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Climate Change

Are electric cars a solution to climate change?

no_statement

"electric" "cars" are not a "solution" to "climate" "change".. "electric" vehicles do not effectively address "climate" "change".. the adoption of "electric" "cars" does not solve the problem of "climate" "change".

https://www.advent.energy/2019/02/01/htpem-methanol-fuel-cell-electric-car/

Methanol: the Surprising Solution for Pollution, Global Warming and ...

Electric cars are here to stay, and their numbers are growing 60% per year. More than 1 million EVs were sold in 2017, and moderate predictions call for 10 million in 2025, and more than 30 million in 2030 (1). Others are more optimistic and have upgraded these forecasts significantly. Unfortunately, a growing EV market share will not affect significantly global warming any time soon. Even if we change all cars to EVs tomorrow, what this will mean worldwide is more CO2 emissions from coal-fired power plants in China and other developing regions of the world. Many experts across the world suggest that the ultimate solution would be to use carbon-neutral fuels for transportation and other energy storage and generation needs. The basic concept behind carbon neutral fuels (also called e-fuels) is to combine carbon dioxide, water, and electricity to produce Methanol and DME (dimethyl ether) (16). In this way, we store and transport liquid electricity, (liquid sunshine) to fuel EVs, marine vessels, trains, drones, and generate stationary, portable, and back-up power. E-fuels produced by carbon dioxide recycling would reduce CO2 emissions by 98%, virtually solving the problem and leading to a sustainable energy ecosystem. There is a precedent in nature, and that’s nature itself. Plants use sunshine, carbon dioxide, and water (CO2+H2O+Electricity) to produce glucose (liquid energy). Water and carbon dioxide become the energy carriers, and the cycle of carbon recycling remains stable without depleting fossil fuels or destroying the environment. How expensive would that be? The cost of producing green methanol through carbon recycling is already at the level of economic feasibility in many Western European countries (9, 15). As an interim step, natural gas primarily (and even coal) can be converted to methanol. This vvision is promoted by China, India, and many other countries, with billions of subsidies already in the works (8). The initial focus is on commercial EVs with many more coming in 2019. Some companies are already producing hybrid buses that feature half the Li-ion battery, no air pollutants, twice the range, a methanol tank, and a range-extender (electrochemical fuel cell). The Opportunity and the Problem Today, China is leading the transition to electric vehicles accounting for 50% of new vehicles and expected to remain close to 40% in the foreseeable future (1). Furthermore, most Chinese manufacturers are fully committed to developing low-cost electric cars, and almost one in five cars sold in China by 2025 will be an EV. This S-curve rate of growth is going to disrupt the transportation and energy industries. These developments, coupled with a shared autonomous EV fleet model that is gaining traction and feasibility, will change our everyday lives and cities completely. Some futurists (6) predict that the change is going to be even more dramatic and all ICE cars will soon disappear from the roads, primarily because the cost of using a shared EV will be one-tenth of owning a vehicle. Unfortunately, the EV revolution will have minimal effect on the world climate and GHG emissions at least for the next two decades. This is ironic given that most people in California and Norway buy the EVs with global warming and carbon footprint in mind. The Problem of Greenhouse Gas Emissions Renewables are growing very fast (natural gas is second) but under optimistic predictions, they will barely meet 20% of the global needs by 2040, while gas, oil, and coal will account for more than 70%. China and India (followed by Africa and other non-OECD countries) will be responsible for the increase in energy demand in the following decades (2). China and India do not have oil, and they are very interested in changing their vehicles to electric for many reasons: To grow economically without depending on oil To lead the next era of transportation To solve the air pollution problem that has become a life and death issue for their citizens. Breathing the air in Delhi was recently measured as equivalent to smoking 44 cigarettes per day, while China was forced to declare war on air pollution in 2014. It still has a long way to go (3), (4), (5). Unfortunately, for global warming, what China and India do have is coal. Coal is already responsible for more than 60% of the electricity produced in China and India (7), and despite China leading the renewable revolution installations as well, coal use is expected to remain very high for decades to come. So, all these electric cars will improve air quality (no NOx, SOx pollutants) even on non-OECD megacities but will do little to reduce GHG emissions worldwide. How little? According to some experts even if we switched all cars to electric, in the USA, we would see only a 19% improvement; moreover it would cost trillions in direct cost (and more in indirect) to make this change. The numbers from China show a 12% reduction at best. The unfortunate scenario we are looking at is coal-fired plants used to power EVs and a transition of four to five decades resulting in insignificant GHG reduction. We should expect innovation and S-curve Silicon Valley magic to make this transition radically faster on the EV manufacturing side. We can project that we’ll have no problem mass-producing cheap EVs and technology will overcome the problems of lithium and cobalt supply. On the other hand, history indicates that energy transitions take a century or more. It is one thing to mass-produce electric cars by the millions—we have done this repeatedly in other industries—but switching economies to new energy resources is a very slow process especially when developing countries, that need to feed billions of citizens, are involved. Natural gas entered the picture a century ago and even in the developing world is still in growth mode. The Western world obsesses about ZEVs, while millions of households in India and Africa still burn wood to cook and heat their homes. Is Hydrogen the Solution? Some people are betting on hydrogen to become the fuel of the future, but many things work against this prediction, in the short-term at least. Perception: Fuel Cells that convert hydrogen to electricity have been around for decades, and the bets on them have not paid off. There is very little to no investment in the USA in fuel cells. Most of the investment is in China, Japan, and South Korea. Sectors without investment cannot attract talent or achieve economies of scale thus falling into a vicious circle. Cost is not the problem. Many great companies have made significant progress in making fuel cells affordable. The Department of Energy (12) predicts that by 2020 fuel cells will cost $40/kW for automotive applications. We are at $53/kW now, and most likely we will get there, showcasing an order of magnitude improvement in the last decade. Hydrogen is the problem. Or rather the lack of hydrogen. Electrolysis will eventually be cost-effective, and we’ll be able to produce clean and reasonably-priced hydrogen. But hydrogen is hard to transport, it is a gas that needs to be compressed to 700bar, and more importantly, there are no hydrogen refill stations. Given an estimated construction cost of $1.5 million and more per refill station, it would cost trillions of dollars to create a global hydrogen infrastructure just for transportation and dispensing. The investments needed in production and transportation would also be immense. We are Out of Time Climate change is here and is causing unprecedented damage. It affects millions of lives, and unless it is reversed, it will have devastating effects on billions of lives and destroy the economy. Unfortunately, such statements have fallen to deaf ears for decades now and have been canceled out by the need for economic growth and energy independence. A recent report by the Chinese Academy of Sciences (8) and Stanford (10) describes this as the 3E problem (Economic Growth, Environmental Conservation and Energy Security. The European Commission agrees that a new vision is needed to decarbonize the world as soon as possible (13). We need to think out of the box to achieve convergence of environmental, economic and geopolitical priorities. The proposed roadmap must be bold, address the majority of GHG emissions, not just the PR side of it, and yet achieve balance and foster economic growth. Methanol: The benefits of a liquid fuel There is another way to store, transport, and use hydrogen to refill our vehicles and power our economy: Methanol (11). Unlike hydrogen, methanol is liquid, and there is an infrastructure of ships, trucks, trains, to transport and gas stations to dispense liquid fuels. The required investment for switching from oil to methanol for transportation would be minimal. China (8) is estimating that it would require only $10-$15 billion to switch to a methanol infrastructure vs. $3 trillion for hydrogen and $1 trillion for battery infrastructure. These costs multiply by 6x for global infrastructure and in their majority have to be incurred by the poorest regions of the world (not the OECD countries). If we want to be realistic and effective, we need a cost-effective solution for all eight billion of us, starting with the poorest nations. Various recent reports (10) from China, India, and Western Europe analyze why methanol is the missing piece of the transformation roadmap we need. Methanol complements the advancements in solar, wind, batteries and hydrogen technology, and closes the loop. What is methanol: Methanol (CH3OH) (11) is the simplest alcohol. It has been used as an alternative fuel on internal combustion engines since the beginning of the automobile industry, and in China, it covers 8% of transportation fueling needs already. It is mostly used in industrial applications, it is considered safer than diesel, hydrogen or other alternatives, and it is biodegradable in water. Methanol is a liquid fuel thus the already available world network of transportation (ships, trains, trucks) and dispensing (gas stations) would need only small modifications to support it. How it is produced: Methanol is produced mostly from natural gas (or even coal) currently. Its pricing is highly competitive to gasoline. Methanol is cleaner now: Even in the case of China, where some methanol is produced from coal, a methanol fuel cell vehicle would produce 44% less CO2 than a diesel one, and surprisingly it would produce 37% less CO2/kWh than a battery vehicle. Also, deriving electricity from methanol via a fuel cell means no high-temperature combustion, and therefore no SOx or NOx pollution. But the promise of methanol is much bigger: We can produce methanol by combining wind and solar power, CO2, and water, solving the problem of GHG emissions once and for all. The promise of a sustainable, inexhaustible fuel: Facilities that produce green methanol exist already in Iceland, the Netherlands, and some Asian countries. Multiple advanced research and development efforts are underway worldwide to reduce the cost. Pilot plants already demonstrate a cost that would be competitive with gasoline in many countries (especially in Western Europe). As the cost of renewable power drops, catalysts and materials improve, and excess capacity at off-peak periods remains underutilized, we can soon expect the cost of green methanol to be widely competitive, especially if demand increases significantly. We can also envision a very efficient cycle where methanol is produced from coal or natural gas, and the resulting carbon dioxide is captured and reused for green methanol production. It will take investment and time, but mass production of green methanol is fifteen or less, not fifty, years away. The transition to green fuels would result in a carbon neutral ecosystem, very much resembling the way nature itself has recycled CO2 for millions of years. In fact, we would be fully imitating nature, as plants use sunshine, carbon dioxide, and water to produce glucose (their liquid fuel). Storage and Transportation: Methanol might be a liquid fuel, but it is not an alternative to solar, it is the way to store and transport wind and solar power. The challenge with renewable energy today is not the cost of production that keeps dropping but the cost of storage and transmission. Converting sunshine and wind to liquid alcohol fuels leverages the existing oil economy infrastructure (from gas stations to tankers). Utilizing the current infrastructure minimizes the cost and logistics of transporting a clean fuel while leveraging sunk-in costs. Liquid fuels have a much higher energy density than batteries or hydrogen. Batteries storing the same energy would be 9 times larger in volume and almost 30 times heavier than methanol. Hydrogen (compressed) would be 14 times larger in volume and 6 times heavier. Hydrogen would require special equipment for transportation and storage and moreover, the cost of construction per hydrogen refill station is close to $1.5m. There are more than 100,000 gas stations in the USA alone, meaning that the cost of a global hydrogen infrastructure would be in the trillions range. In contrast, converting a gas station to dispense methanol has a minimal cost of around $50,000 in China. Given the costs of upgrading the grid to transmit the required electricity vs. transporting methanol, the report of the Chinese Academy of Sciences (8) shows infrastructure cost of $10-$15 billion for switching China to a methanol economy vs. $3 trillion for hydrogen, and $1 trillion for battery. While battery charging stations are not too expensive, many chargers are needed to overcome the long battery charge time, amplifying the effective cost. In addition, some parts of the grid cannot handle enough electricity at peak hours. When it comes to batteries, environmental, recycling, and material availability concerns should also be taken into account. Of course, batteries will play a very important role and electrification is the next industrial revolution, but Li-ion is not the answer to all energy problems. Methanol does not antagonize but complements and accelerates the vision of electrification and reliance on renewable sources for clean energy. The multiple uses of methanol Liquid fuels like methanol can address the needs of commercial transportation (marine, trains, trucks, buses), stationary power (combined heat and power), backup, auxiliary and portable power. All of these sectors are significant contributors of GHG emissions The technology for electrochemically converting methanol to electricity is very similar for all of these applications, and the inflection point will be the mass use in one of these markets. Wide adoption in one market will create needed economies of scale for the rest. Converting Methanol to Electricity: High-Temperature Fuel Cells A traditional fuel cell requires as input highly pure hydrogen and air. As hydrogen ions pass through a PEM (Proton Exchange Membrane) and are combined with oxygen ions, electricity is generated, and water and heat is the only other output. The PEM technology membranes need water to conduct the ions, so these systems must operate below 100oC (usually at 70 oC) and require ultra-pure “five nines” hydrogen as well as clean air. In recent years, phosphoric-acid-based PEM technology (also known as high-temperature PEM, HT-PEM) has been developed allowing operation at 160 oC to 180 oC. At these high temperatures, impure hydrogen (98%) can work effectively without poisoning the catalyst. The membrane of HT-PEM is imbibed with phosphoric acid, needs no water for conductivity, and is stable under these temperatures. Therefore, when it comes to transportation or any other application, the resulting system can be designed with a simplified onboard reformer. The overall system consists of a methanol tank (or ethanol, DME, natural gas), an onboard reformer to convert these fuels to impure hydrogen, and an HT-PEM fuel cell that converts low-cost hydrogen to electricity. Unlike a typical fuel cell system, no high-purity hydrogen is required. Therefore, the system is simpler in design as a variety of water management modules and special cooling systems are not needed. On the negative side, given that HT-PEM technology is still low volume and the companies working on it are smaller, it would require some years and investment to approach the cost of LT-PEM technology. Product development efforts in the area focus in the development of platinum-free or ultra-low platinum catalysts, the improvement of electrode quality and cost, and the development of next-generation membranes that can further improve system efficiency and reliability. Methanol and HT-PEM Fuel Cell Technology is an add-on to Electrification The usual debate between fuel cells (electrochemical batteries) and rechargeable batteries (like lithium ion, Li-ion) used to be heated and antagonistic. In recent years, it has become less of a debate as the world is heavily investing in the Li-ion option. Multi-billion investments in new battery factories dictate the immediate future. But as mentioned above, they do not necessarily have a great effect on GHG emissions and global warming, and they can only address effectively one portion of the market (consumer vehicles that are used a few hours a day and can be recharged easily at night at a suburban home). We are a long way from claiming that Li-ion batteries will drive all our transportation needs (especially heavy-transportation like trucks, marine, etc.) or that they are an effective solution for massive energy storage. That said it would also be unrealistic to ignore the progress, the marketing machine, and the investment that is pushing the world toward electrification. A realistic approach would be to find some areas where we could combine the two in a mutually beneficial way. Here is one of these ideas, that is already in the market and is gaining traction in China. Trucks, Buses, Taxis, and Utility Vehicles: An example of Methanol Fuel Cells and Li-ion working together Heavy-use vehicles have been a focus for fuel cell companies as they require to be on the road continuously. Time to recharge (many hours), range, problems with batteries in very cold or very hot weather, and the weight of the batteries required make these a much tougher challenge for the Li-ion BEV market. A novel approach would be to combine the best of all worlds, and some companies in China and Western Europe are already working in this direction. A hybrid FCEV solution would mean that the vehicle is equipped with: A methanol tank (a mixture of 60% methanol and 40% water). A simplified onboard methanol-to-hydrogen reformer and an HT-PEM fuel cell that works as a range-extender. A Li-ion battery, significantly smaller in size. The hydrogen is converted to electricity by the fuel cell, and that electricity is used to recharge the Li-ion batteries continuously. What does this solution achieve: Range: A bus can go twice as far as before. Refill timeand flexibility: The vehicle can refill in three minutes (methanol tank) vs. three to eight hours required for recharging. It has both options to recharge or refill based on economics, time-constraints. Weight: The weight is reduced significantly as half the Li-ion batteries are used (and still double the range). For trucks or any large vehicle, the power to weight ratio is one of the most important factors. Cost: The additional cost of the range-extender required is offset by the drop of Li-ion battery requirement (about half the battery size). Extreme weather operation: Li-ion batteries do not charge or discharge effectively during winter time (very cold temperatures) and have shortened life in hot weather. Battery charge management: being able to maintain the battery in the optimum charge/discharge state dramatically increases the lifetime of the battery. Deep discharge typically shortens life. Overcharge shortens life. The range extender can charge for optimum battery life on the fly. This is one of many potential industry applications that combine methanol, high-temperature fuel cells, and Li-ion batteries to achieve the best of all three approaches. The solutions work in synergy, not antagonistically, and also support a path to inexhaustible green fuel use. The electrification S-curve is moving closer and is accelerated through the methanol and fuel-cell add-on range-extender. This way methanol and fuel cells can also help the Li-ion battery ecosystem expand into new applications and market segments. The market of small marine vessels is the next to be considered. Many vehicles with HT-PEM/battery are already on the road in China and Western Europe. It is a matter of awareness, supply chain development and expansion, and strategic decisions by the manufacturers. While the initial focus is on trucks and buses, the same model would make sense for SUVs, taxis and most large vehicles. Marine vessels, security and military applications, drones, marine and airplane APUs, portable battery chargers, telecom tower backup systems, combined heat and power (CHP) systems are next. The opportunities for using liquid fuels like methanol to provide clean and cheap energy are endless. Each one of these markets addresses a multibillion-dollar opportunity and an immediate opportunity to cut GHG emissions significantly. The way forward The methanol economy (15), proposed in the 1990s by Nobel prize winner George A. Olah, advocates that methanol and dimethyl ether (DME) can replace fossil fuels in the energy storage, and transportation markets. This website uses cookies to improve your experience. We'll assume you're ok with this, but you can opt-out if you wish. Cookie settingsACCEPT Privacy & Cookies Policy Privacy Overview This website uses cookies to improve your experience while you navigate through the website. Out of these cookies, the cookies that are categorized as necessary are stored on your browser as they are essential for the working of basic functionalities of the website. We also use third-party cookies that help us analyze and understand how you use this website. These cookies will be stored in your browser only with your consent. You also have the option to opt-out of these cookies. But opting out of some of these cookies may have an effect on your browsing experience. 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Some companies are already producing hybrid buses that feature half the Li-ion battery, no air pollutants, twice the range, a methanol tank, and a range-extender (electrochemical fuel cell). The Opportunity and the Problem Today, China is leading the transition to electric vehicles accounting for 50% of new vehicles and expected to remain close to 40% in the foreseeable future (1). Furthermore, most Chinese manufacturers are fully committed to developing low-cost electric cars, and almost one in five cars sold in China by 2025 will be an EV. This S-curve rate of growth is going to disrupt the transportation and energy industries. These developments, coupled with a shared autonomous EV fleet model that is gaining traction and feasibility, will change our everyday lives and cities completely. Some futurists (6) predict that the change is going to be even more dramatic and all ICE cars will soon disappear from the roads, primarily because the cost of using a shared EV will be one-tenth of owning a vehicle. Unfortunately, the EV revolution will have minimal effect on the world climate and GHG emissions at least for the next two decades. This is ironic given that most people in California and Norway buy the EVs with global warming and carbon footprint in mind. The Problem of Greenhouse Gas Emissions Renewables are growing very fast (natural gas is second) but under optimistic predictions, they will barely meet 20% of the global needs by 2040, while gas, oil, and coal will account for more than 70%. China and India (followed by Africa and other non-OECD countries) will be responsible for the increase in energy demand in the following decades (2). China and India do not have oil, and they are very interested in changing their vehicles to electric for many reasons: To grow economically without depending on oil To lead the next era of transportation To solve the air pollution problem that has become a life and death issue for their citizens.

no

Sustainability

Are electric cars really green?

yes_statement

"electric" "cars" are environmentally friendly.. "electric" "cars" contribute to a greener future.

https://www.nytimes.com/2021/03/02/climate/electric-vehicles-environment.html

How Green Are Electric Vehicles? - The New York Times

Listen to This Article Around the world, governments and automakers are promoting electric vehicles as a key technology to curb oil use and fight climate change. General Motors has said it aims to stop selling new gasoline-powered cars and light trucks by 2035 and will pivot to battery-powered models. This week, Volvo said it would move even faster and introduce an all-electric lineup by 2030. But as electric cars and trucks go mainstream, they have faced a persistent question: Are they really as green as advertised? While experts broadly agree that plug-in vehicles are a more climate-friendly option than traditional vehicles, they can still have their own environmental impacts, depending on how they’re charged up and manufactured. Here’s a guide to some of the biggest worries — and how they might be addressed. One way to compare the climate impacts of different vehicle models is with this interactive online tool by researchers at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, who tried to incorporate all the relevant factors: the emissions involved in manufacturing the cars and in producing gasoline and diesel fuel, how much gasoline conventional cars burn, and where the electricity to charge electric vehicles comes from. If you assume electric vehicles are drawing their power from the average grid in the United States, which typically includes a mix of fossil fuel and renewable power plants, then they’re almost always much greener than conventional cars. Even though electric vehicles are more emissions-intensive to make because of their batteries, their electric motors are more efficient than traditional internal combustion engines that burn fossil fuels. An all-electric Chevrolet Bolt, for instance, can be expected to produce 189 grams of carbon dioxide for every mile driven over its lifetime, on average. By contrast, a new gasoline-fueled Toyota Camry is estimated to produce 385 grams of carbon dioxide per mile. A new Ford F-150 pickup truck, which is even less fuel-efficient, produces 636 grams of carbon dioxide per mile. But that’s just an average. On the other hand, if the Bolt is charged up on a coal-heavy grid, such as those currently found in the Midwest, it can actually be a bit worse for the climate than a modern hybrid car like the Toyota Prius, which runs on gasoline but uses a battery to bolster its mileage. (The coal-powered Bolt would still beat the Camry and the F-150, however.) “Coal tends to be the critical factor,” said Jeremy Michalek, a professor of engineering at Carnegie Mellon University. “If you’ve got electric cars in Pittsburgh that are being plugged in at night and leading nearby coal plants to burn more coal to charge them, then the climate benefits won’t be as great, and you can even get more air pollution.” The good news for electric vehicles is that most countries are now pushing to clean up their electric grids. In the United States, utilities have retired hundreds of coal plants over the last decade and shifted to a mix of lower-emissions natural gas, wind and solar power. As a result, researchers have found, electric vehicles have generally gotten cleaner, too. And they are likely to get cleaner still. “The reason electric vehicles look like an appealing climate solution is that if we can make our grids zero-carbon, then vehicle emissions drop way, way down,” said Jessika Trancik, an associate professor of energy studies at M.I.T. “Whereas even the best hybrids that burn gasoline will always have a baseline of emissions they can’t go below.” Raw materials can be problematic Like many other batteries, the lithium-ion cells that power most electric vehicles rely on raw materials — like cobalt, lithium and rare earth elements — that have been linked to grave environmental and human rights concerns. Cobalt has been especially problematic. Mining cobalt produces hazardous tailings and slags that can leach into the environment, and studies have found high exposure in nearby communities, especially among children, to cobalt and other metals. Extracting the metals from their ores also requires a process called smelting, which can emit sulfur oxide and other harmful air pollution. And as much as 70 percent of the world’s cobalt supply is mined in the Democratic Republic of Congo, a substantial proportion in unregulated “artisanal” mines where workers — including many children — dig the metal from the earth using only hand tools at great risk to their health and safety, human rights groups warn. The world’s lithium is either mined in Australia or from salt flats in the Andean regions of Argentina, Bolivia and Chile, operations that use large amounts of groundwater to pump out the brines, drawing down the water available to Indigenous farmers and herders. The water required for producing batteries has meant that manufacturing electric vehicles is about 50 percent more water intensive than traditional internal combustion engines. Deposits of rare earths, concentrated in China, often contain radioactive substances that can emit radioactive water and dust. Focusing first on cobalt, automakers and other manufacturers have committed to eliminating “artisanal” cobalt from their supply chains, and have also said they will develop batteries that decrease, or do away with, cobalt altogether. But that technology is still in development, and the prevalence of these mines means these commitments “aren’t realistic,” said Mickaël Daudin of Pact, a nonprofit organization that works with mining communities in Africa. Instead, Mr. Daudin said, manufacturers need to work with these mines to lessen their environmental footprint and make sure miners are working in safe conditions. If companies acted responsibly, the rise of electric vehicles would be a great opportunity for countries like Congo, he said. But if they don’t, “they will put the environment, and many, many miners’ lives at risk.” Recycling could be better As earlier generations of electric vehicles start to reach the end of their lives, preventing a pileup of spent batteries looms as a challenge. Most of today’s electric vehicles use lithium-ion batteries, which can store more energy in the same space than older, more commonly-used lead-acid battery technology. But while 99 percent of lead-acid batteries are recycled in the United States, estimated recycling rates for lithium-ion batteries are about 5 percent. Experts point out that spent batteries contain valuable metals and other materials that can be recovered and reused. Depending on the process used, battery recycling can also use large amounts of water, or emit air pollutants. “The percentage of lithium batteries being recycled is very low, but with time and innovation, that’s going to increase,” said Radenka Maric, a professor at the University of Connecticut’s Department of Chemical and Biomolecular Engineering. A different, promising approach to tackling used electric vehicle batteries is finding them a second life in storage and other applications. “For cars, when the battery goes below say 80 percent of its capacity, the range is reduced,” said Amol Phadke, a senior scientist at the Goldman School of Public Policy at the University of California, Berkeley. “But that’s not a constraint for stationary storage.” Various automakers, including Nissan and BMW, have piloted the use of old electric vehicle batteries for grid storage. General Motors has said it designed its battery packs with second-life use in mind. But there are challenges: Reusing lithium-ion batteries requires extensive testing and upgrades to make sure they perform reliably. If done properly, though, used car batteries could continue to be used for a decade or more as backup storage for solar power, researchers at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology found in a study last year. Brad Plumer is a climate reporter specializing in policy and technology efforts to cut carbon dioxide emissions. At The Times, he has also covered international climate talks and the changing energy landscape in the United States.More about Brad Plumer A version of this article appears in print on , Section B, Page 5 of the New York edition with the headline: No Tailpipe Doesn’t Mean No Emissions. Order Reprints | Today’s Paper | Subscribe

Listen to This Article Around the world, governments and automakers are promoting electric vehicles as a key technology to curb oil use and fight climate change. General Motors has said it aims to stop selling new gasoline-powered cars and light trucks by 2035 and will pivot to battery-powered models. This week, Volvo said it would move even faster and introduce an all-electric lineup by 2030. But as electric cars and trucks go mainstream, they have faced a persistent question: Are they really as green as advertised? While experts broadly agree that plug-in vehicles are a more climate-friendly option than traditional vehicles, they can still have their own environmental impacts, depending on how they’re charged up and manufactured. Here’s a guide to some of the biggest worries — and how they might be addressed. One way to compare the climate impacts of different vehicle models is with this interactive online tool by researchers at the Massachusetts Institute of Technology, who tried to incorporate all the relevant factors: the emissions involved in manufacturing the cars and in producing gasoline and diesel fuel, how much gasoline conventional cars burn, and where the electricity to charge electric vehicles comes from. If you assume electric vehicles are drawing their power from the average grid in the United States, which typically includes a mix of fossil fuel and renewable power plants, then they’re almost always much greener than conventional cars. Even though electric vehicles are more emissions-intensive to make because of their batteries, their electric motors are more efficient than traditional internal combustion engines that burn fossil fuels. An all-electric Chevrolet Bolt, for instance, can be expected to produce 189 grams of carbon dioxide for every mile driven over its lifetime, on average. By contrast, a new gasoline-fueled Toyota Camry is estimated to produce 385 grams of carbon dioxide per mile. A new Ford F-150 pickup truck, which is even less fuel-efficient, produces 636 grams of carbon dioxide per mile. But that’s just an average.

yes

Sustainability

Are electric cars really green?

yes_statement

"electric" "cars" are environmentally friendly.. "electric" "cars" contribute to a greener future.

https://www.edfenergy.com/energywise/electric-cars-and-environment

Benefits of Electric Cars on Environment | EV & Petrol Cars | EDF

Benefits of electric cars on the environment Research has shown that electric cars are better for the environment. They emit fewer greenhouse gases and air pollutants than petrol or diesel cars. And this takes into account their production and electricity generation to keep them running. Here we answer some of the most common questions around EVs and their impact on the environment. If you're already set on an electric car, check out our leasing deals - best cars and great prices. Are electric cars better for the environment? The major benefit of electric cars is the contribution that they can make towards improving air quality in towns and cities. With no tailpipe, pure electric cars produce no carbon dioxide or other harmful emissions when driving. This reduces air pollution considerably. Electric cars and UK's Net Zero target According to the Mayor of London, road transport accounts for around half of the capital's air pollution. It’s no wonder that the UK government and local councils want to accelerate the number of electric cars on the roads. The UK government has set a target that the sale of petrol and diesel cars will be banned by 2030. The government is also looking to reduce net carbon emissions to zero by 2050, and electric cars will play a big role in that. What's more, EVs can also help with noise pollution, especially in cities where speeds are generally low. As electric cars are far quieter than conventional vehicles, driving electric creates a more peaceful environment for us all. Compare an electric vs petrol car Research by the International Energy Agency (IEA) shows that electric vehicles come with a significantly lower total carbon output per vehicle lifetime than a typical Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) powered vehicle. As electricity generation continues to get cleaner, this position can only improve over time. How does electric car production affect the environment? Making electric cars does use a lot of energy. Even after taking battery manufacture into account, electric cars are still a greener option. This is because of the reduction in emissions created over the car’s lifetime Reusing and recycling batteries is also a growing market. Research into the use of second-hand batteries is looking at ways to reuse batteries in new technologies such as electricity storage. One day we could all have batteries in our homes being used to store our own energy. Opportunities like this will reduce the lifetime environmental impact of battery manufacture. What about the electricity required to fuel an electric car? Research by the European Energy Agency found that, even with electricity generation, the carbon emissions of an electric car are around 17 – 30% lower than driving a petrol or diesel car. The emissions from electricity generation are also dramatically improved when low carbon electricity is used. That’s good news for our customers. Here at EDF we produce more low-carbon electricity than any other supplier in the UK(1). The GoElectric tariff is also 100% zero carbon, helping electric car drivers to make more informed choices about how they charge up, maximising their environmental impact whilst driving. Are hybrid cars just as good for the environment? Plug-in hybrids combine an electric motor with a traditional fuel engine and produce some emissions during a drive. The green credentials of a hybrid depend on how much of the journey is driven on electric miles as well as the way in which the vehicle is charged. This is why it's important for hybrid drivers to consider how their electricity is generated. Choose a form of zero carbon energy, like the GoElectric tariff, and you’re making your contribution to reducing emissions. All this shows that electric vehicles have a big role to play in reducing transport emissions and being a major factor in cleaning up the air we breathe. Notes The data supporting the table below and the % values are sourced from a mixture of industry settlement data and the UK government renewable obligation database. LOW-CARBON GENERATION SUMMARY BY COMPANY 2018 2018 Supplier name Low-carbon GWh of low-carbon electricity generation % of overall low-carbon electricity generation EDF ENERGY Low-carbon 45,517 35% CENTRICA Low-carbon 11,820 9% RWE Low-carbon 2,928 2% E.on Low-carbon 2,818 2% SSE Low-carbon 6,131 5% SCOTTISH POWER Low-carbon 2,855 2% DRAX Low-carbon 7,818 6% ENGIE Low-carbon 166 0% OTHER Low-carbon 52,727 39% TOTAL Low-carbon 134,780 100% Using the latest available data would put EDF Energy's % of low carbon generation at 35%, with Other at 39%. The 39% of Other can itself be broken down into many different owners, the top ten by share of the Other owners and their percentage share of that 39% is below: DONG Energy RB (UK) Ltd 5.90% Vattenfall Wind Power Ltd 3.36% Morecambe Wind Limited 2.91% Fred Olsen Renewables Ltd 2.59% Walney (UK) Offshore Windfarms Ltd 2.59% Clyde Windfarm (Scotland) Limited 2.44% Galloper Wind Farm Limited 2.42% Octopus Investments Limited 2.37% Foresight Group LLP 1.97% Falck Renewables Ltd 1.86% DONG Energy alone accounted for 2.3% of all low-carbon generation in 2018 (38% x 5.9%), with Vattenfall a further 1.3%, and Fred Olsen 1.0%. Removing DONG, Vattenfall and Fred Olsen would leave Other at 34.4%, which itself is still made up of many smaller, independent generators with split ownership. It is, therefore, the case that EDF was the single largest generator of low-carbon electricity in 2018.

Benefits of electric cars on the environment Research has shown that electric cars are better for the environment. They emit fewer greenhouse gases and air pollutants than petrol or diesel cars. And this takes into account their production and electricity generation to keep them running. Here we answer some of the most common questions around EVs and their impact on the environment. If you're already set on an electric car, check out our leasing deals - best cars and great prices. Are electric cars better for the environment? The major benefit of electric cars is the contribution that they can make towards improving air quality in towns and cities. With no tailpipe, pure electric cars produce no carbon dioxide or other harmful emissions when driving. This reduces air pollution considerably. Electric cars and UK's Net Zero target According to the Mayor of London, road transport accounts for around half of the capital's air pollution. It’s no wonder that the UK government and local councils want to accelerate the number of electric cars on the roads. The UK government has set a target that the sale of petrol and diesel cars will be banned by 2030. The government is also looking to reduce net carbon emissions to zero by 2050, and electric cars will play a big role in that. What's more, EVs can also help with noise pollution, especially in cities where speeds are generally low. As electric cars are far quieter than conventional vehicles, driving electric creates a more peaceful environment for us all. Compare an electric vs petrol car Research by the International Energy Agency (IEA) shows that electric vehicles come with a significantly lower total carbon output per vehicle lifetime than a typical Internal Combustion Engine (ICE) powered vehicle. As electricity generation continues to get cleaner, this position can only improve over time. How does electric car production affect the environment? Making electric cars does use a lot of energy. Even after taking battery manufacture into account, electric cars are still a greener option. This is because of the reduction in emissions created over the car’s lifetime Reusing and recycling batteries is also a growing market.

yes

Sustainability

Are electric cars really green?

yes_statement

"electric" "cars" are environmentally friendly.. "electric" "cars" contribute to a greener future.

https://www.cnbc.com/2021/07/26/lifetime-emissions-of-evs-are-lower-than-gasoline-cars-experts-say.html

Are electric cars 'green'? The answer is yes, but it's complicated

Are electric cars 'green'? The answer is yes, but it's complicated As electric cars become more popular, some question if they are as environmentally friendly as advertised — with some saying that greenhouse emissions during the manufacturing process and battery-charging have to be considered. The number of electric cars, buses, vans and heavy trucks on roads is expected to hit 145 million by 2030, the International Energy Agency predicts. Experts broadly agree that electric vehicles create a lower carbon footprint over the course of their lifetime than do cars and trucks that use traditional, internal combustion engines. That would seem to be good news, as the world tries to wean itself off fossil fuels that are wrecking the global climate. But as electric cars become more popular, some question just how environmentally friendly they are. The batteries in electric vehicles, for example, charge on power that is coming straight off the electric grid — which is itself often powered by fossil fuels. And there are questions about how energy-intensive it is to build an EV or an EV battery, versus building a comparable traditional vehicle. Are electric vehicles greener? The short answer is yes — but their full green potential is still many years away. Experts broadly agree that electric vehicles create a lower carbon footprint over the course of their lifetime than do cars and trucks that use traditional, internal combustion engines. Electricity grids in most of the world are still powered by fossil fuels such as coal or oil, and EVs depend on that energy to get charged. Separately, EV battery production remains an energy-intensive process. Producing electric vehicles leads to significantly more emissions than producing petrol cars ... which is mostly from the battery production. In short, the total emissions per mile for battery-powered cars are lower than comparable cars with internal combustion engines. "If we are going to take a look at the current situation, in some countries, electric vehicles are better even with the current grid," Sergey Paltsev, a senior research scientist at the MIT Energy Initiative and one of the study's authors, told CNBC. Paltsev explained that the full benefits of EVs will be realized only after the electricity sources become renewable, and it might take several decades for that to happen. "Currently, the electric vehicle in the U.S., on average, would emit about 200 grams of CO2 per mile," he said. "We are projecting that with cleaning up the grid, we can reduce emissions from electric vehicles by 75%, from about 200 (grams) today to about 50 grams of CO2 per mile in 2050." Similarly, Paltsev said MIT research showed non-plug-in hybrid cars with internal combustion engines currently emit about 275 grams of CO2 per mile. In 2050, their projected emissions are expected to be between 160 to 205 grams of CO2 per mile — the range is wider than EVs, because fuel standards vary from place to place. Decarbonization is the process of reducing greenhouse gas emission produced by the burning fossil fuels. Efforts to cut down pollution across various industries are expected to further reduce the environmental impact of EV production and charging over time. "When you look forward to the rest of the decade, where we will see massive amounts of decarbonization in power generation and massive amount of decarbonization in the industrial sector, EVs will benefit from all of that decarbonization," Eric Hannon, a Frankfurt-based partner at McKinsey & Company, told CNBC. Batteries are the biggest emitter EVs rely on rechargeable lithium-ion batteries to run. The process of making those batteries — from using mining raw materials like cobalt and lithium, to production in gigafactories and transportation — is energy-intensive, and one of the biggest sources of carbon emissions from EVs today, experts said. Gigafactories are facilities that produce EV batteries on a large scale. "Producing electric vehicles leads to significantly more emissions than producing petrol cars. Depending on the country of production, that's between 30% to 40% extra in production emissions, which is mostly from the battery production," said Florian Knobloch, a fellow at the Cambridge Centre for Environment, Energy and Natural Resource Governance. Those higher production emission numbers are seen as "an initial investment, which pays off rather quickly due to the reduced lifetime emissions." "I think the battery is the most complicated component in the EV, and has the most complex supply chain," George Crabtree, director of the U.S. Department of Energy's Joint Center for Energy Storage Research, told CNBC, adding that the energy source used in battery production makes a huge difference on the carbon footprint for EVs. Batteries made in older gigafactories in China are usually powered by fossil fuels, because that was the trend five to 10 years ago, he explained. So, EVs that are built with batteries from existing factories are going to have large carbon footprints. But that's changing, he said, as "people have realized that's a huge carbon footprint." Experts pointed to other considerations around battery production. They include unethical and environmentally unsustainable mining practices, as well as a complex geopolitical nature of the supply chain, where countries do not want to rely on other nations for raw materials like cobalt and lithium, or the finished batteries. Mining raw materials needed for battery production will likely be the last to get decarbonized, according to Crabtree. Recycling and decarbonizing the grid Experts said that can change over time as raw materials needed for battery production are in limited supply, leaving firms with no choice but to recycle. McKinsey's Hannon outlined other reasons for companies to step by their recycling efforts. They include a regulatory environment where producers, by law, would have to deal with spent batteries — and disposing them could be more expensive. "People who point to a lack of a recycling infrastructure as a problem aren't recognizing that we don't need extensive recycling infrastructure yet because the cars are so new, we're not needing many back," he said. Most auto companies are already working to ensure they have significant recycling capacity in place before EVs start reaching the end of life over the next decade, he added. It's not silver bullet for climate change mitigation. Ideally, you also try to reduce the number of cars massively, and try to push things such as public transport Knobloch from Cambridge University said a lot of research is going into improving battery technology, to make them more environmentally sustainable and less reliant on scarce raw materials. More efforts are also needed in decarbonizing the electricity grid, he added. "It's very important that more renewable electricity generation capacity is added to the grid each year, than coal generation capacity," Knobloch said. "Nowadays, it's much easier to build large scale solar or offshore wind compared to building new fossil fuel power plant. What we see is more renewable electricity coming into the grid all over the world." Still, he pointed out that generating electricity by using renewable sources will still emit greenhouse gases as there are emissions from producing the solar panels and wind turbines. "What we look at is how long will it take until the electricity grid is sufficiently decarbonized so that you see large benefit from electric vehicles," Knobloch added. Policies needed for societal change Experts agree that a transition from gasoline-powered cars to EVs is not a panacea for the global fight against climate change. It needs to go hand-in-hand with societal change that promotes greater use of public transportation and alternative modes of travel, including bicycles and walking. Reducing the use of private vehicles requires plenty of funding and policy planning. MIT's Paltsev, who is also deputy director at the university's joint program on the science and policy of global change, explained that there are currently about 1.2 billion fuel-powered cars on the road globally –that number is expected to increase to between 1.8 billion to 2 billion. In comparison, there are only about 10 million electric vehicles currently. Even if everyone drove EVs instead of gasoline-powered cars, there would still be plenty of emissions from the plug-in vehicles due to their sheer volume, according to Knobloch. "So, it's not silver bullet for climate change mitigation. Ideally, you also try to reduce the number of cars massively, and try to push things such as public transport," he said. "Getting people away from individual car transport is as important."

