document/management/Impact of adoption of yoga way of life on the emotional intelligence of managers conv.txt

IIMB Management Review (2010) 22, 32e41


available at www.sciencedirect.com






journal  homepage:  www.elsevier.com/locate/iimb


IIMB
INDIAN INSTITUTE OF MANAGEMENT BANGALORE




Impact of adoption of yoga way of life on the emotional intelligence of managers

Hasmukh Adhia a, H.R. Nagendra b, B. Mahadevan c,*


a 12, Judges Bungalows, Judges Bungalow Road, Bodakdev, Ahmedabad, India
b Swami Vivekanand Yoga Anusandhan Samsthan, Gavipuram Circle, Kempegowda Nagar, Bangalore, India
c Operations Management, Indian Institute of Management Bangalore, Bannerghatta Road, Bangalore 560076, India Available online 13 April 2010




KEYWORDS Emotional intelligence; Performance improvement;
Yoga;
Experimental study


Abstract	The popular perception that a high intelligence quotient (IQ) is not necessarily a good predictor of professional and personal success has led to a growing interest in under-standing the role of emotional intelligence (EI) in improving the performance of business managers. This paper studies the impact of the yoga way of life on EI using data collected from 60 managers in a business enterprise and reports enhanced EI as a result of the practice of yoga. The results indicate the importance of yoga as an integral element in improving mana-gerial performance in organisations and the need to further explore this construct in greater detail.
ª 2010 Indian Institute of Management Bangalore. All rights reserved.






Introduction

One of the important preoccupations of top management is the improvement of managerial performance. Over the last several decades management researchers have developed constructs to identify the factors that influence managerial performance, and have sought to provide a framework to explain performance. In this context, there is a popular


* Corresponding  author.  Tel.:  þ90  80  26993275;  fax:  þ90  80 26584050.
E-mail address: [email protected] (B. Mahadevan).
0970-3896 ª 2010 Indian Institute of Management Bangalore. All rights reserved. Peer-review under responsibility of Indian Institute of Management Bangalore.
doi:10.1016/j.iimb.2010.03.003

perception  that  individuals  of  seemingly  average  intelli-gence often do well in their professional and personal lives, whereas  people  with  high  IQ  often  struggle  with  life’s challenges. Therefore, it would be useful to question the assumption that general intelligence is a sufficiently good predictor of success in life. Earlier researchers have sug-gested that other attributes may be better determinants (Goleman, 1995; Sternberg, 1993, 1996; Tapia, 2001).
There is a vast repository of knowledge and accumulated experience in India on the role of yoga as a way of life in enabling individuals to lead successful and satisfied lives (see  for  example  Becker,  2000;  Srinivas,  1994).  More specifically, the Bhagavad Gita, which explicates on yoga, sees that yoga begets high efficiency in work (Swami Ran-ganathananda, 2000), opening up possibilities of connec-tions with managerial performance.
This paper builds on the thread suggested above, uti-lising the concept of emotional intelligence (EI) defined by earlier  researchers  to  measure  managerial  performance, and explores the yoga way of life as a potential tool to influence the EI of individuals in a study conducted with managers  of  a  large  organisation.  To  the  best  of  our
Impact of adoption of yoga way of life

knowledge  there  has  been  no  previous  attempt  in  this direction.
The paper is organised as follows: In the next section we introduce the concept of EI and motivate the use of this construct   by   discussing   the   key   findings   from   earlier research. An introduction to the yoga way of life and its usefulness  in  improving  EI  in  particular,  and  managerial performance and satisfaction levels in general follows in the next section. The details of the empirical work carried out as part of this study, and the results, key findings, and their implications are discussed in the later sections.
Our study suggests that the yoga way of life could be a potential contributor to improving the performance of managers, and improving their satisfaction levels. Although the results are based on a single study with a sample of 60 managers from one enterprise, the results are encouraging. Our study motivates further  research into this aspect in multiple  settings,  and  the  generalisation  of  the  results obtained in the study.


Emotional intelligence

Emotional intelligence (EI) is ‘a form of social intelligence that involves the ability to monitor one’s own and others’ feelings and emotions, to discriminate between them, and to use this information to guide one’s thinking and action’ (Salovey & Mayer, 1990, p 5). Goleman (2000) identifies five components  of  EIdself-awareness,  self-regulation,  moti-vation, empathy and social skill (Exhibit 1). An alternative framework as defined by the Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence (2004) is presented in Exhibit 2.
In  a  later  work  Mayer  and  Salovey  defined  EI  as  the ability  to  perceive  emotions,  to  access  and  generate emotions so as to assist thought, to understand emotions and  emotional  knowledge,  and  to  reflectively  regulate emotions  so  as  to  promote  emotional  and  intellectual

