HamdanXI/lj-inprogress · Datasets at Hugging Face

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	Printing, in the only sense with which we are at present concerned, differs from most if not from all the arts and crafts represented in the Exhibition
	in being comparatively modern.
	For although the Chinese took impressions from wood blocks engraved in relief for centuries before the woodcutters of the Netherlands, by a similar process
	produced the block books, which were the immediate predecessors of the true printed book,
	the invention of movable metal letters in the middle of the fifteenth century may justly be considered as the invention of the art of printing.
	And it is worth mention in passing that, as an example of fine typography,
	the earliest book printed with movable types, the Gutenberg, or "forty-two line Bible" of about 1455,
	has never been surpassed.
	Printing, then, for our purpose, may be considered as the art of making books by means of movable types.
	Now, as all books not primarily intended as picture-books consist principally of types composed to form letterpress,
	it is of the first importance that the letter used should be fine in form;
	especially as no more time is occupied, or cost incurred, in casting, setting, or printing beautiful letters
	than in the same operations with ugly ones.
	And it was a matter of course that in the Middle Ages, when the craftsmen took care that beautiful form should always be a part of their productions whatever they were,
	the forms of printed letters should be beautiful, and that their arrangement on the page should be reasonable and a help to the shapeliness of the letters themselves.
	The Middle Ages brought calligraphy to perfection, and it was natural therefore
	that the forms of printed letters should follow more or less closely those of the written character, and they followed them very closely.
	The first books were printed in black letter, i.e. the letter which was a Gothic development of the ancient Roman character,
	and which developed more completely and satisfactorily on the side of the "lower-case" than the capital letters;
	the "lower-case" being in fact invented in the early Middle Ages.
	The earliest book printed with movable type, the aforesaid Gutenberg Bible, is printed in letters which are an exact imitation
	of the more formal ecclesiastical writing which obtained at that time; this has since been called "missal type,"
	and was in fact the kind of letter used in the many splendid missals, psalters, etc., produced by printing in the fifteenth century.
	But the first Bible actually dated (which also was printed at Maintz by Peter Schoeffer in the year 1462)
	imitates a much freer hand, simpler, rounder, and less spiky, and therefore far pleasanter and easier to read.
	On the whole the type of this book may be considered the ne-plus-ultra of Gothic type,
	especially as regards the lower-case letters; and type very similar was used during the next fifteen or twenty years not only by Schoeffer,
	but by printers in Strasburg, Basle, Paris, Lubeck, and other cities.
	But though on the whole, except in Italy, Gothic letter was most often used
	a very few years saw the birth of Roman character not only in Italy, but in Germany and France.
	In 1465 Sweynheim and Pannartz began printing in the monastery of Subiaco near Rome,
	and used an exceedingly beautiful type, which is indeed to look at a transition between Gothic and Roman,
	but which must certainly have come from the study of the twelfth or even the eleventh century MSS.
	They printed very few books in this type, three only; but in their very first books in Rome, beginning with the year 1468,
	they discarded this for a more completely Roman and far less beautiful letter.
	But about the same year Mentelin at Strasburg began to print in a type which is distinctly Roman;
	and the next year Gunther Zeiner at Augsburg followed suit;
	while in 1470 at Paris Udalric Gering and his associates turned out the first books printed in France, also in Roman character.
	The Roman type of all these printers is similar in character,
	and is very simple and legible, and unaffectedly designed for use; but it is by no means without beauty.
	It must be said that it is in no way like the transition type of Subiaco,
	and though more Roman than that, yet scarcely more like the complete Roman type of the earliest printers of Rome.
	A further development of the Roman letter took place at Venice.
	John of Spires and his brother Vindelin, followed by Nicholas Jenson, began to print in that city,
	1469, 1470;
	their type is on the lines of the German and French rather than of the Roman printers.
	Of Jenson it must be said that he carried the development of Roman type as far as it can go:
	his letter is admirably clear and regular, but at least as beautiful as any other Roman type.
	After his death in the "fourteen eighties," or at least by 1490, printing in Venice had declined very much;
	and though the famous family of Aldus restored its technical excellence, rejecting battered letters,