Are electric cars 'green'? The answer is yes, but it's complicated As electric cars become more popular, some question if they are as environmentally friendly as advertised — with some saying that greenhouse emissions during the manufacturing process and battery-charging have to be considered. The number of electric cars, buses, vans and heavy trucks on roads is expected to hit 145 million by 2030, the International Energy Agency predicts. Experts broadly agree that electric vehicles create a lower carbon footprint over the course of their lifetime than do cars and trucks that use traditional, internal combustion engines. That would seem to be good news, as the world tries to wean itself off fossil fuels that are wrecking the global climate. But as electric cars become more popular, some question just how environmentally friendly they are. The batteries in electric vehicles, for example, charge on power that is coming straight off the electric grid — which is itself often powered by fossil fuels. And there are questions about how energy-intensive it is to build an EV or an EV battery, versus building a comparable traditional vehicle. Are electric vehicles greener? The short answer is yes — but their full green potential is still many years away. Experts broadly agree that electric vehicles create a lower carbon footprint over the course of their lifetime than do cars and trucks that use traditional, internal combustion engines. Electricity grids in most of the world are still powered by fossil fuels such as coal or oil, and EVs depend on that energy to get charged. Separately, EV battery production remains an energy-intensive process. Producing electric vehicles leads to significantly more emissions than producing petrol cars ... which is mostly from the battery production. In short, the total emissions per mile for battery-powered cars are lower than comparable cars with internal combustion engines. "If we are going to take a look at the current situation, in some countries, electric vehicles are better even with the current grid," Sergey Paltsev, a senior research scientist at the MIT Energy Initiative and one of the study's authors, told CNBC.

yes

Sustainability

Are electric cars really green?

yes_statement

"electric" "cars" are environmentally friendly.. "electric" "cars" contribute to a greener future.

https://www.cars.com/articles/are-electric-cars-better-for-the-environment-2-442320/

Are Electric Cars Better for the Environment? | Cars.com

Are Electric Cars Better for the Environment? Are electric vehicles better for the environment? The answer is yes — not perfect, but better than an average new gasoline-powered vehicle no matter where you live in the U.S., according to a greenhouse gas emissions calculator created by the EPA. The calculator lets you compare the total emissions per mile — almost all of it carbon dioxide — of current EVs in any region in the country to the emissions of the average gasoline vehicle. But wait, aren’t electric cars “zero-emission” vehicles? Well, not exactly. They have zero local emissions. The calculator accounts for the reality that while electric cars emit no carbon dioxide on the road (that is, no tailpipe emissions), the energy stored in their batteries has to be generated somewhere — and much of the power generation in the U.S. creates what are known as upstream emissions for the EV. However, the EPA calculator also shows that the oft-heard criticism that EVs simply shift the same emissions to somewhere else is a myth. EVs still account for lower greenhouse gas emissions than the average new gasoline vehicle. Not All Electricity Is Created Equal For EVs, the EPA calculates the grams of greenhouse gases created to produce the electricity needed to drive a mile. The calculator provides model-specific grams per mile for each of the various EVs currently on the market, as well as for current plug-in hybrid electric vehicles. The calculation also is location-specific. That’s important for an accurate calculation of EV upstream emissions because the mix of power generation sources varies by region. In the U.S., much of our electricity — about 60% in 2020 — comes from power plants that run on fossil fuels, including nearly 20% from plants that still burn coal, according to the Energy Information Administration. Another 20% is from nuclear plants, and a further 20% or so comes from renewables such as wind, solar and hydroelectric generation. The EPA divides the country into 26 regions and calculates the CO2 impact of an EV based on the actual mix of electric power sources for that region — from fossil fuel plants to non-fossil fuel sources. You can find a map of the regions and check the mix in your region with the EPA’s Power Profiler here. For its comparison, the EPA calculates that the average new gasoline vehicle these days is responsible for total greenhouse gas emissions — mostly from the tailpipe, but also including the production and transportation of the gasoline — of 404 grams per mile. The Bottom Line The key takeaway is that, by the EPA’s calculations, EVs are responsible for lower CO2 emissions than those created by an average gasoline vehicle regardless of where you drive. Depending on the region, the greenhouse gases in grams per mile might be higher or lower than the same EV in another region with a different mix of electricity sources, but they’re consistently lower than those of the average new gasoline car. That’s true, for example, for driving a 2021 Tesla Model X Performance with 22-inch wheels in Burlington, Vt. The EPA calculates total greenhouse gas emissions for our hypothetical car at 110 grams per mile, nearly 75% less than the 410 grams for a gasoline vehicle. You would expect that low level of upstream emissions in a region with a lot of non-fossil-fuel power generation and in a state that gets about 100% of its electricity from renewable sources, the majority hydroelectric, according to the EIA. But the same Model X would also be responsible for 230 grams per mile in Charleston, W.Va. — about 44% less than the average gasoline vehicle. That’s in a region with a lot of fossil fuel plants and in a state that as of 2019 got about 91% of its electricity from coal-fired power plants, according to the EIA. The Greener Future There are some caveats. Making any car is an industrial process that involves emissions; the only truly zero-emissions vehicle is the one that isn’t built. In addition to assumptions about power generation in any given area, comparing EVs and gasoline vehicles also is complicated by such things as the relative size, weight and efficiency of the individual vehicles of either type. In the West Virginia example above, the margin would narrow if compared to a gasoline vehicle, such as a hybrid, with above-average fuel economy. But still, while not zero-emissions, an electric car is consistently better for the environment in terms of CO2 emissions than the average new gasoline vehicle, and that margin should grow as electricity generation shifts more to cleaner sources. That includes more power generation that doesn’t involve fossil fuels, but in the shorter term also includes a continuing decline in the use of coal. And in terms of meeting ambitious emissions reduction goals, transportation overall — which includes motor vehicles but also sources like planes, trains and watercraft — accounts for about 29% of total U.S. greenhouse gas emissions. Related Video: Cars.com’s Editorial department is your source for automotive news and reviews. In line with Cars.com’s long-standing ethics policy, editors and reviewers don’t accept gifts or free trips from automakers. The Editorial department is independent of Cars.com’s advertising, sales and sponsored content departments. Former D.C. Bureau Chief Fred Meier, who lives every day with Washington gridlock, has an un-American love of small wagons and hatchbacks. Email Fred Meier

Are Electric Cars Better for the Environment? Are electric vehicles better for the environment? The answer is yes — not perfect, but better than an average new gasoline-powered vehicle no matter where you live in the U.S., according to a greenhouse gas emissions calculator created by the EPA. The calculator lets you compare the total emissions per mile — almost all of it carbon dioxide — of current EVs in any region in the country to the emissions of the average gasoline vehicle. But wait, aren’t electric cars “zero-emission” vehicles? Well, not exactly. They have zero local emissions. The calculator accounts for the reality that while electric cars emit no carbon dioxide on the road (that is, no tailpipe emissions), the energy stored in their batteries has to be generated somewhere — and much of the power generation in the U.S. creates what are known as upstream emissions for the EV. However, the EPA calculator also shows that the oft-heard criticism that EVs simply shift the same emissions to somewhere else is a myth. EVs still account for lower greenhouse gas emissions than the average new gasoline vehicle. Not All Electricity Is Created Equal For EVs , the EPA calculates the grams of greenhouse gases created to produce the electricity needed to drive a mile. The calculator provides model-specific grams per mile for each of the various EVs currently on the market, as well as for current plug-in hybrid electric vehicles. The calculation also is location-specific. That’s important for an accurate calculation of EV upstream emissions because the mix of power generation sources varies by region. In the U.S., much of our electricity — about 60% in 2020 — comes from power plants that run on fossil fuels, including nearly 20% from plants that still burn coal, according to the Energy Information Administration. Another 20% is from nuclear plants, and a further 20% or so comes from renewables such as wind, solar and hydroelectric generation.

yes

Sustainability

Are electric cars really green?

yes_statement

"electric" "cars" are environmentally friendly.. "electric" "cars" contribute to a greener future.

https://www.theguardian.com/environment/2021/jan/03/child-labour-toxic-leaks-the-price-we-could-pay-for-a-greener-future

Child labour, toxic leaks: the price we could pay for a greener future ...

Digging for cobalt in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, where 60% of the world’s supply is found. Miners often breathe in cobalt-laden dust, which can prove fatal. Photograph: Sebastian Meyer/Corbis via Getty Images Digging for cobalt in the Democratic Republic of the Congo, where 60% of the world’s supply is found. Miners often breathe in cobalt-laden dust, which can prove fatal. Photograph: Sebastian Meyer/Corbis via Getty Images The battle to stave off Earth’s looming climate crisis is driving engineers to develop hosts of new green technologies. Wind and solar plants are set to replace coal and gas power stations, while electric cars oust petrol and diesel vehicles from our roads. Slowly our dependance on fossil fuels is set to diminish and so ease global heating. But scientists warn there will be an environmental price to pay for this drive to create a world powered by green technology. Prospecting for the materials to construct these devices, then mining them, could have very serious ecological consequences and major impacts on biodiversity, they say. “The move towards net zero carbon emissions is going to create new stresses on our planet, at least in the short term,” said Prof Richard Herrington, head of earth sciences at the Natural History Museum, London. “We are going to have to learn how to consider profit and loss with regard to ecosystems just as we do now when we are considering economic issues.” Metals such as lithium and cobalt provide examples of the awkward issues that lie ahead, said Herrington. Both elements are needed to make lightweight rechargeable batteries for electric cars and for storing power from wind and solar plants. Their production is likely to increase significantly over the next decade – and that could cause serious ecological problems. In the case of cobalt, 60% of the world’s supply comes from the Democratic Republic of the Congo where large numbers of unregulated mines use children as young as seven as miners. There they breathe in cobalt-laden dust that can cause fatal lung ailments while working tunnels that are liable to collapse. Miners in the DRC pull up a bag of cobalt – vital for the production of rechargeable batteries. Photograph: Sebastian Meyer/Corbis/Getty Images “Men, women and children are working without even the most basic protective equipment such as gloves and face masks,” said Mark Dummett of Amnesty International, which has investigated the cobalt-mining crisis in DRC. “In one village we visited, people showed us how the water in the local stream that they drank was contaminated by the discharge of waste from a mineral processing plant.” Then there is the issue of lithium mining. World production is set to soar over the next decade. Yet mining is linked to all sorts of environmental headaches. In the so-called Lithium Triangle of South America – made up of Chile, Argentina and Bolivia – vast quantities of water are pumped from underground sources to help extract lithium from ores, and this has been linked to the lowering of ground water levels and the spread of deserts. Similarly in Tibet, a toxic chemical leak from the Ganzizhou Rongda Lithium mine poisoned the local Lichu river in 2016 and triggered widespread protests in the region. Nor will these ecological problems be confined to specialist metals, analysts have pointed out. They say that rising demands for traditional materials such as cement – for building hydro-electric dams – or for copper, to provide cables to link wind and solar farms to cities and to build electric cars, could also cause widespread environmental damage unless care is taken. Our growing appetite for copper provides a striking illustration of the issues. Thousands of tonnes are needed to create wind or solar power devices while electric vehicles use two or three times more copper than those powered by a diesel or petrol engine. As a result, the world’s appetite for copper is likely to jump by more than 300% by 2050, according to one recent report. “You need tens of kilograms more copper for an electric car compared with one with a petrol engine,” said Herrington. “That means, if you want to turn all the UK’s 31m cars into electric vehicles you would require about 12% of the world’s entire copper output – just for Britain. That is an unrealistic demand, given that we are hoping to be making electric cars only within a decade.” Harrington said it was inevitable that there would an expansion in mining and in providing energy for refining ores which, combined, would have real environmental impacts. “We are going to have to do that in a way that creates profits but also serves people and the planet.” A Volkswagen ID.3, part of the company’s efforts to break into the burgeoning electric car market. Photograph: Sean Gallup/Getty Images In addition to these issues, the proposed expansion of nuclear power in the UK – to satisfy demand no longer met by coal or gas plants – is likely to lead to the creation of increased amounts of nuclear waste. However, the UK still has no method for safely storing nuclear waste underground and relies on keeping highly radioactive remnants from power plant operations above ground. These stores may have to be expanded significantly in future. One solution put forward to these green technology problems would be to limit the exploitation of resources on land and turn instead to the sea to gather the materials we need. Several promising marine sources have been pinpointed, with the most attention focusing on metal nodules which litter some parts of the ocean floor. These potato-sized globs of mineral are rich in copper, cobalt, manganese and other metals. According to the International Seabed Authority, some deposits contain millions of tonnes of cobalt, copper and manganese. As a result, several organisations are now surveying the most promising of these deposits, in particular the Clarion-Clipperton Zone in international waters in the Pacific Ocean. These could be hoovered up using robot submersibles that would criss-cross the 4.5m sq km that make up the zone. However, recent research by marine scientists have also revealed that despite the Clarion-Clipperton Zone’s depth – it lies between 4,000 and 5,500 metres below the surface – the ocean floor there is also rich is sea-life. One survey, in 2017, found more than 30 species new to science living on the zone’s abyssal plain, most of them xenophyophores – considered the world’s largest living single-celled organisms. Hoovering up the nodules could devastate these life forms, marine scientists have warned. “At present, we still don’t have enough data about the sea floor to be sure what the impact would be of mining there,” said Adrian Glover, a deep-sea ecology researcher at the Natural History Museum. “However, when we do, it’s going to be a big question for society. If these are environments rich in biodiversity that could be easily damaged, will it be better or worse to exploit them compared with exploiting our rainforests on land? That could be a very difficult issue to resolve.” This article was amended on 4 January 2021 because an earlier version referred to ‘abysmal plain’ when abyssal plain was the intended reference.

016 and triggered widespread protests in the region. Nor will these ecological problems be confined to specialist metals, analysts have pointed out. They say that rising demands for traditional materials such as cement – for building hydro-electric dams – or for copper, to provide cables to link wind and solar farms to cities and to build electric cars, could also cause widespread environmental damage unless care is taken. Our growing appetite for copper provides a striking illustration of the issues. Thousands of tonnes are needed to create wind or solar power devices while electric vehicles use two or three times more copper than those powered by a diesel or petrol engine. As a result, the world’s appetite for copper is likely to jump by more than 300% by 2050, according to one recent report. “You need tens of kilograms more copper for an electric car compared with one with a petrol engine,” said Herrington. “That means, if you want to turn all the UK’s 31m cars into electric vehicles you would require about 12% of the world’s entire copper output – just for Britain. That is an unrealistic demand, given that we are hoping to be making electric cars only within a decade.” Harrington said it was inevitable that there would an expansion in mining and in providing energy for refining ores which, combined, would have real environmental impacts. “We are going to have to do that in a way that creates profits but also serves people and the planet.” A Volkswagen ID.3, part of the company’s efforts to break into the burgeoning electric car market. Photograph: Sean Gallup/Getty Images In addition to these issues, the proposed expansion of nuclear power in the UK – to satisfy demand no longer met by coal or gas plants – is likely to lead to the creation of increased amounts of nuclear waste. However, the UK still has no method for safely storing nuclear waste underground and relies on keeping highly radioactive remnants from power plant operations above ground. These stores may have to be expanded significantly in future.

no

Sustainability

Are electric cars really green?

yes_statement

"electric" "cars" are environmentally friendly.. "electric" "cars" contribute to a greener future.

https://www.sciencefocus.com/news/are-electric-cars-greener

Are electric cars definitely greener than petrol? - BBC Science Focus ...

Are electric cars definitely greener than petrol? Are electric cars definitely greener than petrol? At first glance, electric cars can seem like the perfect antidote to petrol and diesel vehicles, whose fumes choke up towns and cities with air pollution. But they can still have detrimental effects on the environment. As far as greenhouse gas emissions are concerned, electric cars are only as green as the energy used to manufacture them and to charge their batteries. However, a recent study by the International Council on Clean Transportation concluded that over their lifetime (including manufacture) electric vehicles are responsible for fewer greenhouse gas emissions than their petrol counterparts. But this difference was far greater in some places than in others. In Europe, an electric car generates up to 69 per cent less CO2 equivalent per kilometre than a petrol car. However, in India, this figure is 34 per cent. The disparity comes down to how electricity is sourced in each country. One of the lowest-carbon places in the world to charge an electric car is France, where only 9 per cent of electricity comes from burning fossil fuels. But many countries still produce most of their electricity from coal, oil and gas, so plugging in an electric car in China or India can indirectly generate a large number of greenhouse gases. Electric vehicles’ lithium-ion batteries can be an environmental hazard if disposed of carelessly, although they are considerably less toxic than traditional lead-acid car batteries. Unlike lead-acid batteries, lithium-ion batteries are tricky to recycle and liable to explode if disassembled incorrectly. Currently, only 5 per cent are recycled. Many car manufacturers, such as Tesla, are stepping up their recycling programmes, but it remains to be seen if they will be able to cope with skyrocketing demand as the electric vehicles on the road today reach the end of their lifespan.

Are electric cars definitely greener than petrol? Are electric cars definitely greener than petrol? At first glance, electric cars can seem like the perfect antidote to petrol and diesel vehicles, whose fumes choke up towns and cities with air pollution. But they can still have detrimental effects on the environment. As far as greenhouse gas emissions are concerned, electric cars are only as green as the energy used to manufacture them and to charge their batteries. However, a recent study by the International Council on Clean Transportation concluded that over their lifetime (including manufacture) electric vehicles are responsible for fewer greenhouse gas emissions than their petrol counterparts. But this difference was far greater in some places than in others. In Europe, an electric car generates up to 69 per cent less CO2 equivalent per kilometre than a petrol car. However, in India, this figure is 34 per cent. The disparity comes down to how electricity is sourced in each country. One of the lowest-carbon places in the world to charge an electric car is France, where only 9 per cent of electricity comes from burning fossil fuels. But many countries still produce most of their electricity from coal, oil and gas, so plugging in an electric car in China or India can indirectly generate a large number of greenhouse gases. Electric vehicles’ lithium-ion batteries can be an environmental hazard if disposed of carelessly, although they are considerably less toxic than traditional lead-acid car batteries. Unlike lead-acid batteries, lithium-ion batteries are tricky to recycle and liable to explode if disassembled incorrectly. Currently, only 5 per cent are recycled. Many car manufacturers, such as Tesla, are stepping up their recycling programmes, but it remains to be seen if they will be able to cope with skyrocketing demand as the electric vehicles on the road today reach the end of their lifespan.

yes

Sustainability

Are electric cars really green?

yes_statement

"electric" "cars" are environmentally friendly.. "electric" "cars" contribute to a greener future.

https://www.samsara.com/guides/how-are-electric-vehicles-better-for-the-environment/

How Are Electric Vehicles Better for the Environment?

How Are Electric Vehicles Better for the Environment? Get Started with Samsara As a cleaner alternative, electric vehicles are an important step in sustainable transportation. Notable for their fuel efficiency, EVs can be a cost-effective way to reduce operating expenses across your fleet. Rising fuel prices and a push for greener initiatives have led many organizations to adopt electric vehicles (EVs) for their fleets. Notable for their fuel efficiency, EVs can be a cost-effective way to reduce operating expenses. The price of electricity in the United States averages 10 cents per kilowatt-hour (kWh). Typically, an electric car costs approximately 3 cents per mile—much lower than a gasoline car at 10 cents per mile. Besides lower fuel costs, EVs also serve as a greener alternative to gas or diesel vehicles. By eliminating exhaust, they can reduce a fleet’s greenhouse gas emissions. This advantage helps businesses stay sustainable and compliant with government guidelines. Read on to learn more about EVs and why they’re beneficial both for the environment and your fleet. What are EVs, and how do they work? Conventional cars use internal combustion engines (ICEs) that generally run on fossil fuels like gas or diesel. EVs use one or more electric motors powered by rechargeable lithium-ion batteries, the same kinds of batteries that power smartphones and laptops. And like electronic devices, EVs plug into external power sources for charging. Other types of batteries rely on regenerative braking for charging, or generating electricity from the vehicle’s frictional energy. In addition to being less polluting than fuel engines, lithium-ion batteries often work more efficiently. Many have a guaranteed life span of 8-10 years. Like stopping at a gas station, a network of charging stations gives EV batteries access to power on the road. An EV’s driving range between stations is dependent on its battery life. Extreme driving conditions or weather can also affect an EV’s range as they use more energy to compensate. Because EVs do not rely on fossil fuels for power, they may not have certain components that ICE vehicles do. For instance, parts such as fuel lines, fuel tanks, and tailpipes. This means that most EVs do not emit carbon dioxide emissions (CO2), which helps reduce air pollution. What are the different kinds of EVs? EVs are classified into different types based on how much they rely on electricity as a power source. Currently, there are three main classifications of EVs. Battery electric vehicles (BEVs) are completely electric with rechargeable batteries. Also known as ‘plug-in’ EVs, BEVs use an external electrical charging outlet for power. They rely on electricity and do not have a gasoline engine, fuel tank, or tailpipe. Plug-in hybrid electric vehicles(PHEVs), or extended-range electric vehicles, are partly powered by gasoline and partly by electricity. They have batteries that charge with an external outlet, and regenerative braking capabilities. PHEVs also use a gas engine to extend the vehicle’s range and to recharge the car battery. Hybrid electric vehicles(HEVs) are also powered by both gasoline and electricity. They differ from PHEVs by relying only on regenerative braking for battery charge. These EVs use their electric motor when driving, which is then supplemented with the gasoline engine as needed due to increases in load or speed. Environmental impact: EVs vs ICE vehicles The pollution caused by ICE vehicles isn’t limited to the exhaust coming from their tailpipes. The process of extracting oil, refining it into fuel, and transporting it to gas stations also generates a large amount of air pollution. These emissions are called well-to-wheel emissions or upstream emissions. Even though modern ICE manufacturers have lowered their CO2 emissions, the manufacturing process continues to have a negative impact on the environment. The production of EV batteries also creates upstream emissions. In fact, the production process for EVs can be more taxing on the environment than that of ICEs. Still, EVs remain the cleanest option for transportation as their entire life cycle is much more sustainable overall. Due to their use of electricity as fuel, driving makes up for their higher manufacturing emissions. On average, an EV produces half of a conventional vehicle’s carbon emissions over its lifetime, completely outperforming from a sustainability standpoint. Achieve your sustainability goals 5 ways that EVs are better for the environment As a cleaner alternative, EVs are an important step in sustainable transportation. Below are five major ways that EVs can benefit the environment. 1. EVs can produce zero tailpipe emissions. Full electricvehicles do not need a tailpipe, as they don’t produce exhaust. Traditional engines combust gasoline or diesel, creating energy at the cost of producing harmful carbon emissions. By contrast, the batteries found in EVs are completely emission-free. The most common type of battery employed in EVs is the lithium-ion battery. These batteries can be depleted and charged repeatedly without contributing to air pollution. 2. Even when using fossil fuels, EVs contribute fewer emissions than ICE vehicles. Many electric charging stations use renewable energy to charge EVs. However, some are still powered by coal-burning power plants and similar energy sources considered harmful to the environment. In countries that primarily use coal, oil, or natural gas for power, charging EVs can leave a more significant carbon footprint. Although EVs don’t contribute much to air pollution on the road, manufacturing EV batteries can be harmful if done irresponsibly. Nearly all EV emissions are well-to-wheel emissions created during the battery production process. As EVs are still a newer technology, industry standards are inconsistent with the energy sources used for making batteries, resulting in larger carbon footprints. But, this is already beginning to change. Today’s EV batteries have a carbon footprint that is 2 to 3 times lower than two years ago, and growing cleaner still. Manufacturers of EVs are setting guidelines for their battery suppliers. For example, they require suppliers to only use renewable energy sources during production, such as solar and wind. These sources can provide the large amount of energy needed to produce EV batteries without harmful emissions. In fact, EV automaker Tesla plans to manufacture its batteries using 100% renewable energy. 4. ICE vehicles pollute continuously. Apart from the limited use of coal-fueled charging stations, EVs do not contribute to air pollution after they are manufactured. Most emissions are produced during the battery manufacturing process. That means total emissions of an EV can be measured before it even starts up for the first time. ICE vehicles, on the other hand, produce CO2 emissions whenever their engines are on. On average, a gasoline-powered passenger vehicle produces between 5 to 6 metric tons of CO2 per year. A study by the Union of Concerned Scientists found that the ICE emissions surpass the EVs’ well-to-wheel emissions in just 6-18 months of operation. With millions of ICE vehicles being driven worldwide, emissions continue to be produced in great volumes. Alternatively, an electric vehicle powered by renewable energy will maintain a neutral carbon footprint, indefinitely. 5. EV manufacturers use eco-friendly materials. One of the major obstacles facing EV manufacturers is producing a functional, lightweight vehicle. Lighter EVs have a greater range and smaller carbon footprint, but traditional materials make it difficult to achieve this. However, recycled and organic materials are now comparable to traditional materials. They’re lightweight, eco-friendly, strong, and durable. Many conventional manufacturers use recycled materials for small components, but currently don’t use them for a vehicle’s structure. EV manufacturers are using and improving eco-friendly materials to build lighter, more efficient vehicles. Weight reduction is not the only benefit of using recycled and organic materials—they are also better for the environment. Using new materials like metals and plastics is unsustainable and creates pollution. All-natural or recycled materials minimize the environmental impact both during and after the EV production process. Managing EVs in your fleet with telematics solutions Now that you know the benefits of using EVs in your fleet, how can you get the most out of the investment? Keeping track of your electric fleet is vital to ensure that each vehicle is operating properly. You’ll also want to know if an EV is sufficiently charged to complete its trip, and identify charging trends, to ensure charging isn’t happening during peak hours. EVs are compatible with some telematics systems that can keep you up-to-date on everything that’s going on with your fleet. Telematic solutions like Samsara offer a number of different EV fleet management features to help you manage your EVs. State of Charge: Samsara real-time State of Charge allows you to view the current and historical state of charge for each vehicle. You can also monitor the charging status to determine if your vehicles are charging, as well as configure State of Charge Alerts to notify you if an EV’s state of charge falls below a defined percentage. This allows you to reroute the vehicle to a charging station before it runs out of battery. EV charging stations map overlay: Having easy access to charging station information helps you plan routes for EVs. A view of available charging stations allows you to plan routes with confidence, knowing that your EVs will reach their destinations.The EV charging stations map overlay displays nearby charging station information, including open hours and available charging types. With this, you can map out each route with confidence, knowing that your EVs will reach their destinations. Make your business more sustainable with EVs Though still a relatively new technology, EVs will only continue to grow more advanced and sustainable. As the air pollution caused by driving ICE vehicles becomes a more pressing concern, EVs offer both consumers and businesses an intelligent alternative for a cleaner future. To learn more about Samsara’s EV fleet management solution, sign up for a free trial and explore how to build your future EV fleet. If you're looking to add EVs as a part of your smart city initiative, check out our guide on why smarter cities start with smarter fleets here.

How Are Electric Vehicles Better for the Environment? Get Started with Samsara As a cleaner alternative, electric vehicles are an important step in sustainable transportation. Notable for their fuel efficiency, EVs can be a cost-effective way to reduce operating expenses across your fleet. Rising fuel prices and a push for greener initiatives have led many organizations to adopt electric vehicles (EVs) for their fleets. Notable for their fuel efficiency, EVs can be a cost-effective way to reduce operating expenses. The price of electricity in the United States averages 10 cents per kilowatt-hour (kWh). Typically, an electric car costs approximately 3 cents per mile—much lower than a gasoline car at 10 cents per mile.  Besides lower fuel costs, EVs also serve as a greener alternative to gas or diesel vehicles. By eliminating exhaust, they can reduce a fleet’s greenhouse gas emissions. This advantage helps businesses stay sustainable and compliant with government guidelines. Read on to learn more about EVs and why they’re beneficial both for the environment and your fleet.  What are EVs, and how do they work? Conventional cars use internal combustion engines (ICEs) that generally run on fossil fuels like gas or diesel. EVs use one or more electric motors powered by rechargeable lithium-ion batteries, the same kinds of batteries that power smartphones and laptops. And like electronic devices, EVs plug into external power sources for charging. Other types of batteries rely on regenerative braking for charging, or generating electricity from the vehicle’s frictional energy. In addition to being less polluting than fuel engines, lithium-ion batteries often work more efficiently. Many have a guaranteed life span of 8-10 years.  Like stopping at a gas station, a network of charging stations gives EV batteries access to power on the road. An EV’s driving range between stations is dependent on its battery life.

yes

Sustainability

Are electric cars really green?

yes_statement

"electric" "cars" are environmentally friendly.. "electric" "cars" contribute to a greener future.

https://www.pbs.org/newshour/show/norways-government-made-electric-cars-irresistible

How Norway's government made electric cars irresistible | PBS ...

Norway's vast wealth comes from decades of gas and oil production, yet its citizens are turning their backs on fossil fuels and embracing electric cars like nowhere else. In fact, the Norwegian government is planning to end sales of gasoline and diesel vehicles by 2025. Special correspondent Malcolm Brabant reports on the Scandinavian country’s investment in a greener future. Read the Full Transcript WILLIAM BRANGHAM: But first: President Trump announced over the weekend that he will decide this week whether the U.S. will remain part of the Paris climate accord. That accord, signed last year by 195 countries, commits those nations to significantly reduce their carbon emissions to combat climate change. But President Trump has long argued that environmental regulations cost American jobs, and he's vowed to undo them, and he's also described climate change itself as a hoax. European leaders last week urged the president not walk away from the accord. In Scandinavia, which is a world leader in green technology, politicians and environmentalists want the president to follow their lead, and increase investment in environmentally friendly technologies like electric cars. Norway prides itself on being one of the world's most pristine countries. Yet, amid the stunning scenery, there are reminders that its vast wealth comes from decades of gas and oil production. But Norwegians are turning their backs on fossil fuels and embracing electric cars like nowhere else. Ann Kunish, who moved from Wisconsin 30 years ago, is one of the new converts. ANN KUNISH, Music Librarian: This car is a no-brainer. There's no question about it. It's very, very easy to choose electric cars. The Norwegian government has made it much more financially feasible to buy them. They don't have the same fees, free parking in municipal spots. More and more charging stations are being built, lower yearly fee to use the roads, no tolls. MALCOLM BRABANT: New electric car sales in Norway have now passed 100,000, giving it the highest per capita ownership level in the world. In comparison, there are over half-a-million electric cars in the U.S. To have the same percentage as Norway, America would require 6.25 million electric cars on the road. This is Oslo's rush hour, as electric car drivers hunt a parking spot at the city's biggest charging station. The energy is almost completely renewable energy, as 98 percent of the country's power comes from hydroelectric plants. Norwegians endure some of the world's heaviest taxes, and removing sales tariffs from electric cars has been irresistible. The government aims to end sales of gasoline and diesel vehicles by 2025. PETTER HAUGNELAND, Industry Advocate: There has to be a big difference if you choose a zero emission car or a polluting car when you buy it on the tax system. MALCOLM BRABANT: Industry advocate Petter Haugneland argues taxes on fossil fuel vehicles should be increased to speed up the process. PETTER HAUGNELAND: In Norway, transport sector is a key element to lower the emissions. We need to cut our emissions very fast if we're going to do something about the climate problem. MALCOLM BRABANT: In March, President Trump canceled a fuel economy ruling put in place by the Obama administration requiring automakers to achieve 54 miles a gallon by 2025, double the present level. Environmentalists claimed higher standards would boost sales of hybrid and electric cars. PRESIDENT DONALD TRUMP: The assault on the America auto industry, believe me, is over. It's over. MALCOLM BRABANT: Norway's environment minister, Vidar Helgesen, belongs to a center-right party that once aligned with the Republicans. It now has more in common with the Democrats. Helgesen didn't criticize President Trump directly, but sent a clear message not to turn back the clock. VIDAR HELGESEN, Foreign Minister, Norway: Our position is very much that we very much need to build competitiveness for the future. We also need to care about the jobs that don't exist today that need to exist in the future. We know that the Chinese are investing massively in renewable energy. We know the Chinese and other major up coming economies are investing a lot in electric vehicles. I think they're building green competitiveness for the future. MALCOLM BRABANT: And this is precisely what the minister is talking about: an electric car start-up in southern Sweden which is reinventing the steering wheel to be more like a game console. LEWIS HORNE, CEO, Uniti: This is not how we will mechanically achieve it in the car, because this is not very nice for the user. There are different ways we will mechanically achieve it, which will be unveiled later this year. MALCOLM BRABANT: The CEO, Lewis Horne, has taken on 30 engineers and hopes to employ 1,000 people once production begins in early 2019 on a compact car that's still under wraps. LEWIS HORNE: So, you can see a little hint of two models which are the result of a lot of research and design. In the future, the jobs are just different. Historically, when we have had an industry that's so damaging to our health now, that's not a place where you should be creating more jobs. We should be creating more jobs in the future of these industries. PRESIDENT DONALD TRUMP: There is no more beautiful sight than an American-made car. MALCOLM BRABANT: The owner of this '56 Chevy Bel Air couldn't agree more. Henning Kjensli works for the American Car Club of Norway. But while he's sympathetic to the need for job creation, he's also in favor of going green. HENNING KJENSLI, Commercial Manager, AMCAR: Developing and researching new technology costs tons of money. And right now, the best earnings in the American automobile market is in the full-size pickup and SUV segment. They should still make those cars and sell them and make money off of them, but they need to sort of reinvest the profits from those cars into new and modern technology. MALCOLM BRABANT: Fuel prices are the crucial difference between the U.S. and Norway. Norwegians pay about $7 a gallon. Gas is roughly five dollars cheaper in America, reducing the financial incentive to drive electric. This is a partially American-made electric car, the $35,000 Ampera-e. It's a collaboration between General Motors and South Korea's L.G. GM's European arm, Opel, launched the car in Norway in May. Impressed by its range of more than 300 miles on a single charge, so many Norwegians have been ordering the Ampera-e, that there's now a 15-month waiting list. MAN: We are not going back. We are heading into the future. I think, in 10 years, we will see that at least half of the sale from Opel is electric, if things are moving in the direction we are seeing right now. MALCOLM BRABANT: Norway may be a world leader when it comes to electric cars, but its environmental record is far from perfect. Its greenhouse gas emissions are increasing. Most of those are coming from oil and gas production, which provides Norway with its wealth. And critics are very unhappy that Norway is pushing to expand fossil fuel production in the Arctic and believe that its climate change policies are inconsistent. FREDERIC HAUGE, Bellona Foundation: It's schizophrenic, because Norway is a nice little country of petroholics. MALCOLM BRABANT: This top-of-the-range electric SUV is the pride and joy of Frederic Hauge, a veteran eco-warrior who was a pioneer of electric cars in Norway. FREDERIC HAUGE: You can say maybe that the electric car is a Trojan horse towards the Norwegian oil industry. The battery revolution will bring down the oil price to $20 to $25 a barrel before 2030. And then the stupid things Norway is doing in the Arctic, the oil drilling, will also be stopped because of economic reasons. PRESIDENT DONALD TRUMP: We're setting up a task force in every federal agency to identify and remove any regulation that undermines American auto production and any other kind of production. MALCOLM BRABANT: Such statements alarm environmentalists in Denmark 300 miles to the south. Denmark generates about 40 percent of its electricity from wind power and is on track to hit its target of 50 percent by 2020. But these and other renewable energy efforts need to be increased, according to Danish climate scientist Sebastian Mernild. SEBASTIAN MERNILD, Nansen Environmental Center: Regarding this green development, we can hardly see any impact so far, because the amount of CO2 in the atmosphere is increasing year by year. We are for sure helping the environment, but not enough. And we need to speed up this green development. MALCOLM BRABANT: The European Union, whose environment agency is based in Copenhagen, is fully committed to the Paris climate agreement, which requires signatories to tighten up emissions by 2020 and beyond. Its dismayed that the president may leave the accord. Climate change specialist Magda Jozwicka. MAGDA JOZWICKA, Europe Environment Agency: It is, of course, very important that countries around the world stick to the Paris agreement, because, overall, we need to work on our long-term de-carbonization goals and the long-term well-being. MALCOLM BRABANT: The Scandinavians doubt that environmental arguments will change the president's mind, but they hope the economic case for electric cars will have more success.

-a-million electric cars in the U.S. To have the same percentage as Norway, America would require 6.25 million electric cars on the road. This is Oslo's rush hour, as electric car drivers hunt a parking spot at the city's biggest charging station. The energy is almost completely renewable energy, as 98 percent of the country's power comes from hydroelectric plants. Norwegians endure some of the world's heaviest taxes, and removing sales tariffs from electric cars has been irresistible. The government aims to end sales of gasoline and diesel vehicles by 2025. PETTER HAUGNELAND, Industry Advocate: There has to be a big difference if you choose a zero emission car or a polluting car when you buy it on the tax system. MALCOLM BRABANT: Industry advocate Petter Haugneland argues taxes on fossil fuel vehicles should be increased to speed up the process. PETTER HAUGNELAND: In Norway, transport sector is a key element to lower the emissions. We need to cut our emissions very fast if we're going to do something about the climate problem. MALCOLM BRABANT: In March, President Trump canceled a fuel economy ruling put in place by the Obama administration requiring automakers to achieve 54 miles a gallon by 2025, double the present level. Environmentalists claimed higher standards would boost sales of hybrid and electric cars. PRESIDENT DONALD TRUMP: The assault on the America auto industry, believe me, is over. It's over. MALCOLM BRABANT: Norway's environment minister, Vidar Helgesen, belongs to a center-right party that once aligned with the Republicans. It now has more in common with the Democrats. Helgesen didn't criticize President Trump directly, but sent a clear message not to turn back the clock. VIDAR HELGESEN, Foreign Minister, Norway: Our position is very much that we very much need to build competitiveness for the future.

yes

Sustainability

Are electric cars really green?

no_statement

"electric" "cars" are not as "green" as they are claimed to be.. "electric" "cars" have a negative impact on the environment.

https://fee.org/articles/electric-cars-aren-t-nearly-as-green-as-people-think/

Electric Cars Aren't Nearly as Green as People Think - Foundation ...

Friday, April 26, 2019 For years, I’ve imagined how great it would be to own an electric car. Instead of spending almost 40 bucks every week or so on gas, I could just drop by my local outpost and charge my car while I buy organic vegetables. Wouldn’t that be great? Not only for myself but also for the environment? Maybe not. Although electric cars are a step in the right direction, their production and charging still contribute to CO2 levels, in some cases even more than gas cars. Shifting Emissions from the Tailpipe to Power Plant Carbon dioxide emissions don’t just come out of a tailpipe. Electric cars emit CO2 both in their production and during their charging. First, the production of the electric batteries requires lithium, cobalt, and manganese. Manufactures end up expending a large amount of energy on mining and processing these raw materials. According to a new German study from researchers Christoph Buchal, Hans-Dieter Karl, and Hans-Werner Sinn, For a Tesla battery of 75 kWh, this means an additional CO2 emission of 10 875 kg to 14 625 kg of CO2. Converted to pounds, these numbers are between 23 thousand and 32 thousand pounds of carbon emissions. For each battery! Even after the initial production of the battery, many electric cars are charged by power plants that produce electricity by burning coal or gas. According to the US Energy Information Administration, 63 percent of total electricity generation in the United States is created using fossil fuels. If the electricity being used to power the electric cars is being produced using fossil fuels, then using electric cars is simply shifting CO2 emissions from the tailpipe of the car to the electricity power plant. Electricity from Fossil Fuels Around the world, different countries have different levels of dependency on fossil fuels for electricity production. For example, according to a 2017 study by Michael Sivak and Brandon Schoettle at the University of Michigan, On one extreme is Albania (which generates 100% of its electricity from hydroelectric power)... on the other extreme are Botswana and Gibraltar (which generate 100% of their electricity from coal and oil). Though electric cars may not visibly emit CO2 while driving, don’t be fooled. A significant amount of CO2 emissions are produced in manufacturing the battery and in its ongoing charging. According to a 2012 Yale Study, It is counterproductive to promote EVs in regions where electricity is produced from oil, coal, and lignite combustion. Misleading Marketing Imagine if Tesla announced a new “green” airplane that ran completely on electricity. But if the production of the battery emitted tens of thousands of pounds of carbon emissions, and its charging hundreds more, would it really be green? So it is with electric cars. Next time you see an electric car or a charging station, keep in mind the emissions involved in producing the battery and the electricity used to keep it running. At the end of the day, the direct comparison between electric cars and gas cars is irrelevant. What really matters is the overall amount of carbon emissions involved in the production, charging, and driving of a car throughout its lifetime. Especially when over half of America’s electricity is produced with fossil fuels, it is misleading to propose that electric cars produce “zero emissions.” So next time you see an electric car or a charging station, keep in mind the emissions involved in producing the battery and the electricity used to keep it running. Outward appearances can be deceiving.

75 kWh, this means an additional CO2 emission of 10 875 kg to 14 625 kg of CO2. Converted to pounds, these numbers are between 23 thousand and 32 thousand pounds of carbon emissions. For each battery! Even after the initial production of the battery, many electric cars are charged by power plants that produce electricity by burning coal or gas. According to the US Energy Information Administration, 63 percent of total electricity generation in the United States is created using fossil fuels. If the electricity being used to power the electric cars is being produced using fossil fuels, then using electric cars is simply shifting CO2 emissions from the tailpipe of the car to the electricity power plant. Electricity from Fossil Fuels Around the world, different countries have different levels of dependency on fossil fuels for electricity production. For example, according to a 2017 study by Michael Sivak and Brandon Schoettle at the University of Michigan, On one extreme is Albania (which generates 100% of its electricity from hydroelectric power)... on the other extreme are Botswana and Gibraltar (which generate 100% of their electricity from coal and oil). Though electric cars may not visibly emit CO2 while driving, don’t be fooled. A significant amount of CO2 emissions are produced in manufacturing the battery and in its ongoing charging. According to a 2012 Yale Study, It is counterproductive to promote EVs in regions where electricity is produced from oil, coal, and lignite combustion. Misleading Marketing Imagine if Tesla announced a new “green” airplane that ran completely on electricity. But if the production of the battery emitted tens of thousands of pounds of carbon emissions, and its charging hundreds more, would it really be green? So it is with electric cars. Next time you see an electric car or a charging station, keep in mind the emissions involved in producing the battery and the electricity used to keep it running. At the end of the day, the direct comparison between electric cars and gas cars is irrelevant.

no

Sustainability

Are electric cars really green?

no_statement

"electric" "cars" are not as "green" as they are claimed to be.. "electric" "cars" have a negative impact on the environment.

https://www.planetizen.com/blogs/112490-electric-cars-wont-solve-climate-change

Electric Cars Won't Solve Climate Change | Planetizen Blogs

Electric cars might look great in your driveway, but they're also a symbol of a systemic problem: a consumer and car-based approach to addressing transportation's climate impacts. Not only that, they're an ineffective solution to climate change. Transportation-related carbon emissions are the top source of U.S. carbon emissions Transportation-related carbon emissions account for 14% of our global carbon emissions and are the largest source of U.S. carbon emissions at 29%. Therefore, it is crucial that the U.S. cuts our transportation emissions to meet the Paris Climate accords' goal—50% of our 2017 emissions. While the COVID-19 pandemic temporarily lowered some of these transportation emissions in 2020, the long-standing trend is that we've failed to make a dent in our transportation-related emissions—they've stayed all but constant for the past 15 years. Suppose we fail to address climate change and the air pollution emissions from gas vehicles. In that case, we have significant problems looming: mass species die off, increasing natural disasters, destruction of our fisheries, horrible air pollution, wars over water, and much more. With 82% of U.S. emissions in 2018 coming from road vehicles, it's clear that we need to cut our emissions from cars by taking combustion engine vehicles off the roads as rapidly as we can. The solution that has been popularized for this? Electric cars vs gas vehicles—and electric vehicles don't go far enough. Carbon lock-in: the #1 problem with electric cars The biggest problem is carbon-lock in—when we spend to build something like a power plant or an electric car, the economics, and sociology of the new production incentivizes continued operations. After making significant investments in a solution, companies and governments don't want to switch to a better solution immediately—they make considerable capital investments in new construction or purchases, and they pay off those investments over time. With manufacturing lines for cars, new power plants, or oil pipelines, there are also jobs associated with new facilities, and this further complicates shutting down such efforts due to economic and social entanglements. This is the problem with Tesla; they’re not intent on finding the best solution to our climate crisis. Due to this, temporary solutions—such as a mass retrofit to electric cars—are hard to move on from. Just like when a family purchases a gas vehicle, they're unlikely to buy a new electric car or stop driving that car the very next year due to the sunk cost of the vehicle. We can't afford to take half measures; the investments we've already made in today's energy system may already push us past the goals of the Paris climate agreement, even if we immediately stop investment in new fossil fuel infrastructure. We need to think bigger and reimagine the systems we use to address the climate crisis, move people, build, and more. We can't continue to be locked into a car-based system—that's not thinking big enough. Logistical challenges with changing to electric vehicles There are multiple other problems with prioritizing electric vehicles as the key solution to our climate crisis versus merely a piece of the puzzle. One issue is one of logistics and scale - there are estimated to be more than 1.4 billion, potentially as many as 1.5 billion vehicles in operation in the world today—and that number has been doubling every 20 years or so since the 1970s. It's untenable politically or logistically in many countries to quickly swap out or retrofit all current vehicles for electric. Even with accelerating electric vehicle adoption rates, electric cars are a vast minority of new car sales. Electric cars won't save us Politicians don't want to tell you that electric vehicles won't solve the ecological problems created by transportation. The car companies certainly want you to think they will, proposing electric cars as the latest thing to buy and lobbying for tax credits and incentives for electric car purchases. However, electric vehicles won't solve our carbon emissions challenge fast enough – and prioritizing cars as a transportation method is extremely inefficient when it comes to space in our cities, another crucial part of the climate change equation. With less than a decade to reduce carbon emissions to 50% of our 2017 annual emissions, electrics cars won't get us nearly close enough even if we drastically increase our electric vehicle production and immediately switch to electric vehicles. Instead, we'll lock-in a level of carbon emissions that is unsustainable, particularly as personal vehicles are sold across the world's burgeoning population. Denser, urban cities can develop massive efficiencies in transportation, logistics, and housing that enable them to emit significantly less carbon (and cut down far fewer forests, crucial to converting the CO2 in our atmosphere) than sprawling suburban developments. If everyone has an electric car in the future, it’ll take up significant urban space, particularly compared with alternative transportation modes. In urban environments (where the majority of the world’s population lives and where a full 68% of the world’s population is projected to be by 2050), there are plenty of other greener, more sustainable options. Research shows that roughly half of all car trips in US cities are under three miles and can be replaced with zero-emissions micromobility options such as scooters and bikes. For those who may not want to get unduly sweaty ahead of a business meeting, or who can’t or don’t want to put in the effort, e-bikes are a great option and can take tons of car trips off the road, saving space in our cities, and taking car trips off the road entirely. Urban environments allow us to leverage mass transit with buses, rail, and subway systems, all providing vast efficiencies over moving people vs. cars. These are also significantly more accessible to people without the considerable upfront costs of purchasing a car, not to mention the public health benefits of avoiding all those car accidents, one of the leading causes of death in the United States.The good news? Getting off fossil fuels pays for itself One of the under-discussed factors with getting cars off the road is that know it pays for itself. Car companies certainly don’t want us to think about the fact that even if climate change didn’t exist, the air pollution from gas vehicles more than pays for the cost of transitioning to alternative transportation options. As researchers continue to hone in on air pollution’s direct and indirect effects, they’ve realized just how stark the problem is. At the August 5th, 2020 hearing of the U.S. House Committee on Oversight and Reform, Drew Shindell, Nicholas professor of earth science at Duke University (and a lead author on both recent IPCCreports), laid out the numbers: “Over the next 50 years, keeping to the 2°C pathway would prevent roughly 4.5 million premature deaths, about 3.5 million hospitalizations, and emergency room visits, and approximately 300 million lost workdays in the U.S.” On average, this amounts to over $700 billion per year in benefits to the U.S. from improved health and labor alone, far more than the cost of the energy transition. These are vast numbers—as clean energy has gotten so inexpensive, it’s clear that the air quality benefits alone are enough to pay for the energy transition. While climate change can only be halted with the cooperation of the world, the numbers show that even if the United States were to be the only country to get rid of fossil fuels and the benefits of avoiding global warming were not to materialize, the air quality benefits would still pay for the cost of divesting from fossil fuels. Shindell’s team looked at a scenario where the United States met the zero-emissions standards of the Paris Climate Accords 2°C while the rest of the world continued with current policies. Shindell testified that “We found that U.S. action alone would bring us more than two-thirds of the health benefits of worldwide action over the next 15 years, with roughly half the total over the entire 50-year period analyzed.” Regardless of whether we can fully combat climate change, it’s clear that we need to divest our society from fossil fuels—saving lives and money while reducing urban sprawl and commute times. We can build a sustainable future Electric cars are not going to save us alone. While they’re often touted by marketing and government officials as the solution to our climate challenges, the truth is that we have to adjust our transportation model entirely and move away from a car-centric approach to transit to achieve better health outcomes, combat climate change, and avoid poisoning our rivers. While electric cars are superior in their pure greenhouse gas emissions to gas counterparts, they are still bad for the environment in other ways and inefficient ways of moving people that encouraging suburban sprawl. If we’re still sprawling outwards as populations grow, we’re not going to be able to achieve the efficiency needed in transportation and housing to meet our climate and space needs. We’ll also deeply damage our environment, getting rid of green space for single-family housing, cutting down trees that are doing important work filtering carbon from the atmosphere, and poisoning our rivers and streams with the heavy metals present in car tires. Instead, we need more efficient transportation forms to be prioritized, letting us move people faster and with far fewer carbon emissions. Rail, both high-speed and in-city light rail, is an essential part of this equation: buses, micromobility technologies, and increased biking and walking through dense, interconnected neighborhoods with safe walking and riding areas. Conor Bronsdon is a Seattle based writer and consultant with Olive & Goose. His work has been published in Planetizen, The Urbanist, and by Microsoft Services. You can read more of his writing at conorbronsdon.com. He is focused on the creative applications of technology and political will to solve problems and recently served as the Chief Strategist for the appointment of Seattle City Councilmember Abel Pacheco.

