if necessary, their sick leave policies to remove barriers to faculty and staff staying home while sick or to care for a sick family member. For students, IHEs may consider altering policies on missed classes and examinations and late assignments so that students’ academic concerns do not prevent them from staying home when sick or prompt them to return to class or take examinations while still symptomatic and potentially infectious. Do not require a healthcare provider’s note for students, faculty, or staff to validate their illness or to return to work, as healthcare provider offices and medical facilities may be extremely busy and may not be able to provide such documentation in a timely way. Distance learning or web-based learning may also help students maintain self-isolation. IHEs should determine quantities of supplies and space needed to facilitate self-isolation for example, hygiene supplies, masks and other personal protective equipment.
IHEs should take opportunities at the beginning of campus events to remind attendees about the importance of self-isolation when sick; early evaluation by a healthcare provider for those who become sick, especially for people at higher risk for flu complications; respiratory etiquette; and hand hygiene. Educational materials such as posters and flyers to enhance compliance with recommendations should be visible throughout the campus. Information and links to credible sources should be posted on the IHE website. Examples of these materials are available at www.cdc.gov/h1n1flu.
The recommendations that follow are divided into two groups: 1) recommendations to use now, during this academic year, assuming a similar severity to April through December 2009 of the 2009 H1N1 flu outbreak, and 2) recommendations to consider adding if the flu begins to cause more severe disease.
Recommended strategies to use now, for flu conditions with severity similar to April through December 2009 of the 2009 H1N1 flu outbreak
Encourage vaccination against the flu:
The best way to protect against the flu is to get vaccinated. The vaccine for seasonal flu is produced every year. Groups that should be vaccinated against seasonal flu include: everyone 6 months through 18 years of age; all people 50 years of age and older; women who will be pregnant during flu season; people age 18 through 49 with certain medical conditions that put them at higher risk for flu complications; healthcare workers; and household contacts and caregivers of people who are at increased risk of severe illness from flu, including children less than 5 years of age, pregnant women, people 65 and older, and anyone with certain medical conditions.
Facilitate self-isolation of residential students with flu-like illness in their residence halls, dormitory rooms, the campus health service, or other locations, and help them stay away from others for the full recommended period:
Promote self-isolation at home by non-resident students, faculty, and staff:
Emphasize respiratory etiquette:
Flu viruses are thought to spread mainly from person to person in respiratory droplets of coughs and sneezes. This can happen when droplets from a cough or sneeze of an infected person are propelled through the air and deposited on the mouth or nose or are inhaled by people nearby. CDC recommends covering the nose and mouth with a tissue when coughing or sneezing and throwing the tissue in the trash after use. Wash hands promptly after coughing or sneezing. If a tissue is not immediately available, coughing or sneezing into one’s elbow or shoulder (not into one’s hand) is recommended. To encourage respiratory etiquette, students, faculty and staff should have access to tissues and must be educated about the importance of respiratory etiquette, including keeping hands away from the face.Visit: http://www.cdc.gov/flu/protect/covercough.htm for more information on respiratory etiquette.
Promote hand hygiene:
Perform and encourage routine environmental cleaning:
- Doorknobs, handrails, elevator buttons
- Desks, tables, chairs
- Counters and surfaces in cafeterias, meeting rooms, and offices
- Remote controls
- Telephone receivers and touch-tone pads
- Promote early treatment of students and staff at higher risk for flu complications:
- Discourage the public and visitors with flu-like illness from attending IHE events until they have been free of fever for at least 24 hours:
- Considerations for specific student populations:
- Students studying abroad:
- Early/Middle College students:
- Students with disabilities:
- Sports teams, bands, and other large student groups:
- Health-care profession students:
Permit students, faculty, and staff at higher risk for flu complications to stay home:
Increase social distances:
If flu severity increases, IHEs should explore innovative methods for increasing social distances while continuing to meet their educational mission. The goal should be for there to be at least 6 feet of distance between people at most times. This is not a simple or easy strategy and would typically require considerable flexibility. Possible options to increase the amount of space between students include moving desks farther apart, leaving vacant seats between students, holding classes outdoors, and using distance learning methods.
At an increased level of severity, IHEs should consider whether to suspend or modify public events such as lectures, films, concerts, sporting events, worship services, and commencement or baccalaureate ceremonies. IHEs could also discourage large gatherings that are not sponsored by the IHE, such as fraternity parties.
Consider postponing campus events:
Extend the self-isolation period:
Consider suspending classes:
- Large gatherings:
- Residential students:
- Resuming classes:
- CDC will continue to work with state and local partners to monitor the spread and severity of flu illness, monitor for changes in circulating flu viruses that may confer increased severity of disease, identify promising methods for reducing morbidity and mortality, assist state and local health and education agencies to implement those methods and evaluate their effectiveness, and provide timely updates on new scientific findings as well as additional guidance as the conditions warrant.
- The U.S. Department of Education (ED) will collaborate with federal, state, and local agencies as well as non-governmental entities to disseminate new guidance, provide support to state education agencies, and work with states to provide flexibility in regulations around funding.
- IHEs should:
- Work with state and local public health and education agencies to decide which strategies to implement and when, collect and share data, and disseminate emerging guidance.
- Establish collaborative relationships with local colleges of medicine, hospitals, urgent care centers, and emergency departments.
- Assure campus health services have established plans for triage, treatment, vaccination, and education of students.
- Examine and revise, as necessary, their current crisis or pandemic plans and procedures.