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growth (Mayer & Salovey, 1997, p 5). Their definition of EI refers to the underlying intelligence factors that they feel are necessary in order to develop emotional competence (EC) skills. While the definition of EI is useful for making a distinction between general intelligence and emotional intelligence, the concept of EC is relevant if we have to talk about using EI for organisational success. The EC framework identifies two main categoriesdpersonal competence and social competencedwith three clusters in the first category and two in the second. Exhibit 2 shows the major dimen-sions that form the basis of the framework.
A comparison of the dimensions considered by Goleman (1998) and the framework offered by the Consortium for Research  on  Emotional  Intelligence  (2004)  reveals  many similarities,  and  Goleman’s  influence  on  the  latter  is evident. An analysis of these definitions and characteristics of EI leads us to conclude that EI is different from traditional views of intelligence based on cognitive factors suggesting a different kind of aptitude that is founded entirely on non-cognitive aspects of behaviour (Goleman, 2000).
Goleman’s  research,  conducted  in  200  large,  global companies reveals that EIdespecially at the highest levels of a companydis the sine qua non for leadership (Goleman, 2000). A person can have first class training, an incisive mind, and a large supply of good ideas, but without EI it is unlikely that s/he will make a great leader. Goleman (1998) reports that emotional quotient (EQ) is twice as important as technical skills and intelligence quotient (IQ) for success in  jobs  at  all  levels,  more  so  at  the  highest  level  in a company. Goleman suggests that the difference between star  performers  and  average  ones  in  senior  leadership positions  can  be  attributed  more  to  EQ  factors  than  to cognitive abilities. Emotional quotient has a champion in none other than Mahatma Gandhi who opined, ‘I know that ultimately one is guided not by the intellect, but by the heart. The heart accepts a conclusion for which the intel-lect subsequently finds reasoning. Man often finds reason


Exhibit 1	The five components of emotional intelligence at work.
Definition	Hallmarks

Self-awareness


Self-regulation



Motivation



Empathy



Social skill

The ability to recognise and understand one’s moods, emotions and drives, as well as their effect on others

The ability to control or redirect disruptive impulses and moods; comfort with ambiguity A propensity to suspend judgmentdto think before acting
A passion to work for reasons that go beyond money or status
A propensity to pursue goals with energy and persistence
The ability to understand the emotional makeup of other people
Skill in treating people according to their emotional reactions
Proficiency in managing relationships and building networks
The ability to find common ground and build rapport

Self-confidence
Realistic self assessment
Self deprecating sense of humour Trustworthiness and integrity Openness to change


Strong drive to achieve
Optimism, even in the face of failure Organisational commitment

Expertise in building and retaining talent Cross-cultural sensitivity
Service to clients and customers

Effectiveness in leading change Persuasiveness
Expertise in building and leading teams

Source: Goleman (2000).
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Exhibit 2



Framework for emotional intelligence.
Personal competence

H. Adhia et al.



Social competence



Self-awareness




Self-regulation






Self-motivation

Emotional awareness Accurate self assessment Self confidence Leveraging diversity Political awareness
Self control Trustworthiness Conscientiousness Adaptability Innovativeness



Achievement drive Commitment Initiative Optimism

Social awareness




Social skills

Empathy
Service orientation Developing others


Influence Communication Leadership Change catalyst
Conflict management Building bonds
Collaboration and cooperation Team capabilities

Source: Consortium for Research on Emotional Intelligence (2004).


in support of whatever he wants to do’ (in Chakraborty & Chakraborty, 2008, p 41).
Researchers have long debated whether leaders are born or made. One can see a similar debate about EI. Are people born with certain levels of empathy, or do they acquire empathy as a result of life’s experiences? It appears that the  answer  is  ‘both’.  Scientific  inquiry  strongly  suggests that there is a genetic component to EI, and psychological and  developmental  research  indicate  that  nurture  plays a role as well. While the debate on the relative influence of nature and nurture continues, research and practice clearly demonstrate that EI can be learned (Goleman, 2000).

Yoga way of life and its relevance to emotional intelligence

Yoga way of life

Yoga is one of the six foundations of Indian philosophy and has been used for millennia to study, explain, and experi-ence the complexities of the mind and human existence (Feuerstein, 1998). Patanjali, an ancient yoga sage, in his Yoga Sutras, defined yoga as a technique used to still the mental fluctuations of the mind to reach the central reality of  the  true  self  (Iyengar,  1966).  Patanjali’s  Yoga  Sutras outline   a   skilful   way   of   conducting   life   that   fosters moderation and harmony (Becker, 2000). These guidelines, which  include  ethical  and  moral  standards  of  living  in addition to postural and breathing exercises, can be used to foster spiritual growth and evolve one’s consciousness.
The  yoga  way  of  life  encompasses  the  philosophy  of Karma   yoga   (path   of   detached   action),   Jnana   yoga (knowledge  of  self),  Bhakti  yoga  (trust  in  the  supreme order), and Raja yoga (a prescribed set of eight steps also known  as  Ashtanga  yoga).  Karma  yoga  is  the  path  of focusing on the action on hand without selfishness, ego and carelessness as prescribed by Lord Krishna in the Bhagavad Gita (Swami Ranganathananda, 2000). Jnana yoga is the