1.4 billion, potentially as many as 1.5 billion vehicles in operation in the world today—and that number has been doubling every 20 years or so since the 1970s. It's untenable politically or logistically in many countries to quickly swap out or retrofit all current vehicles for electric. Even with accelerating electric vehicle adoption rates, electric cars are a vast minority of new car sales. Electric cars won't save us Politicians don't want to tell you that electric vehicles won't solve the ecological problems created by transportation. The car companies certainly want you to think they will, proposing electric cars as the latest thing to buy and lobbying for tax credits and incentives for electric car purchases. However, electric vehicles won't solve our carbon emissions challenge fast enough – and prioritizing cars as a transportation method is extremely inefficient when it comes to space in our cities, another crucial part of the climate change equation. With less than a decade to reduce carbon emissions to 50% of our 2017 annual emissions, electrics cars won't get us nearly close enough even if we drastically increase our electric vehicle production and immediately switch to electric vehicles. Instead, we'll lock-in a level of carbon emissions that is unsustainable, particularly as personal vehicles are sold across the world's burgeoning population. Denser, urban cities can develop massive efficiencies in transportation, logistics, and housing that enable them to emit significantly less carbon (and cut down far fewer forests, crucial to converting the CO2 in our atmosphere) than sprawling suburban developments. If everyone has an electric car in the future, it’ll take up significant urban space, particularly compared with alternative transportation modes. In urban environments (where the majority of the world’s population lives and where a full 68% of the world’s population is projected to be by 2050), there are plenty of other greener, more sustainable options. Research shows that roughly half of all car trips in US cities are under three miles and can be replaced with zero-emissions micromobility options such as scooters and bikes.

no

Stomatology

Are electric toothbrushes better for your teeth than manual ones?

yes_statement

"electric" "toothbrushes" are "better" for your "teeth" than "manual" "ones".. using an "electric" "toothbrush" is more beneficial for your "teeth" than using a "manual" one.

https://www.healthline.com/health/dental-and-oral-health/electric-toothbrush-vs-manual

Electric Toothbrush vs. Manual Toothbrush: Which Is Better?

Electric vs. manual toothbrush Brushing your teeth is the foundation of good oral care and prevention. According to the American Dental Association (ADA), both electric and manual toothbrushes are effective at removing oral plaque that causes decay and disease. Electric and manual toothbrushes each have their own benefits. The ADA puts a Seal of Acceptance on any toothbrush, electric or manual, that’s proven safe and effective. Read more about the pros and cons and which one might be best for you. Electric toothbrush bristles vibrate or rotate to help you remove plaque buildup from your teeth and gums. The vibration allows for more micro-movements every time you move your toothbrush across your teeth. More effective at removing plaque A review of studies showed that, in general, electric toothbrushes do decrease more plaque and gingivitis than manual toothbrushes. After three months of use, plaque was reduced by 21 percent and gingivitis by 11 percent. Oscillating (rotating) toothbrushes seem to work better than just vibrating toothbrushes. Easier for people with limited mobility Electric toothbrushes does most of the work for you. They may be helpful for anyone with limited mobility, such as people with: Built-in timers A timer built into an electric toothbrush can help you brush your teeth long enough to sufficiently remove plaque from your teeth and gums. May cause less waste When it’s time for a new toothbrush, you only have to replace an electric toothbrush head in many cases, so it may be less wasteful than throwing away a full manual toothbrush. However, if you use a single-use electric toothbrush, you’ll have to completely replace it when it’s time to do so. May improve your focus while brushing At least one study found that people were more focused when brushing their teeth using an electric toothbrush. This improved people’s overall experience brushing and could potentially improve how well you clean your teeth. May improve oral health in people with orthodontic appliances One study found that electric toothbrushes were particularly helpful for people with orthodontic appliances, such as braces, because it made brushing easier. Among people with appliances who already had good oral health, plaque levels were about the same, whether they used an electric toothbrush or not. But if you find it difficult to clean your mouth while having orthodontic therapy, the electric toothbrush may improve your oral health. Fun for kids Not all kids are interested in brushing their teeth. If an electric toothbrush is more engaging to your child, it can help accomplish good oral cleaning and set healthy habits. Safe for gums Used properly, an electric toothbrush should not hurt your gums or enamel but instead promote overall oral health. Electric toothbrushes are more expensive than manual ones. Prices range anywhere from $15 to $250 per brush. New replacement brush heads usually come in packs of multiples and cost between $10 and $45. Totally disposable electric toothbrushes cost $5 to $8 plus the cost of batteries. Finding the right replacement brush heads may not always be easy or convenient, either, since not all stores carry them, and your local stores may not have the correct brand. You can purchase them online, but this isn’t convenient for everyone, and it’s not a great option if you need a new head right away. You can stock up and have enough on hand to last a year or more but that adds to upfront cost. Plug-in versions may not be a good option if you travel internationally, since you’ll need a backup travel toothbrush in these cases. Even though electric toothbrushes may produce less waste, because they require electricity or batteries, they are less eco-friendly than manual ones. Not everyone likes the vibrating feeling, either. Plus, electric toothbrushes create a bit more movement of saliva in your mouth, which may get messy. Manual toothbrushes have been around for a long time. While they don’t have the bells and whistles found in many electric toothbrushes, they are still an effective tool for cleaning your teeth and preventing gingivitis. If you’re most comfortable sticking with a manual toothbrush, continue using one if it means you’ll still brush twice per day, every day. Accessible You can get a manual toothbrush at almost any grocery store, gas station, dollar store, or pharmacy. They also don’t need to be charged to function, so you can use a manual toothbrush anywhere and at any time. Affordable Manual toothbrushes are cost-effective. You can usually buy one for $1 to $3. One study found that people were more likely to brush too hard if they used a manual toothbrush versus electric. Brushing too hard can hurt your gums and teeth. Using a manual toothbrush may also make it more difficult to know if you’re brushing long enough for every session since there’s no built-in timer. Consider placing a kitchen timer in your bathroom to time your brushing sessions. The best toothbrush for your child is whatever one they are mostly likely to use. Experts recommend soft bristles and a child-sized toothbrush head for kids. Neither a manual nor electric toothbrush is necessarily better for young children. The same pros and cons of each kind still apply. Toddlers and kids can safely use an electric toothbrush on their own. Though, it’s recommended that you supervise your children while brushing their teeth to make sure they spit out their toothpaste and don’t swallow it. Tip: For toddlers, you may want to do a second brushing after your child to make sure they got all areas of their mouth. All toothbrushes need to be replaced every three to four months according to the ADA. Replace your toothbrush sooner if it looks frayed or if you used it when you were sick. With a manual toothbrush, the whole thing needs to be replaced. With an electric toothbrush, you may only need to replace the removable head. Tip: Replace your toothbrush or toothbrush head every three to four months. The most important parts of brushing your teeth are using proper technique, and doing it twice per day, every day. The best way to brush your teeth is to: Pick a toothbrush that’s the right size for your mouth. Avoid hard bristles that can irritate your gums. The ADA recommends soft-bristle brushes. Also, look for brushes with multi-level or angled bristles. One study found this type of bristle to be more effects than flat, one-level bristles. Sometimes people have bleeding gums when they’ve gone too long between brushing and flossing, and the plaque really starts to build up. So long as you are gentle, brushing and flossing should not actually cause bleeding. Tip: Both electric and manual toothbrushes are effective at cleaning teeth if you use proper technique and brush long enough. Overall, an electric toothbrush may make brushing easier, resulting in better plaque removal. Talk with your dentist if you have questions about which toothbrush might be best for you. Last medically reviewed on May 3, 2018 How we reviewed this article: Healthline has strict sourcing guidelines and relies on peer-reviewed studies, academic research institutions, and medical associations. We avoid using tertiary references. You can learn more about how we ensure our content is accurate and current by reading our editorial policy.

Electric vs. manual toothbrush Brushing your teeth is the foundation of good oral care and prevention. According to the American Dental Association (ADA), both electric and manual toothbrushes are effective at removing oral plaque that causes decay and disease. Electric and manual toothbrushes each have their own benefits. The ADA puts a Seal of Acceptance on any toothbrush, electric or manual, that’s proven safe and effective. Read more about the pros and cons and which one might be best for you. Electric toothbrush bristles vibrate or rotate to help you remove plaque buildup from your teeth and gums. The vibration allows for more micro-movements every time you move your toothbrush across your teeth. More effective at removing plaque A review of studies showed that, in general, electric toothbrushes do decrease more plaque and gingivitis than manual toothbrushes. After three months of use, plaque was reduced by 21 percent and gingivitis by 11 percent. Oscillating (rotating) toothbrushes seem to work better than just vibrating toothbrushes. Easier for people with limited mobility Electric toothbrushes does most of the work for you. They may be helpful for anyone with limited mobility, such as people with: Built-in timers A timer built into an electric toothbrush can help you brush your teeth long enough to sufficiently remove plaque from your teeth and gums. May cause less waste When it’s time for a new toothbrush, you only have to replace an electric toothbrush head in many cases, so it may be less wasteful than throwing away a full manual toothbrush. However, if you use a single-use electric toothbrush, you’ll have to completely replace it when it’s time to do so. May improve your focus while brushing At least one study found that people were more focused when brushing their teeth using an electric toothbrush. This improved people’s overall experience brushing and could potentially improve how well you clean your teeth.

yes

Stomatology

Are electric toothbrushes better for your teeth than manual ones?

yes_statement

"electric" "toothbrushes" are "better" for your "teeth" than "manual" "ones".. using an "electric" "toothbrush" is more beneficial for your "teeth" than using a "manual" one.

https://www.consumerreports.org/health/toothbrushes/electric-toothbrush-or-manual-a3193343159/

Should You Use an Electric Toothbrush or a Manual Toothbrush ...

Should You Use an Electric Toothbrush or a Manual Toothbrush? What to know about cost, effectiveness, and safety when you're choosing a new toothbrush By Sally Wadyka Published January 19, 2020 | Updated September 6, 2022 shares of the article shares of the article When you shop through retailer links on our site, we may earn affiliate commissions. 100% of the fees we collect are used to support our nonprofit mission. Learn more. Photo: iStock Modern toothbrushes can do far more than just clean your teeth and freshen your breath. Some premium electric toothbrushes not only time your brushing to ensure that you keep cleaning for the full 2 minutes but also warn you if you are pressing the brush against your teeth too hard, potentially damaging teeth or gums. But most people still use a traditional manual toothbrush instead of a powered device. According to a 2022 report by consumer marketing analysis firm Mintel, 41 percent of adults say they have used an electric toothbrush in the past six months, compared with 58 percent who say they’ve used a manual one. Ever since the advent of the electric toothbrush—a battery-operated device whose bristles vibrate or rotate rapidly—in the 1960s, debate has raged over whether powered or manual toothbrushes do a better job at cleaning teeth, and whether one type is safer than another for your teeth and gums. There are, of course, cost differences between electric and manual toothbrushes. You can buy a manual toothbrush for less than a dollar, and basic powered models—which run on replaceable batteries—can be had for less than $10. Those with rechargeable batteries (for which a single charge lasts anywhere from a few days to several weeks) start as low as $20. But you can spend more than $250 for a high-end “smart” electric toothbrush that syncs with an app on your phone and offers recommendations on improving your brushing technique. Which should you choose? Dental experts point out that each has its pros and cons, and that personal preferences and factors such as your age and general health might play a role in which kind of toothbrush is best for you. Whichever you use, dentists agree that brushing your teeth for 2 minutes, twice a day is the most effective step you can take for oral health. This helps get rid of bacteria that causes plaque, a sticky, germy film that adheres to teeth. When plaque builds up, it can cause tooth decay as well as gum disease. Do Electric Toothbrushes Clean Better? One of the more comprehensive analyses of the topic—a 2014 review of studies by the independent Cochrane Collaboration—gave powered toothbrushes a slight edge at cleaning away plaque. The researchers looked at 56 clinical trials of unsupervised toothbrushing by more than 5,000 adults and children, and found that study subjects who used a powered toothbrush showed an 11 percent reduction in plaque at one to three months, and a 21 percent reduction after three months or more, compared with those who used a manual toothbrush. A 2021 meta-analysis of 28 studies provided further evidence that powered toothbrushes seem to have a slight edge over manual ones when it comes to plaque removal. In the large 2014 review, researchers also found that users of electric toothbrushes had a 6 percent reduction in gingivitis (gum disease) at one to three months and an 11 percent reduction after three months or longer. A German study published in 2019 in the journal Clinical Periodontology also found that electric toothbrushes were more effective for gum health. Here, researchers at University Medicine Greifswald, who followed 2,819 adults over 11 years, determined that using a powered toothbrush reduced the progression of periodontal disease. Plus, electric toothbrush users had healthier gums overall and retained 19 percent more teeth over the study period than those using a manual toothbrush. The 2014 researchers also found that oscillating powered toothbrushes (which have a small round head that rotates quickly in one direction and then the other) were slightly better at reducing plaque than sonic electric toothbrushes (which have an oval head that moves or vibrates rapidly from side to side). The 2021 meta-analysis also found some evidence supporting this idea. But the 2014 study authors said more research is needed to confirm this finding, and the 2021 study asserted moderate (rather than high) certainty to support it. Though research suggests electric toothbrushes might have some advantages, “You can brush very effectively with a manual toothbrush,” says Matt Messina, DDS, a consumer adviser with the American Dental Association (ADA). “If you get good checkups and your dentist is confident you’re doing a thorough job, you don’t need to change from a manual brush.” Can an Electric Toothbrush Hurt Your Teeth? Electric toothbrushes can be very, well, powerful, which explains why they can do such a thorough job on plaque. But too much power may also be potentially problematic. A 2017 study published in the journal PLOS One found that electric toothbrushes were more likely than manual to abrade dentin—the tissue directly below the tooth’s enamel, which can become exposed when enamel wears away or gums recede. Abrasions to the dentin increase tooth sensitivity and can hike cavity risks. For the study, researchers took dentin samples from teeth and then used a machine that simulated the effects of eight-and-a-half years of brushing. They found that sonic toothbrushes caused the most abrasion to the dentin, followed by oscillating, and that manual toothbrushes—especially those with rippled bristles—created the least. Another simulated brushing study, this one published in 2013 in the journal Clinical Oral Investigations, had somewhat different results. It found that manual and electric toothbrushes had similar effects on intact enamel, but that on worn enamel, manual toothbrushing abraded dentin more. But there’s an important caveat: In this study, the manual brushing simulation used a lot more force than the powered brush simulation. And experts say that brushing too forcefully with any kind of toothbrush may increase the likelihood of gum recession and damaged tooth enamel. In fact, a gentle touch with a soft-bristled toothbrush—whether manual or electric—is the safest bet. “It doesn’t take much force to brush away bacteria and food particles,” says Vera W. L. Tang, DDS, clinical assistant professor, vice chair and predoctoral director at the New York University College of Dentistry, department of periodontology and implant dentistry. And that may be especially important to keep in mind with electric toothbrushes. “When you brush with a powered toothbrush, you don’t really have to do anything because the rotating or vibrating head does the work for you,” Tang says. What's in a Toothbrush? When you’re deciding on a toothbrush, consider the basics first. Both electric and manual toothbrushes come in a variety of head sizes and bristle configurations, including bristles that are clustered, angled, or rippled in various ways. “Some studies have shown that tapered or angled bristles are slightly more effective at reducing plaque than flat brushes,” Tang says. Whether you opt for a manual or an electric toothbrush, choose one with soft bristles. “Bristles that are too hard are more likely to cause damage to gums and enamel,” Tang says. When in doubt, Messina suggests checking to see whether a toothbrush has earned the ADA Seal of Acceptance. “That indicates that it’s been independently tested, and that it safely and effectively removes plaque and reduces gingivitis,” he says. If you’re thinking about an electric toothbrush, one feature to consider is a 2-minute timer. According to the ADA, most people brush for an average of only about 45 seconds, so a timer may encourage you to brush longer. (Certain manual toothbrushes also have this feature or light up after 2 minutes of use.) Some electric models have a quadrant timer that buzzes every 30 seconds to remind you to move on to another area of your mouth. An electric toothbrush with a pressure sensor may be beneficial for people who tend to brush too aggressively. “Some models sense if you’re pushing too hard and respond by stopping the bristles from moving until you lighten your touch,” Tang says. Electric toothbrushes may also yield better results for certain groups, experts say. For instance, older adults, especially those with arthritis, might not have the dexterity to maneuver a manual toothbrush effectively, Tang says. “Powered brushes not only do much of the work for you, but the larger handles are easier to hold,” she says. Youngsters may benefit from them for the same reasons. Plus, some electric toothbrushes made specifically for kids play music or connect to timer apps to encourage longer brushing sessions—although whether or not that actually inspires children to brush for the recommended 2 minutes hasn’t been studied. (The ADA and the American Academy of Pediatric Dentistry recommend that parents supervise kids’ brushing until they’re about 7 or 8 and say that kids who can routinely tie their own shoes can also brush their own teeth, with a manual or an electric toothbrush.) An electric toothbrush can also be a boon for anyone with braces. “It’s much easier to get around all the brackets and wires than with a manual brush,” Messina says. Some powered products even have heads specifically designed to clean thoroughly around and between braces. Use the Best Toothbrushing Technique Whether you choose a basic toothbrush or one with all the bells and whistles, the way you brush is key. “The correct technique can be used with a powered or manual toothbrush,” says Paulo Camargo, DDS, a professor and the associate dean of clinical affairs at the UCLA School of Dentistry in Los Angeles. “People who do a good job can do a good job with either.” To get the most out of every toothbrushing session: Hold the toothbrush at the proper angle. “The biggest mistake most people make is holding their toothbrush at 90 degrees, which cleans the teeth but not the gums,” Camargo says. “Bacteria grows in the space between the teeth and gums, and in order to disrupt it, you need to use the bristles at a 45-degree angle and get them below the gum line.” Brush two teeth at a time.Work your way methodically around your mouth, focusing your attention on two teeth at a time, Tang says. “If you’re using a powered brush, just set it on those two teeth and let it do its thing, then move on to the next two,” she says. Be thorough. “Regardless of what type of brush you use, you still have to make sure the bristles touch every surface of every tooth,” Messina says. Clean the front and back sides of all your teeth, top and bottom, including the sharp edges. You also need to get the toothbrush behind your back teeth. For good measure, use your toothbrush to go over the surface of your tongue, to reduce bacteria and prevent bad breath. Use the right touch.“There’s a fine line between doing a good job and overdoing it,” Camargo says. If you’re concerned that you’re brushing too hard, try this trick: Instead of grasping the toothbrush in your fist, hold it with just your fingertips. “It doesn’t allow you to put as much pressure on your gums,” Tang says. And know the signs of overly aggressive brushing: tooth sensitivity, bleeding or irritated gums, receding gums, and splayed toothbrush bristles. Replace your toothbrush regularly.You’ll need to break out a new toothbrush—or a new brush head for an electric toothbrush—every three to four months. If you notice the bristles are frayed or splaying open, it’s definitely time for a new one. “Splayed bristles can no longer effectively get under the gum line,” Camargo says. Last, consider this: Plastic toothbrushes create a lot of trash—of the type that doesn’t break down easily. With electric models, you’re typically tossing a little less plastic because it’s only the brush head that’s replaced regularly. However, some manufacturers now offer manual toothbrushes with replaceable heads. And some companies make manual toothbrushes from sustainable bamboo, compostable bio-plastic, or cellulose (plastic generated from wood)—though these aren’t necessarily ADA-approved. (Read our special report, "The Big Problem with Plastic.")

1 percent of adults say they have used an electric toothbrush in the past six months, compared with 58 percent who say they’ve used a manual one. Ever since the advent of the electric toothbrush—a battery-operated device whose bristles vibrate or rotate rapidly—in the 1960s, debate has raged over whether powered or manual toothbrushes do a better job at cleaning teeth, and whether one type is safer than another for your teeth and gums. There are, of course, cost differences between electric and manual toothbrushes. You can buy a manual toothbrush for less than a dollar, and basic powered models—which run on replaceable batteries—can be had for less than $10. Those with rechargeable batteries (for which a single charge lasts anywhere from a few days to several weeks) start as low as $20. But you can spend more than $250 for a high-end “smart” electric toothbrush that syncs with an app on your phone and offers recommendations on improving your brushing technique. Which should you choose? Dental experts point out that each has its pros and cons, and that personal preferences and factors such as your age and general health might play a role in which kind of toothbrush is best for you. Whichever you use, dentists agree that brushing your teeth for 2 minutes, twice a day is the most effective step you can take for oral health. This helps get rid of bacteria that causes plaque, a sticky, germy film that adheres to teeth. When plaque builds up, it can cause tooth decay as well as gum disease. Do Electric Toothbrushes Clean Better? One of the more comprehensive analyses of the topic—a 2014 review of studies by the independent Cochrane Collaboration—gave powered toothbrushes a slight edge at cleaning away plaque.

yes

Stomatology

Are electric toothbrushes better for your teeth than manual ones?

yes_statement

"electric" "toothbrushes" are "better" for your "teeth" than "manual" "ones".. using an "electric" "toothbrush" is more beneficial for your "teeth" than using a "manual" one.

https://health.clevelandclinic.org/should-i-be-using-an-electric-toothbrush/

Here's Why You Should Be Using an Electric Toothbrush

Here’s Why You Should Be Using an Electric Toothbrush These days, there’s a “smart” version of just about everything, from kitchen appliances to lightbulbs to cars (and beyond). In a world where technologically advanced alternatives are everywhere, it can be tough to decide which ones are nice-to-haves and which ones really have a positive impact on your life. Cleveland Clinic is a non-profit academic medical center. Advertising on our site helps support our mission. We do not endorse non-Cleveland Clinic products or services. Policy First invented in 1954, electric toothbrushes experienced a boom in the early 2000s. Now, they’re more popular than ever. But do they really make a difference in cleaning your teeth? Actually, yes: Electric toothbrushes are generally considered more effective at removing plaque and keeping teeth clean than manual toothbrushes. Dental hygienist Denise Stepka, RDH, weighs in on the pros and cons of using an electric toothbrush. Electric vs. manual toothbrush Studies show that electric toothbrushes do a better job of cleaning your teeth than manual toothbrushes do, which can help prevent cavities and gum disease. But let’s back up for a second. Brushing your teeth is all about getting rid of plaque and debris. But why, exactly? Plaque is a sticky film that forms on your teeth and produces acid, which can break down tooth enamel and cause cavities and tooth decay. Plaque can also irritate your gums and cause gingivitis, an early stage of gum (periodontal) disease. If it’s not removed, plaque can harden into tartar, which can only be removed by a dental professional. Electric toothbrushes, which are typically powered by a rechargeable battery, use electricity to move a small brush head at high speed. “This rapid movement removes plaque and debris from your teeth and gums,” Stepka explains. Oscillating-rotating technology means the brush head spins and rotates as it cleans. This was the first kind of electric toothbrush to hit the market, and a 2005 study was the first to show that it cleaned better than manual brushes. Sonic technology uses ultrasound and sonic waves to vibrate as you brush. Some models use Bluetooth to send information about your brushing habits and technique to a smartphone app, helping you improve your brushing over time. Benefits of electric toothbrush Overall, using an electric toothbrush can be a good way to improve your oral hygiene and help keep your teeth and gums healthy. “I’ve seen patients who have had difficulty with home care have an overall decrease in plaque, tartar and stain when using an electric toothbrush,” Stepka says. “I think it’s a combination of the brush being more effective and patients brushing for longer because of the two-minute timers that many of these brushes have.” Here’s what electric toothbrushes offer: A more reliable clean: “Electric toothbrushes can produce thousands of strokes per minute to remove plaque from your teeth,” Stepka explains. “Your manual toothbrush, meanwhile, works only as fast as your own hand.” Specialized features: Many electric toothbrushes have built-in features like timers and pressure sensors to help you brush properly and for the recommended amount of time. Some offer multiple brushing modes, which can be helpful for people with sensitive teeth or gums. Ease of use: “Because electric toothbrushes do most of the work of brushing for you, they’re sometimes easier to use for people who have limited dexterity or hand mobility,” Stepka says. Risks of using an electric toothbrush As with just about everything, there are a few potential downsides to consider. The main risk of usual an electric toothbrush, Stepka says, is the same as the main risk of using a manual toothbrush: The possibility that you might brush too hard. “You might think that brushing harder equals getting your teeth cleaner, but brushing too hard can actually wear at your tooth enamel and your gums,” Stepka warns. Yikes! But the pressure sensors on some models of electric toothbrushes can be a good way to make sure you’re not doing this kind of damage when you brush. Cost: Electric toothbrushes are more expensive than their manual counterparts and require new brush heads every three months or so, which adds to the overall cost of ownership. Discomfort: Some people find the sensation of the brush moving in their mouth to be uncomfortable or off-putting. This may be especially true if you have sensory processing issues. Electricity: It may sound like a no-brainer, but electric toothbrushes require electricity to operate! This means they may be inconvenient or even impossible to recharge if you don’t have access to a reliable power source, like during travel. Should you use an electric toothbrush? Electric toothbrushes can certainly work wonders for your overall oral hygiene. But if this kind of purchase isn’t in the cards for you right now, don’t fret. “You don’t need to have an electric toothbrush to clean your teeth effectively,” Stepka says. “A manual brush will do a great job if used properly and for the two-minute recommended brushing time.” Always select a toothbrush with soft or extra-soft bristles, and try to find one with a relatively small brush head so that you can more easily reach behind your last molars. Not sure whether you’re brushing quite right? Don’t hesitate to ask your dentist, periodontist or dental hygienist for guidance. They’ll be happy to help you, er, brush up on your technique so that you can keep plaque and tartar at bay. Resources Share this article via email Here’s Why You Should Be Using an Electric Toothbrush Do electric toothbrushes do a better job of cleaning your teeth than manual toothbrushes? Turns out, yes. But if an electric toothbrush isn’t in your cards right now, a manual toothbrush will still do a great job. Here are considerations. Share this article via email with one or more people using the form below.

Sonic technology uses ultrasound and sonic waves to vibrate as you brush. Some models use Bluetooth to send information about your brushing habits and technique to a smartphone app, helping you improve your brushing over time. Benefits of electric toothbrush Overall, using an electric toothbrush can be a good way to improve your oral hygiene and help keep your teeth and gums healthy. “I’ve seen patients who have had difficulty with home care have an overall decrease in plaque, tartar and stain when using an electric toothbrush,” Stepka says. “I think it’s a combination of the brush being more effective and patients brushing for longer because of the two-minute timers that many of these brushes have.” Here’s what electric toothbrushes offer: A more reliable clean: “Electric toothbrushes can produce thousands of strokes per minute to remove plaque from your teeth,” Stepka explains. “Your manual toothbrush, meanwhile, works only as fast as your own hand.” Specialized features: Many electric toothbrushes have built-in features like timers and pressure sensors to help you brush properly and for the recommended amount of time. Some offer multiple brushing modes, which can be helpful for people with sensitive teeth or gums. Ease of use: “Because electric toothbrushes do most of the work of brushing for you, they’re sometimes easier to use for people who have limited dexterity or hand mobility,” Stepka says. Risks of using an electric toothbrush As with just about everything, there are a few potential downsides to consider. The main risk of usual an electric toothbrush, Stepka says, is the same as the main risk of using a manual toothbrush: The possibility that you might brush too hard. “You might think that brushing harder equals getting your teeth cleaner, but brushing too hard can actually wear at your tooth enamel and your gums,” Stepka warns. Yikes!

yes

Stomatology

Are electric toothbrushes better for your teeth than manual ones?

yes_statement

"electric" "toothbrushes" are "better" for your "teeth" than "manual" "ones".. using an "electric" "toothbrush" is more beneficial for your "teeth" than using a "manual" one.

http://www.pointedentalgroup.com/blog/are-electric-toothbrushes-better/

Are Electric Toothbrushes Better Than Manual? | Pointe Dental Group

Are Electric Toothbrushes Better Than Manual Ones? There’s no question that taking care of your teeth is important. That’s why it’s no surprise there are always new products and devices coming out to help you improve your dental care. Every year, electric toothbrushes are becoming more common. But you may be wondering, “are electric toothbrushes better than manual ones?” Read on to learn more about the pros and cons of electric toothbrushes versus manual toothbrushes to see if upgrading makes sense for you. Pros of Electric Toothbrushes Electric Toothbrushes Are Better for Cleaning Teeth Research has shown that those who use electric toothbrushes in general have better results for cleaning their teeth. While the difference isn’t massive, it does mean that electric toothbrushes have the edge when it comes to maintaining great oral health. Certain types of electric toothbrushes, specifically those with oscillating heads, perform the best. Make sure to do your research before you purchase any toothbrush to find out if it’s right for you. The dentists at Pointe Dental Group can help you if you have questions. They Help Teach Ideal Brushing Habits The primary reason that electric toothbrushes outperform manual ones is that they can help make sure you’re brushing correctly. Because they do most of the work for you, you don’t need to worry about maintaining even pressure and going side-to-side like you do with a manual toothbrush. You simply press the brush to your teeth and slowly move it across every surface of your mouth. Additionally, almost all modern electric toothbrushes come with a device to help with your timing. Proper brushing requires that you brush for two minutes to ensure you fully clean your mouth. Not only do some toothbrushes alert you to when two minutes are up, they sometimes include small buzzes at certain intervals to help you brush evenly throughout your mouth. This can help prevent you from overbrushing – which is one common dental mistake that leads to wearing down your enamel! Useful Attachments for Orthodontic Patients Do you wear braces? One common concern that new orthodontic patients have is new difficulty when brushing their teeth. The last thing you want when improving your smile is to start developing cavities! Electric toothbrushes offer unique types of brush heads that are ideal for cleaning hard to reach places, like interproximal brushes. Not only can these be used to help clean around your braces, they can be used to supplement flossing and brushing for the most difficult surfaces in your mouth. Helpful for Those with Impaired Dexterity Are electric toothbrushes better for those who have trouble with fine motor control? Absolutely! Unlike manual toothbrushes, electric ones require very little movement. All you need to do is move them across the teeth and gums slowly! This makes them ideal for those who are older or individuals with unique dexterity limitations. No matter your circumstances, it’s critical not to let your oral health degrade! Pros of Manual Toothbrushes Easy for Travel There’s no denying that “simple” is the name of the game when it comes to traveling. Manual toothbrushes let you keep your teeth and gums clean without needing anything other than a source of water. They’re typically smaller, lighter and more convenient to store when moving from place to place. Inexpensive Toothbrushes frequently need replacing. Whether the bristles have worn, you dropped it on the ground or lost it completely, you’ll purchase several throughout your lifetime. When it comes to replacing a toothbrush, manual ones are cheap. They’re only a few dollars and almost any name-brand toothbrush will do what it needs to do. They Can Be Purchased Easily In addition to being cheap, you’ll be able to buy manual brushes anywhere. Convenience stores, drug stores and grocery stores are everywhere – and they almost always have a small selection of quality toothbrushes. When shopping for an electric toothbrush head, you need to find one that’s compatible with your base. Not every retailer will have what you need! Manual Toothbrushes Are Useful Anywhere If you’re taking a week-long camping trip to the mountains, you’re unlikely to find a place to plug in your toothbrush. Manual toothbrushes don’t need anything besides your muscles to get the job done. Even if you’re camping in an RV with power, you always want to conserve that electricity for when you need it. Cons of Electric Toothbrushes They’re More Expensive Electric toothbrushes cost more to use. Even if you’re just replacing the head! There’s no denying that their convenience comes at a premium. If you’re extremely money-conscious, you may consider the extra price for a powered toothbrush to be incompatible with your finances. Require Charging If you travel or are just forgetful, you can find yourself with an oversized paperweight when your toothbrush runs out of power. Most name-brand electric toothbrushes require a few hours to charge when they’re completely drained. Even if they have power, the motor can start to weaken when it’s running low, providing a less-than-adequate clean. You May Have Technical Issues A manual toothbrush only has the base and its bristles. Electric ones have a lot of internal parts. Everyone knows that technology can have trouble’ It’s not common for them to break, but they do. You’ll most likely just replace a broken electric toothbrush, which means technical issues bring you right back to their expensive costs. Cons of Manual Toothbrushes Difficult for Some to Use Certain disabilities make manual toothbrushes nearly impossible to use. Using a manual toothbrush inadequately can lead to all of the common issues of poor dental care: Manual Toothbrushes Require Proper Brushing Technique You may be surprised to learn that you can brush your teeth incorrectly. Manual toothbrushes can be challenging for children or adults who were never taught how to brush properly. Using too little or too much pressure can leave your teeth at risk. Many people brush too quickly, leaving bacteria and plaque on their mouth that a timer from an electric toothbrush could correct. Which is Right for You? So, are electric toothbrushes better than manual ones? It all depends! If all you care about is keeping your teeth cleaned, either type of toothbrush will work for you. While electric toothbrushes can offer a marginally more efficient clean, their real benefit is from convenience, consistency and additional features.

Are Electric Toothbrushes Better Than Manual Ones? There’s no question that taking care of your teeth is important. That’s why it’s no surprise there are always new products and devices coming out to help you improve your dental care. Every year, electric toothbrushes are becoming more common. But you may be wondering, “are electric toothbrushes better than manual ones?” Read on to learn more about the pros and cons of electric toothbrushes versus manual toothbrushes to see if upgrading makes sense for you. Pros of Electric Toothbrushes Electric Toothbrushes Are Better for Cleaning Teeth Research has shown that those who use electric toothbrushes in general have better results for cleaning their teeth. While the difference isn’t massive, it does mean that electric toothbrushes have the edge when it comes to maintaining great oral health. Certain types of electric toothbrushes, specifically those with oscillating heads, perform the best. Make sure to do your research before you purchase any toothbrush to find out if it’s right for you. The dentists at Pointe Dental Group can help you if you have questions. They Help Teach Ideal Brushing Habits The primary reason that electric toothbrushes outperform manual ones is that they can help make sure you’re brushing correctly. Because they do most of the work for you, you don’t need to worry about maintaining even pressure and going side-to-side like you do with a manual toothbrush. You simply press the brush to your teeth and slowly move it across every surface of your mouth. Additionally, almost all modern electric toothbrushes come with a device to help with your timing. Proper brushing requires that you brush for two minutes to ensure you fully clean your mouth. Not only do some toothbrushes alert you to when two minutes are up, they sometimes include small buzzes at certain intervals to help you brush evenly throughout your mouth. This can help prevent you from overbrushing – which is one common dental mistake that leads to wearing down

yes

Stomatology

Are electric toothbrushes better for your teeth than manual ones?

yes_statement

"electric" "toothbrushes" are "better" for your "teeth" than "manual" "ones".. using an "electric" "toothbrush" is more beneficial for your "teeth" than using a "manual" one.

https://www.insider.com/guides/health/dental/are-electric-toothbrushes-better

Manual vs. electric toothbrushes: Which is better for your teeth ...

Some electric toothbrushes are better at removing plaque than manual toothbrushes. Manual toothbrushes are usually less expensive than electric ones and more easily portable. Patients need to talk with their dentist to choose the brush that best fits their individual needs. Brushing your teeth is a cornerstone of dental health. It is the most effective way to remove dental plaque, which helps prevent cavities, gingivitis, and more serious gum disease. But what kind of toothbrush is best? Certain types of electric toothbrushes are better at removing plaque than manual toothbrushes, according to Sally Cram, DDS, a periodontist and spokesperson for the American Dental Association. However, patients need to talk with their dentist to choose which toothbrush best fits their individual needs. Learn the pros and cons of manual and electric toothbrushes, plus what to look for when you are deciding which brush is right for your dental care routine. What to look for in a manual toothbrush Manual toothbrushes are usually less expensive than their electric counterparts, but studies show they are not necessarily as effective at reducing plaque and gingivitis. If you want to use a manual toothbrush, Cram says to look for one with a small, compact head to reach back teeth. Brushing with hard bristles may damage your gums, says David Leader, DMD, associate professor at Tufts University School of Dental Medicine. No matter how stiff the bristles are, they are not going to remove tartar from your teeth, but they may remove gum tissue, which can lead to tooth sensitivity and gum recession. Pros and cons of manual toothbrushes When deciding which type of manual toothbrush to buy, your dentist may tell you to consider some of the following pros and cons: Pros Portable. It is easy to bring a manual toothbrush to the office, to keep one in your purse, or use it while traveling. Inexpensive. The average manual toothbrush in a drugstore or supermarket costs less than $10. Widely available. Manual toothbrushes are sold at most pharmacies or grocery stores. No batteries: There is no need for a power supply, nor does it cause battery waste. Cons Missing hard-to-reach spots. "I noticed it seems like almost everybody wants a toothbrush with a head on the toothbrush that's too big," Leader says. People may want to choose a compact brush head to make sure they are properly cleaning their teeth. However, when used properly, a manual toothbrush can be as effective as an electric toothbrush. Flossing is key — neither brushing technique is complete without it. Less effective for cleaning teeth. A 2014 review found a manual toothbrush was less effective at removing plaque and preventing gingivitis in both the long and short-term when compared to an electric toothbrush, but the authors caution more standardization of the experiments is needed. Creates excess plastic waste. Experts say toothbrushes need to be replaced about every three months or when the bristles start fraying, which generates plastic waste. Bristles may be more abrasive than electric brushes. If you are brushing too hard with a manual toothbrush or using bristles that are too stiff, it is difficult to tell. Unlike many electric toothbrushes, there is no warning alarm if you are applying too much pressure to the gums. What to look for in an electric toothbrush There are a variety of electric toothbrushes. Three popular types of electric toothbrushes include: Oscillating rotary heads, which are circular heads that both spin and move back and forth. Sonic brush heads, which vibrate back and forth extremely fast. Ultrasonic brushes, which vibrate at a frequency beyond the limit of human sound, hence the name ultrasonic. There are very few clinical trials comparing the different types of electric toothbrushes that are not company-sponsored, so more independent research is needed to determine whether one type is more effective than another. Cram recommends a sonic toothbrush. She says "the bristles get further in between your teeth, in those tight spaces and further down under that little collar of gum tissue that surrounds each of your teeth." What research says: A 2016 review that compared battery type in different electric toothbrushes found that brushes with rechargeable rather than replaceable batteries did a better job at removing plaque. Pros & cons of electric toothbrushes Studies show the best electric toothbrush may have an edge up compared to manual toothbrushes for keeping your mouth healthy. Still, it's worthwhile to consider the pros and cons before purchasing and discuss with your dentist. Pros More effective at reducing plaque and gingivitis than a manual toothbrush. Over an 11-year time period, a large 2019 study in Germany found those who used electric toothbrushes had better overall oral health, including less gum disease and tooth loss than those who used manual brushes. In a 2014 review, an analysis of 56 studies showed electric toothbrushes are more effective at removing plaque and preventing gingivitis in the long and short term when compared to manual toothbrushes. Researchers found an 11% reduction in plaque short-term and a 21% reduction long-term compared to manual toothbrushes. Better for gum health in people with braces. The results of a 2017 review indicated orthodontic patients may have better gum health, including less inflammation and less bleeding if they use an electric toothbrush instead of a manual one, but more long-term research is needed. Better for children. One small 2013 study found that an electric toothbrush was more effective at removing plaque than a manual toothbrush in children ages 8 to17 years old. Better for seniors. Electric toothbrushes are good for older people because the handles are easier to hold on to and the vibrations make them easier to use without vigorous arm or hand movements. It is especially effective for people with issues like arthritis. When positioned correctly, the head of the device does the work. Better for some people with skin conditions. Leader says he works with patients who have scleroderma, which causes tight skin around the mouth. For them, electric toothbrushes are much easier to use than manual brushes. Extra features. Different types of electric toothbrushes come with features that can help you track your brushing, such as the ability to link with your smartphone through an app. They also have timers and sensors, which help you brush for the right amount of time, i.e. two minutes, and not press too hard. Cons Cost: An electric toothbrush generally costs between $30 and $200, which is more expensive than a typical $10 manual toothbrush. You will need to replace the brush head around four times a year; they range between $1 and $10 each depending on the brand. Loud: Electric toothbrushes are significantly louder than their manual counterparts, which can be annoying or disruptive to some. Using with too much force: Abrasions and associated sensitivity can occur when people use an electric toothbrush along with a forceful hand. This can cause damage to the oral tissues. Manual vs. electric toothbrush Electric toothbrushes may be more expensive than their manual counterparts, but studies show they are more effective at reducing plaque and gingivitis than manual toothbrushes. Here is a brief break down of the pros and cons of both manual and electric toothbrushes: Manual toothbrush Electric toothbrush Cost Typically $1-$10 Typically $25-$200 Customer Good for those looking for a compact, portable brush Good for those looking for a brush with extra features and a handle that is easy to hold onto Effectiveness A 2012 review found plaque has reduced an average of 42% with manual brushing. Using a manual toothbrush is also effective at reducing gingivitis. More effective at reducing plaque and gingivitis than manual brushes. Researchers found an 11% reduction in plaque short-term and a 21% reduction long-term compared to manual toothbrushes. Safety Can be hard on gums if someone brushes too forcefully or uses bristles that are too hard Typically have pressure sensors, making it difficult to brush too hard and damage gums Need to be replaced Replace the whole toothbrush every 2-3 months Replace the toothbrush head every 2-3 months Who may benefit most People in need of a portable, inexpensive toothbrush Good for those who have disabilities or dexterity issues Sustainability Generates plastic waste Generates plastic waste, but it may be less than a manual toothbrush. Can also generate battery waste Insider's takeaway People have been brushing their teeth in some fashion for thousands of years. The first toothbrush with nylon bristles was sold in 1938 while the first electric toothbrush was first patented in 1937 — though it didn't catch on until decades later. Manual toothbrushes are small and portable while electric toothbrushes generally have larger handles, making them bulkier and easier to hold onto for children and people with disabilities. Experts agree that a discussion with your dentist is necessary to determine the best type of toothbrush for you. Leader says for people who can easily use both types, the best toothbrush is "whichever one you are more likely to use." Brushing is only part of a complete oral health care process. Observing dietary habits, flossing, and antibacterial rinsing are essential components of a healthy oral hygiene plan.