- Examine and revise, as necessary, sick leave policies for faculty and staff to allow them to stay home when sick and policies on missed classes and examinations and late assignments so that students’ academic concerns do not prevent them from staying home when sick.
- Serve as resources for their students, parents, faculty, staff, visitors, and wider communities by providing education about ways to reduce the spread of flu.
- Students, faculty, and staff must take personal responsibility for staying home when sick and practicing respiratory etiquette and hand hygiene.
- Identify the decision-makers. In some communities, local and state health, education, and homeland security agencies may have relevant decision-making responsibilities. Public IHEs will have different types of decision-makers than private institutions.
- Identify the stakeholders. Stakeholders will vary between IHEs, but may include: staff from campus health services and mental health services, emergency management, student affairs, residential life, security, communications, physical plant operations, and food service; students; faculty; other staff; community representatives; and students’ families.
- Do you have a process for regular input and collaboration on decisions?
- Are there strong, open communication channels between decision-makers and stakeholders? Does this include frequent information sharing?
- Do you regularly review your crisis and pandemic plans? Do you revise as needed?
- What is the severity and extent of spread of the disease in the state or locality? How many people are making outpatient visits for flu-like illness? How many people are being hospitalized for flu-like illness? Are the numbers of hospitalizations or deaths increasing? What percent of these hospitalized patients require admission to intensive care units? How many flu deaths have occurred in the community? Are some groups being disproportionately affected?
- How busy are local healthcare providers and emergency departments? How many visits are they getting for flu-like illness? Are they able to meet the increased demand for care from people with flu-like illness? Are local healthcare providers or emergency departments becoming overburdened?
- Are the hospital and intensive care unit (ICU) beds full with flu patients? Is there available space in the ICUs? Are there enough ventilators?
- Do the hospitals have enough staff to provide care? Is there increasing absenteeism in healthcare workers due to flu-like illness in themselves or their family members?
- Is there enough antiviral medicines in the community to treat sick patients at higher risk for flu complications?
- What are the plans for seasonal and 2009 H1N1 flu vaccination clinics?
- What are student absenteeism rates? Rates for faculty? Staff?
- How busy is the campus health service? How many visits are they getting for flu-like illness? Are they able to meet the increased demand for care from people with flu-like illness? Are beds available for students who need to self-isolate?
- What resources are available? Do you have access to the funds, personnel, equipment, and space needed?
- How long will the strategies take to implement? How long can the strategies be sustained?
- Are changes to policy needed? How feasible are these changes?
- How can you most clearly communicate with the IHE community about steps students, faculty, staff, and students’ families need to take and the reasons for recommendations?
- How are public concerns affecting the community? Are rumors circulating about the flu? About the strategies you are considering? What can you do to counter false rumors?
- What can you do to empower personal responsibility for protective actions? What can you do to increase buy-in?
- Will the community support the strategies under consideration? What can you do to increase support?
- What secondary effects (for example, job security, financial support, health service access, and educational progress) might result from the strategies under consideration? Can these secondary effects be mitigated?
Vaccination to protect against the 2009 H1N1 flu virus should be encouraged. CDC’s Advisory Committee on Immunization Practices (ACIP) has recommended that initial doses of the 2009 H1N1 flu vaccine be prioritized for 5 primary target groups: pregnant women, people who live with or care for children younger than 6 months of age, healthcare and emergency medical services personnel, people age 6 months through 24 years, and people age 25 through 64 years who have certain medical conditions that put them at higher risk for flu complications. Due to increased vaccine availability, everyone, including those over age 65 years, can now be vaccinated.
Students and staff should be encouraged to receive the seasonal flu vaccine and the 2009 H1N1 flu vaccine. For more information on the ACIP recommendations, visit http://www.cdc.gov/mmwr/pdf/rr/rr58e0821.pdf.
IHEs should contact their local health officials to determine where vaccine will be administered and to discuss the possibility of a vaccination clinic at the IHE.
CDC recommends that individuals with flu-like illness remain at home and away from other people until at least 24 hours after they are free of fever (100° F [37.8° C] or greater when measured orally), or signs of a fever, without the use of fever-reducing medicines. If possible, residential students, faculty, or staff members who live relatively close to the campus should return to their home to keep from making others sick. Those leaving the IHE to go to a private home to recuperate should be instructed to do so in a way that limits contact with others as much as possible. For example, travel by private car or taxi would be preferable over use of public transportation.
While the campus infirmary would be an ideal location for sick people, few IHEs have them and such facilities could be rapidly overwhelmed during a flu outbreak. Students with single rooms and private bathrooms should stay in their rooms. Students living in suite-type living quarters should remain in their own rooms and receive care and meals from a single person, if possible. Students could be asked to establish a “flu buddy scheme” in which students pair up as the identified caregiver if one or the other becomes sick. Sick students should limit their contact with others and, to the extent possible, maintain a distance of 6 feet from people with whom they share living space. Shared bathrooms should be avoided or receive frequent cleaning. If close contact with others cannot be avoided, CDC recommends people with known, probable, or suspected flu or flu-like illness to use a facemask if available and tolerable, or otherwise to cover their noses and mouths with a tissue when coughing or sneezing (or an elbow or shoulder if no tissue is available). For those caring for people with flu-like illness, CDC has recommendations for use of personal protective equipment. Visit http://www.cdc.gov/h1n1flu/masks.htm for information on appropriate personal protective equipment.