	and paying great attention to the "press work" or actual process of printing,
	yet their type is artistically on a much lower level than Jenson's, and in fact
	they must be considered to have ended the age of fine printing in Italy.
	Jenson, however, had many contemporaries who used beautiful type,
	some of which -- as, e.g., that of Jacobus Rubeus or Jacques le Rouge -- is scarcely distinguishable from his.
	It was these great Venetian printers, together with their brethren of Rome, Milan,
	Parma, and one or two other cities, who produced the splendid editions of the Classics, which are one of the great glories of the printer's art,
	and are worthy representatives of the eager enthusiasm for the revived learning of that epoch. By far,
	the greater part of these Italian printers, it should be mentioned, were Germans or Frenchmen, working under the influence of Italian opinion and aims.
	It must be understood that through the whole of the fifteenth and the first quarter of the sixteenth centuries
	the Roman letter was used side by side with the Gothic.
	Even in Italy most of the theological and law books were printed in Gothic letter,
	which was generally more formally Gothic than the printing of the German workmen,
	many of whose types, indeed, like that of the Subiaco works, are of a transitional character.
	This was notably the case with the early works printed at Ulm, and in a somewhat lesser degree at Augsburg.
	In fact Gunther Zeiner's first type (afterwards used by Schussler) is remarkably like the type of the before-mentioned Subiaco books.
	In the Low Countries and Cologne, which were very fertile of printed books, Gothic was the favorite.
	The characteristic Dutch type, as represented by the excellent printer Gerard Leew, is very pronounced and uncompromising Gothic.
	This type was introduced into England by Wynkyn de Worde, Caxton's successor,
	and was used there with very little variation all through the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and indeed into the eighteenth.
	Most of Caxton's own types are of an earlier character, though they also much resemble Flemish or Cologne letter.
	After the end of the fifteenth century the degradation of printing, especially in Germany and Italy,
	went on apace; and by the end of the sixteenth century there was no really beautiful printing done:
	the best, mostly French or Low-Country, was neat and clear, but without any distinction;
	the worst, which perhaps was the English, was a terrible falling-off from the work of the earlier presses;
	and things got worse and worse through the whole of the seventeenth century, so that in the eighteenth printing was very miserably performed.
	In England about this time, an attempt was made (notably by Caslon, who started business in London as a type-founder in 1720)
	to improve the letter in form.
	Caslon's type is clear and neat, and fairly well designed;
	he seems to have taken the letter of the Elzevirs of the seventeenth century for his model:
	type cast from his matrices is still in everyday use.
	In spite, however, of his praiseworthy efforts, printing had still one last degradation to undergo.
	The seventeenth century founts were bad rather negatively than positively.
	But for the beauty of the earlier work they might have seemed tolerable.
	It was reserved for the founders of the later eighteenth century to produce letters which are positively ugly, and which, it may be added,
	are dazzling and unpleasant to the eye owing to the clumsy thickening and vulgar thinning of the lines:
	for the seventeenth-century letters are at least pure and simple in line. The Italian, Bodoni, and the Frenchman, Didot,
	were the leaders in this luckless change, though our own Baskerville, who was at work some years before them, went much on the same lines;
	but his letters, though uninteresting and poor, are not nearly so gross and vulgar as those of either the Italian or the Frenchman.
	With this change the art of printing touched bottom,
	so far as fine printing is concerned, though paper did not get to its worst till about 1840.
	The Chiswick press in 1844 revived Caslon's founts, printing for Messrs. Longman the Diary of Lady Willoughby.
	This experiment was so far successful that about 1850 Messrs. Miller and Richard of Edinburgh
	were induced to cut punches for a series of "old style" letters.
	These and similar founts, cast by the above firm and others,
	have now come into general use and are obviously a great improvement on the ordinary "modern style" in use in England, which is in fact the Bodoni type
	a little reduced in ugliness. The design of the letters of this modern "old style" leaves a good deal to be desired,
	and the whole effect is a little too gray, owing to the thinness of the letters.
	It must be remembered, however, that most modern printing is done by machinery on soft paper, and not by the hand press,
	and these somewhat wiry letters are suitable for the machine process, which would not do justice to letters of more generous design.