" What research says: A 2016 review that compared battery type in different electric toothbrushes found that brushes with rechargeable rather than replaceable batteries did a better job at removing plaque. Pros & cons of electric toothbrushes Studies show the best electric toothbrush may have an edge up compared to manual toothbrushes for keeping your mouth healthy. Still, it's worthwhile to consider the pros and cons before purchasing and discuss with your dentist. Pros More effective at reducing plaque and gingivitis than a manual toothbrush. Over an 11-year time period, a large 2019 study in Germany found those who used electric toothbrushes had better overall oral health, including less gum disease and tooth loss than those who used manual brushes. In a 2014 review, an analysis of 56 studies showed electric toothbrushes are more effective at removing plaque and preventing gingivitis in the long and short term when compared to manual toothbrushes. Researchers found an 11% reduction in plaque short-term and a 21% reduction long-term compared to manual toothbrushes. Better for gum health in people with braces. The results of a 2017 review indicated orthodontic patients may have better gum health, including less inflammation and less bleeding if they use an electric toothbrush instead of a manual one, but more long-term research is needed. Better for children. One small 2013 study found that an electric toothbrush was more effective at removing plaque than a manual toothbrush in children ages 8 to17 years old. Better for seniors. Electric toothbrushes are good for older people because the handles are easier to hold on to and the vibrations make them easier to use without vigorous arm or hand movements. It is especially effective for people with issues like arthritis. When positioned correctly, the head of the device does the work. Better for some people with skin conditions.

yes

Stomatology

Are electric toothbrushes better for your teeth than manual ones?

yes_statement

"electric" "toothbrushes" are "better" for your "teeth" than "manual" "ones".. using an "electric" "toothbrush" is more beneficial for your "teeth" than using a "manual" one.

https://serenedentistry.com/blog/electric-or-manual-toothbrush/

Electric or Manual Toothbrushes? | Serene Dentistry | McKinney, TX

Electric or Manual Toothbrushes – which is better? With the use of proper technique and if brushing long enough, both electric and manual toothbrushes can be effective for cleaning your teeth. However, it may be easier with an electric toothbrush and they better remove plaque that causes tooth decay and disease. There are several advantages of electric toothbrushes over manual ones. Built-in timers in electric toothbrushes help cover all the teeth for long enough time. If you have orthodontic appliances like braces, electric toothbrushes help clean your teeth easier. People with limited mobility due to carpal tunnel syndrome or arthritis can use an electric toothbrush much easier than a manual one. Technique is not a factor with an electric toothbrush since the brush head does all the work for you. Some electric toothbrushes have pressure monitors warning you of excessive force on the teeth. Electric toothbrushes, that are not single-use, help reduce waste as only the brushing head needs to be replaced when it is time. Electric toothbrushes are safe for the gums and fun for kids. Serene Dentistry Recommendation Even though electric toothbrushes can be more expensive, their benefits outweigh the manual toothbrushes. Serene Dentistry recommends using an electric toothbrush twice a day along with flossing once a day.Brush your teeth about 30 minutes after eating, and only after rinsing your mouth with fresh water. With acidic foods, brushing your teeth immediately after eating or drinking weakens tooth enamel that leads to tooth decay.Proper brushing and flossing will keep your teeth healthy and good oral health helps keep up good overall physical and mental health. Regular dental check up and cleaning are as important because they help keep your teeth and gums healthy.Please call us for your dental exam and hygiene appointment. Alternately, you can also fill out the contact us form and provide a good time for us to reach you.

Electric or Manual Toothbrushes – which is better? With the use of proper technique and if brushing long enough, both electric and manual toothbrushes can be effective for cleaning your teeth. However, it may be easier with an electric toothbrush and they better remove plaque that causes tooth decay and disease. There are several advantages of electric toothbrushes over manual ones. Built-in timers in electric toothbrushes help cover all the teeth for long enough time. If you have orthodontic appliances like braces, electric toothbrushes help clean your teeth easier. People with limited mobility due to carpal tunnel syndrome or arthritis can use an electric toothbrush much easier than a manual one. Technique is not a factor with an electric toothbrush since the brush head does all the work for you. Some electric toothbrushes have pressure monitors warning you of excessive force on the teeth. Electric toothbrushes, that are not single-use, help reduce waste as only the brushing head needs to be replaced when it is time. Electric toothbrushes are safe for the gums and fun for kids. Serene Dentistry Recommendation Even though electric toothbrushes can be more expensive, their benefits outweigh the manual toothbrushes. Serene Dentistry recommends using an electric toothbrush twice a day along with flossing once a day. Brush your teeth about 30 minutes after eating, and only after rinsing your mouth with fresh water. With acidic foods, brushing your teeth immediately after eating or drinking weakens tooth enamel that leads to tooth decay. Proper brushing and flossing will keep your teeth healthy and good oral health helps keep up good overall physical and mental health. Regular dental check up and cleaning are as important because they help keep your teeth and gums healthy. Please call us for your dental exam and hygiene appointment. Alternately, you can also fill out the contact us form and provide a good time for us to reach you.

yes

Rhetoric

Are emoji a new form of language?

yes_statement

"emoji" are a "new" "form" of "language".. "emoji" have become a "new" "form" of "language".

https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20151012-will-emoji-become-a-new-language

Will emoji become a new language? - BBC Future

As a linguist concerned with visual communication, I have been interested to explore exactly what lies in these claims. Do emoji show the same characteristics of other communicative systems and actual languages? And what do they help us to express that words alone can’t say? When emoji appear with text, they often supplement or enhance the writing. This is similar to gestures that appear along with speech. Over the past three decades, research has shown that our hands provide important information that often transcends and clarifies the message in speech. Emoji serve this function too – for instance, adding a kissy or winking face can disambiguate whether a statement is flirtatiously teasing or just plain mean. Hand gestures add nuance to the spoken word - embellishments that the written language has traditionally lacked (Credit: Getty Images) This is a key point about language use: rarely is natural language ever limited to speech alone. When we are speaking, we constantly use gestures to illustrate what we mean. For this reason, linguists say that language is “multi-modal”. Writing takes away that extra non-verbal information, but emoji may allow us to re-incorporate it into our text. Emoji are not always used as embellishments, however – sometimes, strings of the characters can themselves convey meaning in a longer sequence on their own. But to constitute their own language, they would need a key component: grammar. A grammatical system is a set of constraints that governs how the meaning of an utterance is packaged in a coherent way. Natural language grammars have certain traits that distinguish them. For one, they have individual units that play different roles in the sequence – like nouns and verbs in a sentence. Also, grammar is different from meaning, which is why an active sentence like Hobbes tackled Calvin conveys roughly the same meaning as the passive Calvin was tackled by Hobbes, though they differ in the sequencing of their grammatical structure. In addition, grammars are made up of groupings of units. The sentence Calvin, who is a short blonde boy, was tackled by Hobbes has several groupings, most noticeably the clause (Calvin) is a short blonde boy which is embedded inside the sentence Calvin was tackled by Hobbes. When emoji are isolated, they are primarily governed by simple rules related to meaning alone, without these more complex rules. For instance, according to research by Tyler Schnoebelen, people often create strings of emoji that share a common meaning, like this texted birthday greeting: These emoji could be arranged in any order and still convey the same meaning (Credit: Neil Cohn/Adam Proctor) This sequence has little internal structure; even when it is rearranged, it still conveys the same message. These images are connected solely by their broader meaning. We might consider them to be a visual list: “here are all things related to celebrations and birthdays.” Lists are certainly a conventionalised way of communicating, but they don’t have grammar the way that sentences do. What if the order did matter though? What if they conveyed a temporal sequence of events? Consider this example, which means something like “a woman had a party where they drank, and then opened presents and then had cake”: In certain circumstances, emoji follow sequences that represent the order of events (Credit: Neil Cohn/Adam Proctor) In this case, the units are connected only by linear order. One unit “happens” after the next. Rearranging this sequence would create a new order, or perhaps would just revert to loose meaningful connections, like the ones about birthdays above. Another technique appears when people are talking about objects doing things. Schnoebelen gives these examples: In these examples, the "agent" on the left precedes the action on the right - a pattern also seen in written languages (Credit: Neil Cohn/Adam Proctor) In all cases, the doer of the action (the agent) precedes the action. In fact, this pattern is commonly found in both full languages and simple communication systems. For example, the majority of the world’s languages place the subject before the verb of a sentence. These rules may seem like the seeds of grammar, but psycholinguist Susan Goldin-Meadow and colleagues have found this order appears in many other systems that would not be considered a language. For example, this order appears when people arrange pictures to describe events from an animated cartoon, or when speaking adults communicate using only gestures. It also appears in the gesture systems created by deaf children who cannot hear spoken languages and are not exposed to sign languages. In Goldin-Meadow’s book The Resilience of Language, she describes the children as lacking exposure to a language and thus invent their own manual systems to communicate, called “homesigns”. These systems are limited in the size of their vocabularies and the types of sequences they can create. For this reason, the agent-act order seems not to be due to a grammar, but from basic heuristics – practical workarounds – based on meaning alone. Emoji seem to tap into this same system. Nevertheless, some may argue that despite emoji’s current simplicity, this may be the groundwork for emerging complexity – that although emoji do not constitute a language at the present time, they could develop into one over time. In the 1970s, deaf homesigners in Nicaragua were brought together in a school for the first time. The result was a new Nicaraguan sign language, which is still developing Some precedent for this exists in sign languages too. In the 1970s, deaf homesigners in Nicaragua were brought together in a school for the first time. In sharing their own individual systems with each other, a more complex system began to emerge, which grew to the richness of a full language as new cohorts entered the school. The result was a new Nicaraguan sign language, which is still developing. The birth of a new tongue? Could an emerging “emoji visual language” be developing in a similar way, with actual grammatical structure? To answer that question, you need to consider the intrinsic constraints on the technology itself. Emoji are created by typing into a computer like text. But, unlike text, most emoji are provided as whole units, except for the limited set of emoticons which convert to emoji, like :) or ;). When writing text, we use the building blocks (letters) to create the units (words), not by searching through a list of every whole word in the language. Drawings are similar, combining simple building blocks (lines and shapes) to make larger units (representational drawings). The enormous eloquence of visual languages can be seen in the vast libraries of comic books and graphic novels (Credit: Getty Images) Emoji do not allow this building of units from parts, however. For example, let’s say I want to talk about my brother surfing. I could assign a mustachioed emoji to represent my brother (itself a challenge because of the limited emoji vocabulary) and then combine it with the one for surfing to make the sequence. This follows the agent-action pattern described above. It lacks the flexibility that I might have with drawing though - if I wanted to naturally convey this message with pen and paper, I’d just draw my brother surfing, with his head on the surfing body, with no awkward and artificial sequencing. In this way, emoji force us to convey information in a linear unit-unit string, which limits how complex expressions can be made. These constraints may mean that they will never be able to achieve even the most basic complexity that we can create with normal and natural drawings. What’s more, these limits also prevent users from creating novel signs – a requisite for all languages, especially emerging ones. Users have no control over the development of the vocabulary. As the “vocab list” for emoji grows, it will become increasingly unwieldy: using them will require a conscious search process through an external list, not an easy generation from our own mental vocabulary, like the way we naturally speak or draw. This is a key point – it means that emoji lack the flexibility needed to create a new language. Do you talk comic book? The irony is that the focus on emoji has meant that many have neglected that we already have very robust visual languages, as can be seen in comics and graphic novels. As I argue in my book, The Visual Language of Comics, the drawings found in comics use a systematic visual vocabulary (such as stink lines to represent smell, or stars to represent dizziness). Importantly, the available vocabulary is not constrained by technology and has developed naturally over time, like spoken and written languages. Unlike emoji, the visual language used in comics creates “grammatical” sequences of images, making them more similar to spoken or sign languages What’s more, unlike emoji, the visual language used in comics creates “grammatical” sequences of images in a way that makes them much more similar to spoken or sign languages. In this case, the grammar of sequential images is more of a narrative structure – not of nouns and verbs. Yet, these sequences use principles of combination like any other grammar, including roles played by images, groupings of images, and hierarchic embedding. Take this sequence adapted from the comic One Night by Tym Godek where a man lying in bed considers getting up and taking a shower, only to decide against it. Not only is the ordering crucial to convey the meaning; you can also see a smaller sequence embedded within a larger structure. That’s very similar to the clause in a sentence such as Calvin, who is a short blonde boy, was tackled by Hobbes. Comic strips folow the rules of grammar. For instance, the thought bubbles act as a clause in a wider sequence (Credit: Tym Godek) All this requires some form of grouping and hierarchy – traits important to grammars in natural languages. Perhaps the most convincing evidence that this constitutes a “grammar” in this “visual language” comes from our studies of the brain. In an experiment published last year in the journal Neuropsychologia, we measured participants’ brainwaves while they viewed sequences one image at a time where a disruption appeared either within the groupings of panels or at the natural break between groupings. The particular brainwave responses that we observed were similar to those that experimenters find when violating the syntax of sentences. That is, the brain responds the same way to violations of “grammar”, whether in sentences or sequential narrative images. I would hypothesise that emoji can use a basic narrative structure to organise short stories (likely made up of agent-action sequences), but I highly doubt that they would be able to create embedded clauses like these. I would also doubt that you would see the same kinds of brain responses that we saw with the comic strip sequences. Despite this, I believe that emoji are still very useful for enhancing and enriching the text of our contemporary digital conversations and interactions, injecting a note of humour, affection or even melancholy into the most concise message. Their increasing popularity serves as a reminder that there is a lot more to our communication than words alone. However, they pale in comparison to the richness or complexity of both natural written languages and the visual languages that already exist in the drawings we have used for millennia. Neil Cohn is a post-doctoral research fellow at the University of California, San Diego. You can find his work at the Visual Language Lab.

70s, deaf homesigners in Nicaragua were brought together in a school for the first time. In sharing their own individual systems with each other, a more complex system began to emerge, which grew to the richness of a full language as new cohorts entered the school. The result was a new Nicaraguan sign language, which is still developing. The birth of a new tongue? Could an emerging “emoji visual language” be developing in a similar way, with actual grammatical structure? To answer that question, you need to consider the intrinsic constraints on the technology itself. Emoji are created by typing into a computer like text. But, unlike text, most emoji are provided as whole units, except for the limited set of emoticons which convert to emoji, like :) or ;). When writing text, we use the building blocks (letters) to create the units (words), not by searching through a list of every whole word in the language. Drawings are similar, combining simple building blocks (lines and shapes) to make larger units (representational drawings). The enormous eloquence of visual languages can be seen in the vast libraries of comic books and graphic novels (Credit: Getty Images) Emoji do not allow this building of units from parts, however. For example, let’s say I want to talk about my brother surfing. I could assign a mustachioed emoji to represent my brother (itself a challenge because of the limited emoji vocabulary) and then combine it with the one for surfing to make the sequence. This follows the agent-action pattern described above. It lacks the flexibility that I might have with drawing though - if I wanted to naturally convey this message with pen and paper, I’d just draw my brother surfing, with his head on the surfing body, with no awkward and artificial sequencing. In this way, emoji force us to convey information in a linear unit-unit string, which limits how complex expressions can be made. These constraints may mean that they will never be able to achieve even the most basic complexity that we can create with normal and natural drawings.

no

Rhetoric

Are emoji a new form of language?

yes_statement

"emoji" are a "new" "form" of "language".. "emoji" have become a "new" "form" of "language".

https://www.bangor.ac.uk/news/latest/emoji-fastest-growing-new-language-22835

Emoji 'fastest growing new language' | News and Events | Bangor ...

Information for: Search Breadcrumb Emoji 'fastest growing new language' A Bangor University professor has teamed up with mobile giant TalkTalk to launch a new national PR campaign to help understand emojis – the picture based language. Emoji is being adopted at a faster rate than any other language - that’s the verdict of a new study which reveals that 8 in 10 Brits (80%) are now using the colourful symbols to communicate. The ‘Emoji IQ’ study by TalkTalk Mobile is the first piece of in-depth research on UK adoption of the new visual language taking the world by storm. It reveals that emoji has well and truly taken off in the UK, with 62% claiming they are using the new language more than they were a year ago and 4 in 10 claiming to have sent messages made up ENTIRELY of emoji. Findings reveal that 72% of the younger generation (18-25) now find it easier to express their emotions with the pictorial symbols than words, with over half (51%) believing emoji have improved our ability to interact. But not everyone is as enthusiastic - 31% of over 40s admitted they avoiding using emoji in text, instant messaging and social media apps like Facebook because they lack confidence in how to use them appropriately. Over half (54%) of those aged over 40 admitted to being confused about what the symbols mean. The research is supported by an education drive to improve understanding of the picture based language, launched today with ‘human emoji’ taking to the streets of London. Findings from the study show over a quarter of Brits (29%) are using emoji in at least half of all text, instant messaging and social media communications they send. The ‘Smiley Face’ emoji proved to be the most popular from a selection of commonly used symbols, with 62% of Brits identifying it as their most used character. TalkTalk Mobile has teamed up with the School of Linguistics and English Language’s Professor Vyv Evans to explain emoji with an online ‘Emoji IQ’ tutorial. It’s accompanied by an Emoji IQ test to find out whether you’re an Emoji Master, Emoji Enthusiast or Emoji Beginner. Professor Evans comments: “Emoji is the fastest growing form of language in history based on its incredible adoption rate and speed of evolution. “As a visual language emoji has already far eclipsed hieroglyphics, its ancient Egyptian precursor which took centuries to develop.” TalkTalk’s Head of Mobile Dan Meader comments: “The explosion of social networks and messaging apps on our smartphones means that emoji are fast becoming the most popular way to quickly express how we’re feeling. With a little creativity there is no limit to what we can express with emoji.” Professor Evans comments further: “Given the utility and added value provided by emoji, their usage is expected to increase exponentially across all age and cultural groups. While the uptake will differ by specific type of communication and function, it is not inconceivable that the majority of digital communication will feature emoji in future. “Unlike natural languages such as English, Emoji is almost universally recognisable because it exploits the visual representation system. Emoji won’t replace traditional languages but it will increasingly be used to enhance them. “I think it’s conceivable that emoji will increasingly be used to complement digital versions of written works. For instance, the inclusion of emoji to help convey meaning in abridged versions of Shakespeare could help bring those great stories to life for a whole new generation.”

Information for: Search Breadcrumb Emoji 'fastest growing new language' A Bangor University professor has teamed up with mobile giant TalkTalk to launch a new national PR campaign to help understand emojis – the picture based language. Emoji is being adopted at a faster rate than any other language - that’s the verdict of a new study which reveals that 8 in 10 Brits (80%) are now using the colourful symbols to communicate. The ‘Emoji IQ’ study by TalkTalk Mobile is the first piece of in-depth research on UK adoption of the new visual language taking the world by storm. It reveals that emoji has well and truly taken off in the UK, with 62% claiming they are using the new language more than they were a year ago and 4 in 10 claiming to have sent messages made up ENTIRELY of emoji. Findings reveal that 72% of the younger generation (18-25) now find it easier to express their emotions with the pictorial symbols than words, with over half (51%) believing emoji have improved our ability to interact. But not everyone is as enthusiastic - 31% of over 40s admitted they avoiding using emoji in text, instant messaging and social media apps like Facebook because they lack confidence in how to use them appropriately. Over half (54%) of those aged over 40 admitted to being confused about what the symbols mean. The research is supported by an education drive to improve understanding of the picture based language, launched today with ‘human emoji’ taking to the streets of London. Findings from the study show over a quarter of Brits (29%) are using emoji in at least half of all text, instant messaging and social media communications they send. The ‘Smiley Face’ emoji proved to be the most popular from a selection of commonly used symbols, with 62% of Brits identifying it as their most used character. TalkTalk Mobile has teamed up with the School of Linguistics and English Language’s Professor Vyv Evans to explain emoji with an online ‘Emoji IQ’ tutorial.

yes

Rhetoric

Are emoji a new form of language?

yes_statement

"emoji" are a "new" "form" of "language".. "emoji" have become a "new" "form" of "language".

https://www.wired.com/story/guide-emoji/

Emoji: The Complete History | WIRED

The WIRED Guide to Emoji More than just cute pictures, these digital icons are a lingua franca for the digital age. Illustrations by Radio Emoji are more than a millennial messaging fad. Think of them more like a primitive language. The tiny, emotive characters—from 😜 to 🎉 to 💩—represent the first language born of the digital world, designed to add emotional nuance to otherwise flat text. Emoji have been popular since they first appeared on Japanese mobile phones in the late ’90s, and in the past few years they have become a hallmark of the way people communicate. They show up in press releases and corporate emails. The White House once issued an economic report illustrated with emoji. In 2015, 😂 became Oxford Dictionaries’ “Word” of the Year. Emoji aren’t just for people who say things like “lmao smh tbh fam.” Emoji are for everyone. That puts a lot of pressure on the designs and standards for emoji. If emoji are a language for everyone in the digital world, then the emoji lexicon needs to constantly evolve across cultures 👳 , across screens📱 , across time 🕑 . Today there are thousands of emoji depicting people in all their diversity, and thousands more to represent the things we interact with in our world: money 💰, prayer beads 📿, Apple Watches⌚. In the future, as the world becomes increasingly digital and increasingly globalized, emoji will become important tools for translation and communication—a lingua franca for the digital age. The First Emoji In the beginning, there were emoticons. For the most part, these came of age as the :-) and :-( and 8-D of chatroom conversations in the 1990s. These primitive gestures represented an important part of early netspeak: You could convey sarcasm by tacking on ;-) at the end of your message, or share your ambivalence with the ¯_(ツ)_/¯ face. The first emoji were created in 1999 by Japanese artist Shigetaka Kurita. Kurita worked on the development team for “i-mode,” an early mobile internet platform from Japan’s main mobile carrier, DOCOMO. Kurita wanted to design an attractive interface to convey information in a simple, succinct way: for example, an icon to show the weather forecast rather than spelling out “cloudy.” So Kurita sketched a set of 12- by 12-pixel images that could be selected from a keyboard-like grid within the i-mode interface, then sent on mobiles and pages as their own individual characters. Kurita’s original 176 emoji—now part of the permanent collection at New York’s Museum of Modern Art—privileged symbols over faces, because DOCOMO’s goal was to find new ways to express information. There were characters to show the weather (sun, clouds, umbrella, snowman), traffic (car, tram, airplane, ship), technology (landline, cell phone, TV, GameBoy), and all the phases of the moon. But those characters weren’t purely informational: For the first time, emoji offered a way to add emotional subtext to a message. “I understand” might sound cold or passive on its own, but add ❤️ and the message offered a sense of warmth and sympathy. It was the beginning of a new visual language. (c) NTT DOCOMO, INC. Emoji quickly became popular in Japan, as rival mobile companies copied DOCOMO’s idea. And as mobile computing continued to explode throughout the mid-2000s, companies outside Japan, like Apple, saw an opportunity to incorporate emoji on other platforms. In 2007, a software internationalization team at Google decided to lead the charge, petitioning to get emoji recognized by the Unicode Consortium, a nonprofit group that works sort of like the United Nations to maintain text standards across computers. Since computers fundamentally work with numbers, every letter or character you type on a computer is “encoded” or represented with a numerical code. Before Unicode, there were hundreds of different encoding systems, which meant different computers and servers didn’t always represent text the same way. Unicode focused on standardizing these codes for language, so that the letters you typed in English, Chinese, Arabic, or Hebrew showed up accurately across platforms and across devices. The Google team—Kat Momoi, Mark Davis, and Markus Scherer—noticed emoji’s ascent in Japan and argued that emoji should fall under the same standard. In 2009, a pair of Apple engineers, Yasuo Kida and Peter Edberg, joined in and submitted an official proposal to adopt 625 new emoji characters into the Unicode Standard. Unicode accepted that proposal in 2010, in a move that would soon make emoji accessible everywhere. Unicode ultimately decided to index emoji “because of their use as characters for text-messaging in a number of Japanese manufacturers’ corporate standards.” In other words: Emoji had become too popular to ignore. Unicode’s blessing wasn’t just a way to maintain standards for the evolving lexicon of emoji—it was the beginning of legitimizing emoji as a form of communication. Now emoji were officially on their way to becoming a language. Evolution of Emoji 1999 Emoji are born! The original set includes icons for the weather, traffic, technology, and time. Emoji get a diversity update with five new skin tones and a set of same-sex couples. 👬 2016 Updates give rise to the single dad, pride flag, and weightlifting woman emoji. 2017 New emoji proposals suggest characters to convey information across language and culture, like a mosquito to represent illnesses like malaria and Zika. Emoji have been available outside of Japan since the mid-2000s through separate apps, which let users copy and paste the icons into text messages and emails. In 2011, Apple added an official emoji keyboard to iOS; Android followed suit two years later. This allowed people to access emoji directly from a keyboard on their phones—the same way you’d switch to a Korean or Japanese keyboard to access those language-specific characters—and popularized emoji with an entirely new audience. The New York Times suggested the move could give emoji a shot at “mainstream success,” noting that young people were already adjusting their texting habits to include the small icons: “I love you” became ❤️. “LOL” became 🤣. As emoji became more popular, they also became more plentiful. The Unicode Consortium added new emoji to its approved list each year, gathered from users around the world: the first emoji bride, dozens of plants and animals, types of food, and depictions of all kinds of activities. Unicode requires a lengthy submission and approval process for every new batch hoping for christening, and it can take up to two years for an emoji to travel from first draft to your phone. First, new emoji are suggested through a formal proposal to the Unicode Consortium. These detailed proposals include an explanation of why the emoji should be adopted and ideas for how it might look. (The design aspect is more complex than you might think: If there’s going to be an emoji to represent “beans,” should they be black beans? Refried beans? Lima beans? Green beans? Should they be in a can? In a bowl? Growing out of the ground?) Proposals are examined by the Unicode Consortium’s emoji subcommittee, which meets twice a week to discuss and decide on all emoji-related matters. When the subcomittee comes to a consensus, a new emoji can be born. As the emoji vocabulary began to grow, some people wondered why certain images were privileged over others. Why were there half a dozen icons to describe sushi, but zero tacos, burritos, or enchiladas? There were a growing number of emoji professionals—doctors, chefs, policemen—but why did they all appear to be men? And why, among the many different emoji representing humans, were all of them white people? By 2014, the Great Emoji Politicization had begun. It happened with emoji representing food (there were none depicting traditional African cuisine, like injera or fufu), flags (the Israeli flag existed, but not the Palestinian one), families (debates about family units depicting same-sex parents or single parents), and more. It wasn’t just a matter of having the right icon to describe what you ate for lunch—it was having a digital acknowledgement of your culture. Emoji had emerged as an important language of the digital age, but it was a language that had no words for “women with jobs” or “people of color.” Can’t find the emoji you want? Go rogue with one of these emoji-inspired apps. In 2015, Unicode took its first big step toward diversifying emoji by introducing the option to change the skin tone on people emoji, along with additions to include more types of people doing more types of things. Since then, every update has included incremental steps toward diversifying the types of people and cultures represented on the emoji keyboard: female surfers and cyclists, women with hard hats and stethoscopes, people wearing turbans and hijabs. Most recently, Unicode has taken steps toward creating gender-neutral emoji, emoji that represent people with disabilities, and other symbols to represent the full spectrum of emoji users. The Future of Emoji The Unicode Consortium considers new emoji every year, which means the cultural lexicon of emoji continues to evolve with every update to iOS and Android. An update that reached screens in 2017 included mythical creatures (mermaids, genies, elves, and vampires), food (pie, sandwich, broccoli, takeout), animals (dinosaur, hedgehog, giraffe, zebra), and faces (starstruck, mindblown, shhhing, and expletive-spouting angry face). Perhaps more importantly, the update also added half a dozen new ways to represent humans: a woman cradling a baby, a woman wearing a hijab, and three new gender-neutral options to represent people at all ages. A new set of emoji from 2018 added the options to give emoji gray or red hair, as well as new cultural symbols like a mooncake and a nazar amulet. Most recently, emoji additions include symbols for deaf people, people in wheelchairs, and couples with mixed genders and skin tones. Those feel like the most fundamental improvements to emoji’s vocabulary, and the best indication of where emoji are headed. As underrepresented communities continue show up as thoughtfully designed icons, we can understand something about cultural priorities and the types of people who are included in forming this growing digital language. The next batch of emoji will depend on what people design and submit for consideration to Unicode. Anyone can submit a proposal to add a new emoji: Unicode requires a prototype of the emoji, an explanation of how and why people would use it, and what its addition would mean for the greater emoji language. In 2017, researchers from the Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health and the Bill & Melinda Gates Foundation proposed an emoji mosquito as a way to better describe mosquito-borne illnesses like malaria and Zika. (Unicode approved the mosquito, along with 156 other icons, in early 2018.) Not everyone can understand English, not everyone can wrap their mind around the medical consequences of Zika, and not everyone is literate. But an icon of a mosquito? Everyone can understand that. That offers a good indication of the future of emoji: a way to transcend language as we know it, toward a global culture and form of communication. We don’t all speak any one language—except emoji. Meanwhile, emoji are beginning to take new shapes—like Apple’s Animoji, which uses the iPhone X’s Face Tracking technology to animate an emoji using a person’s facial gestures. For now, the feature only works with a handful of animal emoji—the cat, dog, monkey, panda, pig, rabbit, chicken, fox, alien, robot, unicorn, and, for some reason, pile of poop—but it could one day include everything with a face in the emoji library. As computing moves beyond the small screens of our cell phones, emoji could follow too, taking on new forms on new platforms. As they do, there will need to be ways to ensure that emoji look the same no matter the platform. Emoji have slowly converged into consistent designs across platforms: You can see it with the major redesigns in Apple’s emoji in 2016 (RIP, Pink Shirt Girl 💁) and with Android’s emoji in 2017 (so long, blob). Both of these changes helped to streamline emoji across platforms, so that the characters you send on an Android show up looking more or less the same on an iPhone. Emoji created for use in Animoji—or whatever the next app will be—should follow consistent design standards, too, ensuring that cross-platform emoji conversations register the same on all platforms and devices. Because emoji aren’t just a silly way to decorate messages. They’re a complex, robust form of digital language—one that continues to evolve. Learn More The Emoji Is the Birth of a New Type of Language Fully 92 percent of all people online use emoji. On Instagram, nearly half of the posts contain emoji. Emoji are so popular they’re killing off netspeak: The more we use 😂, the less we use LOL and OMG. What does the rise of emoji as a digital language mean for the future of words? The Newest Emoji Say as Much About Us as Actual Words Taken as a collective, each new batch of emoji look like a jumble of digital plants and animals and household items. But behind each proposal, there are clues about how our digital communication is becoming more nuanced, more colorful, and more important. The Emoji Diversity Problem Goes Way Beyond Race Diversity within the emoji lexicon isn’t just about finding a little icon that looks like you. The presence or absence of emoji contributes to cultural visibility and erasure: Who gets to be represented in the digital language of the future? And how do those representations take into account delicate geopolitical issues, like nationhood, ethnicity, religion, and war? Designing Genderless Emoji? It Takes More Than Just Losing the Lipstick Emoji meant to represent women and girls have been, for years, overly gendered: doe-eyed, lipsticked, and hairstyled to the point of reading as feminine caricatures. The “neutral” faces scan as male. And for people who don't believe gender is either-or, or don't identify as a particular gender, there weren't great options. Now that’s slowly starting to change. The Delicate Art of Creating New Emoji How does the emoji sausage get made? We peek inside the Unicode Consortium, where new emoji proposals are discussed, debated, and decided. The consortium has had to choose the hues available for the complexions of smileys. It has had to OK and reject religious symbols. And one day it may have to decide whether to endorse an emoji family with two gender-fluid parents, or, as is allowed in Oman, a family with one husband and four wives. From I'm a Virgo to Good Omens 2, these are our picks for what you should be watching on the streamer. Matt Kamen WIRED is where tomorrow is realized. It is the essential source of information and ideas that make sense of a world in constant transformation. The WIRED conversation illuminates how technology is changing every aspect of our lives—from culture to business, science to design. The breakthroughs and innovations that we uncover lead to new ways of thinking, new connections, and new industries.

Everyone can understand that. That offers a good indication of the future of emoji: a way to transcend language as we know it, toward a global culture and form of communication. We don’t all speak any one language—except emoji. Meanwhile, emoji are beginning to take new shapes—like Apple’s Animoji, which uses the iPhone X’s Face Tracking technology to animate an emoji using a person’s facial gestures. For now, the feature only works with a handful of animal emoji—the cat, dog, monkey, panda, pig, rabbit, chicken, fox, alien, robot, unicorn, and, for some reason, pile of poop—but it could one day include everything with a face in the emoji library. As computing moves beyond the small screens of our cell phones, emoji could follow too, taking on new forms on new platforms. As they do, there will need to be ways to ensure that emoji look the same no matter the platform. Emoji have slowly converged into consistent designs across platforms: You can see it with the major redesigns in Apple’s emoji in 2016 (RIP, Pink Shirt Girl 💁) and with Android’s emoji in 2017 (so long, blob). Both of these changes helped to streamline emoji across platforms, so that the characters you send on an Android show up looking more or less the same on an iPhone. Emoji created for use in Animoji—or whatever the next app will be—should follow consistent design standards, too, ensuring that cross-platform emoji conversations register the same on all platforms and devices. Because emoji aren’t just a silly way to decorate messages. They’re a complex, robust form of digital language—one that continues to evolve. Learn More The Emoji Is the Birth of a New Type of Language Fully 92 percent of all people online use emoji. On Instagram, nearly half of the posts contain emoji. Emoji are so popular they’re killing off netspeak:

yes

Rhetoric

Are emoji a new form of language?

yes_statement

"emoji" are a "new" "form" of "language".. "emoji" have become a "new" "form" of "language".

https://slate.com/technology/2019/07/because-internet-excerpt-linguistic-taxonomy-emoji-use.html

Because Internet excerpt: A linguistic taxonomy of emoji use.

Our bodies are a big part of the way we communicate. If someone stamps into a room with a furrowed brow, slams the door, and proclaims, “I’M NOT ANGRY,” you believe their body, not their words. If a good friend looks you in the eye, grins, and says, “You’re the most terrible person I’ve ever met!” you think, “Awesome, we’re such close friends that we can mock-insult each other and we both know we don’t mean it!” Likewise, a lot of our language about emotion is embodied—our hearts race, our eyebrows arch, our cheeks flush, our stomachs butterfly, our throats, um, frog. Writing is a technology that removes the body from language. That’s its greatest advantage—it’s easier to transport and store words written on paper or in bytes than embodied in an entire living human or a hologram of one. Sometimes, you don’t want the body component: Just because I ambitiously decide to keep a copy of Plato’s Republic beside the toilet does not mean that I want Zombie Socrates taking up residence in my bathroom. Advertisement But the lack of a body is also writing’s greatest disadvantage, especially when it comes to representing emotions and other mental states. Even though punctuation goes some way in helping to represent tone of voice, we’ve still been missing something in written communication—something embodied. On a technical level, we’ve gotten quite good at projecting and manipulating virtual bodies, a central feature for video games. But for general socializing, full-bodied avatars of ourselves never quite took off. Second Life made a lot of headlines, but it remained popular only in a smallish subcommunity of internet users, and similar efforts are even more obscure. The closest things most of us have to a social avatar are our profile pictures, which do provide some sense of who you’re talking to and what they (or their dog) look like. But they’re static. This is the void that emoji stepped into. But how emoji became so essential to digital communication is more complex than it first appears. Advertisement Advertisement Looking for a grand unifying theory of emoji wasn’t working because emoji don’t have one communicative function, they haveseveral. I got involved with the linguistics of emoji in 2014. I’d written some articles about meme linguistics and internet linguistics, and as emoji started hitting the news in a big way (more than 6,000 articles were written about the emoji released in 2014 alone), I became one of the people who journalists and tech companies called up to analyze emoji use. The question on everyone’s mind was: Why did emoji become so popular, so quickly? By the time they’d called up a linguist to answer this question, they’d all pretty much decided that the answer was that emoji were a new language. But as the linguist being called up, I wasn’t so sure. There isn’t even a clear way to say “emoji” in emoji, let alone a way to render, say, this paragraph. Real languages can handle meta-level vocabulary and adapt to new words with ease. Emoji aren’t capable of either. Advertisement Advertisement Advertisement But emoji are clearly doing something important for communication. When they first emerged, I considered whether emoji might be the perfect missing link between writing and the body. I made lists of common gestures and emoji to find correspondences. The lists got long: shrug, thumbs up, pointing finger, rolling eyes, middle finger, winking face, clapping hands, and so on. All of these exist in bodily gesture and emoji form, but there were also many that didn’t: the eggplant emoji and the fire emoji didn’t have equivalent gestures, and nodding “yes” or shaking one’s head “no” didn’t have emoji. But looking for a grand unifying theory of emoji wasn’t working because emoji don’t just have one communicative function, they have several. Advertisement I sent a draft of my emoji analysis to Lauren Gawne, an Australian linguist and close friend who helped me begin to crack the case. She drew my attention to a subcategory of communication we all use without noticing that we’re doing it. I’d been making a list of gestures, like thumbs up, waving, winking, shrugging, jazz hands, rolling one’s eyes, giving someone the finger, tugging out an imaginary collar to indicate awkwardness, playing a metaphorical tiny violin in false sympathy, brushing imaginary dirt off one’s shoulders, dropping a metaphorical mic, and so on. But what I’d also been doing, without realizing it, was making a list of gestures that have common names in English. I don’t have to describe to you that a “wink” involves the deliberate closing of one eye—as a speaker of English, these are things you already know. I was doing this for purely practical reasons (describing gestures in detail takes effort), but it turns out that nameable gestures all have something in common. Many theorists call them “emblems,” the way that a Jolly Roger is an emblem of a pirate. Advertisement Advertisement Advertisement Emblems are symbolic gestures that have precise forms and stable meanings. Crucially, while their names can fit easily into a sentence, they’re also perfectly meaningful without speech at all. Because of this, they often cover different territories than languages do: The middle finger, or digitus impudicus, was also considered rude in Ancient Greece and Rome, while the palm-inward V sign means “up yours” in some English-speaking nations but not others. Ultimately, emblems are arbitrary and culturally specific: Obscene emblems from around the world include thumbs up (“sit on this” in many Arabic-speaking countries), the OK sign (“asshole” in many Latin American countries), and a gesture known as the bras d’honneur or Iberian slap (common to many Romance-speaking countries), which consists of extending one arm palm up in a fist while the other hand is placed on the upper arm at the crook of the elbow. Perform one of these inside its region, and you’ll get anything from a rude gesture in return to legal prosecution for obscenity; perform it outside its region, and no one will care. Perform one of them in a subtly wrong way (try flipping someone off with your palm facing toward them, instead of toward yourself), and you’ll get laughed out of town. Advertisement Advertisement Advertisement Many emoji carry similarly arbitrary and culturally specific meanings. The eggplant emoji is a prime example: Widely used as a phallic symbol, it’s a natural heir to the obscene gesture list above. The smiling pile of poo emoji is another: In deciding whether to include it in Gmail, the Japanese engineers had to explain its importance to the head office. They described it as: “It says ‘I don’t like that,’ but softly”—a kind of “anti-like.” These kinds of emoji only work as emblems because they have precise forms: Some designers initially implemented the poo emoji without the smiling face, but this leaves out an essential aspect of its meaning. And when emoji were first catching on internationally, emoji fragmentation was a surprisingly big problem. Different app or device manufacturers were displaying the same underlying emoji with different designs. Designers had not anticipated how much people would hate it when sending a lady in a red dress could result in their friends seeing a disco man. People felt as foolish sending the wrong dancer emoji as you would giving the middle finger backward. Advertisement Advertisement But what about the gestures we make in speech that don’t have specific names or precise meanings? Every culture that’s been studied uses these kinds of gestures as well. We gesture along with our speech even when it’s communicatively useless, like when we’re talking on the phone. Linguists call the kinds of gestures we can’t help doing “co-speech” or “illustrative gesture,” and these reflect more about the thinking of the speaker than the understanding of the listener. The next time you’re in a restaurant, have a look around you at the groups of people at other tables. You probably won’t see a lot of emblems, but you’re guaranteed to see some co-speech gestures. Look at some people at a table far enough away that you can’t hear them: You can tell who’s speaking when by who’s gesturing, but the content of their conversation remains private because the meaning of co-speech gestures is more dependent on their surrounding speech. For example, the thumbs-up sign could also be used as a co-speech gesture to indicate “up there.” But “up there” could just as easily be illustrated by the index finger or whole hand pointing up, using one or both hands, the eyes or eyebrows pointing up, or any of these things combined—none of which work as a substitute for the thumbs-up emblem. Advertisement Advertisement Emoji have come to stand in for co-speech gestures too. You’ve probably seen the flexibility of co-speech at play when it comes to illustrating birthday texts. People might wish others a happy birthday using the cake with candles (🎂), the slice of cake (🍰), the balloon (🎈), the wrapped gift (🎁), the bouquet of flowers (💐), or general positive emoji such as hearts, sparkles, happy faces, confetti, and positive hand shapes like the thumbs-up or fist bump. To get a better sense of how co-speech emoji show up in everyday texting, I worked with the smartphone keyboard app SwiftKey, looking at the overall picture of how people use emoji based on SwiftKey’s billions of anonymized data points. In the SwiftKey dataset, these kinds of general emoji showed up in a wide variety of combinations and orders. When you’re illustrating your speech, you’re more willing to accept a range of options as suitable for “birthday” or “beach” or “fun” or “danger.” For the emblem emoji, we know exactly what we’re looking for. But for illustrative emoji, we often go browsing through our keyboards instead. Sure, it takes cultural knowledge of birthday traditions to interpret a cake and a balloon, but it doesn’t take any particular internet literacy. Whereas many an inadvertent grocery-store innuendo has been texted by someone who was treating the eggplant as an innocent illustrator rather than a suggestive emblem. Advertisement Advertisement Advertisement Advertisement The difference between co-speech and emblem emoji and how we use both distinctly in digital communication is even more apparent when we look at how emoji show up in combination. When the world was wondering if emoji were a new kind of language, sequences that retold familiar stories in emoji got a lot of attention. It’s easy to see how this fit in with the idea of emoji as gesture: They’re like playing digital charades or pantomiming to a friend across a loud bar. But this is rarely the way that emoji combos interface with our casual written communication. I got SwiftKey’s engineers to extract the most common sequences of two, three, and four emoji. This is a common way of analyzing a large body of writing and a good way to spot any storytelling that might be going on, since narratives have subpatterns among their common words. If you look at the most common short sequences for the half-billion words of the Corpus of Contemporary American English, you get sequences like “I am,” “in the,” “I don’t,” “a lot of,” “I don’t think,” “as well as,” and “some of the.” But instead of finding emoji combos that might be the glue holding together a story, what we found was a ton of repetition. Advertisement Advertisement Looking at the top 200 sequences of short emoji combos, about half were pure repetition, such as two tears of joy emoji (😂😂), three loudly sobbing emoji (😭😭😭), or four red heart emoji (❤️❤️❤️❤️). The ones that weren’t simple repetition were often complex repetition, such as snow around a snowman (❄️☃️❄️), the see-no-evil, hear-no-evil, speak-no-evil monkeys (🙈🙉🙊), and kiss faces with kiss marks (😘💋😘💋). Even the most heterogeneous strings of emoji were always thematically similar, such as heart eyes and kiss face (😘😍) or single tear and loudly crying (😢😢😭😭), strings of related objects like birthday paraphernalia (🎂🎈🎉) or fast food(🍕🍖🍗), and strings of hearts in different colors or sizes (💓💕💞💖). To put that data in perspective, there are no repetitions at all in the top 200 sequences of two, three, and four words in the Corpus of Contemporary American English. We don’t even get strings of all nouns or all adjectives the way we got strings of thematic emoji. Sure, words are sometimes used repetitively (“very very very,” “higgledy-piggledy”) and emoji are sometimes used nonrepetitively (🚫❄️ to mean “no snow” or ❤️🍕 to mean “I like pizza”). But these sequences are significantly less common. Advertisement Advertisement In fact, the part of communication where we repeat stuff all the time isn’t in our words, it’s in our gestures. Look over to your imaginary co-patrons at the imaginary restaurant again. Here’s someone emphatically looping the air with their finger several times as they exclaim something. Another person nods vigorously. Someone else claps their hand down on the table over and over again to drive home a point. We type “😘😘😘” because we might also blow multiple kisses, we type “👍👍👍👍” because when we give the thumbs-up gesture, we sometimes do it rhythmically or hold it up for several seconds to emphasize it. Like how we can extend the letters of a word for emphasis, even when the result is unpronounceable (“sameeeee”), and we occasionally repeat even those emoji that don’t have direct gestural correlates, like the skull (💀💀💀) or the smiling pile of poo (💩💩💩💩), because we’ve generalized this behavior to the category as a whole. Slate has relationships with various online retailers. If you buy something through our links, Slate may earn an affiliate commission. We update links when possible, but note that deals can expire and all prices are subject to change. All prices were up to date at the time of publication. Advertisement Advertisement Advertisement Advertisement The emoji combinations data we collected also illuminated one final puzzle that clarifies the distinction between co-speech and emblems in emoji use: the case of the missing eggplant emoji. When we looked at the most common nonrepetitive sequences, the eggplant was nowhere to be found. We did find other, less famous, sexual combinations, such as the tongue emoji with water droplets (👅💦), or the pointing finger and the OK sign (👉👌). But the eggplant emoji only showed up as pure repetition (🍆🍆🍆) in our Top 200 lists. Same for the smiling pile of poo: People were happy to repeat it, but reluctant to combine it. What gives? Co-speech illustrative gestures are fluid, going smoothly from one into the other, with lots of possible shapes and variations for essentially the same meaning. If you describe the path of where you’ve gone today, you’ll use many gestures in a row and you could easily gesture it slightly differently when you tell me about it now and when you told someone else about it a few minutes ago, just as you can illustrate birthday wishes with a wide range of combined emojis. But emblems, on the other hand, are discrete, individual gestures: They can repeat, but they don’t readily combine. That’s why we tend not to see them in interesting emoji sequences. Sending someone all of the possible birthday party emoji is extra festive: great! But sending someone all of the possible phallic emoji (say, the eggplant and the cucumber and the corncob and the banana: 🍆🥒🌽🍌) is NOT extra sexxaayy—that’s just a weird salad.