Close contact, for the purposes of this document, is defined as having cared for or lived with a person with flu-like illness or being in a setting with a high likelihood of contact with respiratory droplets and/or body fluids of such a person. Close contact typically does not include activities such as walking by an infected person or sitting across from a symptomatic patient in a waiting room or office.
For those who cannot leave campus, and who do not have a private room, IHEs may consider providing temporary, alternate housing where those who are sick can stay until 24 hours after they are free of fever. When logistically necessary, because sick students do not need to stay away from other sick students, some IHEs have considered temporarily converting a gym or other large space to housing for sick people. Local emergency management agencies might be able to assist with planning and arranging for necessary equipment, such as sleeping cots. Locations should have good access to bathrooms (which ideally should not be shared with well people) and security services; meals and medicines (if indicated) should be provided. Internet access might allow students to continue their class work when feeling better but still self-isolating. Some IHEs have explored pre-arranging contracts with hotels or local landlords for temporary use of off-campus space.
IHEs should establish a method for maintaining contact with students who are in self-isolation. If resources permit, student affairs, housing staff, or healthcare providers (for example, nurses or nursing assistants) could be assigned to make daily contact with each student who is in self-isolation for flu-like illness in a dormitory or other university residential setting. For some IHEs, residential advisors also may serve this function. Possible contact methods include e-mail, text messaging, phone calls, or room visits. Sick students should be provided guidance that reinforces hygiene and self-isolation. Some IHEs may choose to also check on roommates, suitemates, and others who come in close contact with the sick person to determine if they have also fallen sick.
Students should be instructed to promptly seek medical attention if they have a medical condition that places them at higher risk for flu complications, are concerned about their illness, or develop severe symptoms. Severe symptoms include increased fever, shortness of breath, chest pain or pressure, rapid respirations, cyanosis (bluish skin color), vomiting, dizziness, or confusion. Campus health services can communicate to the IHE community about these symptoms, how to contact health services, and groups of people at higher risk for flu complications.
Guidance for caring for flu patients in the home can be applied in the dormitory or residence hall as well. Visit: http://www.cdc.gov/h1n1flu/guidance_homecare.htm for more information on caring for sick people in the home.
Students, faculty, and staff should be vigilant in identifying people who appear to be sick. These individuals should be encouraged by anyone who encounters them to self-isolate and to talk with a healthcare provider about whether they have flu, appropriate treatment, and actions to take if they experience severe symptoms.
CDC recommends that individuals with flu-like illness remain at home until at least 24 hours after they are free of fever (100° F [37.8° C] or greater), or signs of a fever, without the use of fever-reducing medicines. If possible, students, faculty, and staff with flu-like illness should be asked to stay at home or at a friend or family member’s home and avoid contact with other people until at least 24 hours after they are free of fever. Students leaving the IHE to go to a private home to recuperate should be instructed to do so in a way that limits contact with others as much as possible. For example, travel by private car or taxi would be preferable over use of public transportation. If he or she can tolerate it, the sick person should wear a facemask while in close contact with others.
Visit http://www.cdc.gov/h1n1flu/guidance/exclusion.htm for more information on staying home while sick.
Flu may spread via contaminated hands or inanimate objects that become contaminated with flu viruses. CDC recommends that students, faculty, and staff be encouraged to wash their hands often with soap and water, especially after coughing or sneezing. If soap and water are not available, alcohol-based hand rubs can also be used. However, hand rubs should not be used when hands are visibly soiled.
Soap and paper towels are critical for proper hand washing and should be readily available throughout the campus. IHEs should educate all students, faculty, and staff about good hand hygiene through direct education as well as posting and disseminating communications materials such as signs, posters, and flyers.
Visit: www.cdc.gov/cleanhands for more information on hand hygiene.
Promote routine cleaning of frequently touched surfaces, and ensure adequate supplies of soap and paper towels. Provide no-touch wastebaskets and empty them frequently. Establish regular schedules for frequent cleaning of high-touch surfaces:
Provide disposable wipes so that commonly used surfaces can be wiped down by students before each use. High-use surfaces include:
Encourage students to frequently clean their living quarters. Students living together should regularly clean frequently used surfaces such as doorknobs, refrigerator handles, remote controls, computer keyboards, countertops, faucet handles, and bathroom areas.
IHEs should ensure that custodial staff and others who use cleaners or disinfectants read and understand all instruction labels and understand safe and appropriate use. Instructional materials and training should be provided in languages other than English as locally appropriate. CDC does not believe any additional disinfection of environmental surfaces beyond the recommended routine cleaning is required.
The EPA provides a list of EPA-registered products effective against flu: http://www.epa.gov/oppad001/influenza-disinfectants.html
People at higher risk for flu complications who become sick with flu-like illness should speak with their healthcare provider as soon as possible to determine if they need antiviral treatment. It’s very important that antiviral drugs be used early to treat flu in people who are very sick (for example people who are in the hospital) and people who are sick with flu and have a greater chance of getting serious flu complications. Other people may also be treated with antiviral drugs by their doctor this season. CDC recommends that IHEs encourage sick students, faculty, and staff at higher risk for flu complications to seek early treatment.
Students and staff at higher risk for flu complications who have had close contact with others who are sick with a flu-like illness should contact their healthcare provider to discuss whether they may need to take antiviral medicines.
People on antiviral treatment may still shed flu viruses and therefore may still transmit the virus to others. These flu viruses may develop resistance to antiviral medicines. To lessen the chance of spreading flu viruses that are resistant to antiviral medicines, people on antiviral treatment should remain in self-isolation according to the current recommendations and adhere to good respiratory etiquette and hand hygiene.