Printing, in the only sense with which we are at present concerned, differs from most if not from all the arts and crafts represented in the Exhibition

in being comparatively modern.

For although the Chinese took impressions from wood blocks engraved in relief for centuries before the woodcutters of the Netherlands, by a similar process

produced the block books, which were the immediate predecessors of the true printed book,

the invention of movable metal letters in the middle of the fifteenth century may justly be considered as the invention of the art of printing.

And it is worth mention in passing that, as an example of fine typography,

the earliest book printed with movable types, the Gutenberg, or "forty-two line Bible" of about 1455,

has never been surpassed.

Printing, then, for our purpose, may be considered as the art of making books by means of movable types.

Now, as all books not primarily intended as picture-books consist principally of types composed to form letterpress,

it is of the first importance that the letter used should be fine in form;

especially as no more time is occupied, or cost incurred, in casting, setting, or printing beautiful letters

than in the same operations with ugly ones.

And it was a matter of course that in the Middle Ages, when the craftsmen took care that beautiful form should always be a part of their productions whatever they were,

the forms of printed letters should be beautiful, and that their arrangement on the page should be reasonable and a help to the shapeliness of the letters themselves.

The Middle Ages brought calligraphy to perfection, and it was natural therefore

that the forms of printed letters should follow more or less closely those of the written character, and they followed them very closely.

The first books were printed in black letter, i.e. the letter which was a Gothic development of the ancient Roman character,

and which developed more completely and satisfactorily on the side of the "lower-case" than the capital letters;

the "lower-case" being in fact invented in the early Middle Ages.

The earliest book printed with movable type, the aforesaid Gutenberg Bible, is printed in letters which are an exact imitation

of the more formal ecclesiastical writing which obtained at that time; this has since been called "missal type,"

and was in fact the kind of letter used in the many splendid missals, psalters, etc., produced by printing in the fifteenth century.

But the first Bible actually dated (which also was printed at Maintz by Peter Schoeffer in the year 1462)

imitates a much freer hand, simpler, rounder, and less spiky, and therefore far pleasanter and easier to read.

On the whole the type of this book may be considered the ne-plus-ultra of Gothic type,

especially as regards the lower-case letters; and type very similar was used during the next fifteen or twenty years not only by Schoeffer,

but by printers in Strasburg, Basle, Paris, Lubeck, and other cities.

But though on the whole, except in Italy, Gothic letter was most often used

a very few years saw the birth of Roman character not only in Italy, but in Germany and France.

In 1465 Sweynheim and Pannartz began printing in the monastery of Subiaco near Rome,

and used an exceedingly beautiful type, which is indeed to look at a transition between Gothic and Roman,

but which must certainly have come from the study of the twelfth or even the eleventh century MSS.

They printed very few books in this type, three only; but in their very first books in Rome, beginning with the year 1468,

they discarded this for a more completely Roman and far less beautiful letter.

But about the same year Mentelin at Strasburg began to print in a type which is distinctly Roman;

and the next year Gunther Zeiner at Augsburg followed suit;

while in 1470 at Paris Udalric Gering and his associates turned out the first books printed in France, also in Roman character.

The Roman type of all these printers is similar in character,

and is very simple and legible, and unaffectedly designed for use; but it is by no means without beauty.

It must be said that it is in no way like the transition type of Subiaco,

and though more Roman than that, yet scarcely more like the complete Roman type of the earliest printers of Rome.

A further development of the Roman letter took place at Venice.

John of Spires and his brother Vindelin, followed by Nicholas Jenson, began to print in that city,

1469, 1470;

their type is on the lines of the German and French rather than of the Roman printers.

Of Jenson it must be said that he carried the development of Roman type as far as it can go:

his letter is admirably clear and regular, but at least as beautiful as any other Roman type.