path  of  knowledge  of  self  (atman)  propagated  by  Adi Shankaracharya  through  an  interpretation  of  the  Upani-shads, considered the most ancient books of Indian wisdom. Bhakti yoga is the path of total surrender to the supreme power which is based on deep rooted faith in God’s justice system. Raja yoga is the path of control of mind though the practice of Ashtanga yoga or the eight fold path given by the sage Patanjali in his Yoga Sutras (Swami Satyananda Saraswati,  1976).  The  eight  steps  of  Ashtanga  yoga  are yama,  niyama,  asana,  pranayama,  pratyahara,  dharana, dhyana  and  samadhi  (see  Swami  Satyananda  Saraswati, 1976).
Based on a review of the literature, we hypothesise that practising the yoga way of life may bring about a complete transformation   of   one’s   personality,   on   the   physical, mental, emotional and spiritual levels.
Yogapsychologyconceivesoftheselfintermsofdifferent levels of being. The inner-most core (atman) is covered by five layers. These layers correspond to a step-wise ladder, leading inward to the atman. The journey inward forms the basis of growth and developmentdthe biological evolution from protozoan to man, the psychological evolution from child to adult, and the enhancement of consciousness from cognitive to universal consciousness, wherein there is no ego, and there is the realisation that the concerns and needs of all people are the same, that what is good for one is good for all. In this growth process, feelings and emotions are accepted as having a place in the general scheme; they are not considered wrong or repressed but are transformed and redirected (Srinivas, 1994).
Chakraborty  and  Chakraborty  (2008)  see  the  human personality as a composite of four subtle variables: reason, will,  emotion  and  conscience.  In  order  to  integrate  the personality, these four factors must be habituated to work in harmony instead of working at cross purposes, and this requires    effort.    Further,    the    expression    ‘integrated personality’ is often employed to imply the same charac-teristics  that  are  expected  of  a  holistic,  self-possessed personality.
Impact of adoption of yoga way of life

An analysis of the work of several religious and other scholars provides a basis to conclude that the yoga way of life significantly impacts leadership traits and improves EI and EC. Swami Vivekananda averred that the highest man is calm, silent and unknown (Swami Vivekananda, 2006). The highest  man  as  a  leader  is  calm  in  order  to  understand situations, and to think and select the best option for his followers’ development. He is silent in order to listen to himself and to his subordinates, to control his prejudices and conditioning, and to meet others’ hearts. Finally, the leader chooses to remain unknown in order to be free from possible egotistic benefits. According to Sri Aurobindo (in Chakraborty & Chakraborty, 2008), ‘The more complete the calm, the mightier the yogic power, the greater the force in action’ (p 201).
According to Swami Tapasyananda (1984), man is an inte-gratedwhole,hismindbeingacomplexoffeeling(emotions), will and intellection. In the four spiritual disciplines (i.e. the four types of yogadRaja, Karma, Bhakti and Jnana), one of these  dominates,  while  the  others,  though  subordinate, complete the discipline. This is the integrated yoga of the Bhagavad Gita. Swami Vivekananda too, in hisinterpretation of Vedanta, gives an equal place to all the four yogas.
The role of yoga in the development of impersonality or the  spiritual  personality  has  been  well  explained  by  Sri Aurobindo  in  his  classic  work,  Essays  on  the  Gita  (Sri Aurobindo,  1942).  According  to  Sri  Aurobindo,  yoga  and knowledge  are  the  two  wings  of  the  soul’s  ascent.  He states, ‘By yoga is meant union through divine works done without desire, with equality of soul to all things and all men, as a sacrifice to the Supreme, while knowledge is that on which this desirelessness, this equality, this power of sacrifices is founded’ (p 191).
Awareness  of  self  within  and  self  in  others,  leads  us towards  ‘something  higher  than  the  ego,  an  infinite,  an impersonal, a universal existence . In other words, man’s way to liberation and perfection lies through an increasing impersonality.’ There are certain signs which are indica-tive of the development of impersonality. These are: the absence  of  personal  egoism;  freedom  from  desire;  the awareness of an impersonal force of love or will; perfect equality between the soul and nature; and fullness of inner joy and peace (Sri Aurobindo, 1942, pp 121, 123).
Dwelling on the artof meditation, Swami Anubhavananda andKumar(2007,p283)holdthatit‘strengthensourmuscles of awareness and choice’, helps in training our mind and changing our attitudes. Proposing ‘emotional maturity’ as another attribute to be cultivated, the authors posit that it can   be   cultivated   through   self-contemplation,   which constitutes evaluating one’s emotions, and identifying and expressing feelings in a poised state of heart and mind. This is a state where an individual recognises his inner self and responds accordingly (p 298).
Relating the philosophy of the Bhagavad Gita to making work  an  enjoyable  experience,  Swami  Bodhananda  Sar-aswati (2007) reiterates the need to engage in the world but remain detached from the fruits of one’s work and to not react to the results of one’s work. Further, he stresses that it is very important to live in constant awareness of oneself so that one has power over one’s thoughts, and can choose responses to the world as per one’s values. This is the   power   that   Patanjali’s   Ashtanga   yoga   enunciates