Visit: http://www.cdc.gov/h1n1flu/recommendations.htm for more information on antiviral medicines.
IHE events that draw the public and other visitors, such as football games or concerts, may pose a high risk of exposure and transmission of flu. IHEs should use a variety of communication methods such as e-mail, posters, flyers, and media coverage to discourage people with flu-like illness from attending these events until they have been free of fever for at least 24 hours without the use of fever-reducing medicines and to encourage adherence to respiratory etiquette and hand hygiene. Materials should be made available in the language(s) spoken by the IHE community, including those for whom English is not their primary language. IHEs can also look for ways to modify these events to reduce close contact and increase distances between participants and may need to consider cancelling if modification is not possible and there is a high level of flu activity in the community.
IHEs should review their policies for study abroad programs, including how students can access health services abroad, how illness will be reported to the IHE, access to resources for students abroad who are unable to travel back to the U.S., and any legal liability issues. Visit http://www.cdc.gov/travel for more information on considerations for travel.
IHE plans and policies should consider high school students taking college classes for credit; students and families touring the IHE; and other K-12 students who regularly come to campus. IHEs should communicate with their partner K-12 schools about their plans, policies, and strategies they are implementing.
More than 11% of undergraduates reported some type of disability in 2003-2004; 7.5% of these students reported a specific learning disability. IHEs should determine if they need to use special communication strategies for these students.
IHEs should review their policies for sports teams, bands, and other large groups of students who spend a great deal of time together in close proximity. IHEs may need to consider cancelling or postponing travel to off-campus events if there is a high level of flu activity in the community.
IHEs that train healthcare professionals such as physicians, dentists, and nurses represent environments with the potential for greater exposure and to amplify transmission to populations at higher risk for flu complications. Students in the heath care professions who spend any time in a clinical setting should be reminded to self-monitor for symptoms of flu-like illness, practice respiratory etiquette and good hand hygiene, and use appropriate personal protective equipment. Visit http://www.cdc.gov/h1n1flu/clinicians for guidance for healthcare settings.
Recommended strategies to add in the event of increased flu severity compared to April through December 2009 of the 2009 H1N1 flu outbreak
CDC will work with state and local health departments to continue to assess the severity of illness caused by 2009 H1N1 flu and disseminate the results of these ongoing assessments. If global, national, or regional risk assessments indicate an increased level of severity compared with the April through December 2009 of the 2009 H1N1 flu outbreak, CDC will consider the need to recommend additional strategies.
Decisions to add strategies should be based on information on the severity of illness reported in global, national, and regional assessments, local goals, epidemiology, and healthcare system capacity, bearing in mind the feasibility and acceptability of the strategies being considered. The following strategies use a variety of methods for increasing social distance, while attempting to maintain operability of most IHEs. Feasibility and acceptability of these strategies will vary considerably. Although the following strategies have not been scientifically tested in the IHE setting, they are grounded on basic principles of infection control. Implementing these strategies is likely to be more difficult and to have more disruptive effects than the previously described strategies. These strategies should be considered if flu severity increases and are meant for use in addition to the strategies outlined above.
If flu severity increases, students, faculty, and staff at higher risk for flu complications may consider staying home while flu transmission is high in their community. Such people should make this decision after consulting with their healthcare provider. People who elect to stay home should also attempt to decrease their exposure in other ways -- for example, by avoiding large public gatherings.
IHEs should consult with their boards and legal counsel about policy accommodations that might be necessary. For example, IHEs might be able to make provisions for distance learning methods such as conference calls and internet-based lessons or students at higher risk for flu complications might be allowed to withdraw for the semester without penalty. Sick leave policies might be tailored to address the needs of faculty and staff at higher risk for flu complications. Work responsibilities and locations potentially could be modified to keep people at higher risk for flu complications from coming into contact with potentially sick individuals. To the extent possible, telecommuting and distance learning could be made more widely available.
At an increased level of severity, IHEs should consider whether to suspend or modify public events such as lectures, films, concerts, sporting events, worship services, and commencement or baccalaureate ceremonies. IHEs could also discourage large gatherings that are not sponsored by the IHE, such as fraternity parties.
If flu severity increases, individuals with flu-like illness should self-isolate at home for at least 7 days after symptom onset, even if symptoms resolve sooner. Individuals who are still sick 7 days after they become sick should continue to self-isolate until at least 24 hours after symptoms have resolved.
This recommendation is based on viral shedding information. Flu virus shedding generally occurs for 5 to 7 days for seasonal flu infection. Longer periods of exclusion of people who have flu symptoms also may be considered based on setting- and population-specific characteristics.
See information above for self-isolation for residential and non-residential students.
Visit http://www.cdc.gov/h1n1flu/guidance/exclusion.htm for more information about staying home while sick.
CDC recommends that IHEs review and revise, as necessary, pandemic flu plans that can be readily implemented if flu severity increases. Officials should balance the risks of flu in their community with the disruption suspending classes will cause in both education and the wider community. IHE officials should work closely and directly with their local and state public health officials to revise their plans, to make sound decisions based on local conditions, and to implement strategies in a coordinated manner. When IHEs suspend classes, they should use multiple channels to communicate a clear message about their reasons for doing so and the implications for the students, faculty, staff, and the community.
Reactive class suspension might be appropriate when IHEs are experiencing high rates of absenteeism due to flu-like illness among students, faculty, or staff, when a large number of students are visiting campus health services for flu-like illness, or when the IHE is not able to maintain normal functioning due to severe flu conditions in the community.