I got involved with the linguistics of emoji in 2014. I’d written some articles about meme linguistics and internet linguistics, and as emoji started hitting the news in a big way (more than 6,000 articles were written about the emoji released in 2014 alone), I became one of the people who journalists and tech companies called up to analyze emoji use. The question on everyone’s mind was: Why did emoji become so popular, so quickly? By the time they’d called up a linguist to answer this question, they’d all pretty much decided that the answer was that emoji were a new language. But as the linguist being called up, I wasn’t so sure. There isn’t even a clear way to say “emoji” in emoji, let alone a way to render, say, this paragraph. Real languages can handle meta-level vocabulary and adapt to new words with ease. Emoji aren’t capable of either. Advertisement Advertisement Advertisement But emoji are clearly doing something important for communication. When they first emerged, I considered whether emoji might be the perfect missing link between writing and the body. I made lists of common gestures and emoji to find correspondences. The lists got long: shrug, thumbs up, pointing finger, rolling eyes, middle finger, winking face, clapping hands, and so on. All of these exist in bodily gesture and emoji form, but there were also many that didn’t: the eggplant emoji and the fire emoji didn’t have equivalent gestures, and nodding “yes” or shaking one’s head “no” didn’t have emoji. But looking for a grand unifying theory of emoji wasn’t working because emoji don’t just have one communicative function, they have several. Advertisement I sent a draft of my emoji analysis to Lauren Gawne, an Australian linguist and close friend who helped me begin to crack the case.

no

Rhetoric

Are emoji a new form of language?

yes_statement

"emoji" are a "new" "form" of "language".. "emoji" have become a "new" "form" of "language".

https://www.degruyter.com/document/doi/10.1515/lass-2022-2003/html?lang=en

Communication challenges and transformations in the Digital Era ...

Communication challenges and transformations in the Digital Era: emoji language and emoji translation Vanessa Leonardi Vanessa Leonardi is Associate Professor of English Language and Translation at the Italian University of Sapienza in Rome. She was born in Italy and raised bilingual. She graduated in Modern Languages at the University of Coventry (UK) in 1998. In 1999 she was awarded an MA in Translation Studies from UMIST (Manchester, UK) and in 2004 she received her PhD in Translation and Comparative Studies at the University of Leeds. She also holds a TEFL Diploma. Her research interests lie mainly in the fields of Translation Studies, Gender Studies and English language teaching. Abstract The Digital Age has significantly changed how people communicate. Thanks to technology, people have a large variety of communication tools to choose from, such as emails or instant messaging applications, that allows communication to be easier, quicker and, to a certain extent, more efficient. In this technological scenario, emojis play a fundamental role as a kind of universal form of communication. Furthermore, thanks to translation, which acts as a bridge for people from different linguistic and cultural backgrounds, communication can cross national barriers and spread worldwide. Communication and translation share a common goal that is ‘mutual understanding’. What happens, therefore, when translation meets both technology and emojis in the Digital Age? A new form of communication through translation has emerged, that is emoji translation. The aim of this paper is to show, through a series of examples, how emojis have been recently employed in communication and translation in an attempt to establish whether their use, besides creativity, can be universally accepted and understood worldwide. 1 Introduction Nowadays, emojis are used more and more frequently in communication exchanges worldwide and they have evolved into a language of their own. Being used with growing interest and frequency in many communication networks, emojis are considered as the lingua franca of the digital age. Emojis have become an increasingly debatable topic in several research fields, such as communication studies, semiotics, cultural studies, linguistics, and translation studies among others. Emojis are, undoubtedly, a new form of language that has recently emerged as a result of increasing digitalisation and, nowadays, they can be considered as the fastest-growing language in the world seen and used on a regular basis, thus becoming an intrinsic part of digital communication. People seem to be obsessed with emojis and as the ‘face with tears of joy’ emoji was the most used emoji globally in 2015, it became the Oxford Dictionary’s Word of the Year. It is interesting to note how, for the first time, it was a pictograph rather than a word to earn such a title. Emojis are graphical icons representing words, concepts or attitudes widely employed in popular social media instant messaging services such as Facebook, Messanger, Skype, Whatsapp, and Twitter among others. Besides representing facial expressions, emojis are also used to express feelings and emotions, animals, plants, food, activities, body parts, gestures, objects, abstract concepts, and nationalities. Emojis are used more and more frequently in communication for several purposes, such as a means of expressing emotions, simplicity and convenience. Several studies focus on how emojis are used to construct personal identity (Ge 2019), to promote interaction (Gibson et al. 2018) and to decrease message ambiguity (Riordan 2017), among others. One of the most obvious functions of emojis is to express emotions, as in the following sentences: I heard that your car was stolen I am going out with Mark tonight I really can’t stand her behaviour Emojis may also have an interpretative function by acting as ‘tone modifiers’ as opposed to expressive emojis affecting the mood of the message (Cramer et al. 2016). This means that emojis can influence, to a certain extent, the interpretation of a message depending on how both the sender and the receiver interpret the message, as in the following examples: This house needs repairing! This house needs repairing! This house needs repairing! This house needs repairing! In all the four cases, the verbal message is the same but the additional use of emojis can provide entirely different meanings or interpretations. Nevertheless, this function may create possible ambiguity in cases where, for instance, irony and sarcasm are involved, thus making harder for the receiver to understand whether the sender meant to be ironic or sarcastic. Emojis can also have an emphatic function and different strategies can apply in this respect as also shown in the following examples: I LOVE YOU! ❤ I love you ❤ ❤ ❤ Another interesting way to use emojis is the referential function, which means that emojis act as substitution for words they refer to, as shown below: I ❤ YOU! Anne was so happy!!! She finally got a Fancy a ? Emojis can be used alone or along with other emojis and, when this occurs, they may be used to add more emphasis or they simply act as decorative elements. The problem is, however, to decipher emojis when they are not used along with verbal cues. As shown in the examples above, emojis perform different communicative functions and, as a language of their own, they go beyond countries, cultures, and generations as a form of universal language. Nevertheless, can emojis be considered as a truly universal form of communication? This would imply the fact that emojis are used and interpreted in the same way by people worldwide regardless of their native language, culture, age and gender differences among others. If this is true, then, emojis can be easily translated or can be used as a universal translating language read and understood worldwide. Emojis, indeed, have already been employed in translation, thus leading to a new form of translation called emoji translation. Translation is generally defined as the process of transferring words or texts from one language into another but there are more issues to consider when carrying out such an activity. Word-for-word translation is certainly necessary for certain tasks that require complete accuracy, such as technical translations. However, not all translation projects are that simple. Most translation tasks require several different strategies, such as creativity, on behalf of the translator who must engage in a process of negotiation between two cultures, two languages and, at times, two entirely different worldviews. It is worth noting that what works in one context might not be suitable or acceptable in another. Therefore, the translator must find appropriate ways to achieve the same meaning in the target text. In the last few years, translation creativity, in particular, has gone as far as employing emojis as a new form of communication that implies, to a certain extent, the notion of universalism in terms of intelligibility across different linguistic and cultural domains. Nobody can deny the fact that emojis are a universal component of communication exchanges worldwide; however, it is questionable whether emojis can be defined as a language of their own and, more precisely, as a universal language that can be used both in communication and translation worldwide. 2 Historical overview How did emojis originate and what led to their pervasive popularity? The word emoji is an English adaptation of Japanese 絵文字—the e of emoji means ‘picture’ and the moji stands for ‘letter, character’. The definition of emoji, therefore, is ‘picture word’. Although emojis have been developed and used over the last few decades, they are not new as a form of visual communication as other icons were used in the past to convey human expressions and feelings. Back in 1881, the first emoticons appeared in the March issue of the American Puck magazine and they were identified as ‘typographical art’ as shown in Figure 1. Figure 1: Puck magazine – featuring ‘Typographical Art’. In 1982, Scott Fahlman, a computer scientist at Carnegie Mellon University, proposed the use of two strings of three characters :-) or punctuation faces to help people recognise when a message was intended as a joke (Figure 2) (Dresner and Herring 2010). These punctuation faces became quite popular even outside the university and began to be used in several different ways and purposes, thus developing into several variants named emoticons. Figure 2: Scott Falham’s email about the ‘smiley face’. 1986 was the boom of kaomoji, from Japanese kao meaning ‘face’ and moji meaning ‘character’. These strings of characters resembled emoticons with the only difference being that they were not read sideways (e.g. ^-^). As Japanese people believe that the eyes represent a human being’s soul, kaomoji focused on the eyes rather than the mouth as in the western version of emoticons (Katsuno and Yano 2007). Emoticons became increasingly popular and took on several different forms as shown in Figure 3. Figure 3: Examples of the emoticons in the 1990s. Finally, the emojis currently used were created in 1999 by Shigetaka Kurita to enhance the visual interface for the devices of a Japanese mobile, when he was involved in the launch of an integrated mobile Internet service called “i-mode” created by NTT Docomo (Blagdon 2013). Kurita created a complete set of 176 12-pixel by 12-pixel characters aimed at covering the entire range of human emotions, as shown in Figure 4. Figure 4: The first set of 176 emojis designed by Shigetaka Kurita in 1999. When the iPhone 3G was launched by Apple in 2008, it did not include emojis but later they decided to have a set of 471 emojis for the Japanese market only, which was provided with the iOS 2.2 update a few months later (Figure 5) (Danesi 2017: 3). Furthermore, ‘Apple didn’t officially enable the characters around the world until iOS 5 came out nearly three years later’ (ibid.). Figure 5: First set of emojis created by Apple for the Japanese market. A few years later, the California-based Unicode Consortium, which is a non-profit corporation dealing with the development and promotion of software internationalization standards and data, approved and included a set of 722 emojis, thus, proving the important role they were having in international communication (Evans 2017). Since then, more and more emojis have been added throughout the years and the emoji language has become more diversified and inclusive so as to include, for instance, different skin tones, gender vocations, and food types among others (Figure 6). Figure 6: Examples of inclusive emojis. 3 Emoji language as a (universal) language? Most people seem to consider emojis as a truly universal language as they have penetrated popular culture in many different ways. Are emojis really universal? Do a sad face or a smiley face denote the same emotions around the world despite cultural and linguistic differences? Emojis, indeed, can be ambiguous as a smiley face does not necessarily imply happiness or humor as it could also refer to irony, sarcasm or even hedging, among other emotions. It is also worth mentioning that emojis do not hold the same meaning in different cultures. Gestures, for instance, may have different associations in different cultures as also extensively researched and proven in many pragmatic studies. The cultural component undoubtedly affects the use of emojis as also proven by Xuan et al. (2016). In their study, following Hofstede’s cultural dimension model, they showed how ‘country differences in emoji usage are quite significant’ and they can help to distinguish people from different cultural backgrounds (ibid.: 778). In 2017, linguistics professor Vyvyan Evans compared the spread of emojis to that of the English language and claimed that nowadays ‘the ubiquitous influence of English in a wide array of global communication contexts is staggering’ although ‘in comparison, Emoji dwarfs even the reach of English’ (ibid.: 23). His research, indeed, proved how in the UK almost 80% of adult smartphone users regularly use emojis in their messages and about 40% of them regularly use only emojis in their text messages (ibid.: 29). Evans, therefore, states that emoji language can undeniably be viewed as ‘the world’s first truly universal form of communication’ (ibid.: 20–21). The question, however, is what is language? What makes a language is determined by the way it is organised. According to Evans, there are different opinions on this issue but he focuses on how languages are organised into important units, such as words and they rely on a specific ‘system of rules’, that is grammar through which people are able to communicate both simple and complex ideas and concepts in an intelligible way (ibid.: 54). By comparing any language with emoji language, it is immediately clear that the latter has fewer words and it lacks a proper grammatical system. Despite lacking grammar, emojis are widely used in communication and, as it will be shown later in this study, they are also used in translation. Are emojis or their use governed by a defined grammatical system? This question seems to be natural and unavoidable. A study carried out in 2019 by three Dutch researchers proved that ‘while emoji may follow tendencies in their interactions with grammatical structure in multimodal text-emoji productions, they lack grammatical structure on their own’ (Cohn et al.: 1). Given that emojis are increasingly being defined as an ‘emerging language’ adopted and used for communication purposes worldwide, there seems to be scarce research literature on their grammatical structure. Danesi (2017: 78) claims that sequences of emojis without text or words may be interpreted correctly if they are used and interpreted in their specific cultural and linguistic context. As an example, he provides the sequence in Figure 7. This sequence of emojis refers to bombshell bikini and it is likely that only English native speakers can interpret it correctly. Bombshell means sex symbol and it was originally used to refer to popular attractive women as far back as 1942 (Online Etymology Dictionary). According to Cohn et al. (2019), emojis tend to rely on conceptual categories rather than grammatical sequences and there may be a possibility that they are employed as an agent-patient-act order, which is usually applied to and in line with studies of nonverbal gesturing (Gershoff-Stowe and Goldin-Meadow 2002) as well as studies on young children who tend to order casual relationships of images (Gelman et al. 1980). It is likely, however, that emojis may also follow traditional patterns of spoken grammar and a different order could convey different ideas and meanings, thus implying different interpretations. A different order of emojis may turn an active sentence into a passive form in some languages whereas it may not be possible in all languages to freely move around the order of emojis, as in the examples in Figure 8. In their work, they also acknowledge the lack of consistency between users adopting SVO and SOV grammar ordering, thus showing how this can be one of the most important sources of potential misunderstanding in communication exchanges. Cohn et al. (2019) proved how linear grammar becomes more and more common in cases where sequences of emojis get longer and longer. Therefore, they drew the conclusion that ‘[i]n the case of emoji-only sequencing, they appear to lack the characteristics of complex grammar, instead relying on linear patterning motivated by the meanings of the emoji themselves’ (ibid.: 16). According to Danesi (2017: 28–29), ‘[o]ne of the primary dangers to the universality of the emoji code, in addition to culture-specific variation, is the constant potential for ambiguity. Ambiguous messages are dangerous, potentially, even among those who share the same language; but the danger increases in the intercultural context of the global village.’ Ambiguity also increases due to the diversity of platforms in which these emojis are used. Furthermore, many scholars have clearly pointed out how emojis fail to communicate meaning, thus being hard to be correctly interpreted and understood, due to their visual nature as compared to words which have a specific dictionary definition and/or meaning in context (Albert 2020; Miller et al. 2016; Veszelszki 2017). Albert (2020: 77), in this respect, acknowledges that ‘emoji are not to be equated with words but remain a phenomenon sui generis somewhere between images and logograms’. 4 Can we translate emojis? Emojis have penetrated all spheres of society and have affected a large variety of forms of communication and activities, such as translation. Translation is a very complex and demanding task especially when people have to take into account different elements, such as culture, target audience and target language conventions, among others. We also know how it is important to use creativity as a translation strategy, especially when dealing with children’s stories. If emojis can be interpreted in different ways, it makes sense to believe that different people could produce different acceptable emoji translations of the same source text (ST). Furthermore, different interpretations of emojis also imply different translation interpretations on behalf of readers who, especially in the case of translation entirely written in emojis without words or text, can provide a wide range of meanings and interpretations. Although, these problems of interpretation may occur in any translation activity, in the case of emojis, it can be more difficult to try to guess their meaning. In the last few decades, there have been many attempts at translating different texts by using emojis. The first example is the emoji translation of song lyrics. One of the most commonly known examples, in this respect, is the emoji translation of Toxic, which was released by Britney Spears in 2003. Let us look at how (un)successful this attempt was by comparing the emoji translation with its original lyrics (see Figure 10). Figure 10: Example of emoji translation of Britney Spears’ song ‘Toxic’. In this example, it does not seem too difficult to decode the emojis used in the text mainly for two reasons. Firstly, the text is not entirely written in emojis, which play a supportive role to the written language. Secondly, disambiguation occurs through the use of words in brackets, thus enhancing understanding. It is worth noting, however, whether the same level of understanding can be reached by using only emojis in the text. Emojis were also used in institutional discourse as in the example below reporting former American President Barack Obama’s State of the Union address in 2015. The British daily The Guardian posted a translation into emojis of Obama’s State of Union address while launching at the same time the Twitter handle @emojibama (Figure 11). Figure 11: Example of emoji translation of American President Barack Obama’s State of the Union address. One of the most obvious reasons why emojis were used in this particular context could be due to the fact that emojis allow to make politics more approachable for everyone and, especially, to target and engage younger audiences. This is another example in which partial emoji translation occurs and thanks to the mixture of words and emojis it is not too difficult to understand the meaning of the message. Nevertheless, on a few occasions, it is impossible to decode it and, therefore, readers have to consult either the written version or they can use the interactive platform created by The Guardian where it is possible to move the pointer on top of the emoji to see its corresponding meaning. Reading and comprehension difficulties increase, however, in cases where emojis are used on their own and, more significantly, when they are used to translate portions or even entire texts, such as literary texts. As far as translation is concerned, one of the first books translated by using emojis is Emoji Dick by Fred Benenson. As its title suggests, this work is an intersemiotic translation of Herman Melville’s American classic Moby Dick (Figure 12). Benenson’s emoji translation was conceived further to his interest in the way language, culture, and communication in general have been affected by digital technology in the Digital Era and, more precisely, how emojis have affected communication worldwide. Therefore, he decided to carry out a translation project by employing emojis and, for the purpose of this work, he thought to choose a well-known literary text that, besides being known worldwide, had to be also quite a long text to translate in order to show the important role played by Amazon Mechanical Turk. This is why in 2009 he decided to recruit Amazon Mechanical Turk workers to translate Melville’s Moby Dick into emojis and this work was finally released in 2010. Amazon Mechanical Turk workers were divided into two groups where the former worked on the translation and the latter decided the best translation options that were used in the final version through a voting system. More precisely, three different translation options were provided for each sentence each time and the final emoji translation has 736 colored pages where the emoji strings are on the top and the sentences from the original ST are placed just below them, as also shown in the extract (Figure 13). Figure 13: Extract from Fred Benenson’s Emoji Dick. By looking at the extract above, it seems rather complex to work out the meaning of each emoji string without looking down at the corresponding text. Several considerations can be made by carefully assessing this ‘creative’ translation or rewriting of Melville’s Moby Dick. First of all, if readers do not have a previous knowledge of the ST because they have never read it before, it may be very challenging to work out the meaning of these emojis without contextualising the text. By simply looking at the first string of emojis, for instance, it is interesting to note how this emojified translation can be back translated into English in many different ways. This occurs even in the case when the reader may know the text. It is worth mentioning how some emojis, such as the telephone emoji in the first string, perfectly renders the idea of ‘calling’ but it may sound rather anachronistic for a text written in 1851. However, the rest of the emojis in that string can be translated in many different ways and it is very hard to obtain the original meaning intended in the ST, especially to work out the name Ishmael. Secondly, it is worth noting how only a few emojis are provided in each string to render a much longer paragraph. If it is true that a picture may be worth a thousand words, it is legitimate to wonder whether readers can work out the meaning of each string without difficulty. This is best exemplified by looking at the fourth emoji string in the extract above where only 10 emojis are used to translate a very long paragraph. If readers do not look down at the written text, it is virtually impossible to interpret them correctly or in the way they were thought to render the translation of that particular paragraph. Thirdly, by looking at the second to last emoji string, there is no way that readers can carry out its back translation correctly into English as there seems to be no connection at all or no correspondence with the text it refers to. In other words, without the help or support of the written text below each emoji string, a wide variety of interpretations and meanings can be provided in the back translation into English, especially in cases where readers are not acquainted with the ST. Furthermore, it is interesting to mention the fact that given the universal meaning and use of emojis worldwide, it is expected that back translations from emoji language into other languages should work out successfully and without difficulty. However, if one tries to translate the emoji strings used in the extract above back into any other languages, different translations will probably occur, thus proving the impossibility of considering emojis as a truly universal language. Other examples of partial emoji translations are the book series written by Kristina Semenova, the creator of the Vaikon emoji book series. In these books, she has translated several classic novels and fairy tales partially into emojis. Along with traditional emojis, Semenova also managed to include additional symbols specifically designed for her book projects. Furthermore, all books include a rebus dictionary at their back to provide readers with a translation for all the emojis used in her books, as also shown in Figure 14. So far, Semenova has worked on the emoji translation of Alice in Wonderland, A Christmas Carol, Around the World in 80 Days, Black Beauty, The Call of the Wild, The Elderbush and The Old House. The examples are in Figure 15. The extract in Figure 15 is taken from A Christmas Carrol written by Charles Dickens (Semenova 2016). Reading comprehension is not too difficult, although several considerations should be made. First of all, the combination of the two emojis in the third line is not easy to decode unless readers know the story very well. This combination of emojis is used to translate ‘chief mourner’. The ‘captain’ emoji can, indeed, be interpreted as ‘chief’ and the crying emoji can imply someone who is sad or unhappy about something, but its real translation is not immediately clear. The other slight misunderstanding may be due to the interpretation of the thumbs up emoji to mean ‘good’ as its first translation tends to be O.K. or alright. More problems, in terms of intelligibility, can be found in the another example taken from the same book (see Figure 16). The first thing to notice in the extract above is how the same emoji is used with a different meaning which, in some cases, may be easy to understand as words used to accompany the emojis play an important and supportive role in terms of interpretation of meaning. The emoji used in line four and line 11, however, seems more difficult to decode as its meaning is completely different due to the combinations in which it appears. Line 11, indeed, is the most difficult emoji combination to decode as no text is provided in this respect. It is, therefore, essential to refer back to the original ST to obtain the correct interpretation of this series of emojis. This shows, however, how emojis cannot be universally understood or interpreted by readers worldwide. Furthermore, more considerations should be made in terms of the target audience. Will these translations carried out by Semenova be suitable for children as they were specifically designed for them? Do they address adults who read these stories to their children? If so, can adults read them accurately and fluently, thus encountering no problems in terms of understanding and decodification? These partial emoji translations are creative and, to a certain extent, interesting; however, it is questionable whether they can be universally recognised, interpreted and translated in the same way as they were originally designed by any reader worldwide. It seems that when emojis appear or are used along with words or corresponding text, then they may be more easily understood or correctly interpreted, although on a few occasions it is extremely hard to understand their meaning. What happens when a translation is carried out entirely in emojis? This is the case of Joe Hale’s Wonderland, an emoji poster which was made in 2015 in an attempt to reproduce the full story of Lewis Carroll’s Alice in Wonderland without using any word, as also shown in Figure 17. Figure 17: Joe Hale’s emoji poster of Alice in Wonderland. This poster employs over 25,000 emojis in order to translate the entire Lewis Carroll’s bestseller. If one tries to zoom in and focus on some of these emoji strings, the two combinations shown in Figure 18 are found. Figure 18: Examples of two emoji combinations taken from Joe Hale’s Wonderland. Without any word or supportive text, it is hard to translate these emoji combinations back into English to mean respectively 1) ‘And what is the use of a book, thought Alice, without pictures or conversations?’ and 2) ‘We’re all mad here’. Even if these emoji strings are contextualised, it is still rather difficult to render the original meaning of the ST. This means that emoji translation needs not only to be contextualised but, more importantly, it needs to have a support from the written words to help interpretation and codification. This issue legitimates the question whether it is possible to codify the emoji language to help people understand the meaning of a specific emoji translation. The following section will attempt to provide an example of the first-ever example of codified emoji language for translation purposes. 5 Codified emoji language: the case of emojitaliano Language standardisation occurs through codification of a language, which implies the creation and use of dictionaries, style guides, grammar rules and the like. Emoji language lacks codification and, as such, it cannot be considered as a language of its own. Nevertheless, a few years ago, a variety of emoji language was codified, that is the emojitalian through the publication of Pinocchio in Emojitaliano in 2017. Although the pioneer of emoji translation was Fred Benenson with his Emoji Dick subsequently followed by Joe Hale with his full emoji translation of Alice in Wonderland where no words or parts of the text were used, Pinocchio in Emojitaliano is rather unique in this respect. Its uniqueness is due to the fact that its authors managed to codify the emoji language on the basis of the Italian language grammatical and syntactic rules. This work is based on a project carried out at the Italian university of Macerata by Francesca Chiusaroli, professor of applied linguistics, along with Johanna Monti and Federico Sangati, who developed the Telegram bot used to build the emoji dictionary. In other words, besides providing readers with both the original Italian version and its emojified translation, this book also includes grammar guide as well as an emoji glossary or dictionary to guide the readers through the emoji translation process. Given the limited semantic meanings of emojis, these researchers designed several different combinations or sequences of emojis to translate particular words or concepts. For instance, the house emoji literally translates the word ‘house’; however, when the house is found along with other emojis it changes its meaning as shown in Figure 19. Figure 19: Example of emoji combinations from the glossary of Pinocchio in Emojitaliano. As it is exemplified in the emoji combinations above, the house with a glass of wine is used to mean ‘inn’, the house with books means ‘bookshop’ or ‘bookseller’ whereas the combination of a house along with a hammer and a spanner means ‘carpenter’s shop’ or ‘workshop’. According to these researchers, the emojified translation of Pinocchio is not meant to be a word-for-word translation but it is rather a more conceptual translation. This concept is better exemplified in the example shown in Figure 20. Figure 20: Example of the emoji combination for ‘guilty’ from the glossary of Pinocchio in Emojitaliano. This example uses a biblical reference to the original sin to translate the word ‘guilt’ or the adjective ‘guilty’ by using the combination of a man, a woman and an apple. The aim of this project is that of building a common code to allow the codification of the emoji language into Italian that, eventually, could serve as a model for further codifications in other languages. It is worth looking at how codification works in practical terms by taking as an example the second to last string of emojis on the first page of Chapter 4 of the book (Figure 21). Figure 21: Example. As one can clearly see, each emoji combination to be interpretated as a single word or concept is separated from the others. Readers, therefore, have to focus on each combination and, then, they have to keep on switching back and forth between the glossary, the grammar section and the text. If they wish to interpret, codify or, in other words, translate the snail + left arrow emoji combination, they need to look up first in the glossary and find all the instances where the snail appears. The snail translates lento, adagio (slow). Then, they should find the correct combination they are looking for, snail + left arrow in this case, and they will have the meaning shown in Figure 22. Figure 22: Snail + left arrow. In Italian, a poco a poco means little by little. After decoding this combination, readers have to turn to the grammar section to determine the category of this expression and they will discover that the left arrow emoji is used to imply an adverb if placed after the adjective. This means that the right back translation of this emojified version means ‘slowly’. This decodification process should be repeated for each single combination within each line. At the end of this codification or back translation process, the readers will have the following Italian translation of the whole emoji string shown above: This project undoubtedly denotes a large amount of work and research carried out by these Italian scholars, who have the merit of having codified a variety of emoji language for the first time, although some remarks could be made in this respect. First of all, the reading is quite complex, especially if readers do not look at the Italian text on the opposite page. Secondly, this emoji translation is quite time consuming for readers as they have to switch back and forth between the emoji translation and the glossary and grammar guide at the back of the book in order to interpret correctly the meaning of each combination within each sequence or string (which corresponds to a single line). Finally, in terms of the target audience, it is clear that this text cannot be suitable for children but only for adults. The point is, however, that even adults may find it challenging and time consuming and some of them may eventually lose interest in reading the whole text. This last issue raises another important question, that is, what is the purpose of such a work? Is it intended as a reading for fun or pleasure? Is it intended to be purely a work for research purposes? Emojitalian is undoubtedly different from Fred Benenson’s Emoji Dick and Joe Hale’s Wonderland as their work lacks codification, although given the universal nature of the emoji language, readers should be able to decode any emoji text or translation in a quick and efficient way. This, however, was not the case as shown in the examples used in this work. Emojitalian was codified, thus allowing a more structured approach to the decodification or interpretation of the emoji language, although this is quite a challenging and time-consuming process. 6 Concluding remarks There is no doubt that we are experiencing a great and important revolution in language communication through the use of emojis. Their popularity continues to grow and they are used in many different fields of society, thus providing people with an impression that they are universal and universally understood. The availability of a common standardised repertoire of emojis through the Unicode Consortium legitimises further linguistic analyses aimed at exploring and determining the universality of emojis as well as their limits. Although emojis are universally used, given their linguistic and cultural differences, it is legitimate to hypothesise that their use, especially in translation, may produce several interpretations. A single emoji can be worth a thousand words or, to a certain extent, a thousand meanings. This study, however, proved that emojis are neither universal nor a language of their own. Differences apply not only from one culture to another but also from a generation to another. Although it is possible to write a novel or to translate it using only emojis, it is impossible to ensure that every emoji will correctly and thoroughly have the intended message for anybody reading it. In other words, despite the increasing use and growing interest in emojis, their interpretation is not, and cannot be, universal, thus leading to possible cases of ambiguity and misunderstanding. Emojis lack proper grammar and their visual nature makes it hard to be correctly interpreted and understood as compared to words which have a specific dictionary definition and/or meaning in context. This works calls for more research on the use of emojis both in terms of codification and translation into other languages, thus calling for more empirical studies in this respect. About the author Vanessa Leonardi is Associate Professor of English Language and Translation at the Italian University of Sapienza in Rome. She was born in Italy and raised bilingual. She graduated in Modern Languages at the University of Coventry (UK) in 1998. In 1999 she was awarded an MA in Translation Studies from UMIST (Manchester, UK) and in 2004 she received her PhD in Translation and Comparative Studies at the University of Leeds. She also holds a TEFL Diploma. Her research interests lie mainly in the fields of Translation Studies, Gender Studies and English language teaching. Cramer, H., P. De Juan & J. Tetreault. 2016. Sender-intended functions of emojis in US messaging. In Proceedings of the 18th international conference on human–computer interaction with mobile devices and services, 504–509. New York: Association for Computing Machinery.10.1145/2935334.2935370Search in Google Scholar

Communication and translation share a common goal that is ‘mutual understanding’. What happens, therefore, when translation meets both technology and emojis in the Digital Age? A new form of communication through translation has emerged, that is emoji translation. The aim of this paper is to show, through a series of examples, how emojis have been recently employed in communication and translation in an attempt to establish whether their use, besides creativity, can be universally accepted and understood worldwide. 1 Introduction Nowadays, emojis are used more and more frequently in communication exchanges worldwide and they have evolved into a language of their own. Being used with growing interest and frequency in many communication networks, emojis are considered as the lingua franca of the digital age. Emojis have become an increasingly debatable topic in several research fields, such as communication studies, semiotics, cultural studies, linguistics, and translation studies among others. Emojis are, undoubtedly, a new form of language that has recently emerged as a result of increasing digitalisation and, nowadays, they can be considered as the fastest-growing language in the world seen and used on a regular basis, thus becoming an intrinsic part of digital communication. People seem to be obsessed with emojis and as the ‘face with tears of joy’ emoji was the most used emoji globally in 2015, it became the Oxford Dictionary’s Word of the Year. It is interesting to note how, for the first time, it was a pictograph rather than a word to earn such a title. Emojis are graphical icons representing words, concepts or attitudes widely employed in popular social media instant messaging services such as Facebook, Messanger, Skype, Whatsapp, and Twitter among others. Besides representing facial expressions, emojis are also used to express feelings and emotions, animals, plants, food, activities, body parts, gestures, objects, abstract concepts, and nationalities. Emojis are used more and more frequently in communication for several purposes, such as a means of expressing emotions, simplicity and convenience.

yes

Rhetoric

Are emoji a new form of language?

yes_statement

"emoji" are a "new" "form" of "language".. "emoji" have become a "new" "form" of "language".

https://languageinsight.com/blog/2021/is-emoji-a-global-language/

Is Emoji a Global language? | Language Insight Blog

Is Emoji a global language? Is Emoji a global language? The word Emoji comes from the Japanese “e” (picture) and “moji” (character). The world’s first Emoji was created in 1999 by Shigetaka Kurita, who took his inspiration from weather symbols. The increased use of Emojis by communication developers, such as Apple and Android, have made the emoticons that we see today part of an everyday conversation. The small digital image spans across different media stories, from the creation of “World Emoji Day” (held on the 17th July), the world’s first Emoji translator, the ‘crying with laughter’ emoticon being named Oxford Dictionaries Word of the Year 2015 and also the increasing use of emojis appearing in court cases! The rise of the Emoji Communication is relying ever more on texting and social media, due to the sheer speed we can send a message to an endless amount of people. This still wasn’t fast enough though, and the introduction of the Emoji shortened the way in which we speak to each other through our devices even more. A simple question such as “What are you doing tonight?” can be answered with a variety of different Emojis, and some Emojis can even have multiple different meanings depending on the audience and context. Many millennials believe that Emojis act as a support to language, as they allow people to understand the tone of the conversation. Some Emojis can be used literally or sarcastically, or even have hidden meanings. These small emotive graphics have now become second nature in human interaction and it can sometimes be hard to send a message without them! So why are Emojis so popular? Well, they are one of the most universal forms of communication. A smiley face in the UK is the same in Spain, France, Germany and beyond! Emoji’s are even used in business through marketing campaigns. Domino’s Pizza took advantage of the Pizza Emoji for a Twitter campaign where people all around the world could tweet the company with the Emoji to order a pizza. This highlights how Emojis are not only dominating human conversation, but they also break down language barriers for brands as well. Like any trend in the modern era, in order to remain a key part of social culture, it needs to develop and grow. Since the launch of the Emoji, we have seen its development over the years. The introduction of Emojis that are more racially diverse, gender-neutral and inclusive of disabilities highlights how the Emoji continues to coincide with society. What originally started out as a small, pixelated icon, has now become a part of modern culture and impacts all of our communication day-to-day. Emoji has become a form of language that is understood by the majority. Who knows what the future for of Emoji will be? Will it become more integrated into daily activities away from our devices? When we go to an ATM machine, will all the options be in Emoji form? This may be a somewhat ridiculous idea, but in the modern society that we live in, it’s a possible outcome.

Is Emoji a global language? Is Emoji a global language? The word Emoji comes from the Japanese “e” (picture) and “moji” (character). The world’s first Emoji was created in 1999 by Shigetaka Kurita, who took his inspiration from weather symbols. The increased use of Emojis by communication developers, such as Apple and Android, have made the emoticons that we see today part of an everyday conversation. The small digital image spans across different media stories, from the creation of “World Emoji Day” (held on the 17th July), the world’s first Emoji translator, the ‘crying with laughter’ emoticon being named Oxford Dictionaries Word of the Year 2015 and also the increasing use of emojis appearing in court cases! The rise of the Emoji Communication is relying ever more on texting and social media, due to the sheer speed we can send a message to an endless amount of people. This still wasn’t fast enough though, and the introduction of the Emoji shortened the way in which we speak to each other through our devices even more. A simple question such as “What are you doing tonight?” can be answered with a variety of different Emojis, and some Emojis can even have multiple different meanings depending on the audience and context. Many millennials believe that Emojis act as a support to language, as they allow people to understand the tone of the conversation. Some Emojis can be used literally or sarcastically, or even have hidden meanings. These small emotive graphics have now become second nature in human interaction and it can sometimes be hard to send a message without them! So why are Emojis so popular? Well, they are one of the most universal forms of communication. A smiley face in the UK is the same in Spain, France, Germany and beyond! Emoji’s are even used in business through marketing campaigns. Domino’s Pizza took advantage of the Pizza Emoji for a Twitter campaign where people all around the world could tweet the company with the Emoji to order a pizza.

yes

Rhetoric

Are emoji a new form of language?

yes_statement

"emoji" are a "new" "form" of "language".. "emoji" have become a "new" "form" of "language".

https://altalang.com/beyond-words/linguists-emojis/

How do Linguists Feel About Emojis? | Alta Language Services

How do Linguists Feel About Emojis? If you communicate through texting or social media, you can’t escape emojis. These stylized smiley faces, hearts, hand gestures and food items are an ingrained part of virtual conversations. But what do linguists think about these colorful graphics? Do emojis enhance the way we talk online, or are they the death of language as we know it? Let’s take a closer look to understand how emojis impact our communications. A Brief History of Emojis An emoji, as defined by the Oxford English Dictionary is “a small digital image or icon used to express an idea or emotion in electronic communication.” Emojis were created in the 1990s by a Japanese pager company looking to separate themselves from the competition. These images became so popular in Japan that when smartphones were first released, an emoji keyboard was created for the Japanese market. It didn’t take long for the rest of the world to catch the emoji craze. Now, every smartphone’s operating system offers an emoji keyboard complete with more than 3,000 characters. Emojis weren’t the first images to add personality to written communications. The smiley face emoticon dates back to the 1980s and the exclamation point was first seen on a keyboard in the 1970s. While these symbols are not as complex as the thousands of emojis available today, they helped add context and tone to otherwise one-dimensional written conversations. Are Emojis a Form of Language? Human beings communicate through language. But what makes one style of speech or writing a unique language? Do emojis count as a new language, or are they simply images that add color to our internet conversations? Britannica defines language as “a system of conventional spoken, manual (signed), or written symbols by means of which human beings, as members of a social group and participants in its culture, express themselves.” Another viewpoint, expressed by prominent internet linguist Gretchen McCulloch states that language is a fluid “open-source project.” It is an ever-evolving construct that works when a message sender successfully communicates information to the receiver. After looking at Britannica’s and McCulloch’s definitions, you might argue that emojis are a new language. They help communicate ideas and allow humans to express themselves. But both definitions also point to the key issues with emojis- these images don’t follow a conventional system and they don’t necessarily allow messages to be communicated successfully. Emojis, unlike other languages, don’t follow grammatical rules. There isn’t a standard way to use emojis and a string of emojis to one person might mean something completely different to another person. Linguists generally agree that emojis aren’t a language, but that doesn’t mean they aren’t important. In fact, many linguists believe that emojis play a crucial part in internet communications. Think about the last in-person conversation you had. Did you speak in a monotone voice with your hands pinned to your side? Of course not. You probably used tonal inflections, hand gestures and body language to convey your message. Emojis act as these non-verbal communication clues in online conversations. Before emojis, it was difficult to express irony, excitement or any other emotion when texting or talking on the internet. Now, you can use one of over 3,000 images to help enhance your conversations and increase the chances of your receiver understanding your message. Are Emojis Corrupting Language? Some scholars worry that emojis will replace our widely used languages. But the fear that younger generations will permanently corrupt the sacred rules of language isn’t new. Historians point to an example from 63 A.D. when a Roman scholar complained about an “artificial language” used by his students. Maybe the scholar was right to be worried – this language eventually became French. But as McCulloch points out in her book, Because Internet: Understanding the New Rules of Language, language is ever-evolving. As the younger generation incorporates emojis into informal conversations, they aren’t killing language. Instead, they are making it easier for others to clearly understand what they are trying to say. When a version of Moby Dick was translated into emojis, it was immediately apparent that these images can’t replace any language. They aren’t hieroglyphics and don’t have a grammatical structure. Instead, they serve the unique purpose of adding levity and context to otherwise stale and easily misinterpreted online conversations. There’s no need to sign up for a second-language course in emoji. While popular, these graphics won’t replace another language any time soon. However, they can be used, as many linguists agree, to boost the screen-based conversations we have every day. Other Resources Hawaiian language, also known as ʻŌlelo Hawaiʻi, is one of the two official languages of Hawaii. While the language was banned in schools after the overthrow of the Hawaiian Kingdom in 1896, there have been revitalization efforts since 1978. Today... Individuals who speak multiple languages or live in multilingual households may have a “heritage language.” This term describes the language the individual speaks or hears at home, but it is not the dominant language spoken in the community. In the... With over 300 sign languages used in the world, there is a rich diversity of culture among Deaf communities. And in fact, deafness itself is not a prerequisite to participating in Deaf culture and community. Instead, cultural Deafness refers to...