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through  the  principle  of  controlling  or  mastering  the thought  modifications  of  the  mind  (Swami  Bodhananda Saraswati, 1998).
Patanjali’s	Ashtanga	yoga	encompasses	cognitive learning,   moral   conduct,   physiological   practices   and psychological  therapy.  The  first  two  stepsdyama  and niyamadseek and shape external behaviour and thought patterns and thus minimise disturbances in the mind and the body. The handling of emotional contamination and the removal  of  negative  emotions  such  as  anger,  jealousy, greed,  attachment,  ego,  and  an  excessive  desire  for objects are very important in adopting the yoga way of life. The yama and niyama stages of Ashtanga yoga enable an individual   to   eradicate   such   negative   contamination through  sustained  and  conscious  efforts.  Through  such a process, the individual attains a state of ‘chittasuddhi’ or purity of mind, which is considered to be the starting point of the yoga way of life. Sri Aurobindo too (Chakraborty & Chakraborty, 2008) stresses the need for the ‘chitta’ to be purified before clarity and right knowledge dawn.
On  the  behavioural  side,  abstention  is  sought  from violence, falsehood, dishonesty, sexual excess and acquis-itive tendencies. On the cognitive moral side, the ideals prescribed are purity, contentment, austerity, self study and forbearance. The stages of asana and pranayama are meant  for  disciplining  the  body  and  regulating  subtle energy flows.  In the  fifth  stage of  prayahara,  secondary input is regulated so that the mind is not distracted. The stages of dharana, dhyana and samadhi are for uplifting one’s spiritual self and for heightening consciousness.
According to Patanjali’s Yoga Sutras (Swami Satyananda Saraswati,  1976),  asana  and  pranayama  practices  are supposed to make our body flexible and purify the subtle energy channels of our body. This paves the way for control of one’s mind, which consists of four aspects: random mind, intellect, subconscious mind and ego. Yoga works on all these four subtle aspects of our mind, and thereby makes one  more  self-aware,  empathetic,  motivated  and  self-regulated. These are the very qualities known as emotional intelligence.

Yoga and the work life

A series of techniques collectively known as ‘yoga’ present a  rich  source  for  generating  indigenous  organisational development  techniques  that  may  perhaps  find  better acceptance than imported intervention designs from the West  (Srinivas,  1994).  ‘Originally  developed  for  personal spiritual growth, yoga offers a well formulated approach to planned change’ (Srinivas, 1994, p 271).
On the topic of spirituality in the workplace, Sangster (2003) reemphasises that ‘it is possible to lead a spiritual way of life without following any particular religious path’ (p 16). In Sangster’s opinion, spiritual workers are those who    think    cooperatively    and/or    altruistically;    have a balanced, objective view of the world; listen as much as (or more than) they speak; apply three dimensional bigger picture  thinking;  believe  in  a  higher  driving  force  and purpose beyond humankind; find the time to think things through  objectively;  think  laterally  in  order  to  promote realistic  solutions;  encourage  and  empower  others  self-lessly; work open mindedly with a wide range of people;
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consistently  display  integrity  and  trust;  and,  expect  the best from people without being a soft touch.
Giacalone  and  Jurkiewicz  (2003)  stress  yet  another major advantage of nurturing the spiritual mindset within each  worker  in  the  organisationdethicality.  They  assert that fundamental aspects of workplace spirituality, such as meaningful work that provides a feeling of purpose, a sense of connection and positive social relations with co-workers, and the ability to live an integrated life in which the work role does not conflict with the essential nature of a person as  a   human   being,   may   interact   to  create   different perceptions of ethicality within the organisation (p 85).
Most of the work available on the subject of the impact of  yoga  on  work  life/management  centres  around  the impact   of   transcendental   meditation   (TM)   on   various aspects of management. Transcendental meditation is the skill of effortlessly minimising mental activity so that the body settles into a state of rest deeper than deep sleep while the mind becomes clear and alert (Orme-Johnson, Zimmerman,  &  Hawkins,  1992).  A  review  of  over  500 experimental studies conducted in over 200 Universities in 33 countries (Orme-Johnson et al., 1992) revealed that TM helps expand consciousness, decrease oxygen intake and stress level, increase basal skin resistance and coherence in the electro encephalo gram (EEG) and virtually suspends breathing up to 1 minute.
At the University of Texas, Orme-Johnson et al. (1992) showed that meditators display a greater physiological equi-librium than non-meditators. They also showed that medita-tors maintain this equilibrium under stress more effectively than non-meditators. Frew (1974) completed a study that concludes that TM increases individual productivity. Frew found  that  meditators  show  increased  job  satisfaction, a decreased desire to change jobs, better performance, and better relationships with supervisors and co-workers.
Findings on the TM technique relevant to organisational performance include improved cognitive performance (see Orme-Johnson, Alexander, & Hawkins, 2005 for a recent summary  of  studies),  increased  self-esteem  and  higher levels  of  self-actualisation  and  development  (Alexander, Rainforth, & Gelderloos, 1991), and more effective mana-gerial performance (Torbert, 1987). Previous case studies suggest  that  large  proportions  of  organisation  members practising the TM technique contribute to improvements in organisational  performance  (Schmidt-Wilk,  Alexander,  & Swanson, 1996).
Parde  and  Naidu  (1992)  report  empirical  evidence  to show  that  people  with  a  strong  orientation  to  working sincerely  without  being  preoccupied  with  the  outcome experience less work-related stress. Misra (1989) found that effort orientation rather than concern for outcome leads to greater  intrinsic  satisfaction.  Chakraborty  (1987,  1993) provides   experimental   evidence   that   practising   yoga, meditating, controlling breathing and stilling the turbulent mind can enable workers and managers to purify their mind and make it spiritual, expand their self to include others around them,  and help them grow and transform them-selves without expecting anything in return.
One of the issues that researchers could confront while using a spiritual and philosophical concept such as yoga to address  issues  on  a  materialistic  plane  is  whether  yoga should  be  used  for  the  utilitarian  purpose  of  enhancing