Preemptive class suspension can be used to decrease the spread of flu virus or to reduce demand on the healthcare system. IHEs might be asked to suspend classes to decrease the spread of flu virus if global, national, or regional risk assessments indicate an increased level of severity compared with the April through December 2009 of the 2009 H1N1 flu outbreak. Suspending classes is likely to be more effective in decreasing the spread of flu virus in the community when used early in relation to the appearance of the virus in the community and when used in conjunction with other strategies.
IHEs should consider whether they can allow faculty and staff to continue to use their facilities while classes are not being held. Keeping facilities open may allow faculty to develop lessons and materials, to continue teaching through distance learning methods, to advise students using methods such as telephone calls and e-mail, and to engage in other essential activities, such as research projects.
Visit http://www.cdc.gov/h1n1flu/vaccination for more information on the 2009 H1N1 flu vaccination. If an increase in community-wide transmission occurs shortly before vaccine-induced immunity is anticipated, or before a scheduled break, some IHEs may consider suspending classes temporarily.
If classes are suspended preemptively, other large gatherings should be cancelled or postponed. This would include sporting events, dances, performances, commencement ceremonies, and other events that bring large groups of people into close proximity with one another. Large gatherings might also need to be cancelled, postponed, or modified during a reactive class-suspension period.
IHEs with residential students should plan for ways to continue essential services such as meals, custodial services, security, and other basic operations for students who remain on campus. When possible, dismiss students, faculty, and staff who can drive home or who can go to the nearby home of a relative, close friend of the family, or an international student’s host family. Students leaving the IHE should be instructed to do so in a way that limits contact with others as much as possible. For example, travel by private car or taxi would be preferable over use of public transportation. International students and others who do not have easy access to alternative housing should stay on campus, but increase the distance between people and minimize crowding to decrease the likelihood of flu transmission. For example, if multiple roommates remain on campus, one might be able to move to a friend’s vacant room for this time period. Additionally, IHEs can explore distance-based learning methods to facilitate continued education both for students who remain on campus and those who leave. Faculty and staff should be allowed continued use of their facilities while classes are not being held.
The length of time classes should be suspended will vary depending on the reason for suspending classes as well as the severity and extent of illness.When the decision is made to suspend classes, CDC recommends doing so for at least 5 to 7 calendar days. Before the end of this period, the IHE, in collaboration with public health officials, should reassess the epidemiology of the disease and the benefits and consequences of continuing the suspension or resuming classes. Based on this reassessment, the IHE may decide either to extend the period for which classes are suspended (and reassess again) or to resume classes. In the event that global, national, and regional risk assessments indicate a much higher severity than that seen in April through December 2009 of the 2009 H1N1 flu outbreak, IHEs should plan for more prolonged periods of class suspension. Complete closing of the campus (which would include suspension of research activities) is not possible or desirable for most IHEs and is unlikely to be recommended. However, IHEs should plan for ways to care for animals and maintain critical research activities while minimizing contact between people.
Collaboration is essential: many different stakeholders have important roles to play in the decision-making process, implementing strategies, and ensuring their effectiveness.
To decrease exposure of students, faculty, and staff to the flu virus, CDC recommends a combination of targeted, layered strategies applied early and simultaneously as the best means to reduce spread of flu. The selection of strategies should be based on trends in the severity of the disease, characteristics of the virus, feasibility, and acceptability. A course of action should be determined through collaborative decision-making involving public health agencies, IHE faculty and staff; students; students’ families, and the wider community.
CDC and its partners will continuously look for changes in the severity of flu and will share what is learned with state and local agencies, the public, and other stakeholders. However, states and local communities can expect to see a lot of differences in disease patterns from community to community.
Every IHE has to balance a variety of objectives to determine the best course of action to help decrease the spread of flu. Decision-makers should explicitly identify and communicate their objectives which might be one or more of the following: (a) protecting overall public health by reducing community transmission; (b) reducing transmission among students, faculty, and staff; and (c) protecting people at higher risk for flu complications. Some strategies can have negative consequences in addition to their potential benefits. The following questions can help begin discussions and lead to decisions.
Decision-Makers and Stakeholders
Are all the right people involved in the decision-making process?
What is the process for working together?
Information Collection and Sharing
Can local or state health officials determine and share information about the following?
What does the IHE know about the following?
Do you have the resources to implement the strategies being considered?
Have you determined how to address the following challenges to implementing the strategies?
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These are poly-aromatic compounds, insoluble in n-heptane, with a number of carbon atoms greater than 50. The asphalthene content of a crude may be the cause of deposits in inter-changers and/or lines. In fact, the mix of a crude having a high asphalthene content with a paraffinic crude can displace the balance of the asphalthenes, precipitating them. A high asphalthene content ensures that the vacuum pitch will be suitable for producing asphalt.
ASTM D86 distillation is a test that measures the volatility of gasoline, kerosene and diesel.
Basic Sediment and Water (BSW)
The BSW relates to the content of free water (not dissolved) and sediments (mud, sand) in the crude. It is important that its reading is low in order to avoid dirtiness and difficulties during the crude processing, in which the steam produced by the free water can damage the oven. It is reported as a percentage in volume over the crude.
This is the weight of the residue remaining after the combustion of a fuel sample. It represents the facility of a heavy fuel to produce particles during combustion.
This is the measurement of the mass of a volume. It is expressed in kilograms per liter, or grams per cubic centimeter. Density depends on the temperature as this affects the volume of the substances.