They help communicate ideas and allow humans to express themselves. But both definitions also point to the key issues with emojis- these images don’t follow a conventional system and they don’t necessarily allow messages to be communicated successfully. Emojis, unlike other languages, don’t follow grammatical rules. There isn’t a standard way to use emojis and a string of emojis to one person might mean something completely different to another person. Linguists generally agree that emojis aren’t a language, but that doesn’t mean they aren’t important. In fact, many linguists believe that emojis play a crucial part in internet communications. Think about the last in-person conversation you had. Did you speak in a monotone voice with your hands pinned to your side? Of course not. You probably used tonal inflections, hand gestures and body language to convey your message. Emojis act as these non-verbal communication clues in online conversations. Before emojis, it was difficult to express irony, excitement or any other emotion when texting or talking on the internet. Now, you can use one of over 3,000 images to help enhance your conversations and increase the chances of your receiver understanding your message. Are Emojis Corrupting Language? Some scholars worry that emojis will replace our widely used languages. But the fear that younger generations will permanently corrupt the sacred rules of language isn’t new. Historians point to an example from 63 A.D. when a Roman scholar complained about an “artificial language” used by his students. Maybe the scholar was right to be worried – this language eventually became French. But as McCulloch points out in her book, Because Internet: Understanding the New Rules of Language, language is ever-evolving. As the younger generation incorporates emojis into informal conversations, they aren’t killing language. Instead, they are making it easier for others to clearly understand what they are trying to say. When a version of Moby Dick was translated into emojis, it was immediately apparent that these images can’t replace any language.

no

Rhetoric

Are emoji a new form of language?

no_statement

"emoji" are not a "new" "form" of "language".. "emoji" have not become a "new" "form" of "language".

https://thehill.com/opinion/technology/552467-is-it-time-to-consider-emojis-a-language/

Is it time to consider emojis a language? | The Hill

According to Emojipedia, July 17 is “World Emoji Day,” and given the phenomenal growth and enormous use of emojis today, one has to wonder whether it’s time to consider emojis “a language” … or eventually recognize them as “an official language.” Experts estimate that around 1.3 billion people speak English, 1.1 billion Mandarin Chinese, 543 million Spanish, 274 million Arabic, 267 million French and 258 million Russian (those are the UN’s six official languages; about 600 million also speak Hindi and 268 million Bengali) … and yet on any given day over 3 billion people speak with (over 10 billion) emojis! But one might ask whether emojis are organized enough to constitute a language or whether a pictogram system with no spoken element whose most used character is a happy face with tears of joy should actually be regarded as a “language.” Are emojis even centrally-defined? Although any software creator or service provider can create and make its own emojis that will then be available only to its own users (as was pretty much the case until 2009), since around 2010, most major computer hardware, software and internet service companies have relied on a California-based nonprofit corporation, the Unicode Consortium and its technical committees, to approve standard, global emojis. This non-profit group develops standards for the conversion of characters from all languages into computer code; and they simply added emojis to their list of “languages.” Once assigned a computer code, each approved emoji should become interoperable between most of the largest computer systems and internet services across countries, cultures and languages. While the Consortium approves a basic emoji and its conversion into a computer code, service or software providers like Twitter, Facebook or Microsoft can graphically represent that emoji in somewhat distinct ways. The Consortium was mainly created by Americans and is primarily backed by such major American technology companies as Facebook, Google, Adobe, Microsoft, Amazon, Twitter, IBM and Salesforce; so, it has — like the global computer industry as a whole — a notably American flavor. And not everyone agrees with the emoji approved or rejected by this Consortium, which has led to some allegations of cultural dominance of official emoji, not greatly unlike debates over media cultural dominance or even what constitutes “proper English.” So, the “language’ of emoji is defined… about as much as most of the UN’s six official languages (notably excluding “official” French or Russian.) What about the ability to translate emoji into an established spoken or written language? This becomes a little more difficult, but again not altogether unique. Anyone familiar with pictogram languages recognizes the complexity of translating a pictogram thought into a word or a written group of words … and that such a translation may not perfectly capture the original thought behind the pictogram. Sometimes a pictogram requires one or more sentences to translate. On the other hand, it is sometimes difficult to translate phrases, idioms and metaphors between languages that use identical Roman characters, so converting emojis into existing written languages, while complicated, is nothing altogether new. The main language problem with — and a strength of — the current emoji “alphabet” is that it expresses concepts, actions, people, places and ideas that are common to everyday human conduct. While some of the roughly 3,600 “official” emojis are exotic, the vast majority would be easily recognized by almost any modern adult with a basic education anywhere. Some efforts have been made to combine recognized emoji into “emoji sentences” that reflect more complex thoughts, but these lack recognition and rarely — if ever — deal with law, science, literature, policies, and other more complicated topics. There is no spoken form of emoji, making it fundamentally different from, for example, any of the six UN official languages. However, this is not different from the 300 or so sign languages in international use: there is no spoken format. With the same caveats for all translations noted above, emoji — like sign languages — can be translated and then converted into spoken languages and vice versa. Over the past two decades, there has been a dramatic improvement in software that recognizes spoken words and converts them into text or converts texts into spoken words. At the same time, computer language translation technologies have made enormous advances and computer translation services are now commonplace. There is no reason to think that at some point soon, AI-enabled word recognition and language translation technologies could not be used to convert, or help convert, emojis into spoken or written English, Chinese, etc. Or to convert a recognized language into emojis. The world is clearly not yet ready for emojis to be considered a language, much less an official language, and emojis are not yet ready for the complexities of the world. Involved legal, scientific, military and economic thoughts cannot yet be expressed in emoji, much less then translated into recognized languages. Nonetheless, the day will likely come when industry-government collaboration along with artificial intelligence will make it possible to fully communicate through emoji “sentences.” Their universality gives emojis a unique strength. When this happens, we may see emojis recognized as a language — and it may perhaps even become “official.” Roger Cochetti provides consulting and advisory services in Washington, D.C. He was a senior executive with Communications Satellite Corporation (COMSAT) from 1981 through 1994. He also directed internet public policy for IBM from 1994 through 2000 and later served as Senior Vice-President & Chief Policy Officer for VeriSign and Group Policy Director for CompTIA. He served on the State Department’s Advisory Committee on International Communications and Information Policy during the Bush and Obama administrations, has testified on internet policy issues numerous times and served on advisory committees to the FTC and various UN agencies. He is the author of the Mobile Satellite Communications Handbook.

While some of the roughly 3,600 “official” emojis are exotic, the vast majority would be easily recognized by almost any modern adult with a basic education anywhere. Some efforts have been made to combine recognized emoji into “emoji sentences” that reflect more complex thoughts, but these lack recognition and rarely — if ever — deal with law, science, literature, policies, and other more complicated topics. There is no spoken form of emoji, making it fundamentally different from, for example, any of the six UN official languages. However, this is not different from the 300 or so sign languages in international use: there is no spoken format. With the same caveats for all translations noted above, emoji — like sign languages — can be translated and then converted into spoken languages and vice versa. Over the past two decades, there has been a dramatic improvement in software that recognizes spoken words and converts them into text or converts texts into spoken words. At the same time, computer language translation technologies have made enormous advances and computer translation services are now commonplace. There is no reason to think that at some point soon, AI-enabled word recognition and language translation technologies could not be used to convert, or help convert, emojis into spoken or written English, Chinese, etc. Or to convert a recognized language into emojis. The world is clearly not yet ready for emojis to be considered a language, much less an official language, and emojis are not yet ready for the complexities of the world. Involved legal, scientific, military and economic thoughts cannot yet be expressed in emoji, much less then translated into recognized languages. Nonetheless, the day will likely come when industry-government collaboration along with artificial intelligence will make it possible to fully communicate through emoji “sentences.” Their universality gives emojis a unique strength. When this happens, we may see emojis recognized as a language — and it may perhaps even become “official.” Roger Cochetti provides consulting and advisory services in Washington, D.C. He was a senior executive with Communications Satellite Corporation (COMSAT) from 1981 through 1994.

no

Rhetoric

Are emoji a new form of language?

no_statement

"emoji" are not a "new" "form" of "language".. "emoji" have not become a "new" "form" of "language".

https://this.deakin.edu.au/society/is-emoji-the-language-of-the-future

Is emoji the language of the future? | this.

Whether you’re a linguistic purist or you’re punctuating your text-based communications with as many hearts and smiley faces as your recipient can handle, there’s no disputing the near ubiquitous presence of emoji in our lives. Here’s a look at where emoji came from, where it’s headed and why we won’t be able to live (or communicate) without it. The birth of emoji Emoji founder Shigetaka Kurita was working for Japanese telecommunication firm Docomo in the 90s when he saw an opportunity to enhance written exchanges. Although the company’s pagers were hot property, the obvious downfall was their inability to convey the sender’s tone. ‘If someone says Wakarimashita you don’t know whether it’s a kind of warm, soft ”I understand” or a ”yeah, I get it” kind of cool, negative feeling,’ he told The Verge. In 2010 emoji was added to Unicode, the computing industry standard for software writing. But it was when Apple released a set of emojis on iOS 5 in 2011 that the universal uptake of emoji really took off. Just five years later, the ‘face with tears of joy’ emoji was declared Oxford Dictionaries Word of the Year. It is the most used emoji on the planet. According to the Oxford Dictionaries blog, ‘(emojis) have been embraced as a nuanced form of expression, and one which can cross language barriers.’ Emoji enhances communication with description and clarity Emoji language helps to ‘generate an emotive sensory experience’, according to Dr Adam Brown, Deakin University senior lecturer in media studies. Indeed, it helps us get around issues of tone and intention that can be misconstrued when all the recipient relies on is the written word. He points out that humans have never conversed using words alone. They also use gestures, eye contact and laughter to make their intentions clear. So it makes sense that we’re using emojis to illustrate our messages – they’re part of our increasing reliance on non-verbal communication. Emoji breaks down language barriers It’s not possible to have fluent, complex conversations or express specific thoughts using emoji, so it’s not a language yet. But it is a powerful tool for transcending language barriers because people understand what the symbols mean, regardless of their native tongue. ‘Use of emojis is becoming second nature, in the same way that use of abbreviations has,’ Dr Brown suggests. It’s also possible to learn a lot about a person from their preferred emojis. The recent SwiftKey global emoji report cemented Australia’s position as the biggest beer, holiday and junk food lovers. Emoji is just the start of new age communication According to Dr Brown, emoji is just one aspect of visual communication that will become increasingly sophisticated. ‘We’re moving towards use of audio visual, GIFs, stickers and emojis in our device-based conversations,’ he says. He believes this is driven by social media personas and the need to have a voice or presence that stands out, so it’s certainly likely that we’ll see many more emojis in time. As the library of symbols grows, so does our ability to say more complex things. ‘The more media tools we’re presented with, the more personalised they get,’ Dr Brown says, and concludes, ‘So we might end up with personalised emojis, perhaps even with our own faces on them.’ Subscribe for a regular dose of technology, innovation, culture and personal development. don't miss out on Subscribe for a regular dose of technology, innovation, culture and personal development. this. is packed with advice for life, learning and career. Whatever your goals, we believe the journey is as important as the destination. this. is the perfect place to ignite imagination and fuel ambition.

Just five years later, the ‘face with tears of joy’ emoji was declared Oxford Dictionaries Word of the Year. It is the most used emoji on the planet. According to the Oxford Dictionaries blog, ‘(emojis) have been embraced as a nuanced form of expression, and one which can cross language barriers.’ Emoji enhances communication with description and clarity Emoji language helps to ‘generate an emotive sensory experience’, according to Dr Adam Brown, Deakin University senior lecturer in media studies. Indeed, it helps us get around issues of tone and intention that can be misconstrued when all the recipient relies on is the written word. He points out that humans have never conversed using words alone. They also use gestures, eye contact and laughter to make their intentions clear. So it makes sense that we’re using emojis to illustrate our messages – they’re part of our increasing reliance on non-verbal communication. Emoji breaks down language barriers It’s not possible to have fluent, complex conversations or express specific thoughts using emoji, so it’s not a language yet. But it is a powerful tool for transcending language barriers because people understand what the symbols mean, regardless of their native tongue. ‘Use of emojis is becoming second nature, in the same way that use of abbreviations has,’ Dr Brown suggests. It’s also possible to learn a lot about a person from their preferred emojis. The recent SwiftKey global emoji report cemented Australia’s position as the biggest beer, holiday and junk food lovers. Emoji is just the start of new age communication According to Dr Brown, emoji is just one aspect of visual communication that will become increasingly sophisticated. ‘We’re moving towards use of audio visual, GIFs, stickers and emojis in our device-based conversations,’ he says. He believes this is driven by social media personas and the need to have a voice or presence that stands out, so it’s certainly likely that we’ll see many more emojis in time.

no

Genomics

Are epigenetic changes hereditary?

yes_statement

"epigenetic" "changes" are "hereditary".. "hereditary" traits can be influenced by "epigenetic" "changes".

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC6226269/

GENETIC AND EPIGENETIC CAUSES OF OBESITY - PMC

Share RESOURCES As a library, NLM provides access to scientific literature. Inclusion in an NLM database does not imply endorsement of, or agreement with, the contents by NLM or the National Institutes of Health. Learn more: PMC Disclaimer | PMC Copyright Notice Abstract Obesity is a complex, heritable trait influenced by the interplay of genetics, epigenetics, metagenomics and the environment. With the increasing access to high precision diagnostic tools for genetic investigations, numerous genes influencing the phenotype have been identified, especially in early onset severe obesity. This review summarizes the current knowledge on the known genetic causes of obesity and the available therapeutic options. Furthermore, we discuss the role and potential mechanism of epigenetic changes that may be involved as mediators of the environmental influences and that may provide future opportunities for intervention. INTRODUCTION The idea of innate biologic (“endogenous”) cause of obesity was first proposed by Von Noorden in 19071. This concept of genetic cause for obesity has been investigated time and again since then2. The landmark studies of body fatness in 540 adopted Danish twins by Stunkard and colleagues showed that the weight of the adults was closer to their biological parents despite being reared in an adopted family.3 Further, they examined the body mass index (BMI) of twins reared together and apart to conclude the heritability of about 70%.4 Experimental studies of overfeeding in identical twins by Bouchard et al showed a remarkable correlation of weight gain within twin pairs, much higher than that between pairs.5 The longitudinal follow-up of these subjects showed a similar correlation of initial weight loss and eventual rebound.6 In a systematic review of twin studies, Silventoinen et al noted variable heritability of weight across lifetime with an overall effect between 45–90%. This meta-analysis of twin studies showed highest heritability in the early childhood, adolescence and adulthood. Additionally, they recognized the influence of genetics on obesity related behavior such as eating patterns and exercise.7 Secular trends in obesity in children, adolescents8 and adults9 have shown an increase in obesity with urbanization, clearly indicating the role of the environment. But in any given environment, there is considerable individual variation in body weight and fat mass, suggesting that adiposity is influenced by complex interactions between genetic, developmental, behavioral, and environmental influences. Modern genetic technology with precise definition of single nucleotide changes has advanced our understanding of the molecular mechanisms of weight regulation. Specifically, high throughput sequencing with whole exome, genome and targeted sequencing in individual subjects and cohorts of children with severe obesity has identified little known genetic aberrations. Besides providing insight into the pathophysiology of weight regulation, some of these etiologies hold the potential for treatment in selected individuals. Furthermore, studies in model organisms have elucidated epigenetic modifications that may play a role in weight gain. This review will address the identified genetic causes of obesity, and summarize the current literature on the epigenetic changes. Genetic causes of obesity can be broadly classified into: Monogenic causes: those caused by a single gene mutation, primarily located in the leptin- melanocortin pathway. Syndromic obesity: severe obesity associated with other phenotypes such as neurodevelopmental abnormalities, and other organ/system malformations. Polygenic obesity: caused by cumulative contribution of a large number of genes whose effect is amplified in a ‘weight gain promoting’ environment. We will focus here on the first 2 categories. CENTRAL REGULATORY PATHWAY A basic overview of the central regulatory pathway of appetite regulation will facilitate the understanding of genetic mutations (Figure 1). The central nervous system plays a vital role in regulating food intake through the brain-gut axis, with the hypothalamic leptin-melanocortin pathway as the key regulator of energy balance.10 Signals are received from several tissues and organs, such as the gut: hormones like ghrelin, peptide YY (PYY), cholecystokinin (CCK), glucagon-like peptide (GLP-1) and mechanoreceptors measuring distention; by pancreas through insulin; and by adipokine hormones such as leptin and adiponectin. The hypothalamus integrates these signals and acts via downstream pathways to maintain energy balance. The leptin/melanocortin pathway is activated via the leptin (LEPR) and insulin receptors (INSR) located on the surface of the neurons of the arcuate nucleus. These signals are in-turn regulated by 2 sets of neurons in a feedback loop. The pro-opiomelanocortin and cocaine and amphetamine related transcript neurons (POMC/CART) regulate production of anorexogenic peptide POMC, while a separate set of neurons regulate production of orexogenic agouti-related peptide (AGRP) and neuropeptide-Y (NPY).11 After post-translational processing with proconvertase 1 (PC1) and proconvertase 2 (PC2), POMC results in the production of a variety of peptides, such as α- β- and γ-melanocyte stimulating hormone (MSH) and β-endorphins.12 AGRP and α-MSH compete for binding with the melanocortin-4 receptor (MC4R), which is highly expressed in the paraventricular nucleus (PVN) of the hypothalamus. Binding with α-MSH results in anorexigenic signals, while that with AGRP in orexogenic signals.13 Signals from MC4R govern food intake via secondary effector neurons that lead to higher cortical centers, a process that involves brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and neurotrophic tyrosine kinase receptor type 2 (NTRK2 coding for the receptor called tropomyosin-related kinase B, TrkB). Other regulators such as SIM1, have been found to modulate the effect of this pathway. Mutations in the various genes involved in this pathway have been identified to be causal for obesity. The integration of the various peripheral and central signals in the hypothalamus is critical to the weight regulation. Hormonal (ghrelin, leptin, insulin) and mechano- and baroreceptor signals are sensed by the receptors located in the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus. These result in the production of pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC, anorexogenic) or Agouti-related peptide (AgRP) or PYY (orexogenic), sensed by the melanocortin-4 receptor (MC4R) located predominantly in the paraventricular nucleus. Proconvertase-1 (PC1) and 2 (PC2) are required for processing of the prohormones into α-melanocyte stimulating hormone (α-MSH), and β-MSH, ligands for the MC4R. The downstream expression of MC4R is influenced by Single-minded homologue 1 (SIM1), Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), possibly retinoic induced acid (RAI1, not shown), and mediated via Tyrosine kinase receptor (TrkB). Disruptions in the genes involved in this pathway have been shown to cause monogenic obesity in humans. MONOGENIC OBESITY Many of the genes identified for monogenic obesity disrupt the regulatory system of appetite and weight described above. Most mutations require 2 dysfunctional copies of the gene in homozygous or compound heterozygous form to manifest the phenotype. A summary of the individual causes of monogenic obesity can be found in Table 1. For detailed information and references, refer to Online Mendelian Inheritance in Man using the MIM number: https://www.omim.org Leptin (LEP) mutations Leptin is a type I cytokine mainly secreted by the adipocytes to signal the energy state of the body and exerts its function as a satiety signal in the hypothalamus.14,15 Encoded by the LEP gene located on chromosome 7q31.3, it is synthesized as an immature 167-amino acid protein that forms a 146-amino acid mature protein after cleavage of the 21-amino-acid N-terminal peptide.14 Congenital leptin deficiency follows a recessive mode of inheritance, and was first identified in two extremely obese first-degree cousins from a Pakistani family caused by a frameshift mutation (c.398delG).16 Since then ten other mutations in the leptin gene have been described.17–27 The cardinal phenotypic manifestations are rapid weight gain after normal birth weight resulting in severe early onset obesity caused by intense hyperphagia.28 In addition, some of these children have severe and possibly lethal bacterial infections due to defective T-cell immunity29 and hypogonadotropic hypogonadism.16 The children often have secondary adverse effects of severe obesity such as hyperinsulinemia, severe liver steatosis and dyslipidemia. The protein change can vary from early termination of the protein resulting in low to undetectable levels of the leptin hormone to the loss of biological activity with normal levels.27 Although relatively rare, and mostly seen in consanguineous families, congenital leptin deficiency presents a unique opportunity for treatment with recombinant leptin that improves the adiposity, and restores gonadal and immune function.27,30 The Food and Drug Administration has approved the use of Myalept (metreleptin) for the treatment of congenital leptin deficiency and generalized lipodystrophy. 31 Leptin Receptor (LEPR) mutations Mutations in LEPR can cause phenotype similar to that of leptin deficiency, without low serum levels. 32 The use of next generation sequencing has facilitated the identification of LEPR mutations, with estimates of 2–3% in certain populations.33–36 Co-existing growth hormone and thyroid function deficiency has also been described.37,38 Unlike leptin deficiency, individuals with homozygous LEPR mutations are not amenable to treatment with recombinant leptin. Pro-opio melanocortin (POMC) mutations Deficiency in the POMC protein results in the absence of cleavage products of ACTH, α-MSH and β-endorphins.39 Due to the dual role of α-MSH in appetite regulation and pigmentation, the classic presentation is that of red hair and severe obesity. Adrenal insufficiency results from deficiency of ACTH. Early recognition of adrenal insufficiency and rapid glucocorticoid replacement therapy is important for treatment. Fewer than 10 patients have been described around the world. A few studies have also noted the presence of heterozygous POMC mutations in individuals with obesity, without adrenal insufficiency and other classic manifestations.40,41 A new melanocortin-4 receptor agonist, Setmelanotide, has been shown to have therapeutic potential for POMC deficiency.42 MC4R deficiency The melanocortin receptor (MC4R) is a G-protein coupled, seven transmembrane receptor which is highly expressed in the hypothalamus, the region of the brain involved in appetite regulation.43 Rodent studies indicate that the binding of MC4R with α-MSH, its high affinity ligand produced from POMC, inhibits feeding.44 Subsequently, mutations in MC4R, both in dominant and recessive form, have been demonstrated as the most common cause of inherited early-onset obesity with prevalence between 0.5–6% in different populations. 45–49 Affected children demonstrate hyperphagia with food-seeking behavior in early childhood, are taller than their peers, may have higher blood pressure and advanced bone age, but are otherwise not dysmorphic.45 Therapeutic perturbation of the MC4R to improve the satiety circuits is an active area of investigation, but not available for clinical use yet.50–52 Proconvertase (PC1/2) deficiency Proprotein convertase-1/2 are neuroendocrine convertase endoproteases that process large precursor proteins into mature bioactive products. 53 Absence of activity of PC1/PC2 results in adrenal, gonadotropic, somatotropic, and thyrotropic insufficiency, along with postprandial hypoglycemic malaise caused by lack of insulin processing, severe malabsorptive neonatal diarrhea and central diabetes insipidus, in addition to severe early onset obesity.54–58 These enzymes are an attractive target for molecular intervention, although no therapies are available at the moment. SIM1 deficiency Single-minded homologue of drosophila (SIM1) is a transcription factor located on chromosome 6q16 and is strongly expressed in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus, a critical regulator of appetite. 59 Deletions or heterozygous mutations in SIM1 have been associated with hyperphagia, food impulsivity, and neurobehavioral features such as impaired concentration, memory deficit, emotional lability or autism spectrum disorder.60,61 NTRK2/BDNF mutations These neurotrophins are a family of growth factors known to be involved in the development, maintenance and function of peripheral and central neurons. The neurotrophin receptor TrkB and its natural ligand, brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), have been implicated in the regulation of food intake and body weight in animal studies. Heterozygous loss of function mutation in NTRK2, that codes for TrkB was demonstrated in a Caucasian male with severe early onset obesity with no other syndromic features.62 Individuals with deletions in BDNF gene as part of the WAGR syndrome (Wilms’ tumor, aniridia, genitourinary anomalies and mental retardatio) have early onset obesity63. SH2B1 mutations Src homology 2 B adapter protein (SH2B1) is a positive regulator of leptin sensitivity.64 Following the identification of its role in animal models, mutations in SH2B1 were noted in 5 children of mixed European descent with severe early onset obesity inherited from their overweight/obese parents.65 The mutation carriers were noted to be hyperphagic, had reduced final adult height, hyperinsulinemia without diabetes, delayed speech and language, and aggressive behavior. Subsequent studies of additional variants in the gene have shown milder phenotypes indicating a variability in the presentation.66 Other monogenic forms of obesity With the increasing use of whole exome and genome testing, additional single gene defects causing obesity have been identified. Mutations in kinase suppressor of Ras 2 (KSR2), an intracellular scaffolding protein involved in multiple pathways causes hyperphagia in childhood, low heart rate, reduced metabolic rate and severe insulin resistance.67 This mutation is of great interest, as metformin may be useful in decreasing the body weight and improving insulin sensitivity in these individuals. A homozygous frameshift mutation in the TUB (tubby-like protein) gene was identified in a proband who presented with obesity, decreased visual acuity and night blindness, and electrophysiological features of rod-cone dystrophy.68 In another case, a severely obese female from a consanguineous Sudanese family with intellectual disability, type 2 diabetes, and hypogonadotrophic hypogonadism was found to have a homozygous truncating mutation in carboxypeptidase (CPE) gene. CPE is an enzyme involved in the processing of a number of neuropeptide and peptide hormones (akin to proconvertase).69 Our group has demonstrated a novel truncating mutation in retinoic acid induced gene (RAI1) in an individual with hypoventilation, hypothalamic dysfunction, developmental disability, autonomic dysfunction and severe obesity.70 Mutations in RAI1 gene interfere with the BDNF expression in the hypothalamus in animals, thus interfering with the leptin-melanocortin signaling71. SYNDROMIC OBESITY The syndromic forms of obesity are often associated with phenotypes in addition to the early-onset severe obesity. This may be caused by change in a single gene or a larger chromosomal region encompassing several genes. Obesity is a feature of almost 100 syndromes; a little over half are not yet named, and 13.9% have more than one name.72 The co-presenting phenotypes often include intellectual disability, dysmorphic facies, or organ-system specific abnormalities. The most frequent forms of syndromic obesity are Bardet Biedl and Prader Willi syndrome. Bardet-Biedel Syndrome (BBS) BBS is a rare autosomal recessive ciliopathy characterized by retinal dystrophy, obesity, post-axial polydactyly, renal dysfunction, learning difficulties and hypogonadism.73 The prevalence of BBS varies markedly between populations; from 1:160 000 in northern European populations to 1:13500 and 1:17 5000, respectively, in isolated communities in Kuwait and Newfoundland, where a higher level of consanguinity prevails. The phenotype evolves slowly through the first decade of life, and often the only manifestation seen at birth may be post-axial polydactyly, with or without other limb abnormalities.74 Gradual onset of night blindness, along with photophobia and the loss of central and/or color vision is the next definitive finding, often leading to the diagnosis. Obesity is present in the vast majority (72–86%) of the individuals, although the birth weight may be normal. There is a high prevalence of Type 2 diabetes, hypogonadism, cognitive deficit, labile behavior, speech deficit, renal and cardiac anomalies.75 The biological defect for the syndrome is an abnormality in immotile cilia that primarily function as the sensory organelle regulating signal transduction pathways. The functional unit of the immotile cilia, or the BBSome, comprises of the cilium, the basal body, the chaperonin complex and other membrane proteins that maintain the function of the cilium. At the time of this writing, mutations in 16 different genes that alter the function of the BBSome at various levels have been identified (BBS1–BBS16). A comprehensive review of BBS can be found at GeneReviews (https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK1363/). Prader Willi Syndrome (PWS) PWS is the commonest cause of syndromic obesity around the world (1 in 15,000–25,000 births).76 It is characterized by severe neonatal hypotonia, eating disorders evolving in several phases (from anorexia and failure to thrive in the early infancy to severe hypephagia with food compulsivity by about 4–8 years of age). 77 Additional features include dysmorphic facies, global cognitive impairment, behavioral abnormalities, hypotonia, delayed motor development and hormonal deficiencies such as growth hormone, hypothyroidism, hypogonadism and ghrelin abnormalities.76 The genetic defect in PWS is the inactivation of the Prader-Willi critical region (PWCR) located on the 15q11-13 region of the paternal chromosome. The PWCR on the maternal chromosome is imprinted, and therefore epigenetically silenced through methylation, leading to mono-allelic expression of the paternal genes.78 Majority of cases of PWS are caused by interstitial deletions of the paternal region of the PWCR (65–70%), while others by maternal uniparental disomy (20–30%) and mutations within the imprinting center (2–5%). At least 5 genes, located in the PWCR and expressed in hypothalamus, have been implicated without clarity of their roles: MKRN3 (makorin 3), MAGEL2 (MAGE-like 2), NDN (necdin), NPAP1 (nuclear pore associated protein 1), SNURF-SNRPN (SNRPN upstream reading frame – small nuclear ribosomal protein 1). 79 A recent study of pluripotent stem cells derived neurons from individuals with microdeletion in the PWCR indicates a lower expression of proconvertase 1 (PC1), previously implicated in monogenic obesity, potentially offering a unifying explanation for the phenotype.80 16p11.2 microdeletion syndrome This heterozygous deletion of ~593-kb region on chromosome 16 is characterized by developmental delay, intellectual disability, and/or autism spectrum disorder along with severe obesity. Walter et al noted the presence of severe obesity in children with the deletion and performed a large scale analysis using population and disease based cohorts to find an enrichment of the deletion in children and their parents with obesity.81 Further studies by Bochukova and colleagues indicate that the obesity seen in the children and adults with the 16p11.2 deletion may be mediated via SH2B1, located in the region.82 In addition to PWS, and 16p11.2 deletion syndrome, several other obesity-related syndromes with chromosomal defects have been identified. Obesity is often manifested in many, but not all individuals suggesting variable penetrance, or a specific gene that may be differentially involved in different individuals. Examples include deletion of 1p36 (monosomy 1p36 syndrome), 2q37 (brachydactyly mental retardation syndrome; BDMR), 6q16 (PWS-like syndrome), 9q34 (Kleefstra syndrome), 11p13 (WAGR syndrome), and 17p11.2 (Smith Magenis syndrome; SMS).83 These syndromes may hold the clue to the single genes in the region that could further explain the biology of the disease, e.g. presence of deletion in the BDNF gene in individuals with WAGR syndrome who also presented with obesity.63 Table 2 provides a list of syndromes known to be associated with obesity, overgrowth syndromes (sometimes confused with obesity) and syndromes where a genetic etiology is not yet elucidated. Many of these syndromes encompass neurodevelopmental abnormalities of varying spectrum. Large-scale studies, such as genome-wide association studies have shown a widespread expression of the loci associated with BMI in the brain. It is plausible that there is heretofore-unidentified shared basis of the obesity and the neurodevelopmental defect(s). However, due to the high prevalence of obesity in the society and the influence of the neuropsychological medications on weight, and the use of food as a behavior modulator, the presence of obesity may be a mere confounder. Nevertheless, neurodevelopmental defects continue to serve as important marker to consider genetic investigation in children with severe, early onset obesity. The interested reader is referred to a recent systematic review by Kaur et al.72 DIAGNOSTIC APPROACH With the high prevalence of obesity in the modern society, it is imperative that the astute clinician is educated about the indications for genetic testing. For children with severe early onset obesity (BMI > 120% of 95th percentile of CDC 2000 for age), it is useful to enquire for history suggestive of hyperphagia, endocrinological co-morbidities, and a detailed pedigree including history of consanguinity. Assortative mating can confound family history, and identification of patterns indicative of autosomal dominant, or de novo inheritance is helpful. Individuals with neurodevelopmental and cognitive difficulties may lead to a consideration of tests such as high-resolution karyotype, methylation studies of chromosome 15, or comparative genomic hybridization (CGH) array for chromosomal defects. Based on presence of other features suggestive of syndromic obesity (see Table 2), or other characteristic findings such as prolonged diarrhea (PCSK1), or hypoglycemia and orange hair (POMC) single gene or panels such as the BBS panel may be considered. Candidate gene panels for genetic obesity (LEP, LEPR, POMC, PCSK1) are available in some laboratories and may be considered on a case-by-case basis (see: Genetic Testing Registry. Available at https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/gtr/). Assessment of leptin level is useful if there is a consideration of LEP deficiency. As leptin levels are generally elevated with adiposity, it is more difficult to ascertain LEPR deficiency by measurement of leptin levels. If an autosomal dominant mode of inheritance is established for children with severe early onset obesity, MC4R sequencing (1 exon) is widely available. A number of research efforts for rare genetic variants for children with severe early onset obesity are ongoing (www.clinicaltrials.gov). It is important to provide basic counseling prior to genetic testing. Should this be a barrier, a referral to a skilled specialist is suggested. THERAPEUTIC CONSIDERATION The characterization of the etiology of a monogenic or syndromic cause of obesity often ends a diagnostic odyssey for the etiology of the clinical condition. Additionally, the promise of targeted treatment in the rapidly progressive field of personalized medicine provides hope for the families struggling with management of obesity and associated comorbidities in children. For most of the genetic causes of obesity, management of nutrition and physical activity remains the first line of therapy. Children with genetic causes of obesity, such as MC4R and LEPR mutations have been maintained at lower levels of adiposity with long-term restriction of caloric intake (Lennerz B, Personal Communication). In children with PWS, the nutritional guidelines change with the phases of eating patterns over time. In the hyperphagia phase, weight maintenance has been documented with intakes of 7 kcal/cm of height/day, and sample calorie guidelines have been published by Prader Willi Syndrome Association.84 There are no systematic prospective studies on the use of these guidelines, and treatment needs to be individualized for each child. Although studies have proposed use of ketogenic and other limited diets85, the current guidelines continue to recommend a balanced calorie reduction with maintenance of the usual macronutrient proportions (60% carbohydrate, 15% protein and 25% fat), with emphasis on low glycemic index and slow-release carbohydrates.84 Medications such as injectable recombinant leptin for treatment of leptin deficiency29, or biologically inactive leptin27 present a rare, but valuable opportunity for treatment. A promising new therapy for POMC deficiency is Setmelanotide, an eight-amino-acid cyclic peptide (RM-493) melanocortin-4 –receptor agonist without the side-effects of hypertension and increased erectile dysfunction42. Kuhnen et al report the short-term use of setmelanotide in 2 adult females with POMC deficiency, 21- and 24-years old with baseline BMI of 49.8 kg/m2 (SDS 4.52) and 54.1 kg/m2 (SDS 4.78). Both the patients received treatment for 12 weeks with decrease in weight from 20–26 kg (decrease of 13.4–16.6%), and a marked improvement in satiety and quality of life (clinicaltrials.gov, {"type":"clinical-trial","attrs":{"text":"NCT02896192","term_id":"NCT02896192"}}NCT02896192, http://geneticobesity.com/).42 This therapy also appears to offer promise in animal models for PWS.86 Another drug, Beloranib, a Methionine Peptidase 2 (MetAP2 ) inhibitor, that influences fat metabolism, synthesis and storage, was found to reduce hunger and restored balance to the production/utilization of fat is in early clinical trials.87 Nasal oxytocin has been tried for therapy in PWS based on the finding of decreased oxytocin neurons in an attempt to improve behavioral and adiposity phenotype.88–90 A number of other MC4R receptor agonists are in preclinical and early clinical trials.50 Pharmacological chaperones that increase the expression of the cell surface expression of MC4R is a promising approach.91,92 An important consideration for neuropeptides used in the treatment of genetic forms of obesity is an acceptable route of administration that will provide sufficient central nervous system penetrance for its action on the centers for weight regulation. Bariatric surgery is increasingly being used as the effective treatment of severe obesity with or without concomitant co-morbidities in adolescents93 and adults94. Soper et al reported the use of bariatric surgery as a treatment of morbid obesity in 7 adolescents with PWS and 18 genetically normal young adults. The individuals with PWS reached a plateau of weight loss faster, and 3 individuals required revision surgeries to improve weight loss.95 Forty years later, the debate on the use of bariatric surgery for the treatment of genetic and syndromic forms of obesity continues. In a retrospective review of 60 subjects with PWS undergoing bariatric surgery, Scheiman et al reported a myriad of serious complications such as wound infection, deep vein thrombosis, pulmonary embolism, splenectomy with the surgery, weight rebound and poor response to surgery with some requiring revision and death in 2 subjects.96 The surgical techniques used in this report from 2008 have evolved over time. Two recent reports, one from Saudi Arabia (n = 24)97 and another from China (n = 3)98 have reported successful use of laparoscopic sleeve gastrectomy in individuals with PWS. Alqahtani et al performed a case-control (1:3) study of 24 subjects with PWS (mean age 10.9 years, mean BMI 46.2 kg/m2; 66.7% with ≥ 3 comorbidities). They reported a 22.2 (±14.6) % reduction in BMI in cases with PWS compared with 37.9 (±12.1)% in controls (p = 0.05). There was no statistical difference in % excess weight loss in the cases as compared to non-genetic obese controls till 3 years of follow-up with some rebound noted in the cases at 5-years of follow-up. The families reported an improvement in hyperphagia and food-seeking behavior that has largely been attributed to a reduction in the levels of ghrelin after the surgery as noted in the report from China.98 The same group has previously published favorable reports in subjects with PWS, BBS and ALMS1 syndrome99 with mixed response from surgeons in the US100 and France.101 Regardless of the debate, the need for multi-disciplinary pre- and post-operative care of individuals with syndromic obesity or intellectual disability with careful follow-up is advocated102, and the need for large scale systematic studies for long-term outcomes remains. EPIGENETIC MODIFICATIONS IN OBESITY While genetic perturbations play an important role in determining individual susceptibility to obesity, the role of environment, and gene-environment interactions remains; leading to a growing interest in the role of epigenetics in the development of obesity and obesity-related comorbidities. This offers a logical explanation for the growing epidemic of obesity over the past few decades without a radical change in the genome. In multicellular organisms like humans, the genetic code is homogenous throughout the body, but the expression of the code can vary in the different cell types. Epigenetics is the study of heritable regulatory changes in the genetic expression without alterations in the nucleotide sequence.103 Epigenetic modifications can be considered as the differential packaging of the DNA that either allows or silences the expression of the certain genes across tissues. Environmental and dietary factors or gut microbiota, can influence the epigenetic programming of parental gametes, fetus and early postnatal development, or through the various periods of life to influence epigenetic programming.104 Epigenetic mechanisms The currently known epigenetic mechanisms include DNA methylation, histone modifications, and microRNA-mediated regulation, which can be passed on mitotically (through cell division) or meiotically (transgenerational inheritance). DNA methylation In DNA methylation, a methyl group can be added to a cytosine with a guanine as the next nucleotide (CpG site) by DNA methyltransferases (DNMTs). These CpG sites are frequently found in the promoter regions of the genes, and a methyl group addition acts as a steric obstacle for the joining of the transcription factors and the expression of the gene: usually hypermethylation is associated with transcriptional repression, and hypomethylation with activation.103 Candidate gene methylation changes have been implicated in obesity, appetite control and metabolism, insulin signaling, immunity, inflammation, growth, and circadian clock regulation.104 In a genome wide study of the CpG methylation sites of 479 adults of European origin, an increased methylation at the HIF3A (hypoxia-inducible factor 3a) locus was reported in the blood and adipose tissue.105 Similar associations were also seen in early life where higher methylation at the same sites were associated with greater infant weight and adiposity.106 As hypoxia response has been reported during obesity, this finding provides direct evidence that perturbation of the HIF signaling plays an important role in the obesity, metabolism and downstream adverse responses to obesity.105 Similarly, both the LEP and POMC genes, prominent in the weight regulation pathway have CpG islands, where methylation can affect their expression. In a study of methylation at the LEP gene in the maternal, placental and cord blood samples, Lesseur et al found increased maternal blood methylation with pre-pregnancy obesity, cord blood methylation with SGA infants and pre-pregnancy smoking and a good correlation of maternal blood LEP DNA methylation with infant blood methylation.107 Similarly, increased LEP methylation was observed in men born after prenatal exposure to wartime (Dutch) famine in 1944–45 compared to their unexposed same-sex siblings.108 Some other genes investigated in the context of obesity and metabolism include ADIPOQ (adiponectin), PGC1α (peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor coactivator 1 α), IGF-2 (insulin-like growth factor 2), IRS-1 (insulin receptor substrate 1), and LY86 (lymphocyte antigen 86).104 Epigenetic markers have also been used as predictor(s) for long-term weight loss (or regain). In a study of 18 men who underwent ≥ 5% weight loss after an 8-week nutritional intervention, Crujeiras et al report higher pre-intervention methylation levels of POMC, and lower NPY methylation in the individuals who maintained weight loss.109POMC methylation is also being investigated as an early predictor of metabolic syndrome.110 DNA methylation studies remain an active area of investigation in both animals and humans that will continue to guide our understanding on the effects of genes, environment and their interaction. Histone modification Histones are proteins responsible for DNA packaging, made up of a globular domain and an N-terminal tail domain. The highly basic N-terminal tails protrude from the nucleosome and are exposed to covalent reactions such as methylation, acetylation, ubiquitination and phosphorylation. Depending on the combination of these covalent reactions, the DNA will be accessible for translation, repair, replication and recombination.111 Histone modifications are involved in the epigenetic regulation of adipogenesis and can play an important role in obesity development. Modulation of five key regulatory genes of adipogenesis, pre-adipocyte factor-1 (Pref-1), CCAAT-enhancer-binding protein β (C/EBP β), C/EBPα, PPARγ, and adipocyte protein 2 (aP2), is regulated by histone modifications during adipocyte differentiation.112 The histone deacetylase (HDAC) family of proteins plays an important role in the regulation of gene transcription in response to stress and energy metabolism. A study of the chromatin expression profile of the liver cells in animals fed high fat diet compared to those fed control diet showed chromatin remodeling by HDAC resulting in changes in expression profile of hepatic transcription factors HNFα, CCAAT/enhancer binding protein α (CEBP/α), and FOXA1.113 They also demonstrated that these changes are irreversible, when the animals revert to the normal diet in one species, while being transient in another emphasizing the variable expressivity of modifications in a framework of different genetic background.114 A differential expression of the HDAC proteins in also seen in the hypothalamus in the fasting/fed states and high-fat diet-induced obesity.115 miRNA Micro-RNAs (miRNA) are short noncoding RNA sequences 18 to 25 nucleotides long capable of regulating gene expressions by gene silencing and post-transcriptional changes.116 miRNA play an important role in various biological processes, including proliferation and differentiation of adipocytes, and have been shown to be associated with insulin resistance and low-grade inflammation seen in obese individuals.117 A significant association with increased levels of certain miRNA (miR-486-5p, miR-486-3p, miR-142-3p, miR-130 b, and miR-423-5p) was seen with BMI in children with obesity, with a significant change in the profile of 10 miRNAs with weight change.118 Zhao et al identified miRNA as a signature for weight gain and showed that the individuals with a high-risk score for 8 of these miRNAs had over 3-fold higher odds of weight gain. 119 Changes in adipocyte-derived exosomal miRNAs is also seen following weight loss and decrease in insulin resistance after gastric bypass.120 All the emerging evidence lends support to the important role of miRNA in obesity and the associated metabolic changes that can serve as biomarkers, or potentially therapeutic targets for intervention. Epigenetic changes caused by the intrauterine and early development environment The intrauterine environment plays a crucial role in the development of the fetus and has been shown to play a role in the long-term epigenetic programming that may be transmitted to the progeny. Epidemiological studies of two large cohorts exposed in utero to serious nutritional deficits during the Second World War, who later lived in contrasting conditions, returning to normal nutrition in the case of the Dutch cohort exposed to the “Dutch Famine”121, and conversely, persisting conditions of poor nutrition in case of children who survived the dramatic siege of Leningrad122,123, have provided clues to the role of epigenetics. The Dutch cohort exposed to enriched nutritional conditions showed less DNA methylation of the imprinted IGF2 gene compared to their same sex siblings. They also had a higher incidence of chronic metabolic disease compared to the Russian cohort that continued to live in deprived condition supporting the theory of fetal programming. Animal studies have provided further evidence to support this theory. Mice born to undernourished mothers and postnatally exposed to high fat diet have shown adverse cardiometabolic profile.124 Besides undernutrition, presence of maternal obesity or metabolic dysfunction also predisposes infants to obesity. There is also evidence that this programming may be transgenerational that continues even after the environmental influence is eliminated, thus propagating the cycle of obesity and metabolic syndrome.125 Endocrine disrupting chemicals (“Obesogens”) In the context of epigenetic changes, it is important to review the role of endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs termed “obesogens”) on the effects on adipose tissue biology, the hormonal milieu and the influence on the homeostatic mechanisms of weight regulation. Epidemiological studies have provided evidence for the presence of obesity and metabolic changes in offspring of mothers exposed to EDCs likely mediated by epigenetic changes. Offspring of pregnant animals exposed to polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons during gestation have increased weight, fata mass, as well as higher gene expression of PPARγ, C/EBP α, Cox2, FAS and adiponectin and lower DNA methylation of PPAR γ that extended through the grand-offspring mice.126 Genomewide epigenetic study in the adult mice born following perinatal exposure to bisphenol A at human physiologically relevant disease, showed an enrichment of significant differentially methylated regions in metabolic pathways among females. DNA methylation as a mediator for the metabolic phenotype was identified in Janus kinase-2 (Jak-2), retinoid X receptor (Rxr), regulatory factor x-associated protein (Rfxap), and transmembrane protein 238 (Tmem 238).127 A comprehensive review of the effects of EDCs is outside the scope of this review, but suffice to say that there is convincing evidence from human and animal studies of epigenetic mechanisms in the effects of EDCs on childhood obesity and metabolic dysfunction. CONCLUSION Genetic factors and the environmental factors that influence the expression of these genes play a large role in the development of obesity in children, adolescents and young adults. Thoughtful consideration of genetic causes and an understanding of the growing evidence of the epigenetic changes that influence the burgeoning epidemic of obesity provide valuable tools for the clinician in the management of obesity. Acknowledgments Funding Source: This work was supported in part by the NIH NIDDK grant K23DK110539-02, ADA 1-16-PDF-113, and NIH P30 DK040561 to VVT. Footnotes Financial Disclosure: The author has no financial relationships relevant to this article to disclose. Conflict of Interest: The author has no potential conflicts of interest to disclose.