After his death in the "fourteen eighties," or at least by 1490, printing in Venice had declined very much;

and though the famous family of Aldus restored its technical excellence, rejecting battered letters,

and paying great attention to the "press work" or actual process of printing,

yet their type is artistically on a much lower level than Jenson's, and in fact

they must be considered to have ended the age of fine printing in Italy.

Jenson, however, had many contemporaries who used beautiful type,

some of which -- as, e.g., that of Jacobus Rubeus or Jacques le Rouge -- is scarcely distinguishable from his.

It was these great Venetian printers, together with their brethren of Rome, Milan,

Parma, and one or two other cities, who produced the splendid editions of the Classics, which are one of the great glories of the printer's art,

and are worthy representatives of the eager enthusiasm for the revived learning of that epoch. By far,

the greater part of these Italian printers, it should be mentioned, were Germans or Frenchmen, working under the influence of Italian opinion and aims.

It must be understood that through the whole of the fifteenth and the first quarter of the sixteenth centuries

the Roman letter was used side by side with the Gothic.

Even in Italy most of the theological and law books were printed in Gothic letter,

which was generally more formally Gothic than the printing of the German workmen,

many of whose types, indeed, like that of the Subiaco works, are of a transitional character.

This was notably the case with the early works printed at Ulm, and in a somewhat lesser degree at Augsburg.

In fact Gunther Zeiner's first type (afterwards used by Schussler) is remarkably like the type of the before-mentioned Subiaco books.

In the Low Countries and Cologne, which were very fertile of printed books, Gothic was the favorite.

The characteristic Dutch type, as represented by the excellent printer Gerard Leew, is very pronounced and uncompromising Gothic.

This type was introduced into England by Wynkyn de Worde, Caxton's successor,

and was used there with very little variation all through the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries, and indeed into the eighteenth.

Most of Caxton's own types are of an earlier character, though they also much resemble Flemish or Cologne letter.

After the end of the fifteenth century the degradation of printing, especially in Germany and Italy,

went on apace; and by the end of the sixteenth century there was no really beautiful printing done:

the best, mostly French or Low-Country, was neat and clear, but without any distinction;

the worst, which perhaps was the English, was a terrible falling-off from the work of the earlier presses;

and things got worse and worse through the whole of the seventeenth century, so that in the eighteenth printing was very miserably performed.

In England about this time, an attempt was made (notably by Caslon, who started business in London as a type-founder in 1720)

to improve the letter in form.

Caslon's type is clear and neat, and fairly well designed;

he seems to have taken the letter of the Elzevirs of the seventeenth century for his model:

type cast from his matrices is still in everyday use.

In spite, however, of his praiseworthy efforts, printing had still one last degradation to undergo.

The seventeenth century founts were bad rather negatively than positively.

But for the beauty of the earlier work they might have seemed tolerable.

It was reserved for the founders of the later eighteenth century to produce letters which are positively ugly, and which, it may be added,

are dazzling and unpleasant to the eye owing to the clumsy thickening and vulgar thinning of the lines:

for the seventeenth-century letters are at least pure and simple in line. The Italian, Bodoni, and the Frenchman, Didot,

were the leaders in this luckless change, though our own Baskerville, who was at work some years before them, went much on the same lines;

but his letters, though uninteresting and poor, are not nearly so gross and vulgar as those of either the Italian or the Frenchman.

With this change the art of printing touched bottom,

so far as fine printing is concerned, though paper did not get to its worst till about 1840.

The Chiswick press in 1844 revived Caslon's founts, printing for Messrs. Longman the Diary of Lady Willoughby.

This experiment was so far successful that about 1850 Messrs. Miller and Richard of Edinburgh

were induced to cut punches for a series of "old style" letters.

These and similar founts, cast by the above firm and others,

have now come into general use and are obviously a great improvement on the ordinary "modern style" in use in England, which is in fact the Bodoni type

a little reduced in ugliness. The design of the letters of this modern "old style" leaves a good deal to be desired,

and the whole effect is a little too gray, owing to the thinness of the letters.

It must be remembered, however, that most modern printing is done by machinery on soft paper, and not by the hand press,

and these somewhat wiry letters are suitable for the machine process, which would not do justice to letters of more generous design.

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