Temperature at which a liquid stops flowing when cooled, through the precipitation of crystals of solid paraffin.
The draining temperature is very important as, in the unloading of paraffinic crudes using sea terminals with underwater pipelines of a certain length, the temperature of the crude can fall below the draining point, creating deposits of wax or solid paraffin in the pipelines, thus obstructing the flow.
This is the minimum temperature at which the vapors of a product flash or detonate momentarily when a flame is applied in controlled conditions. It represents the maximum temperature at which a product can be stored or transported in safe conditions.
This is the temperature at which the crystals formed during the cooling of a product sample disappear completely when the temperature rises in a controlled way
The metals content of a crude, vanadium and nickel, gives us an indication of their content in the heaviest products obtained in the refining. This is important because, for example, the metals in gas oil in vacuum are poison for the catalytic and hydro-cracking catalysts. A high vanadium content or metals in the combustible oil may cause oven and boiler tube breakage problems because they form corrosive products during combustion.
Number of cetane
This measures the ease with which the spontaneous ignition occurs of diesel oil using a standardized engine and a reference fuel.
The cetane rating is determined by making a comparison of the ignition time of a mix of cetane (C16)) and hepta-methyl-nonane (C 15), which has the same delay time in ignition as the fuel being examined. The cetane rating measured is the percentage of the cetane compound in the cetane/hepta-methyl-nonane mix.
The C16 has a cetane rating equal to 100 (it is an easily-ignited paraffin) and C15 has a cetane rating equal to 0 (as being a slow-combustion aromatic).
A high cetane rating represents a high ignition quality or a short delay time between the fuel injection and the start of combustion.
The diesel engine uses a high compression ratio to produce the spontaneous ignition of the diesel, instead of a spark as in the case of the internal combustion engine. The compressed air temperature in the diesel engine is sufficiently high to fire the diesel.
The lineal paraffins have a high cetane rating and therefore burn well; on the other hand, the aromatics are of a low cetane rating and burn badly, producing deposits of carbon and the production of black smoke. For that reason, high-quality diesel should have an aromatic content compatible with the specified cetane rating.
The cetane rating can be calculated based on the volatility (corresponding to the temperature of 50% distilled) and the density of the diesel and is called Calculated Cetane Rating. The reason for using the formula is the high cost of the cetane engine.
Octane number (NOR)
The RVP and NOR are the most important parameters of gasoline quality. The NOR measures the resistance of the gasoline to self-ignition or premature detonation in an engine's functioning conditions.
Self-ignition is noted for the hammering or noise produced when the gasoline self-ignites, detonating before the cylinder compresses all the gasoline and air mixture, losing power. The detonation produces sound waves that are detected using special microphones.
The octane rating is measured by comparing the noise of the detonation made by a reference fuel mixture in a standardized engine with that for which the fuel examined is made. The reference fuels are iso-octane (2, 2, 4 trimethyl pentane), with an octane rating equal to 100 (high resistance to hammering) and the n-heptane which has an octane rating of zero (very low resistance). The octane rating determined is the percentage in volume of iso-octane in the iso-octane/heptane mixture.
Fuels with a high octane rating have greater resistance to premature detonation than those of a lower octane rating. In addition, fuels with a high octane rating can be used in engines with a high compression ratio, which are more efficient.
There are two types of engine for the determination of the octane rating of gasoline. One uses the Research method and the other the Motor method.
The Research method represents the behavior of an engine in cities at low and moderate speeds. The Motor method represents situations with fast acceleration, like climbing gradients or overtaking.
There is another way of expressing the octane rating of a gasoline which is called Highway Octane. The Highway Octane rating is expressed as the sum of the Research octane and the Motor octane ratings divided by 2. The Highway Octane rating is used in the United States while the Research method is used in Chile.
Reid Vapor Pressure (RVP)
The Reid vapor pressure is an empirical test that measures the pressure in pounds per square inch (psi) exercised by the vapors or light components of the crude or of an oil product, in a closed container at a temperature of 100 °F (38 °C).
A high vapor pressure of the crude tells us that light products are present in it and that they will burn in the torch in the processing if there is no suitable recovery system. In the case of an internal combustion engine, excessive vapor pressure will cause a blockage which will impede the flow of gasoline.
Crude oil contains salt (NaCI) which comes from the oil fields or the sea water used as ballast by oil tankers. It is necessary to extract the salt with desalination equipment before the crude oil can enter the atmospheric distillation oven in order to avoid corrosion that is produced in the upper part of the atmospheric tower. The salt decomposes and produces chlorhydric acid. It is expressed in grams of salt per cubic meter of crude.
The temperature at which some products inflame spontaneously in contact with the air (without flame), probably due to the heat the show oxidation produces, which accumulates, raising the temperature to the inflammation point. Fortunately, the oil distillers have very high self-ignition temperatures and are therefore difficult to achieve; this is 450ºC in gasoline. Oily rags, on the other hand, self-ignite easily and cause fires and so should be suitably destroyed.
The ratio of the weight of a substance and the weight of an equal volume of water at the same temperature. In oil, the API specific gravity is used which is measured with hydrometers that float in the liquid. The API grades are read directly on the scale that stands above the liquid at the flotation line point. The API scale arose from the facility of graduating the hydrometer rod uniformly.
°API =141.5/(specific gravity) -131.5
The °API determines whether the crude or product is light or heavy and enables us to calculate the tons of this unloaded. A light crude has an API of 40-50 while a heavy one has 10-24.
Sulfur and the API are the properties with the greatest influence on the price of crude.