H. Adhia et al.

a company’s performance, and whether a path of individual realisational quest (mukti) can be used to enhance mana-gerial performance. When yoga is interpreted as ‘a way to unite  with  universal  consciousness’  (yujjyate  anena  iti yogah),  it  emphasises  the  individual  realisational  quest aspect of yoga. However, there are other definitions of yoga which point to the possibility of using it as a method of improving one’s quality of living and responses to events.
Yoga is defined as ‘skill in action’ (yogah karmasu kau-salam) in the Bhagavad Gita (Swami Tapasyananda, 1984, Chapter 2, Shloka 50) which discusses yoga explicitly, and further states that one must strive for the state of yoga where ‘One (is) endowed with . unperturbed evenness of mind  (that)  abandons  the effects  of both  good  and  bad actions’ even in this world. The original shloka is as follows:
Buddhiyukto jahati’ha ubhe sukrta-duskrte Tasmad yogaya yujyasva yogah karmasu kausalam

This shloka clearly suggests that yoga can be applied to day-to-day   living,   which   seems   largely   utilitarian.   Sri Aurobindo, (in Chakraborty & Chakraborty, 2008), stating the   power   of   yoga,   reiterates   that   right   knowledge becomes the infallible source of right action (yohgah kar-masu kaushalam) (p 201). To quote Sri Aurobindo fully, ‘The more complete the calm, the mightier the Yogic power, the greater the force in action. In this calm the right knowledge comes. The activity of the mind must cease, the chitta be purified, a silence falls upon the restlessness of prakriti; then in that calm, in that voiceless stillness, illumination comes upon the mind, error begins to fade away.clarity establishes itself in the higher stratum of the conscious-ness, compelling peace and joy in the lower. Right knowl-edge becomes the infallible source of right action. Yohgah karmasu kaushalam.’ (p 201).
In the light of the many definitions and descriptions of yoga, referring to the spiritual and the secular quest, we submit that the realisational vs utilitarian divide is artifi-cial.   A   truly   realisational   objective   has   to   be   all-comprehensive. It is in this context that we have chosen to do empirical research on this subject.


Hypothesis

So far no systematic attempt has been made to conduct a controlled study to identify the impact of adopting the yoga  way  of  life  on  the  emotional  intelligence  (EI)  of managers. We would therefore like to study the relation-ship   between   them   by   hypothesising   the   relationship between the yoga way of life and its impact on the EI of managers in a business organisation.
Goleman (2000) opines that far too many training pro-grammes intended to build leadership skills, including EI, are ineffective because they focus on the wrong part of the brain.
Emotional  intelligence  is  born  largely  in  the  neuro-transmitters of the brain’s limbic system, which governs feelings, impulses, and drives. Research indicates that the limbic  system  learns  best  through  motivation,  extended practice, and feedback. On the other hand, the neocortex, which  governs  analytical  and  technical  ability,  grasps concepts and logic. It is the part of the brain that figures
Impact of adoption of yoga way of life

out how to use a computer or make a sales call by reading a  book.  Not  surprisingly  it  is  also  the  part  of  the  brain mistakenly targeted by most training programmes aimed at enhancing EI. Goleman (2000), quoting his research with the  Consortium  for  Research  on  Emotional  Intelligence, maintains   that   organisational   programmes   which   take a neocortical approach can even have a negative impact on job performance.
We propose a null hypothesis of no impact of yoga way of life on the EI of managers.