Regardless of the debate, the need for multi-disciplinary pre- and post-operative care of individuals with syndromic obesity or intellectual disability with careful follow-up is advocated102, and the need for large scale systematic studies for long-term outcomes remains. EPIGENETIC MODIFICATIONS IN OBESITY While genetic perturbations play an important role in determining individual susceptibility to obesity, the role of environment, and gene-environment interactions remains; leading to a growing interest in the role of epigenetics in the development of obesity and obesity-related comorbidities. This offers a logical explanation for the growing epidemic of obesity over the past few decades without a radical change in the genome. In multicellular organisms like humans, the genetic code is homogenous throughout the body, but the expression of the code can vary in the different cell types. Epigenetics is the study of heritable regulatory changes in the genetic expression without alterations in the nucleotide sequence.103 Epigenetic modifications can be considered as the differential packaging of the DNA that either allows or silences the expression of the certain genes across tissues. Environmental and dietary factors or gut microbiota, can influence the epigenetic programming of parental gametes, fetus and early postnatal development, or through the various periods of life to influence epigenetic programming.104 Epigenetic mechanisms The currently known epigenetic mechanisms include DNA methylation, histone modifications, and microRNA-mediated regulation, which can be passed on mitotically (through cell division) or meiotically (transgenerational inheritance).

yes

Genomics

Are epigenetic changes hereditary?

yes_statement

"epigenetic" "changes" are "hereditary".. "hereditary" traits can be influenced by "epigenetic" "changes".

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC5075137/

Role of Epigenetics in Biology and Human Diseases - PMC

Share RESOURCES As a library, NLM provides access to scientific literature. Inclusion in an NLM database does not imply endorsement of, or agreement with, the contents by NLM or the National Institutes of Health. Learn more: PMC Disclaimer | PMC Copyright Notice This is an Open Access article distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License, (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/) which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited. Abstract For a long time, scientists have tried to describe disorders just by genetic or environmental factors. However, the role of epigenetics in human diseases has been considered from a half of century ago. In the last decade, this subject has attracted many interests, especially in complicated disorders such as behavior plasticity, memory, cancer, autoimmune disease, and addiction as well as neurodegenerative and psychological disorders. This review first explains the history and classification of epigenetic modifications, and then the role of epigenetic in biology and connection between the epigenetics and environment are explained. Furthermore, the role of epigenetics in human diseases is considered by focusing on some diseases with some complicated features, and at the end, we have given the future perspective of this field. The present review article provides concepts with some examples to reveal a broad view of different aspects of epigenetics in biology and human diseases. Keywords: DNA modification, DNA methylation, Gene expression INTRODUCTION Classical definition by Conrad Waddington in the 1950s states “an epigenetic trait is a stably heritable phenotype resulting from changes in a chromosome without alterations in the DNA sequence”[1]. Based on our understanding of epigenetics, actual epigenetic definitions express that the whole DNA content is exactly the same in somatic cells of one species, while gene expressions patterns have distinct differences in various cell types that can be clonally inherited[2]. Epigenetic mechanisms can influence the gene activity at the transcriptional and post-transcriptional levels and/or at the translation level and post-translational modifications. Such epigenetic mechanisms with a potentially vast spectrum of consequences could result in more varieties of cell differentiations, morphogenesis, variability, and adaptability of an organism, which can be affected by both genetic and environmental factors[3]. Therefore, the field of epigenetics covers the modifications of DNA, DNA-binding proteins, and histones, which are important in making changes in chromatin structure without any change in the nucleotide sequence of a given DNA. Also, some of these alterations could be transferred between generations[4]. Epigenetic field and history Following Fleming’s discovery of chromosome in 1879, Thomas Hunt Morgan demonstrated that there is a genetic linkage between several Drosophila genes and X chromosome. Other studies have assigned individual genes to specific sites on the Drosophila chromosomes. In 1930, H. J. Muller carried out further genetic analyses and introduced a class of Drosophila mutations, which were connected to chromosomal rearrangements. He concluded that “chromosome regions affecting various characters at once, are somehow concerned, rather than individual genes or suppositious ‘gene elements.”[2,5,6]. In the past few decades, many investigations have shown that the epigenetic mechanisms are involved in regulation of all biological process in the body from conception to death. These functional mechanisms are involved in genome reorganization, early embryogenesis and gametogenesis, as well as cell differentiation. The interplay of DNA methylation and histone post-translational alterations, which cause as the result of regulatory proteins and non-coding RNAs, are key epigenetic players to rearrange chromatin into areas such as euchromatin, heterochromatin, and nuclear compartmentalization. Epigenetic signs may have long-term impressions, for instance, in learning and organizing memory or predispositions to different cancers. Incorrect epigenetic marks can result in birth defects, childhood diseases, or symptoms of diseases in other interims of life. Epigenetic mechanisms also regulate development and adaptations during the life of an organism, and their alterations may result in various disorders such as cancer. On the other hand, some epigenetic marks can be reversible, and this fact has encouraged many researchers to focus on epigenetic therapy[7]. In recent years, it has been demonstrated that DNA methylation, in some cases, can be irreversible[7-9]. This trait could be useful in complex features and challenging diseases such as memory function, psychological behaviors and injuries, addiction, cancer, and other diseases that could not be explained just by genetic factors or the environment. Epigenetic modifications In a multicellular organism, the epigenetic changes enable different adult cells to express specific genes that are required for the existence of each cell type and transfer of information to the daughter cells. Epigenetic modifications often happen during an organism’s lifetime; however, these changes can be transferred to the next generation if they occur in germ cells[10]. Paramutation, bookmarking, imprinting, gene silencing, X chromosome inactivation, position effect, changeable disorder or phenotypic severity, reprogramming, maternal attributes, carcinogenic processes, teratogenic effects, regulation of histone modifications, heterochromatin states and cloning are known to involve epigenetic processes. Three major epigenetic modification mechanisms are shown in Figure 1. Three major epigenetic modification mechanisms. A) DNA methylation. DNA methylation is mediated by DNA methyltransferase enzymes at CpG sites. It can also decrease gene expression by reducing the binding of transcription factors or increasing the binding of methyl-CpG binding proteins[11,12,59,100]. B) Histone modification. Histone acetylation, particularly in lysine residues of histone tails, is an important histone modification that can accelerate binding transcription factors and then gene expression beside DNA demethylation[18,59]. C) miRNA. The formation of miRNA begins in nucleus and continues in cytosol that can perform a mechanism to regulate gene expression in mRNA level[101]. DNA methylation and demethylation DNA methylation status has high stability and serves as a special epigenetic memory of specific cells throughout all periods in the cell cycle. It may also regulate the expression and the activity of histone codes. Acceleration of DNA methylation at CpG sites is mediated by DNA methyltransferase enzymes such as DNMT1, DNMT3a, and DNMT3b. Inside the cells, S-adenosyl methionine act, as an important methyl group donor. In this sense folic acid and B12 play the determinant roles in re-methylation or the attraction of de-methylated form of S-adenosyl methionine through passive and active mechanisms[11,12]. A number of studies have demonstrated that these effective factors could change DNA methylation patterns and alter the levels of gene expression[13,14]. Studies have also confirmed that the nutritional status in the early years of life could affect DNA methylation pattern and gene expression levels in adulthood[15]. Furthermore, the methylation patterns in CpG sequences at cytosine residues can be heritable and act as tissue- and species-specific features. It is interesting that 70% to 80% of human DNA in CpG sequences are usually methylated[9,16], and correlations between methylation and expression levels in cis and trans have been reported[17]. Totally, DNA methylation, as a very impressive epigenetic agent, could influence the development of mutations, DNA faultless and durability, gene expressions, and chromatin modifications. Histone and non-histone modifications Histone modification is one way of gene regulation through chromatin remodeling and includes acetylation, methylation, phosphorylation, ribosylation, ubiquitylation, sumoylation, and citrullination. Acetylation has been studied frequently in different investigations, and it has been shown to be mediated by five families of mammalian histone acetyltransferase enzymes[18]. Another group of molecules, known to act as non-histone modifiers, is RNA transcripts, which are necessary to maintain the activity of genes (directly or indirectly). For example, hepatocyte nuclear factor 4 increases the special gene transcription level, and MyoD has similar effects on muscle-specific genes[19]. miRNAs are about 17 to 25 nucleotides and are considered as a member of the non-coding RNAs that can mediate a large number of biological activities[20]. It has been demonstraed that the expression of miRNAs in a cell can regulate functions of about 200 messenger RNAs as their targets[21]. miRNAs can also regulate about 60% of protein-coding genes in human[22], and many miRNAs are epigenetically adjusted by methylation in CpG islands or histone modifications or both of them[20,23]. Structural inheritance is another non-histone mechanism of inheritance. Experimentally, it has been shown that altered cellular patterns are inherited to the next generation of cells, and it appears that the present structures act as templates for new structures[24]. Also, evidence has confirmed the importance of positioning in addition to epigenetic modifications such as DNA methylation and hydroxymethylation, which play an important role in structural inheritance[25]. Mitotic gene bookmarking An important issue in interpreting epigenetic and genetic modifications is the concept of mitosis gene bookmarking. Mitosis can play an important role in remodeling the transcriptional landscape. This view confirms that bookmarking mechanisms provide flexibility to permit alteration in cellular fate or differentiation. The distinct kinetics of dissociation and re-association of factors during mitosis as well as varying stabilities of histone marks argue that multiple mechanisms control mitotic partitioning[26]. Mitotic chromatin is transcriptionally inactive[27] and is excluded from most of the factors such as transcription agents and RNA polymerases[26,28-32]. To correct and complete cell division, regulatory proteins should re-use their exact genomic targets to return gene transcription states appropriately[26,33-36]. Studies have shown that the exact post-mitotic restoration of suitable transcriptional patterns is affected by epigenetic marking of mitotic chromatin to prevent tragic regulatory results[37,38]. For example, certain histone and DNA modifications remain in mitotic chromatin [39-42]. DNA methylation keeps transcription silent until the completion of mitosis[23,43], whereas specific histone modifications do not show such a clear effect on gene expression, and there are more elusive states and relations. After mitosis, to reactivate different sites of genes, transcription factors have to find their appropriate sites, which are located in transcriptionally silent chromatin through mitosis process[26]. For instance, poly ADP-ribose polymerase-1 creates stable epigenetic marks in metaphase chromatin at the transcription start sites of many genes that are necessary to restart transcription after mitosis[28]. Role of epigenetics in biological processes Epigenetic modifications are a dynamic process reflecting a complex interplay between an organism and its environment. For example, the acetylation of lysine residues in histone subunits usually can result in promoting gene transcription, or the methylation of Lys9 or Lys27 of histone H3 is correlated with gene repression. However, the methylation of Lys4, Lys36, or Lys79 of H3 is ordinarily associated with gene activity[44]. The heritable quantity of gene expressions is about 30%, while this percentage is decreased to about 23% in cells grown in culture. Such associations between methylation levels and genetic variations have been demonstrated in several organisms, tissues, and populations[17,45,46]. Animal studies in rats[7] have shown that hippocampal-dependent contextual learning can elicit a remarkably persistent fear-related memory, and this behavior is dependent on denovo DNA methylation. The inhibitors of DNMTs could abolish fear-related memory by preventing DNA methylation. Other studies have suggested that histone acetylation and DNA methylation influence memory formation, and DNA methylation has a key role in the storage of long-term memories in cortical brain regions[7,17]. The role of methylation in biological clock has been an interesting discovery in recent years. Studies of 353 epigenetic markers (DNA methylation of CpG dinucleotide) in DNA have made it possible to predict the ageing of tissues[47]. Also, the role of methylation and acetylation during differentiation has been demonstrated by studying Oct4 promoter regions[48]. Epigenetics and environment Epigenome generally comprises all epigenetic modifications such as DNA methylation and histone modifications, as well as non-coding RNAs at any given point in time. The cell epigenome is dynamic and can be affected by genetic and environmental factors. Furthermore, epigenetic modifications can be reversible, which makes the genome flexible to respond to environment changes such as nutrition, stress, toxicity, exercise, and drugs[17]. In the winter of 1944/45 during World War II, food supply was reduced due to blocked food transport by Germans, and food delivery by boat was impossible because water canals were frozen. Famine and lack of sufficient vitamins and proteins in diets affected the whole population, especially pregnant women. Since then studies have been carried out on the long-term effects of this incidence on newborn babies and individuals under such conditions. The results of these studies showed that individuals born after the famine had a higher susceptibility to a subset of diseases, including schizophrenia, stress sensitivity, and obesity[17]. One of the nutritional components in food, which plays a major role in methylation, is folate. Folate can influence methionine production by homocysteine remethylation in the form of 5-methyltetrahydrofolate. It has been reported that folate defect or shortage can enhance colorectal carcinogenesis through hypomethylation of genomic DNA[12]. Stress is an important environmental factor. Recently, some studies have demonstrated that people with post-traumatic stress disorder, who were abused during childhood, exhibit different levels of DNA methylation and gene expressions in comparison to those who were not abused[49,50]. Also, maternal stress during gestation has been indicated to be associated with neurodevelopmental and psychiatric disorders. Long-term studies on children exposing to stress in utero have shown to be predisposed to psychiatric disorders because of an increase in the promoter activities of glucocorticoid receptor[17,51,52]. As a human, we are exposed to various environmental toxins on a daily basis, and this can affect our health through changes in our epigenome. Listeria monocytogenes, Clostridium perfringens, and Streptococcus pneumonia have been shown to induce dramatic changes in acetylations of histones via the toxins they produce[53,54]. Arsenic exposure studies have been demonstrated to result in global DNA alterations and gene promoters methylation levels, histone acetylation, histone phosphorylation, and miRNA expressions. Such influences of arsenic exposure have been linked to epigenetic dysregulation and carcinogenesis[55]. One of the major effects of physical exercise is on epigenetic modifications that can be beneficial to health and cancer patients. Modifications in DNA methylation patterns as a result of physical exercise can increase the expression of genes involved in tumor suppression and decrease the expression levels of oncogenes. Studies have shown that DNA methylation patterns are different in cancer cells, and hypermethylations and hypomethylations have been observed in the promoter of tumor-suppressing genes and oncogenes. These modifications could result in uncontrollable growth leading to tumorigenesis[56,57]. In patients with type II diabetes, several genes have been reported to be hypermethylated in muscle, including peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor gamma and coactivator 1-alpha[58,59]. Some drugs, such as procainamide and hydralazine have been shown[60] to have an enhancing effect on antinuclear antibodies. In recent studies, it has been reported that women using oral contraceptive pills have a lower global DNA methylation levels when compared to those who do not use such pills[61]. Epigenetics and human diseases Methylation is a common and widely used mechanism for epigenetic modifications in cells. It has been shown to be correlated with many human diseases, including different cancers, autoimmune disorders, neurological disorders (Fragile X syndrome as well as Huntington, Alzheimer, and Parkinson diseases and schizophrenia). Also, it has been suggested that methylation can be considered for complicated diseases influenced by some secondary factors such as sex differences and age, which could change disorder severity[62]. Cancer Epigenetic modifications have a considerable effect on cancer. Hypermethylation of promoter regions in tumor suppressor genes can inactivate many tumor suppressor functions. Methylation levels also play an important role in cell divisions, DNA repair, differentiation, apoptosis, angiogenesis, metastasis, growth factor response, detoxification, and drug resistance[12]. Such features have promoted huge advances in the early detection of cancer using methylation levels. For example, hypermethylation of promoter regions in APC and RASSF1A genes are considered as common epigenetic markers for early detection of cancer[63]. Also, hypermethylation of TP53 promoter region has been reported as a common marker for evaluation of cancer development[64]. There are also some other types of epigenetic changes in cancer. In recent years, dysregulation of miRNAs has been confirmed in breast cancer, which has a potential to be used as diagnostic biomarkers[65]. Also, hyper- and hypo-methylation of several genes in breast cancer have been confirmed[66]. Microsatellite instability, chromosomal instability, and CpG island methylator phenotype have been identified as three major mechanisms affecting gene function in colorectal cancer (CRC). Microsatellite instability occurs in 15% of CRCs, which can result in instability phenotype by mutated or methylated mismatch repair genes[67]. In a comprehensive analysis of CRC tumors in Iranian patients, Brim et al.[68] demonstrated a high microsatellite instability rate (18%). From 15 known methylation target genes, APC2, PTPRD, EVL, GPNMB, MMP2, and SYNE1 were found to be methylated in most samples, which can be potentially used as specific clinical and pathological markers of CRC in this population[68]. The pathogenesis of CRC has been reported to be controlled by miRNAs, which can act as regulators of oncogenic and tumor suppressor pathways, responsible for the development of cancer. It has been confirmed that different miRNAs can be useful as biomarkers and are potentially applicable in prognosis evaluation and the detection of CRC stages[65]. It has been also observed that in the absence of O6-methylguanine-DNMTs activity as a DNA repair protein, the specific genes, such as K-ras and p53, might be accumulated by G-to-A transition. Furthermore, hypermethylation near the methylguanine-DNMT start codon in the specific locus is critical for cancer progression, which may have a prognostic value in CRC patients[69]. It has been indicated that miRNAs play an important role in many types of cancer: acute myeloid leukemia, acute lymphocytic leukemia, chronic myeloid leukemia, chronic lymphocytic leukemia, endometrial carcinoma, gastrointestinal cancer, lung cancer, bladder cancer, thyroid tumors, and esophageal adenocarcinomas. Hence, the potential applications of miRNAs in diagnosis and prognosis of these cancers would be highlighted in the near future[65]. Isocitrate dehydrogenase 1 (IDH1) and IDH2 genes are frequently mutated in low-grade gliomas, denovo acute myeloid leukemias in adult and in the subsets of chondrosarcomas and lymphomas. Interestingly, high correlation between histone and DNA methylation phenotype in IDH mutant gliomas has been reported[18]. In Tables ​Tables1,1, ​,2,2, and ​and3,3, epigenetic modifications in different types of cancer are shown. Autoimmune diseases Natural and normal functions of immune system depend on self-tolerance, and self-tolerance deficiency can result in autoimmunity. Autoimmune disease concordance studies in both monozygotic and dizygotic twins have suggested a role for epigenetic factors. Epigenetic homeostasis failure, as a response to environmental agents, can result in gene expression changes in specific differentiated cells leading to dysregulated self-tolerance[70]. The immune system and target organ are two main players in an autoimmune disease process and the epigenetic modifications of these players could have roles in disease development. Many functions of immune cells such as hematopoietic lineage, rearrangement of antigen-receptor, allelic exclusion, and inducible immune responses against pathogens are epigenetically controlled. The alterations of epigenetic mechanisms regulating immunological development could promote autoimmunity disease[71]. Interestingly, the frequency of autoimmune disease occurrence is notably more in women, and the reason may be due to female sex hormones. The involvement of second X chromosome in immune response and genetic predisposition to autoimmunity is suspected. Considering the lack of enough knowledge on the exact cause of these immune diseases, a role for epigenetic regulatory mechanisms is highly possible[70]. Furthermore, there are many examples for correlation between epigenetic modifications and autoimmune diseases. For example, in patients with rheumatoid arthritis, DNA hypomethylation of HDAC1 (histone deacetylase 1) and HDAC2 levels, hyperacetylation of histones H3 and H4, and hypomethylation of histone H3 at lysine 9 have been observed in synovial tissues. In addition, in patients with multiple sclerosis, the hypomethylation of DNA have been detected in central nervous system white matter in comparison to healthy individuals. In systemic lupus erythematosus, the main targets of autoantibodies are hypomethylated apoptotic DNA and modified histones[71]. Several studies have confirmed the role of epigenetics in allergic conditions, and asthma is considered as one of the most complicated diseases in this category. Evidence suggests that both asthma and epigenetic mechanisms are heritable, and 36–79% of heritable, familial asthma cases have non-Mendelian inheritance pattern in more than 100 genes[72-75], which covers only a small portion of the disease etiology[73]. Interestingly, asthma and epigenetic modifications have been shown to be transferred from affected mother more than affected father in parental origin features[76], which can be a result of immune interactions between the fetus and the mother[77]. Utero exposures can affect asthma as well as epigenetic modifications, and both features can be influenced by environmental factors[78,79]. Classically, allergens are considered in relation to factors such as smoking behavior[79-81], and studies have confirmed that these agents can change epigenetic marks in asthma[82]. Neurodegenerative and psychological disorders The parental allele-specific gene expressions along imprinted domains are brought about by specialized sequence elements called ‘imprinting control regions’ (ICRs). ICRs are located just on one of the parental copies whose function is regulating gene expressions through an allele-specific manner. Although DNA methylation is the best investigated epigenetic alteration at ICRs, methylation and acetylation of histones in ICRs have also been reported[83]. For putting methylation imprints onto the ICRs, DNMT3A is essential. After fertilization, through somatic maintenance, the allelic methylation changes are conserved during development. This process is complicated due to its link to the cell cycle and requires the proportional functions of multi-enzymatic complexes that could be affected by intrinsic and extrinsic agents[84]. Other important methylation modifications have been recognized in genes involved in the development of Alzheimer’s disease and schizophrenia. Distinct reduction in DNA methylation has been identified[85] in Alu and other repetitive elements in the genome that are exclusively related to the early phase of life. Also, a role for epigenetic modifications has been confirmed in psychiatric diseases such as Rubinstein-Taybi syndrome and addiction, Huntington’s disease, and Fragile X syndrome. It is now widely accepted that for normal function and neurodevelopmental features of the brain, the constancy of DNA methylation and histone modifications is essential, and their dysregulation may result in disease phenotypes[86]. The significant role of epigenetics in brain development and disease is due to the following factors: 1) plasticity of epigenetics during all periods of brain development and aging as well as dynamic regulation in neurons, 2) disordered chromatin organization in both early childhood and adult neurodegenerative disorders, and 3) rapid increase in chromatin modifying drugs demonstrated to have unexpected therapeutic potential for degenerative and functional disorders of nervous system. These factors have attracted a vast interest in chromatin-associated mechanisms of neurological diseases, and a new field of study called ‘neuroepigenetics’[87] have been established. Numerous reports have pointed the association of DNA methylation with neurodegenerative diseases. Regulation of H3K4 methylation proteins are considered as an influencing factor in neuro-degenerative disease, and the inactivation of histone demethylase enzymes can result in different disorders such as autism, Rett syndrome, and X-linked mental retardation[88]. In Table 4, some mental and neurological disorders are listed alongside their epigenetic aberrations. Addiction The worldwide estimation of taking opioids (opium-like substances) is about 13.5 million people of which 9.2 million use heroin[89]. Family, twin, and adoption studies have presented a large amount of evidence that indicates genetic backgrounds have an important role in addiction disease. A Two- to four-fold difference in types of substance abuse disorders have been reported in monozygotic in comparison to dizygotic twins and also different genetic variations have been linked to the various types of substance dependency[90]. An interesting picture emerged from most of drug addiction genetic studies emphasizes the importance of environment factors besides genetic determinants. Epigenetic changes the responses to the needs of an organism in diverse environmental conditions through adaptive alterations. Epigenetic events and processes are usually used to incorporate the maintenance of neuroplastic changes, which are correlated with learning and memory[91]. Dysregulation of epigenetic machinery, as the results of substance exposures, can lead to drug-seeking behavior and relapse of substance dependence. For instance, neuronal activation can alter DNA methylation of the Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) promoter at cAMP response elements (CRE) binding sites inducing gene expressions[92]. The crucial role of BDNF was bolded in neural and behavioral plasticity in chronic opiate exposure through a steady down-regulation of exon-specific Bdnf expression in the ventral tegmental area. Special epigenetic changes, such as histone modifications, have been reported to mediate Bdnf gene activities in chronic morphine exposure[93,94]. Other observations in rats during forced abstinence from morphine have shown a significant H3 acetylation increase in the BDNF promoter II and histone H3 methylation changes in ventral tegmental area[95]. Other studies have demonstrated that the prolonged drug exposure leads to widespread transcriptional changes of genes with diverse cellular functions. This type of change is different from the changes observed in the early stages of drug-induced neural adaptive processes accompanied with specific changes in early response genes and signal transduction pathways[96]. Altogether, studies have indicated that the etiology of initiation, continuation, and relapse of substance dependence will be better understood considering epigenetic factors, which regulate multiple interacting neural signaling pathways that create enormous diversity in the continually developing brain[97,98]. In this review, we presented and discussed the results of many studies demonstrating that epigenetic mechanisms regulate gene expressions in different models and at various levels. The importance of epigenetics in different human disorders have attracted many interests in the last decade, especially in complicated disorders such as behavior plasticity, memory, cancer, autoimmune disease, addiction as well as neurodegenerative and psychological disorders. It is becoming moreclear why many therapeutic approaches have failed in the past. It is hoped that by understanding epigenetic mechanisms involved in neurological and psychological disorders, more effective therapies would soon become available. Because of great potential, academia and industry have shown great enthusiasm to develop new epigenetic therapies. Drug development based on epigenetics is difficult and expensive like other novel drug targets. However, reversible nature of epigenetic modifications has made therapeutic applications a possible alternative approach in the near future. DNA methylation inhibitors act against various cancers and also psychiatric diseases such as schizophrenia and bipolar disorders. For example, azacytidine and decitabine, as DNMT inhibitors, modulate epigenetic effects while toxicity and limited chemical stability of these drugs restrict their use in cancer therapy. In addition, histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitors are used in cancer therapy, cardiac hypertrophy, and heart failure and have been indicated to possess neuroprotective effects on cellular and animal models of Parkinson’s disease. In oncology, RNAi plays an important role as a target of epigenetic drugs. For instance, in human CRC, the upregulation of miRNA-135b is common, while in cervical cancer, miR-21, miR-126, and miR-143 are commonly upregulated[99]. Recent new data and knowledge relating to the importance of epigenetics in different human disorders promise a vibrant future for epigenetics research. The new research will integrate high-throughput sequencing technologies and the sophisticated algorithms to analyze the large amount of data produced by sequenced epigenomes. The epigenomic data will provide a chance to discover new epigenetic marks and their functions in different types of tissues, early development, and disease states. The association of epigenetic marks with specific diseases can help the development of tools to diagnose patients and measure the severity of a disease. Although there are issues with specificity and efficacy of many drugs being tested in animal models, further research on the epigenetic mechanisms will surely help the development of better therapeutic pathways and agents in the near future. 6. Choudhuri S. From Waddington’s epigenetic landscape to small noncoding RNA: some important milestones in the history of epigenetics research. Toxicology mechanisms and methods. 2011;21(4):252–274. [PubMed] [Google Scholar]

These functional mechanisms are involved in genome reorganization, early embryogenesis and gametogenesis, as well as cell differentiation. The interplay of DNA methylation and histone post-translational alterations, which cause as the result of regulatory proteins and non-coding RNAs, are key epigenetic players to rearrange chromatin into areas such as euchromatin, heterochromatin, and nuclear compartmentalization. Epigenetic signs may have long-term impressions, for instance, in learning and organizing memory or predispositions to different cancers. Incorrect epigenetic marks can result in birth defects, childhood diseases, or symptoms of diseases in other interims of life. Epigenetic mechanisms also regulate development and adaptations during the life of an organism, and their alterations may result in various disorders such as cancer. On the other hand, some epigenetic marks can be reversible, and this fact has encouraged many researchers to focus on epigenetic therapy[7]. In recent years, it has been demonstrated that DNA methylation, in some cases, can be irreversible[7-9]. This trait could be useful in complex features and challenging diseases such as memory function, psychological behaviors and injuries, addiction, cancer, and other diseases that could not be explained just by genetic factors or the environment. Epigenetic modifications In a multicellular organism, the epigenetic changes enable different adult cells to express specific genes that are required for the existence of each cell type and transfer of information to the daughter cells. Epigenetic modifications often happen during an organism’s lifetime; however, these changes can be transferred to the next generation if they occur in germ cells[10].

yes

Genomics

Are epigenetic changes hereditary?

yes_statement

"epigenetic" "changes" are "hereditary".. "hereditary" traits can be influenced by "epigenetic" "changes".

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Transgenerational_epigenetic_inheritance

Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance - Wikipedia

Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance is the transmission of epigenetic markers and modifications from one generation to multiple subsequent generations without altering the primary structure of DNA.[1] Thus, the regulation of genes via epigenetic mechanisms can be heritable; the amount of transcripts and proteins produced can be altered by inherited epigenetic changes. In order for epigenetic marks to be heritable, however, they must occur in the gametes in animals, but since plants lack a definitive germline and can propagate, epigenetic marks in any tissue can be heritable. It is important to note that the inheritance of epigenetic marks in the immediate generation is referred to as intergenerational inheritance.[2] In male mice, the epigenetic signal is maintained through the F1 generation.[3] In female mice, the epigenetic signal is maintained through the F2 generation as a result of the exposure of the germline in the womb.[3] Many epigenetic signals are lost beyond the F2/F3 generation and are no longer inherited, because the subsequent generations were not exposed to the same environment as the parental generations.[2] The signals that are maintained beyond the F2/F3 generation are referred to as transgenerational epigenetic inheritance (TEI), because initial environmental stimuli resulted in inheritance of epigenetic modifications.[4] There are several mechanisms of TEI that have shown to affect germline reprogramming, such as transgenerational increases in susceptibility to diseases, mutations, and stress inheritance. During germline reprogramming and early embryogenesis in mice, methylation marks are removed to allow for development to commence, but the methylation mark is converted into hydroxymethyl-cytosine so that it is recognized and methylated once that area of the genome is no longer being used,[5] which serves as a memory for that TEI mark. Therefore, under lab conditions, inherited methyl marks are removed and restored to ensure TEI still occurs. However, observing TEI in wild populations is still in its infancy, as laboratory studies allow for more tractable systems.[6] Environmental factors can induce the epigenetic marks (epigenetic tags) for some epigenetically influenced traits.[1] These can include, but are not limited to, changes in temperature, resources availability, exposure to pollutants, chemicals, and endocrine disruptors.[7] The dosage and exposure levels can affect the extent of the environmental factors' influence over the epigenome and its effect on later generations. The epigenetic marks can result in a wide range of effects, including minor phenotypic changes to complex diseases and disorders.[7] The complex cell signaling pathways of multicellular organisms such as plants and humans can make understanding the mechanisms of this inherited process very difficult.[8] The heritability of these epigenetic marks has increased the controversial idea that modern biology should no longer reject the inheritance of acquired characteristics (Lamarckism) as strongly as it once did.[2] Rather, there is an interplay between natural selection (Darwinism) and changes accrued during an organism's lifetime that are passed down to progeny (Lamarckism). Structural templating: structures are replicated using a template or scaffold structure of the parent. This can include, but is not limited to, the orientation and architecture of cytoskeletal structures, cilia and flagella. Ciliates provide a good example of this type of modification. In an experiment Beisson and Sonneborn in 1985, it was demonstrated in Paramecium that if a section of cilia was removed and inverted, then the progeny of that Paramecium would also display the modified cilia structure for several generations.[9] Another example is seen in prions, special proteins that are capable of changing the structure of normal proteins to match their own. The prions use themselves as a template and then edit the folding of normal proteins to match their own folding pattern. The changes in the protein folding results in an alteration in the normal protein's function. This transmission of programming can also alter the chromatin and histone of the DNA and can be passed through the cytosol from parent to offspring during meiosis.[9] Histone modifications in which the structure of chromatin and its transcriptional state is regulated. DNA is wrapped into a DNA-protein complex called chromatin in the nucleus of eukaryotic cells.[10] Chromatin consists of DNA and nucleosomes that comes together to form a histone octamer.[11] The N- and C- terminal of the histone proteins are post-translationally modified by the removal or addition of acetyl (acetylation), phosphate (phosphorylation), methyl (methylation), ubiquitin (ubiquitination), and ubiquitin-like modifier (SUMOylating) groups.[10] Histone modifications can be transgenerational epigenetic signals. For example, histone H3K4 trimethylation (H34me3) and a network of lipid metabolic genes interact to increase the transcription response to TEI obesogenic effects.[12] TEI can also be observed in Drosophila embryos through the exposure of heat stress over generations.[3] The induced heat stress resulted in the phosphorylation of ATF-2 (dATF-2) which is required for heterochromatin assembly.[13] This epigenetic event was maintained over multiple generations, but over time dATF-2 returned back to its normal state.[13] Non-coding and coding RNAs in which various classes of RNA is implicated in TEI through maternal stores of mRNA, translation of mRNA (miRNA), and small RNA strands interfering with transcription (piRNAs and siRNAs) via RNA interference pathways (RNAi).[2] There has been an increase in studies reporting noncoding RNA contributions to TEI. For example, altered miRNA in early trauma mice.[14] Early trauma mice with unpredictable maternal separation and maternal stress (MSUS) were used as a model to identify the effects of altered miRNA in sperm.[15] In MSUS mice, behavior responses were affected, insulin levels, and blood glucose levels were decreased.[15] Notably, these effects were more severe across the F2 and F3 generation. The expression of miRNA in MSUS mice was down regulated in the brain, serum, and sperm of the F1 generation.[15] However, the miRNA was not altered in the sperm of the F2 generation, and the miRNAs were normal in the F3 generation.[15] This provides supportive evidence that the initial alterations in miRNAs in sperm are transferred to epigenetic marks to maintain transmission.[16] In C.elegans, starvation is induced in which survival is dependent on the mechanisms of the RNAi pathway, repression of microRNAs, and regulation of small RNAs.[17] Thus, memorization of dietary history is inherited across generations.[17] Although there are various forms of inheriting epigenetic markers, inheritance of epigenetic markers can be summarized as the dissemination of epigenetic information by means of the germline.[18] Furthermore, epigenetic variation typically takes one of four general forms, though there are other forms that have yet to be elucidated. Currently, self-sustaining feedback loops, spatial templating, chromatin marking, and RNA-mediated pathways modify epigenes of individual cells. Epigenetic variation within multicellular organisms is either endogenous or exogenous.[19] Endogenous is generated by cell–cell signaling (e.g. during cell differentiation early in development), while exogenous is a cellular response to environmental cues.[citation needed] In sexually reproducing organisms, much of the epigenetic modification within cells is reset during meiosis (e.g. marks at the FLC locus controlling plant vernalization[20]), though some epigenetic responses have been shown to be conserved (e.g. transposon methylation in plants[20]). Differential inheritance of epigenetic marks due to underlying maternal or paternal biases in removal or retention mechanisms may lead to the assignment of epigenetic causation to some parent of origin effects in animals[21] and plants.[22] In mammals, epigenetic marks are erased during two phases of the life cycle. Firstly just after fertilization and secondly, in the developing primordial germ cells, the precursors to future gametes.[23] During fertilization the male and female gametes join in different cell cycle states and with different configuration of the genome. The epigenetic marks of the male are rapidly diluted. First, the protamines associated with male DNA are replaced with histones from the female's cytoplasm, most of which are acetylated due to either higher abundance of acetylated histones in the female's cytoplasm or through preferential binding of the male DNA to acetylated histones.[24][25] Second, male DNA is systematically demethylated in many organisms,[26][27] possibly through 5-hydroxymethylcytosine. However, some epigenetic marks, particularly maternal DNA methylation, can escape this reprogramming; leading to parental imprinting. In the primordial germ cells (PGC) there is a more extensive erasure of epigenetic information. However, some rare sites can also evade erasure of DNA methylation.[28] If epigenetic marks evade erasure during both zygotic and PGC reprogramming events, this could enable transgenerational epigenetic inheritance.[citation needed] Recognition of the importance of epigenetic programming to the establishment and fixation of cell line identity during early embryogenesis has recently stimulated interest in artificial removal of epigenetic programming.[29] Epigenetic manipulations may allow for restoration of totipotency in stem cells or cells more generally, thus generalizing regenerative medicine. Cellular mechanisms may allow for co-transmission of some epigenetic marks. During replication, DNA polymerases working on the leading and lagging strands are coupled by the DNA processivity factor proliferating cell nuclear antigen (PCNA), which has also been implicated in patterning and strand crosstalk that allows for copy fidelity of epigenetic marks.[30][31] Work on histone modification copy fidelity has remained in the model phase, but early efforts suggest that modifications of new histones are patterned on those of the old histones and that new and old histones randomly assort between the two daughter DNA strands.[32] With respect to transfer to the next generation, many marks are removed as described above. Emerging studies are finding patterns of epigenetic conservation across generations. For instance, centromeric satellites resist demethylation.[33] The mechanism responsible for this conservation is not known, though some evidence suggests that methylation of histones may contribute.[33][34] Dysregulation of the promoter methylation timing associated with gene expression dysregulation in the embryo was also identified.[35] Whereas the mutation rate in a given 100-base gene may be 10−7 per generation, epigenes may "mutate" several times per generation or may be fixed for many generations.[36] This raises the question: do changes in epigene frequencies constitute evolution? Rapidly decaying epigenetic effects on phenotypes (i.e. lasting less than three generations) may explain some of the residual variation in phenotypes after genotype and environment are accounted for. However, distinguishing these short-term effects from the effects of the maternal environment on early ontogeny remains a challenge.[citation needed] The relative importance of genetic and epigenetic inheritance is subject to debate. Though hundreds of examples of epigenetic modification of phenotypes have been published, few studies have been conducted outside of the laboratory setting. Therefore, the interactions of genes with the environment cannot be inferred despite the central role of environment in natural selection. Multiple epigenetic factors can influence the state of genes and alter the epigenetic state. Due to the multivariate nature of environmental factors, it is difficult for researchers to pinpoint the exact cause of epigenetic changes outside of a laboratory setting.[37] Studies concerning transgenerational epigenetic inheritance in plants have been reported as early as the 1950s.[38] One of the earliest and best characterized examples of this is b1 paramutation in maize.[38][39][40][41][42][43][44][45] The b1 gene encodes a basic helix-loop-helixtranscription factor that is involved in the anthocyanin production pathway. When the b1 gene is expressed, the plant accumulates anthocyanin within its tissues, leading to a purple coloration of those tissues. The B-I allele (for B-Intense) has high expression of b1 resulting in the dark pigmentation of the sheath and husk tissues while the B' (pronounced B-prime) allele has low expression of b1 resulting in low pigmentation in those tissues.[46] When homozygous B-I parents are crossed to homozygous B', the resultant F1 offspring all display low pigmentation which is due to gene silencing of b1.[38][46] Unexpectedly, when F1 plants are self-crossed, the resultant F2 generation all display low pigmentation and have low levels of b1 expression. Furthermore, when any F2 plant (including those that are genetically homozygous for B-I) are crossed to homozygous B-I, the offspring will all display low pigmentation and expression of b1.[38][46] The lack of darkly pigmented individuals in the F2 progeny is an example of non-Mendelian inheritance and further research has suggested that the B-I allele is converted to B' via epigenetic mechanisms.[40][41] The B' and B-I alleles are considered to be epialleles because they are identical at the DNA sequence level but differ in the level of DNA methylation, siRNA production, and chromosomal interactions within the nucleus.[44][47][43][42] Additionally, plants defective in components of the RNA-directed DNA-methylation pathway show an increased expression of b1 in B' individuals similar to that of B-I, however, once these components are restored, the plant reverts to the low expression state.[45][48][49][50] Although spontaneous conversion from B-I to B' has been observed, a reversion from B' to B-I (green to purple) has never been observed over 50 years and thousands of plants in both greenhouse and field experiments.[51] Examples of environmentally induced transgenerational epigenetic inheritance in plants has also been reported. In one case, rice plants that were exposed to drought-simulation treatments displayed increased tolerance to drought after 11 generations of exposure and propagation by single-seed descent as compared to non-drought treated plants. Differences in drought tolerance was linked to directional changes in DNA-methylation levels throughout the genome, suggesting that stress-induced heritable changes in DNA-methylation patterns may be important in adaptation to recurring stresses. In another study, plants that were exposed to moderate caterpillar herbivory over multiple generations displayed increased resistance to herbivory in subsequent generations (as measured by caterpillar dry mass) compared to plants lacking herbivore pressure. This increase in herbivore resistance persisted after a generation of growth without any herbivore exposure suggesting that the response was transmitted across generations. The report concluded that components of the RNA-directed DNA-methylation pathway are involved in the increased resistance across generations. Transgenerational epigenetic inheritance has also been observed in polyploid plants. Genetically identical reciprocal F1 hybrid triploids have been shown to display transgenerational epigenetic effects on viable F2 seed development. It has been demonstrated in wild radish plants (Raphanus raphanistrum) that TEI can be induced when the plants are exposed to predators such as Pieris rapae, the cabbage white caterpillar. The radish plants will increase production of bristly leaf hairs and toxic mustard oil in response to caterpillar predation. The increased levels will also be seen in the next generation. Decreased levels of predation also results in decreased leaf hairs and toxins produced in the current and subsequent generations.[52] It is difficult to trace TEI in animals due to the reprogramming of genes during meiosis and embryogenesis, especially in wild populations that are not reared in a lab setting. Further studies must be conducted to strengthen the documentation of TEI in animals. However, a few examples do exist. Induced transgenerational epigenetic inheritance has been demonstrated in animals, such as Daphnia cucullata. These tiny crustaceans will develop protective helmets as juveniles if exposed to kairomones, a type of hormone, secreted by predators while they are in utero. The helmet acts as a method of defense by decreasing the ability of predators to capture the Daphnia, thus induction of helmet presence will lower mortality rates. D. cucullata will develop a small helmet if no kairomones are present. However, depending upon the level of predator kairomones, the length of the helmet will almost double. The next generation of Daphnia will display a similar helmet size. If the kairomone levels decrease or disappear, then the third generation will revert to the original helmet size. These organisms display adaptive phenotypes that will affect the phenotype in the subsequent generations.[53] Genetic analysis of coral reef fish, Acanthochromis polyacanthus, has proposed TEI in response to climate change. As climate change occurs, the ocean water temperature increases. When A. polyacanthus is exposed to higher water temperatures of up to +3 °C from normal ocean temperatures, the fish express increased DNA methylation levels on 193 genes, resulting in phenotypic changes in the function of oxygen consumption, metabolism, insulin response, energy production, and angiogenesis. The increase in DNA methylation and its phenotypic affects were carried over to multiple subsequent generations.[54] Possible TEI has been studied in guinea pigs (Cavia aperea) by exposing males to increased ambient temperature for two months. In the lab, the males were allowed to mate with the same female before and after the heat exposure to determine if the high temperatures affected the offspring. Since it serves as a thermoregulatory organ, samples of the liver were studied in the father guinea pigs (F0 generation) and liver and testes of the male offspring (F1 generation). The F0 males experienced an immediate epigenetic response to the increase in temperature; the levels of hormones in the liver responsible for thermoregulation increased. The F1 generation also displayed the different methylated epigenetic response in their liver and testes, indicating that they could potentially pass on the epigenetic marks to the F2 generation.[55] Although genetic inheritance is important when describing phenotypic outcomes, it cannot entirely explain why offspring resemble their parents. Aside from genes, offspring come to inherit similar environmental conditions established by previous generations. One environment that human offspring commonly share with their maternal parent for nine months is the womb. Considering the duration of the fetal stages of development, the environment of the mother's womb can have long lasting effects on the health of offspring. An example of how the environment within the womb can affect the health of an offspring is the Dutch hunger winter of 1944-45 and its causal effect on induced transgenerational epigenetic inherited diseases. During the Dutch hunger winter, the offspring exposed to famine conditions during the third trimester of development were smaller than those born the year before the famine. Moreover, the offspring born during the famine and their subsequent offspring were found to have an increased risk of metabolic diseases, cardiovascular diseases, glucose intolerance, diabetes, and obesity in adulthood. The effects of this famine on development lasted up to two generations.[8][56] The increased risk factors to the health of F1 and F2 generations during the Dutch hunger winter is a known phenomenon called “fetal programming,” which is caused by exposure to harmful environmental factors in utero.[56] The loss of genetic expression which results in Prader–Willi syndrome or Angelman syndrome has in some cases been found to be caused by epigenetic changes (or "epimutations") on both the alleles, rather than involving any genetic mutation. In all 19 informative cases, the epimutations that, together with physiological imprinting and therefore silencing of the other allele, were causing these syndromes were localized on a chromosome with a specific parental and grandparental origin. Specifically, the paternally derived chromosome carried an abnormal maternal mark at the SNURF-SNRPN, and this abnormal mark was inherited from the paternal grandmother.[57] Several cancers have been found to be influenced by transgenerational epigenetics. Epimutations on the MLH1 gene has been found in two individuals with a phenotype of hereditary nonpolyposis colorectal cancer, and without any frank MLH1 mutation which otherwise causes the disease. The same epimutations were also found on the spermatozoa of one of the individuals, indicating the potential to be transmitted to offspring.[57] In addition to epimutations to the MLH1 gene, it has been determined that certain cancers, such as breast cancer, can originate during the fetal stages within the uterus.[58] Furthermore, evidence collected in various studies utilizing model systems (i.e. animals) have found that exposure during parental generations can result in multigenerational and transgenerational inheritance of breast cancer.[58] More recently, studies have discovered a connection between the adaptation of male germinal cells via pre-conceptionpaternal diets and the regulation of breast cancer in developing offspring.[58] More specifically, studies have begun to uncover new data that underscores a relationship between transgenerational epigenetic inheritance of breast cancer and ancestral alimentary components or associated markers, such as birth weight.[58] By utilizing model systems, such as mice, studies have shown that stimulated paternal obesity at the time of conception can epigenetically alter the paternal germ-line. The paternal germ-line is responsible for regulating their daughters’ weight at birth and the potential for their daughter to develop breast cancer.[59] Furthermore, it was found that modifications to the miRNAexpression profile of the male germline is coupled with elevated body weight.[59] Additionally, paternal obesity resulted in an increase in the percentage of female offspring developing carcinogen-induced mammary tumors, which is caused by changes to mammary miRNA expression.[59] Aside from cancer related afflictions associated with the effects of transgenerational epigenetic inheritance, transgenerational epigenetic inheritance has recently been implicated in the progression of pulmonary arterial hypertension (PAH).[60] Recent studies have found that transgenerational epigenetic inheritance is likely to be involved in the progression of PAH because current therapies for PAH do not repair the irregular phenotypes associated with this disease.[60] Current treatments for PAH have attempted to correct symptoms of PAH with vasodilators and antithrombotic protectors, but neither has effectively alleviated the complications related to the impaired phenotypes associated with PAH.[60] The inability of vasodilators and antithrombotic protectants to correct PAH suggests that the progression of PAH is dependent upon multiple variables, which is likely to be consequent of transgenerational epigenetic inheritance.[60] Specifically, it is thought that transgenerational epigenetics is linked to the phenotypic changes associated with vascular remodeling.[60] For example, hypoxia during gestation may induce transgenerational epigenetic alterations that could prove to be detrimental during the early phases of fetal development and increase the possibility of developing PAH as an adult.[60] Though hypoxic states could induce the transgenerational epigenetic variance associated with PAH, there is strong evidence to support that a variety of maternal risk factors are linked to the eventual progression of PAH.[60] Such maternal risk factors linked to late-onset PAH includes placental dysfunction, hypertension, obesity, and preeclampsia.[60] These maternal risk factors and environmental stressors coupled with transgenerational epigenetic changes can result in prolonged insult to the signaling pathways associated with the vascular development during fetal stages, thus increasing the likelihood of having PAH.[60] One study has shown childhood abuse, which is defined as "sexual contact, severe physical abuse and/or severe neglect," leads to epigenetic modifications of glucocorticoid receptor expression.[61][62] Glucocorticoid receptor expression plays a vital role in hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) activity. Additionally, animal experiments have shown that epigenetic changes can depend on mother-infant interactions after birth.[63] Furthermore, a recent study investigating the correlations between maternal stress in pregnancy and methylation in teenagers/their mothers has found that children of women who were abused during pregnancy were more likely to have methylated glucocorticoid-receptor genes.[64] Thus, children with methylated glucocorticoid-receptor genes experience an altered response to stress, ultimately leading to a higher susceptibility of experiencing anxiety.[64] Epigenetic inheritance may only affect fitness if it predictably alters a trait under selection. Evidence has been forwarded that environmental stimuli are important agents in the alteration of epigenes. Ironically, Darwinian evolution may act on these neo-Lamarckian acquired characteristics as well as the cellular mechanisms producing them (e.g. methyltransferase genes). Epigenetic inheritance may confer a fitness benefit to organisms that deal with environmental changes at intermediate timescales.[66] Short-cycling changes are likely to have DNA-encoded regulatory processes, as the probability of the offspring needing to respond to changes multiple times during their lifespans is high. On the other end, natural selection will act on populations experiencing changes on longer-cycling environmental changes. In these cases, if epigenetic priming of the next generation is deleterious to fitness over most of the interval (e.g. misinformation about the environment), these genotypes and epigenotypes will be lost. For intermediate time cycles, the probability of the offspring encountering a similar environment is sufficiently high without substantial selective pressure on individuals lacking a genetic architecture capable of responding to the environment. Naturally, the absolute lengths of short, intermediate, and long environmental cycles will depend on the trait, the length of epigenetic memory, and the generation time of the organism. Much of the interpretation of epigenetic fitness effects centers on the hypothesis that epigenes are important contributors to phenotypes, which remains to be resolved. Inherited epigenetic marks may be important for regulating important components of fitness. In plants, for instance, the Lcyc gene in Linaria vulgaris controls the symmetry of the flower. Linnaeus first described radially symmetric mutants, which arise when Lcyc is heavily methylated.[67] Given the importance of floral shape to pollinators,[68] methylation of Lcyc homologues (e.g. CYCLOIDEA) may have deleterious effects on plant fitness. In animals, numerous studies have shown that inherited epigenetic marks can increase susceptibility to disease. Transgenerational epigenetic influences are also suggested to contribute to disease, especially cancer, in humans.[69] Tumor methylation patterns in gene promoters have been shown to correlate positively with familial history of cancer.[70] Furthermore, methylation of the MSH2 gene is correlated with early-onset colorectal and endometrial cancers.[71] Epigenetics play a crucial role in regulation and development of the immune system.[76] In 2021, evidence of inheritance of trained immunity across generations to progeny of mice with a systemic infection of Candida albicans was provided.[77] The progeny of mice survived the Candida albicans infection via functional, transcriptional, and epigenetic changes linked to the immune gene loci.[77] The responsiveness of myeloid cells to the Candida albicans infection increased in inflammatory pathways, and resistance was increased to infections in the next generations.[77] Immunity in vertebrates can also be transferred from maternal through the passing of hormones, nutrients and antibodies.[78] In mammals, the maternal factors can be transferred via lactation or the placenta.[78] The transgenerational transmission of immune-related traits are also described in plants and invertebrates. Plants have a defense priming system which enables them to have an alternate defense response that can be accelerated upon exposure to stress actions or pathogens.[79] After the event of priming, priming stress clue information is stored, and the memory may be inherited in the offspring (intergenerational or transgenerational).[79] In studies, the progeny of Pseudomonas syringae infected Arabidopsis were primed during the expression of systemic acquired resistance (SAR).[80] The progeny showed to have resistance against (hemi)-biotrophic pathogens which is associated with salicylic dependent genes and the defense regulatory gene, non expressor of PR genes (NPR1).[80] Transgenerational SAR in the progeny was associated with increased acetylation of histone 3 at lysine 9, hypomethylation of genes, and chromatin marks on promoter regions of salicylic dependent genes.[80] Similarly in insects, the red flour beetle Trifolium castoreum is primed through the exposure of the pathogen Bacillus thuringiensis.[78] Double-mating experiments with the red flour beetle demonstrated that paternal transgenerational immune priming is mediated by sperm or seminal fluid which enhances survival upon exposure to pathogens and contribute to epigenetic changes.[78] Positive and negative feedback loops are commonly observed in molecular mechanisms and regulation of homeostatic processes. There is evidence that feedback loops interact to maintain epigenetic modifications within one generation, as well as contributing to TEI in various organisms, and these feedback loops can showcase putative adaptations to environmental perturbances. Feedback loops are truly a repercussion of any epigenetic modification, since it results in changes in expression. Even more so, the feedback loops seen across multiple generations because of TEI showcases a spatio-temporal dynamic that is associated with TEI alone. For example, elevated temperatures during embryogenesis and PIWI RNA (piRNA) establishment are directly proportional, providing a heritable outcome for repressing transposable elements via piRNA clusters.[81] Furthermore, subsequent generations retain an active locus to continue establishing piRNA, which its formation was previously enigmatic.[81] In another case, it was suggested that endocrine disruption had a feedback loop interaction with methylation of varying genomic sites in Menidia beryllina, which may have been a function of TEI.[82] When exposure was removed, and M. beryllina F2 offspring still retained these methylation marks, which caused a negative feedback loop on expression of various genes.[82] In another example, hybridization of eels can lead to feedback loops contributing to transposon demethylation and transposable element activation.[83] Because TE's are typically silenced in the genome, their presence and potential expression creates a feedback loop to prevent hybrids from reproducing with other hybrids or non-hybrid species, which eliminates the proliferation of TE expression and prevents TEI in this context. This phenomenon is known as a form of post-zygotic reproductive isolation. Inherited epigenetic effects on phenotypes have been well documented in bacteria, protists, fungi, plants, nematodes, and fruit flies.[84][18] Though no systematic study of epigenetic inheritance has been conducted (most focus on model organisms), there is preliminary evidence that this mode of inheritance is more important in plants than in animals.[84] The early differentiation of animal germlines is likely to preclude epigenetic marking occurring later in development, while in plants and fungi somatic cells may be incorporated into the germ line.[85][86] It is thought that transgenerational epigenetic inheritance can enable certain populations to readily adapt to variable environments.[18] Though there are well documented cases of transgenerational epigenetic inheritance in certain populations, there are questions to whether this same form of adaptability is applicable to mammals.[18] More specifically, it is questioned if it applies to humans.[18] As of late, most of the experimental models utilizing mice and limited observations in humans have only found epigenetically inherited traits that are detrimental to the health of both organisms.[18] These harmful traits range from increased risk of disease, such as cardiovascular disease, to premature death.[18] However, this may be based on the premise of limited reporting bias because it is easier to detect negative experimental effects, opposed to positive experimental effects.[18] Furthermore, considerable epigenetic reprogramming necessary for the evolutionary success of germlines and the initial phases of embryogenesis in mammals may be the potential cause limiting transgenerational inheritance of chromatin marks in mammals.[18] Life history patterns may also contribute to the occurrence of epigenetic inheritance. Sessile organisms, those with low dispersal capability, and those with simple behavior may benefit most from conveying information to their offspring via epigenetic pathways. Geographic patterns may also emerge, where highly variable and highly conserved environments might host fewer species with important epigenetic inheritance.[citation needed] Humans have long recognized that traits of the parents are often seen in offspring. This insight led to the practical application of selective breeding of plants and animals, but did not address the central question of inheritance: how are these traits conserved between generations, and what causes variation? Several positions have been held in the history of evolutionary thought. Addressing these related questions, scientists during the time of the Enlightenment largely argued for the blending hypothesis, in which parental traits were homogenized in the offspring much like buckets of different colored paint being mixed together.[87] Critics of Charles Darwin's On the Origin of Species, pointed out that under this scheme of inheritance, variation would quickly be swamped by the majority phenotype.[88] In the paint bucket analogy, this would be seen by mixing two colors together and then mixing the resulting color with only one of the parent colors 20 times; the rare variant color would quickly fade. Unknown to most of the European scientific community, the monk Gregor Mendel had resolved the question of how traits are conserved between generations through breeding experiments with pea plants.[89]Charles Darwin thus did not know of Mendel's proposed "particulate inheritance" in which traits were not blended but passed to offspring in discrete units that we now call genes. Darwin came to reject the blending hypothesis even though his ideas and Mendel's were not unified until the 1930s, a period referred to as the modern synthesis. In his 1809 book, Philosophie Zoologique,[90]Jean-Baptiste Lamarck recognized that each species experiences a unique set of challenges due to its form and environment. Thus, he proposed that the characters used most often would accumulate a "nervous fluid." Such acquired accumulations would then be transmitted to the individual's offspring. In modern terms, a nervous fluid transmitted to offspring would be a form of epigenetic inheritance. Lamarckism, as this body of thought became known, was the standard explanation for change in species over time when Charles Darwin and Alfred Russel Wallace co-proposed a theory of evolution by natural selection in 1859. Responding to Darwin and Wallace's theory, a revised neo-Lamarckism attracted a small following of biologists,[91] though the Lamarckian zeal was quenched in large part due to Weismann's[92] famous experiment in which he cut off the tails of mice over several successive generations without having any effect on tail length. Thus the emergent consensus that acquired characteristics could not be inherited became canon.[23] Non-genetic variation and inheritance, however, proved to be quite common. Concurrent with the 20th-century development of the modern evolutionary synthesis (unifying Mendelian genetics and natural selection), C. H. Waddington (1905-1975) was working to unify developmental biology and genetics. In so doing, he adopted the word "epigenetic"[93] to represent the ordered differentiation of embryonic cells into functionally distinct cell types despite having identical primary structure of their DNA.[94] Researchers discussed Waddington's epigenetics sporadically - it became more of a catch-all for puzzling non-genetic heritable characters rather than a concept advancing the body of inquiry.[95][96] Consequently, the definition of Waddington's word has itself evolved, broadening beyond the subset of developmentally signaled, inherited cell specialization. Some scientists have questioned whether epigenetic inheritance compromises the foundation of the modern synthesis. Outlining the central dogma of molecular biology, Francis Crick[97] succinctly stated, "DNA is held in a configuration by histone[s] so that it can act as a passive template for the simultaneous synthesis of RNA and protein[s]. None of the detailed 'information' is in the histone." However, he closes the article stating, "this scheme explains the majority of the present experimental results!" Indeed, the emergence of epigenetic inheritance (in addition to advances in the study of evolutionary-development, phenotypic plasticity, evolvability, and systems biology) has strained the current framework of the modern evolutionary synthesis, and prompted the re-examination of previously dismissed evolutionary mechanisms.[98] Furthermore, patterns in epigenetic inheritance and the evolutionary implications of the epigenetic codes in living organisms are connected to both Lamarck's and Darwin's theories of evolution.[99] For example, Lamarck postulated that environmental factors were responsible for modifying phenotypes hereditarily, which supports the constructs that exposure to environmental factors during critical stages of development can result in epimutations in germlines, thus augmenting phenotypic variance.[99] In contrast, Darwin's theory claimed that natural selection strengthened a populations ability to survive and remain reproductively fit by favoring populations that are able to readily adapt.[99] This theory is consistent with intergenerational plasticity and phenotypic variance resulting from heritable adaptivity.[99] In addition, some epigenetic variability may provide beneficial plasticity, so that certain organisms can adapt to fluctuating environmental conditions. However, the exchange of epigenetic information between generations can result in epigenetic aberrations, which are epigenetic traits that deviate from the norm. Therefore, the offspring of the parental generations may be predisposed to specific diseases and reduced plasticity due to epigenetic aberrations. Though the ability to readily adapt when faced with a new environment may be beneficial to certain populations of species that can quickly reproduce, species with long generational gaps may not benefit from such an ability. If a species with a longer generational gap does not appropriately adapt to the anticipated environment, then the reproductive fitness of the offspring of that species will be diminished. ^Waddington CH (2016) [1939]. "Development as an Epigenetic Process". Introduction to Modern Genetics. London: Allen and Unwin. ISBN9781317352037. One of the classical controversies in embryology was that between the preformationists and the epigenisists[sic]. [...] the interaction of these constituents gives rise to new types of tissue and organ which were not present originally, and in so far development must be considered as 'epigenetic.'