This is the resistance to degradation through heat or oxidation of an oil product. Products containing olefinic material are unstable and susceptible to degradation.
The sulfur content permits the foreseeing of difficulties in meeting product and atmospheric emission specifications, as treatment units are needed to meet these; it is also poison for some catalysts. It also enables us to see whether the plant metallurgy is the most suitable for processing it. It is expressed as a percentage in weight of sulfur.
Sulfuric acid (H2S)
A prior knowledge of the sulfuric acid content of the crude permits preventive actions and avoids accidents to people. The sulfhydric acid is very dangerous because it anesthetizes the olfactory nerve which prevents people from being aware of the situation and is mortal in small quantities. Personnel working in contact with the crude have therefore to wear protection equipment and personal sulfhydric acid sensors.
This is the degree of resistance of a liquid to flow. The greater the viscosity, the greater the resistance to flow. Viscosity is affected by the temperature, reducing it when the latter rises. It is measured by using special viscosimeters and is expressed in USS (Universal Saybolt Seconds), FSS (Furol Saybolt Seconds) and in centi-stokes.
Viscosity is important for fuel injection in engines and burners. It is also critical in the pumping of crude oil and products by pipeline. A higher viscosity than that designed for will reduce the desired flow and make a greater pump motor capacity necessary. The viscosity also affects measuring instrument factors, altering the readings.
The measurement of the facility with which a product vaporizes. Volatile products have high steam pressure and a low boiling point. It is measured through the ASTM D86 test and is expressed as the temperature at which certain volumes are distilled.


Commentaries on Alice Walker's "Everyday Use" typically center on Mama's awakening to one daughter's superficiality and to the other's deep-seated understanding of heritage. Most readers agree that when Mama takes the quilts from Dee and gives them to Maggie, she confirms her younger daughter's self-worth: metaphorically, she gives Maggie her voice. Elaine Hedges, for example, refers to the "reconciliation scene" in which "Mama's gift of the family quilts to Maggie empowers the previously silenced and victimized daughter." The text underscores such a reading by stating that immediately...
(The entire page is 1609 words.)
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The Evolution Deceit
The ability to think is one of the greatest blessings granted to people because only by thinking can people be aware of Allah's boundless power and the beauty of the universe He created. Only a thinking person realizes that the world has been created by divine wisdom in every detail, that death is near, and that there are certain obligations that are required to be met in this life. We are told in a large number of Qur'anic verses that only thinking people can heed advice and that they alone are capable of seeing the proofs of Allah's existence. Indeed, the very purpose of the revelation of the Qur'an is for people to think carefully about its verses, as is stated here: "It is a Book We have sent down to you, full of blessing, so let people of intelligence ponder its Signs and take heed." (Surah Sad: 29)
However, a large proportion of humanity regards thinking as a hardship. These people even believe that thinking is damaging to their lives and their set ways. According to this opinion, "the greatest damage" lies in reminding people of their responsibilities in this life and taking them out of the slumbering, empty minded state of heedlessness in which they find themselves. Like a kind of magic spell, this sleep makes people forget why they exist, that there is a purpose in life, and that one day they will die. Another form of this sleep is to be inundated by the daily routines. Perhaps these people feel they spend a great deal of time thinking, making decisions and finding answers, but in fact what they think about does not go beyond the details of their day-to-day needs and impulses. Their thoughts are not related to the purpose of human creation, how the world came into being or the fact that one day every living thing will be buried in the ground. Actions, statements and behaviour learned by rote, taught, and become accustomed to, have such a hold on these people that they do not even feel a need to think about more fundamental realities.
Just as they evade thought, so too do these people escape hastily from warnings given by others; they turn their faces from belief in Allah, thinking about the verses of the Qur'an, and living by His guidance.
But nothing and nobody has been put on the face of the earth for an empty purpose. Allah created every detail in the universe for people to think about. In fact in the Qur'an, Allah announces that he created "… death and life to test which of you is best in action…" (Surat al-Mulk: 2) In this fleeting life, one is put to the test by all his or her deeds. A person has a great responsibility towards Allah Who created him and will resurrect him after death and call for an accounting for his deeds. Reading the Qur'an, taking heed of it, thinking about the verses and comprehending and applying them are amongst every person's principal responsibilities. Allah draws attention to this truth with the verse which reads,"Do they not ponder these words? Has anything come to them that did not come to their ancestors the previous peoples?" (Surat al-Mu'minun: 68)
Thinking people will conclude that such fine detail in the universe and its examples of flawless design mean that it cannot have come into being by accident and that there exists a Creator of all things. By thinking deeply about the miracles created around them and other proofs of Allah's existence, and observing the divine wisdom in the details which He has created, they will give themselves over to Him and live solely for the purpose of earning His approval. Aware of this truth, Satan wants them to live their lives in heedlessness, keep away from Allah's verses and hence to refrain from thought. Allah describes this purpose of Satan's in a verse of the Qur'an:
[Satan said], "… I will lie in ambush for them on your straight path. Then I will come at them, from in front of them and behind them, from their right and from their left... (Surat al-A'raf: 16-17)
In order to achieve this ultimate aim, Satan prepares very special situations to sink people into a state of heedlessness. For this purpose, he makes plans using people's weaker aspects, and attempts to make evil deeds attractive to people's egos. Unlike the faithful, people distanced from religious morality can end up in a state of spiritual heedlessness by forgetting Allah and not thinking about their purpose in life.