Constructs for measurement of emotional intelligence

The scale used for this research was the Self-Reported EI Scale (SREIS) (Schutte et al., 1998), which was developed to reflect Salovey and Mayer’s (1990) original ability model of EI and was validated in relation to dimensions of the Trait Meta-Mood  Scale  (Salovey,  Mayer,  Goldman,  Turvey,  & Palfai, 1995) as well as the characteristics usually identified as  more  relevant  to  trait  models  of  EI  (Goleman,  1995) including alexithymia, optimism and impulse control. This 33-item EI scale assesses multiple aspects of EI including appraisal   and   expression   of   emotions,   regulation   of emotion and utilisation of emotion. Participants rated the extent  to  which  they  agreed  with  each  item  on  7-point Likert type scales ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). The SREIS measure is reported to have good   internal   consistency    and   test-retest   reliability (Schutte  et  al.,  1998),  and  has  demonstrated  predictive validity.
There are other scales available to measure the EI con-structethe Multifactor Emotional Intelligence Scale (MEIS), and a more recent version of this measure viz the Mayer, Salovey,  Caruso  Emotional  Intelligence  Test  (MSCEIT), developed to measure the ability to monitor, discriminate and  manage  emotions  (Mayer  &  Salovey,  1997;  Mayer, Salovey, & Caruso, 2002); the Emotional Quotient Inventory (EQ-i) to measure psychological well-being and adaptation proposed  by  Kemp  et  al.  (2005),  and  the  Emotional Competence  Inventory  (ECI)  for  measuring  social  and emotional competency in the workplace (Goleman, 1995, 1998). MSCEITwas developed as an ability- or performance-based measure of the EI construct. On the other hand, other  measures  such  as  the  EQ-i  or  ECI  are  self-report measures which may reflect ‘perceived’ EI, rather than actual  capacity.  While  the  debate  on  the  best  way  to measure EI continues, some researchers have also argued that the different conceptualisations and measurements of this construct are more complementary than contradic-tory, and that most models and measures of EI share some common elements, including the capacity to perceive and regulate emotions in oneself as well as in others (Ciarrochi, Chan, & Caputi, 2000; Emmerling & Goleman, 2003; Gole-man, 2001; Palmer, 2003).
Some  researchers  maintain  that  self-report  question-naires  are  subject  to  response  bias  which  may  obscure findings concerning the construct of interest (Moorman & Podsakoff, 1992). Individuals who are required to complete self-report questionnaires to apply for or keep a position, may consciously or unconsciously provide answers that are socially desirable (James & Mazerolle, 2002). Therefore,

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the   way   in   which   individuals   respond   on   self-report questionnaires  may  be  a  potential  source  of  inaccuracy (Paulhus  &  Reid,  1991),  which  may  produce  negative consequences for organisations. Self-report measures of EI also  have  the  inherent  propensity  to  be  susceptible  to socially desirable responding.
Downey,  Godfrey,  Hansen,  &  Stough,  (2006)  observe a weak relationship between EI and social desirability (SD). Social   desirability   was   experimentally   manipulated   by examining  the  relationship  between  EI  and  SD  in  two groups. The first group (n Z 34) completed the question-naires anonymously and were told that no feedback would be provided. The second group of participants (n Z 45) were informed that they would receive detailed feedback about their EI. Emotional intelligence did not significantly differ between the two feedback conditions. The results indicated that there is no significant or substantial rela-tionship  between  self-report  EI  and  SD.  In  view  of  this finding our use of self-report questionnaires may not distort the findings of our study significantly.

Yoga way of life and emotional intelligence: empirical study

The  present  study  was  conducted  in  a  manufacturing company in the state of Gujarat in western India, in one of the  units  manufacturing  viscose  staple  fibre  (VSF).  The organisation is a flagship company of a large conglomerate, which ranks among India’s largest private sector companies. The VSF plant where this study was conducted was set up in 1996. The unit where this study was conducted has about 120 people in the managerial cadre and more than 1000  in  the  workers’  category.  The  average  total  work experience of the sample group is 16.11 years. Most of the employees reside in the township of the company, which
made it easy to conduct the intervention of yoga.
The salient aspects of the study methodology are sum-marised below:

 The managers of the company were given the option of participating in this study after the purpose and the modality of this experiment were explained to them. One of the expectations was regularity of attendance for the theory and practice sessions of the proposed study. Written consent for participating in the experi-ment was obtained.
 Those  who  agreed  to  participate  in  the  study  were divided into two equal groups of 42 each; Group 1 was designated as the yoga group and group 2 as the phys-ical exercise group, which was the control group for this experiment.
 The yoga group was given 30 hours of yoga practice (75 minutes every day) and 25 hours of theory lectures on the philosophy of yoga spread over six weeks. The theory lectures were given by the first author of this article and included topics such as definitions of the yoga way of life, implications of the four types of yoga (Raja yoga, Karma yoga, Jnana yoga and Bhakti yoga) on life, analysis of the aspects of true happiness in life, Ashtanga yoga steps and the central theme of univer-sality of consciousness as propounded in these texts.
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The practice sessions for the elements of yoga which included asanas, pranayama and relaxation were con-ducted by a well-trained yoga instructor.
 The  control  group  was  also  given  training  in  normal physical workout for an equal number of hours, and lectures on the success factors in life based on modern thought (that seeks to achieve success by systematic control of factors within one’s area of influence). This was necessary in order to obviate the possibility of the Hawthorne effect on the control group. The topics for theory given to this group included success and happi-ness,  the  importance  of  attitude,  self-image,  good relationship with others, goal setting, the power of the subconscious  mind,  communication,  motivation  and leadership. The practice given to this group included fast  exercises  such  as  spot  jogging,  bending,  body rotation, hand and leg movements etc.
 In order to test the hypothesis, EI was measured for both the groups, before and after the study, with the help  of  a  standard  self-reported  questionnaire.  In addition, measurements of certain physical parameters such as weight, body mass index, blood pressure, and blood sugar were taken for all, before and after the study.
 The required data was taken before the commence-ment  of  the  study  on  17th  September,  2007.  The intervention  to  both  the  groups  was  simultaneously done between 18th September and 24th October, 2007. The   post-study   measurement   was   done   on   24th October, 2007.
 Out of the total of 42 in both groups, there were some who did not attend all the theory and practice classes on several days, and hence only the top 30 (in terms of regularity) were included for both groups in the final sample  for  the  analysis.  This  came  to  a  minimum attendance   figure   of   65%   approximately   for   both groups.  The  profile  of  this  group  is  summarised  in Exhibit 3.

Exhibit  4  schematically  shows  the  study  methodology and the group composition.
As mentioned earlier, yoga should not be equated with asana practice alone. It encompasses a) a moral code of conduct (as given in yama and niyama), b) physical practices (suchasasanaandpranayama),c)thedevelopmentofadeep rooted trust in God’s justice system (Bhakti yoga), d) the adoption of the attitude of putting in one’s best in any piece of work without worrying about the possibility of adverse results(Karmayoga),ande)meditationonthenatureofself.

H. Adhia et al.

Employees in the firm (About 1120)


Control Group	Experiment Group (30 Managers)                                             (30 Managers)


Pre-study               Post-study                    Pre-study               Post-study measurement          measurement               measurement          measurement

Exhibit 4	Schematic representation of the study plan.


In this experiment rigorous training of 55 hours spread over 6 weekswasorganisedfortheyogagroupto instilallthesefive aspects in the experiment group.

Results and implications

Statistical analysis of the data was done using the SPSS. The sample profile given in Exhibit 3 indicates that 80% and 86% of the participants from the yoga group and the control group respectively were from the age group of 21e50, while the rest were above 50. Similarly, 20% of the yoga group and 17% of the control group were from the top management (i.e. deputy general manager and above), while 57% of the yoga group and 63% of the control group were from the line level managers (deputy managers and officers).
In the validity test conducted, the pre-experiment result of the 33-item scale of EI had a Chronbach’s alpha of 0.84 while that of the post-study data of EI showed alpha of 0.85.  The  average  EI  score  for  the  yoga  group  and  the control group was 5.50 and 5.61 respectively before the experiment. The average EI score after the experiment for the yoga group and the control group was 5.97 and 5.55 respectively (Exhibit 5). In the paired t-test of the pre- and post- study data, EI showed significant enhancement in the yoga group (p Z 0.005), but not in the physical exercise group (Exhibit 6). The results further showed that while the difference in the average EI between the yoga group and the physical exercise group was not significant prior to the experiment (thus supporting random choice of samples), the  same  was  statistically  significant  at  the  end  of  the experiment with p Z 0.001 (Exhibit 7).
According to Swami Rama et al. (1976), yoga psychology integrates the behavioural and introspective approaches to growth.  It  provides  a  perspective  from  which  one  can become  disengaged  from  involvement  in  the  unhappy personalities one has created for oneself and in the nega-tive role one has adopted. It moves quickly to a training


Exhibit 3	Profile of sample.
Group	Total	Exhibit 5	Average scores of emotional intelligence (EI)



Age	21e50
51 and above


Yoga
24 (80.0%) 6 (20.0%)


Physical
26 (86.7%) 4 (13.3%)



50 (83.3%) 10 (16.7%)

(pre- and post-intervention).
Group


n	Mean    Std deviation




Level    Line level Middle level Top level


17 (56.7%) 7 (23.3%) 6 (20.0%)


19 (63.3%) 6 (20.0%) 5 (16.7%)


36 (60.0%) 13 (21.7%) 11 (18.3%)

Average scores
of pre-intervention EI Average scores
of post-intervention EI

Yoga	30    5.50	0.63 Physical    30    5.61	0.57 Yoga	30    5.97	0.48 Physical    30    5.55	0.46
Impact of adoption of yoga way of life	39


Exhibit 6
Group

Paired t-test for emotional intelligence (EI) for yoga and physical group.
Paired differences	t	df	Sig (2 tailed)