For example, Satan can easily waylay people in places of entertainment, because such places are conducive to wasting time and not thinking about anything. In these places what assumes the most importance are the clothes and accessories people wear, the money they spend, and the people around them. With the music so loud that people cannot hear one another, the air so full of smoke they cannot see one another, exploding flashbulbs, loud conversation and yelling, an environment is formed in which people who have no fear of Allah certainly cannot concentrate their attention or think.
Of course it is a great blessing for people to enjoy themselves and come together with others they enjoy talking to. But these days places of entertainment are not those where the name of Allah is mentioned and where people recall their purpose in life. The purpose of creation is entirely forgotten. People who feel no fear of Allah in their hearts and spend their time in such places experience an atmosphere of heedlessness and are left in no condition to consider or understand warnings. In fact, one of the reasons why such people prefer these places is to forget everything and avoid thought, and they often say so. While a person who comes to such a place to, as he expresses it, escape from the troubles of the world, may have been behaving sensibly ten minutes earlier, now he starts to regard any excess as normal. In the name of enjoying themselves, these people see immorality of all kinds as reasonable and become insensitive to what is happening around them. In fact, in environments of this type, breaking plates, overturning tables, throwing napkins, attacks on others with obscene language, and fights reflect only a small part of the kind of heedlessness and immorality into which people can sink.
Concert arenas, football stadiums and other places where large crowds gather only magnify this effect of heedlessness. A large number of people go to such places not to enjoy themselves or to watch an entertaining game or to listen to a beautiful voice but to shout, to fight and to cause trouble, in short to display ugly behaviour of every kind. In such environments, it is utterly impossible for people with no fear of Allah to extract from their minds a single useful thought. It only remains to be said that people in such an uncontrolled environment that encourages violence and immorality, are wide open to the whisperings of Satan so that the obedience of people to Satan's "Don't think!" order is ensured. Allah draws attention to this method of Satan's with this verse: "Stir up any of them you can with your voice and rally against them your cavalry and your infantry and share with them in their children and their wealth and make them promises!.." (Surat al-'Isra: 64)
People whose lives are filled with work and going out to such places of entertainment, where heedlessness reigns, forget that one day they will meet the angel of death. And when they do, it is too late, because this person has passed his worldly life in pursuit of empty practices and has fled from consideration of the verses of the Qur'an. For a person who thinks about death, the transitory nature of life and his responsibilities towards Allah, it is impossible ever to accept such a heedless state. A person who knows that Allah can take his life at any moment and that there will be a reckoning for his every word, thought and action never lets these realities slip his mind in any environment whatsoever and does not surrender to heedlessness.
For a person to continue a life of heedlessness resembles his seeing a truck with brake failure hurtling towards him and failing to get out of the way-even though this is possible-while being fully aware that it is going to hit and crush him. During his life, a person can indulge in excess hundreds or thousands of times, can even spend his entire life in this way, but when death takes him, everything he has experienced is left behind. If a person has passed his time in heedlessness of the existence of Allah, he will realize on the day of his death that this way of life, described in ignorant societies as "making the best of life," has brought him nothing but loss. He will feel regret for all the excesses he indulged in because he forgot Allah and the Day of Judgement. But heedless people ignore Allah's warnings:
Mankind's Reckoning has drawn very close to them, yet they heedlessly turn away. No fresh reminder comes to them from their Lord without their listening to it as if it was a game. Their hearts are distracted... (Surat al-Anbiya': 1-3)2009-08-15 22:15:33


Storage Area Networks (SAN)
The management of storage has become a key issue for IT systems in the last few years. As the amount of storage increases and the demands for high availability of storage becomes more prevalent, having disparate pools of storage across many servers becomes ever more complex to manage.
In the last few years, we have seen an increase in the availability of the Storage Area Network (SAN). In simple terms, this takes all the local disk storage usually found in servers and consolidates it into a single, large pool. However, these devices are more than just a simple NAS box. They concentrate on making that storage highly available as well as providing the tools to carve it up into appropriate capacities.
One of the biggest management headaches with traditional server storage is we typically find large pools of unused storage, while pools on other servers are bursting to the seams. A lot of support time can be spent relocating data and then having to change application configurations (which point to that storage), user short-cuts, shares and drive mappings as well as backup configurations.
The SAN allows these key servers to be provisioned with only a small amount of local storage to hold the operating system. Using a high performance network data access protocol (iSCSI), the required storage is then carved out on the SAN and accessed across the network by the server.
The SAN devices can be made redundant and a well designed solution will be able to suffer the outage of a SAN server with no downtime or performance impact to the network.
SAN is also a key component in designing a redundant VM network. The Virtual Machine hard drives are placed on the SAN storage. The Virtual Hosts then run the virtual machines from the SAN. Systems like VMware VMotion then allow these virtual machines to be moved from one host to another in real-time while they are operating.
After a significant amount of market research, Exmos selected Lefthand Networks (now part of HP) as their partner for SAN. Left Hand Networks were the first SAN OEM to provide high performance iSCSI on their devices (having been built for iSCSI from the ground up).
As well as providing traditional SAN server appliances, HP Lefthand also makes their SAN solution available as a virtual machine (VM). While initially this may seem a somewhat strange idea, it is the ideal starter solution for building a fully redundant VM network running on as few as two traditional servers (whereas with appliances it would require two SAN appliances and two servers). This brings the benefits of SAN/VM easily into the mid range of the SME market place and giving these organisations network redundancy capabilities that just a few years ago were purely in the realm of the enterprise organisation.