Yoga

Physical


Average of post-intervention EI e pre-intervention EI
Average of pre-intervention EI e post-intervention EI

Mean	Std deviation 0.47	ÿ0.85

ÿ0.06	ÿ0.59

Std error mean
ÿ0.15	3.03	29	0.005

ÿ0.11	ÿ0.57	29	0.574




programme for changing habits, thought patterns and self concepts (p 305).
In this context, spirituality in the workplace is of much interest to researchers. Mohamed, Wisnieski, Askar, & Syed (2004) present four interesting advantages in their review of workers who maintain the spiritual mindset. First they claim that the stronger the spiritual factor of personality, the more tolerant the person is of work failure and less susceptible to stress (p 102); the more s/he favours the democratic style of leadership, and the higher is her/his trust in and tolerance of human diversity; the more s/he exhibits altruistic and citizenship behaviour, and the more is her/his commitment to the organisation and work group. Our study is consistent with these findings, indicating that a systematic adoption of the yoga way of life can result in better EI among managers, thus paving the way for their better performance as managers.
In  most  organisations,  leaders  play  a  pivotal  role  in driving performance. There are several leadership training programmes being conducted by successful companies. But the yoga way of life is seldom taught systematically as part of these training programmes.
Currently yoga methods are taught in India and several Western countries in a more general platform as a means to de-stress individuals and improve personal satisfaction. It would be beneficial to provide systematic exposure to the knowledge enshrined in the texts emphasising the yoga way of life to all managerial cadres of companies. Our study shows that such an initiative would help them personally as well as professionally. They can become more self-aware and self-regulated individuals, with a proper perspective of life and various relationships. In the Indian context, the assimilation of this knowledge could be better and easier, since Indians would probably have some prior exposure to these  concepts.  Psychological  counselling  sessions  could include  a  significant  component  of  yoga  practices  to improve the efficacy of such interventions.
There are certainaspects that needto be followed during the  implementation  of these  ideas.  First  of all,  the  top managers of the company have to be convinced about the

utility of this idea. They should themselves have the neces-sary trust in this philosophy and the results it can bring. One of the potential challenges to the yoga way of life is the apprehension  of  ‘renunciation  effects’  in  a  productive working  environment  characteristic  of  business  organisa-tions, which look to nurture the ‘killer instinct’ of their executives. Such apprehensions are the result of a lack of understandingofthetrueconceptsofyoga.Forexample,far from being against ‘goal orientation’, the dynamic concept of karma yoga enables an individual to be free from all worriesandpropelshimtoactionimmediately.Alsoaperson who is not excessively worried about the results would be a true risk taker, who will take tough decisions in the best interests of his organisation.
Once convinced about the utility of this training in the yoga way of life, the tougher challenge lies in finding the right  people  to  train  company  executives.  Further,  the training has to be continuous, and repeated periodically. Acceptance of the yoga way of life and the right environ-ment  for  it  has  to  be  built  into  the  company  policy. Reciprocally, the company policies have also to pass the test of the yoga way in terms of adhering to the ethical-moral code prescribed in yama and niyama.

Conclusions

Our study has been successful in establishing the usefulness of  the  yoga  framework  for  the  enhancement  of  the emotional intelligence of an employee. However, the key to success   lies   in   giving   employees   total   knowledge   of yogadboth theory and practicedin a systematic manner. If the trainer himself is not perfect, the results may vary. Moreover in the current study we have not attempted to analyse whether the age profile has an impact. Conducting a larger study with separate samples for various age profiles may give more insights.
The results obtained in this study point to the need to conduct similar experiments in other organisational settings and with a larger sample size. As in the case of similar experiments, different instruments for measuring EI may be



Exhibit 7	Independent t-test comparing two groups pre- and post- intervention for emotional intelligence.
Comparison between	Levene’s test for quality of variance	t-test for equality of means

two groups (Equal variance assumed)
Pre-intervention Post-intervention


F	Sig.


0.048                             0.828 0.235                             0.630


t	df


ÿ0.742      58 3.407      58


Sig
(2 tailed)

0.461 0.001


Mean difference

ÿ0.115 0.414


Std error difference

0.155 0.121
40

tried in place of the self-report format used here, so that the social desirability angle may also be accounted for. It would also be useful to study dimensions such as the extent of ‘burn out’ of the positive effects of the yoga way of life through longitudinal studies of EI and EC.
The study also opens up debates on some of the larger issues  related  to  the  theme  of  yoga,  managerial  effec-tiveness and the use of statistical tools in empirical study. At  a  philosophical  level,  the  yoga  way  of  life  seeks  to unite	the	individual	consciousness	with	universal consciousness.  At  the  empirical  level,  the  efficacy  of scientific scrutiny needs to be tested by conducting more studies.  Also  it  may  call  for  handling  more  qualitative data   and   experiential   data   than   quantitative   data. Developing   better   research   methodologies   to   handle these  unique  aspects  is  another  area  that  may  require further work in the future.


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