expression.[61][62] Glucocorticoid receptor expression plays a vital role in hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) activity. Additionally, animal experiments have shown that epigenetic changes can depend on mother-infant interactions after birth.[63] Furthermore, a recent study investigating the correlations between maternal stress in pregnancy and methylation in teenagers/their mothers has found that children of women who were abused during pregnancy were more likely to have methylated glucocorticoid-receptor genes.[64] Thus, children with methylated glucocorticoid-receptor genes experience an altered response to stress, ultimately leading to a higher susceptibility of experiencing anxiety.[64] Epigenetic inheritance may only affect fitness if it predictably alters a trait under selection. Evidence has been forwarded that environmental stimuli are important agents in the alteration of epigenes. Ironically, Darwinian evolution may act on these neo-Lamarckian acquired characteristics as well as the cellular mechanisms producing them (e.g. methyltransferase genes). Epigenetic inheritance may confer a fitness benefit to organisms that deal with environmental changes at intermediate timescales.[66] Short-cycling changes are likely to have DNA-encoded regulatory processes, as the probability of the offspring needing to respond to changes multiple times during their lifespans is high. On the other end, natural selection will act on populations experiencing changes on longer-cycling environmental changes. In these cases, if epigenetic priming of the next generation is deleterious to fitness over most of the interval (e.g. misinformation about the environment), these genotypes and epigenotypes will be lost.

yes

Genomics

Are epigenetic changes hereditary?

yes_statement

"epigenetic" "changes" are "hereditary".. "hereditary" traits can be influenced by "epigenetic" "changes".

https://www.theatlantic.com/health/archive/2013/12/anxiety-about-certain-things-can-be-hereditary/282383/

Anxiety About Certain Things Can Be Hereditary - The Atlantic

Anxiety About Certain Things Can Be Hereditary We all know our parents have a big impact on our lives, but new evidence is emerging that our parents’ behaviors before we are born may have a bigger influence on us than we previously imagined. Epigenetic research is a hot-button topic at the moment, generating a lot of attention in both scientific studies and the media. Epigenetics is the ability of genes to be influenced by our experiences, altering our genetic make-up in real time. By changing the chemical signals that course through your brain and body, you can actually turn genes on or off, a process that can then influence your future actions. Thus, in some ways, epigenetics can be thought of as the bridge between nature and nurture—your behavior and environment affecting your biology, and vice versa. Three generations of mice were affected by the conditioning, even though only one of them had experienced it. For example, smoking cigarettes when you’re young can prime your brain to find other addictive substances, like cocaine, more rewarding later on. This happens by increasing the expression of a certain gene that is involved in the brain’s reward system. This change can then heighten your responses to other drugs and increase your future risk for addiction. Now it appears that these epigenetic changes not only affect our own behaviors, but that they can also be passed down to future generations. In the study, mice were trained to be afraid of acetophenone, a fruity smell that’s used in cherry, jasmine, honey-suckle and almond flavorings. The researchers paired this fragrance with a foot shock so that it soon became a warning signal to the mice, instilling fear and alerting them to an impending attack. The mice’s noses and brains also adapted accordingly, generating additional M71 neurons—cells receptive to this particular scent—so that they would be extra sensitive to the smell. So far, this is all basic Pavlovian conditioning and neural adaptation, nothing special yet. However, the crazy part is that the offspring of these mice, who had never before been exposed to that smell, also showed increased fear and startle responses to the scent. This suggests that the learned association, connecting the smell with danger, was passed down from one generation to the next. And this second group’s offspring also showed heightened sensitivity to the odor. Thus, three generations of mice were affected by the conditioning, even though only one of them had actually experienced it. Behind these behavioral effects were similar changes in the noses of each of these offspring groups, with larger M71 receptors present and an increase in the number of M71 neurons available. Importantly, these results did not stem from any socially learned behaviors picked up by hanging around the anxious parent. The mice showed no reaction to other smells and had no fear responses to sounds or different types of warnings. To confirm this, the scientists even took sperm from the first set of mice, used IVF to implant them in females from another lab, raised them in isolation away from any untoward influences, and still found an increased sensitivity to the original scent. But how exactly does this happen? In an attempt to explain this phenomenon, the scientists turned to the first animals’ genotype to try and figure out what exactly was behind this inherited learning. It turns out that the genes involved in the expression of M71 receptors were less inhibited in these animals, meaning that they were more “turned on,” possibly resulting in a greater proliferation of the neurons. This same effect was found in the mice’s sperm, meaning that this trait would be passed down through to the next generation, potentially resulting in an inherited sensitivity to that same fruity scent. While some have questioned epigenetics’ role in inherited learning, this is not the only example of this type of phenomenon. By eating foods high in fat, changes can occur in the fetus’s neural and genetic development. Two studies presented at the Society for Neuroscience conference in November describe a similar inherited sensitivity to alcohol and cocaine in the offspring of drug and alcohol-dependent rats. Surprisingly, these rats were actually less responsive to the drugs than control animals and were less likely to self-administer the substances. This flies in the face of prior addiction research, where the children of dependent drug users were thought to have a greater risk of becoming addicted themselves. Inherited changes in neurons in the nucleus accumbens—a primary reward center in the brain—may be behind this effect in the young rats, dulling the typically rewarding effects drugs have due to inherited biological changes from their addicted parents. Other evidence shows that a mother’s diet during pregnancy can influence her child’s food preferences and likelihood of becoming obese later in life. By eating foods high in fat, changes can occur in the fetus’s neural and genetic development, altering genes that affect opioid receptors, which are also involved in the pleasure and reward circuitry. The theory is that by turning off these receptor genes, the child becomes less sensitive to reward, which then translates into dietary preferences for foods with higher fat and sugar contents. As exciting as these new studies sound, the field of epigenetics is still in its infancy, and a lot more work is needed before we can pin down the mechanisms behind these effects. However, in the mean time, the next time you experience déjà vu, it’s possible you’re simply experiencing a sensation your ancestors have already felt.

Anxiety About Certain Things Can Be Hereditary We all know our parents have a big impact on our lives, but new evidence is emerging that our parents’ behaviors before we are born may have a bigger influence on us than we previously imagined. Epigenetic research is a hot-button topic at the moment, generating a lot of attention in both scientific studies and the media. Epigenetics is the ability of genes to be influenced by our experiences, altering our genetic make-up in real time. By changing the chemical signals that course through your brain and body, you can actually turn genes on or off, a process that can then influence your future actions. Thus, in some ways, epigenetics can be thought of as the bridge between nature and nurture—your behavior and environment affecting your biology, and vice versa. Three generations of mice were affected by the conditioning, even though only one of them had experienced it. For example, smoking cigarettes when you’re young can prime your brain to find other addictive substances, like cocaine, more rewarding later on. This happens by increasing the expression of a certain gene that is involved in the brain’s reward system. This change can then heighten your responses to other drugs and increase your future risk for addiction. Now it appears that these epigenetic changes not only affect our own behaviors, but that they can also be passed down to future generations. In the study, mice were trained to be afraid of acetophenone, a fruity smell that’s used in cherry, jasmine, honey-suckle and almond flavorings. The researchers paired this fragrance with a foot shock so that it soon became a warning signal to the mice, instilling fear and alerting them to an impending attack. The mice’s noses and brains also adapted accordingly, generating additional M71 neurons—cells receptive to this particular scent—so that they would be extra sensitive to the smell. So far, this is all basic Pavlovian conditioning and neural adaptation, nothing special yet.

yes

Genomics

Are epigenetic changes hereditary?

yes_statement

"epigenetic" "changes" are "hereditary".. "hereditary" traits can be influenced by "epigenetic" "changes".

https://www.mdpi.com/1422-0067/24/6/5407

Epigenetic Changes Occurring in Plant Inbreeding

Notice Notice All articles published by MDPI are made immediately available worldwide under an open access license. No special permission is required to reuse all or part of the article published by MDPI, including figures and tables. For articles published under an open access Creative Common CC BY license, any part of the article may be reused without permission provided that the original article is clearly cited. For more information, please refer to https://www.mdpi.com/openaccess. Feature papers represent the most advanced research with significant potential for high impact in the field. A Feature Paper should be a substantial original Article that involves several techniques or approaches, provides an outlook for future research directions and describes possible research applications. Feature papers are submitted upon individual invitation or recommendation by the scientific editors and must receive positive feedback from the reviewers. Editor’s Choice articles are based on recommendations by the scientific editors of MDPI journals from around the world. Editors select a small number of articles recently published in the journal that they believe will be particularly interesting to readers, or important in the respective research area. The aim is to provide a snapshot of some of the most exciting work published in the various research areas of the journal. You seem to have javascript disabled. Please note that many of the page functionalities won't work as expected without javascript enabled. Abstract Inbreeding is the crossing of closely related individuals in nature or a plantation or self-pollinating plants, which produces plants with high homozygosity. This process can reduce genetic diversity in the offspring and decrease heterozygosity, whereas inbred depression (ID) can often reduce viability. Inbred depression is common in plants and animals and has played a significant role in evolution. In the review, we aim to show that inbreeding can, through the action of epigenetic mechanisms, affect gene expression, resulting in changes in the metabolism and phenotype of organisms. This is particularly important in plant breeding because epigenetic profiles can be linked to the deterioration or improvement of agriculturally important characteristics. 1. Introduction The variability of characteristics observed in natural and experimental populations of plants, which are important for agriculture and evolution (e.g., yield, flowering time, resistance to pests and drought), is usually explained by the occurrence of the DNA sequence polymorphisms and the interaction of environmental factors. Currently, it is believed that the heredity of complex characteristics is not only based on the transmission of the stable DNA sequence variants to progeny [1], but it is also linked to the transmission of specific patterns of chromatin modifications, i.e., epigenetic modifications from one generation to the next [2]. Examples include specific DNA methylation patterns that are reflected in the phenotype, e.g., in traits such as the flower shape and size or fruit pigmentation [3,4,5]. Inbreeding can lead to a reduced genetic diversity in the progeny as heterozygosity is limited, reduced and can lead to reduced viability associated with inbreeding depression. Despite the reduced genetic diversity resulting in the lower evolutionary potential, self-pollinated plant lineages are widespread, even in invasive species [6]; moreover, inbreeding can positively influence vigour and fertility under new environmental conditions with a few cospecies. This shows that adaptation to certain environmental conditions can also be associated with a reduction in genetic variation, when a particular phenotype is better adapted to certain environmental conditions, and this is maintained through inbreeding [7]. Epigenetic mechanisms play an additional role here as they are integral to the regulation of many processes in the genome [8,9]. Epigenetics encompasses numerous mechanisms that act at the transcriptional level by altering the chromatin structure, but also post-transcriptionally, regulating the gene expression activity [10]. The chromatin structure affects the accessibility of DNA to transcription factors and is regulated by epigenetic mechanisms, such as the DNA methylation, the histone variant exchange, post-translational histone modifications, chromatin remodelling and the interaction of non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) [11,12]. The development of new technologies, especially state-of-the-art sequencing technologies, enables further understanding of epigenetic mechanisms. The research over the last 20 years has shown how important epigenetic mechanisms are for the adaptation of plants to new or varying environmental conditions, as well as in plant breeding. Epigenetic variation, through the so-called epibreeding, can be used to optimize plant breeding and improve crop resilience [13]. A valuable source of phenotypic variability are epialleles, which do not occur in nature very frequently. Epigenomic analyses (map-based genetic cloning, genome wide methylome analysis) are necessary to identify epialleles, enabling the identification of epigenetic changes and their association with the change in the phenotype [14]. For the same purpose, recombinant inbred lines (RIL) from germplasm with high epigenetic diversity are applied [15]. Another source of natural epigenetic variation are stress-induced changes [16,17,18]. One of the strategies used to obtain epigenetic variation is a targeted epigenetic modification, which uses systems such as TALE, ZF proteins or CRISPR-Cas9 to edit the epigenome, enabling changes in the gene expression, e.g., to improve agricultural properties [19,20,21]. In order to reduce the need to use plant transformation systems, virus-induced transcriponal gene silencing (VITGS) can be used to obtain epigenetic modifications in plants [22]. Nevertheless, the changes obtained are not always stable and hereditary [23]. Epigenetic recombinant inbred lines (epiRIL)—created as a result of wild plant crossing with hypomethylated mutant—are also widely used in epibreeding (met 1 and/or ddm1). They are characterized by a variety of features, such as plant height, flowering time, yield, plant stress tolerance [21,24,25]. The work using epiRIL has hitherto focused on Arabidopsis, but the potential of this strategy is very extensive. The development of epiRIL in Arabidopsis also allowed the mapping of epigenetic loci of quantitative traits (epiQTL) [26], which enables the analysis of the role of the epigenetic variability in the regulation of agricultural properties. Due to the lack of DNA methylation mutants in crop plants [27], pharmacological strategies with DNA MTase inhibitors or the MSH1 system are used, which lead to changes in DNA methylation, affecting the yield and resistance of plants [28,29,30,31,32]. An example of such “epimutagenesis” is the development of the Oryza sativa line, resistant to Xanthomonas oryzae, after having been treated with 5-azacytidine [28]. A repeated selection of isogenic lines makes it possible to obtain stable epigenotypes and to identify epigenetic elements affecting agronomic properties, which can be used in epibreeding [14]. Epigenomic studies can be the basis to create phenotype prediction models, e.g., epiRIL was used to obtain predictive models of plant height [27], or to predict the level of the gene expression [33]. In order to reveal new epialleles associated with adaptation to new environmental conditions, epihybrids (created as a result of crossing epigenetically different inbred lines) can be used, which often exhibit heterosis [34]. Epigenetic changes could become a biomarker that will indicate a beneficial or pernicious phenotype, conditioned by epiallele data, and will allow us to learn about the molecular regulation of agronomic properties, which can be used in plant breeding [35]. 2. Epigenetic Mechanisms Cytosine methylation in DNA is a conservative chromatin modification that involves the attachment of a methyl group (CH3) to the 5-carbon position of cytosine (5 mC—5-methylcytosine). The methylation of cytosine plays a key role in regulating gene expression and ensuring the integrity of the genome by, e.g., the silencing of mobile elements. It is also directly involved in genomic imprinting and the transgenerational epigenetic memory [36,37]. In plants, DNA methylation occurs in three sequence contexts that are initiated and maintained by separate enzymatic pathways and correlate strongly with the methylation of lysine 9 in histone H3 (H3K9me) [38]. The most common is symmetric methylation at the CG dinucleotide (CpG), catalysed and maintained by the DNA Methyltransferase 1 (MET1), which corresponds to DNMT1 (DNA methyltransferase 1) in animals [39,40]. Cytosine methylation can still be symmetrical in the context of CHG and asymmetrical in CHH (where H = A, C or T) (reviewed in [41]). Cytosine methylation plays an important role in silencing the transcriptional-level expression (TGS) of transposable elements and repetitive sequences [42,43,44], which ensures that the stability of the plant genome is maintained. DNA methylation also usually leads to the inactivation or reduction of the gene transcription, especially when it affects the promoter region. In this case, it prevents the recruitment of transcription activators and allows the binding of repressors for this process. In contrast, the gene body methylation (gbM) is not always associated with silencing [45,46]. Chromatin contains numerous post-translational histone modifications (PTMs) that form a histone code, enabling the recruitment of specific proteins that determine the transcriptional potential of a particular gene [47]. PTMs include methylation, acetylation, ubiquitination, SUMOylation, phosphorylation, carbonylation and glycosylation [48,49]. These modifications can undergo dynamic changes due to the activity of proteins and histone-modifying complexes involved in the attachment, maintenance or removal of these markers. The most important PTMs include histone acetylation and methylation. In general, histone acetylation leads to a reduction in electrostatic interactions between histones and DNA, allowing better access to DNA [11]. Histone methylation can have both repressive (H3K9me2/3, H3K27me3, H4R3me2—symmetric) and activating (H3K4me3, H3K36me2/3, H4R3me2—asymmetric) effects on transcription [50]. The presence or absence of post-translational modifications of histones leads to a change in the chromatin structure and alters interactions with the corresponding “histone decoding proteins”, thereby altering the gene expression in that region [51,52]. Histones can also be exchanged for histone variants, which alters the stability of nucleosomes and directly affects the availability of DNA to various proteins, including transcription factors. This alters the activity of genes in a particular chromatin region, enabling or inhibiting transcription [48,53]. For example, histone variants H2A.Z or H3.3 are characteristic of euchromatin regions, especially at gene loci with moderate to high levels of transcription [54]. One of the most important types of regulatory non-coding RNA molecules are small RNAs (sRNAs), which are between 8 and 30 nt long [55]. Based on their biogenesis and structure, we can divide them into two main classes: microRNAs (miRNAs) and endogenous short interfering RNAs (siRNAs). The control of the gene expression by sRNAs occurs mainly at the post-transcriptional level. Gene silencing can occur through the mRNA degradation or repression of transcript translation [56] (reviewed in [57]). The regulation of the gene expression involving siRNA and miRNA molecules occurs not only at the post-transcriptional level, but also at the transcriptional level, leading to the transcriptional gene activation (TGA) and transcriptional gene silencing (TGA) [58,59]. The interactions between DNA methylation, histone PTMs and the mechanism of action of ncRNAs allow plants to control the gene expression at multiple levels. One example is the regulation of expression of many miRNA genes by DNA methylation and histone PTM. Depending on histone modifications, miRNA genes can be transcriptionally active or inactive. The methylation of these genes within the CpG island inhibits the expression of the respective miRNA. Furthermore, it was found that hydroxymethylated cytosines (resulting from active demethylation) can act as transcriptional enhancers of miRNAs [60]. In mammals, the formation of tissues and organs takes place mainly during embryonic development, whereas in plants, new tissues and organs are formed from meristematic cells throughout their whole lives. Therefore, the post-embryonic development in plants is more strongly influenced by environmental factors, which leads to a high degree of phenotypic plasticity. Furthermore, due to their settled lifestyle, plants have to adapt to changing environmental conditions that are often unfavourable for them. The rapid response of epigenetic mechanisms can facilitate the adaptation of the gene expression. Epigenetic regulatory mechanisms can facilitate metastable changes in the gene activity and fine-tune gene expression patterns, enabling plants to survive and successfully reproduce in variable environments, even under inbreeding [25,61]. 3. Inbreeding and Inbreeding Depression Inbreeding (kin-crossing) is the process of mating between individuals that are related to each other. It also occurs during self-pollination [62]. In large natural populations with a high genetic differentiation, crossing between unrelated individuals occurs most frequently. In small and isolated populations, inbreeding is often observed, with mating individuals that have greater genetic similarity than individuals crossing randomly in a large population [63]. If the rate of inbreeding increases rapidly in such populations, there may be a reduction in the adaptation of the progeny, which is known as inbreeding depression [64]. This can be associated with reduced germination, slower growth and reduced height or fertility compared to non-inbred plants [65]. Inbreeding increases homozygosity in the offspring generation, leading to a reduction in the genetic variation in the population and an increase in the expression of recessive deleterious alleles [62,66]. This often results in offspring that are weaker than the parents, which can reduce the plant’s chances of survival. The effect of inbreeding on the adaptation of an individual is referred to as the coefficient of inbreeding f (or: CI, CoI), which indicates the probability that two alleles at a randomly selected locus are identical because of common descent [67]. Hypotheses explaining the negative effects of inbreeding and the development of inbreeding depression are based on dominance and overdominance theories, which explain the greater adaptation of heterozygotes. According to the associative overdominance hypothesis, alleles that increase the adaptation of individuals are generally dominant, while recessive alleles are considered unfavourable. According to this theory, inbreeding increases the degree of homozygosity, resulting in inbreeding depression as a result of the increased expression of rare, unfavourable (deleterious) recessive alleles or negative epistatic interactions between homozygous loci [4]. The second theory is the functional overdominance of heterozygotes (functional overdominance hypothesis), according to which mere heterozygosity at multiple loci increases the adaptation of individuals, which is limited in the case of inbreeding [68]. In diploid organisms, self-pollination causes heterozygosity to be halved in each generation, although this decrease is slower in polyploid plants [69,70]. Inbreeding depression is expected to be lower in autotetraploid species compared to diploid species. This is due to a lower rate of progression to homozygosity [71] and better masking of deleterious mutations in a single copy of the gene [72]. However, the results of studies on inbreeding depression in both autotetraploid wild-type plants [73,74] and in cultivated plants [75,76] often show a higher level of inbreeding depression than expected, which is sometimes comparable to that observed in diploids [74,77]. The phenomenon of inbreeding depression is evident in the phenotype of affected plants and can relate to the plant size, flower size, germination capacity, seed yield or stress tolerance [78]. Inbreeding depression also depends on the life cycle of the plant [73,74,79,80]. The analysis of the phenotypic changes resulting from inbreeding depression can help to identify the genes involved, e.g., using a genome-wide association study (GWAS) [81]. This provides information about which traits and/or cellular processes may be altered in inbreeding depression. As the rate of inbreeding increases, so does inbreeding depression, which can be exacerbated by environmental stress. Inbreeding in plants can result in lower resistance to biotic and abiotic stresses [82,83]. For instance, inbreeding may cause plants to be more susceptible to natural enemies [84,85]. Inbreeding can reduce the expression of genes whose products contribute to the formation of defence compounds [86,87], phytohormones [88] and metabolites [86,89] that are critical for defence signalling [90]. These changes in inbred plants may contribute to increased nutritional losses, leading to inbreeding depression in the presence of herbivores [89]. One example is Datura stramonium, in which inbreeding reduced the plant defence ability, leading to a 4% increase in the damage caused by herbivores and an 8% increase in viral infections [84]. Similarly, the research by Schrieber et al. [91] showed that inbreeding in Silene latifolia reduced the amount of metabolic compounds that mediate the plant resistance and deter herbivores. Previous studies revealed that inbreeding leads to a reduction in phenolic compounds that provide defence in Vincetoxicum hirundinaria [92] and Solanum carolinense [89]. In plants, inbreeding depression can be increased by factors such as disease, unfavourable field conditions or competition [93,94,95,96,97,98]. However, there is work that does not confirm this [82] and evinced lower inbreeding depression under stress [99]. Water stress had no effect on the level of inbreeding depression in Raphanus sativum [100]. Reducing nutrient stress in Schiedea by applying fertiliser resulted in the increased ID [95]. It was also found that the levels of ID can increase or decrease depending on the stressor [101,102,103,104]. In Cucurbita pepo ssp. texana, for example, nutritional stress increased ID, but the effects on the phenotype differed significantly during the four-year study [105]. In Clarkia tembloriensis, greater inbreeding depression was observed in the greenhouse than under field conditions [106]. According to Rehling et al. [107], the level of ID may be low in the case of stresses, to which plant populations were exposed for a long time, as deleterious alleles specific to the environment may have already been eliminated. The effect of inbreeding on the occurrence of inbreeding depression also depends on the population size. In natural, large populations with inbreeding, a process of the reduction of unfavourable alleles, called purging, and genetic rescue is often observed [108]. The slightly unfavourable mutations that do occur are influenced by genetic selection, which increases the selection against them, resulting in their lower frequency. A different situation arises in small populations where deleterious mutations may accumulate due to the effect of genetic drift that prevents the selection against negative alleles [108]. Reduced flower size, along with the pollen and odour production, were observed in inbred lines of Solanum carolinense [109]. Similarly, the inbred lines of Silene latifolia had smaller flowers with a different spatial arrangement and reduced the odour production, which is necessary to attract moths (Hadena bicruris) involved in the reproduction of these plants [91]. This shows that inbreeding can contribute to the population decline, as the flowers are less attractive to animals. It is important to remember that inbreeding can also bring benefits. Humans use inbreeding to improve desirable traits, but in this case the individuals crossed must be selected very carefully. In raising animals and growing plants, inbreeding allows the accumulation of valuable alleles and their fixation in the population. Inbreeding reveals recessive genes. However, the frequency of unfavourable alleles is usually low and kin mating allows their identification and removal from the population. Inbred lines also provide a component for crossing to induce heterosis among them [110,111]. The more diverse the inbred lines are, the greater the heterosis effect that can result from masking of mildly deleterious mutations is. However, high diversity between crossed inbred lines can lead to hybrid depression [112]. 4. Inbreeding and Epigenetics Inbreeding is associated with many genetic and epigenetic changes. One epigenetic mechanism associated with changes in the gene expression during inbreeding is the DNA methylation, as demonstrated by studies on inbred lines of maize [113,114], A. thaliana [25,61], and the analyses of the differences between the inbred parental generation and F1 hybrids [4,34,115]. For example, the analysis of maize inbred lines showed differences in the DNA methylation patterns between individuals, mainly due to changes in CHG or CG/CHG methylation. It was also found that, among DMFs (differentially methylation fragments), up to 12% were inherited for at least six generations [116]. The best example of heritable epigenetic changes are epialleles, i.e., different forms of the same gene that differ in the way the sequence is methylated and are inherited mitotically and/or meiotically. They can occur spontaneously or be induced and lead to altered gene expression and phenotypic variation [116,117,118]. Epialleles may be important for the occurrence of heterosis, inbreeding depression, genetic incompatibility or plant response to stress [119,120,121]. It is very important to know how epialleles are formed and inherited [122] as they can influence the phenotypic variation in traits, such as plant height, flowering rate, resistance to diseases, root length or total yield [1,123,124,125]. Richards [126] distinguished three types of epialleles based on their correlation with genetic variation. They range from completely dependent, obligate epialleles, through partially dependent, facilitated epialleles, down to independent, pure epialleles (Figure 1). The first type is closely associated with a genetic alteration, e.g., TE insertion. The hypermethylation of certain retrotransposons can cause the DNA methylation of neighbouring regions, leading to the formation of obligate epialleles [113,114] that have high stability and heredity. The second type of epialleles are those associated with an appropriate genetic variant, but not fully dependent on it. The last recognized type of epialleles is not related to genome variability [113]. However, the last two types of epialleles can be less stable than obligate alleles [114] (Figure 1). The first known epiallele is clark-kent (clk) in Arabidopsis, which is an epiallele of the SUPERMAN (SUP) gene. DNA hypermethylation in the body of the SUP gene was associated with the abnormal development of floral whorls [127,128], but this modification was not stable. In Linaria vulgaris, a stable epimutation was observed, which was associated with the hypermethylation of the Lcyc gene promoter, resulting in a different flower symmetry (radial symmetry) compared to wild-type plants (bilateral symmetry) [3]. In tomatoes, an epiallele of the Cnr gene (COLORLESS NON-RIPENING) carrying a hypermethylated promoter was observed [129]. The Cnr gene encodes an SBP box transcription factor (TF) and the hypermethylation of the promoter causes the fruit to fail to ripen. This epiallele is stably inherited; the Cnr epimutation was shown to rarely reverse [130], and is also associated with the phenotypic variation in traits such as the plant height, root length and resistance to diseases [1,28,124,125,131]. As mentioned above, many differences in the cytosine methylation between individuals or species correlate with genetic variation [114,132], but the epigenetic variation also arises in a gene-independent manner. An example is the stress-induced high diversity of DNA methylation patterns in apomictic dandelion plants with a low genetic variation [133]. The analyses of maize inbred lines also indicated evidence of the naturally occurring epigenetic variation in these plants that did not correlate with the genetic variation but resulted in phenotypic changes [113,114,116]. For inbred plants, phenotypic plasticity is very important to adapt to new and/or unfavourable environmental conditions. In plants with low genetic diversity, it is epigenetic changes that can influence the phenotypic plasticity and adaptability to new environmental conditions [25,61]. Phenotypic plasticity is defined as the ability of a genotype/epigenotype to produce several alternative phenotypes, depending on environmental conditions [134]. It can involve morphological and physiological changes, which are often associated with higher performance, e.g., of agriculturally important traits [135]. Epigenetic changes not only influence the silencing of ‘redundant’ genes in a given environment, but also increase the diversity of the gene expression between genome-identical individuals [61,136]. It is also important to note that an epigenetically inherited phenotype, in contrast to phenotypic changes that are due to mutations, can be visible in several individuals at the same time [137]. The contribution of DNA methylation to the phenotypic plasticity can be investigated by using the chemical inhibitors of DNA methyltransferases, such as 5-azacytidine [138] or zebularine [139], to demethylate DNA [140,141,142]. An example is the analysis of inbred lines of the perennial plant Scambiosa columbaria, which have higher levels of DNA methylation, which increases inbreeding depression in these plants. In contrast, the treatment of S. columbaria seedlings with 5-azacytidine leads to the elimination of negative inbreeding-related traits, such as fewer leaves or low photosynthetic efficiency [4]. Another example is the DNA demethylation in inbred lines of Polygonum persicaria, which illustrates the role of the DNA methylation in the plant adaptation to changing environmental conditions, in this case drought, irrespective of the genetic variation [142]. The inheritance of drought-induced phenotypic changes in successive generations of 12 P. persicaria inbred lines was also investigated. Parental plants exposed to drought and reared under optimal conditions were analysed. Some of the progenies of these plants were then exposed to zebularine, and subsequently all plants (from the control and zebularine-treated samples) were moved to dry soil. The progeny of plants grown under drought conditions and not treated with zebularine had an expanded root system, which made their biomass greater than that of the progeny of plants not exposed to drought. In contrast, zebularine-induced demethylation resulted in the disappearance of the drought-adapted developmental effects but had no effect on the phenotype of the progeny of the parental plants not exposed to drought. This indicates that DNA methylation mediates environmentally-induced phenotypic changes, leading to the improved adaptation and inheritance of these changes to the progeny [142]. Similar findings where demethylation removed adaptations in progeny were reported for salt stress in A. thaliana [143] or exposure to herbivores in Mimulus guttatus [141]. Furthermore, the treatment of inbred lines of A. thaliana with 5-azacytidine showed that demethylation significantly reduced the growth and condition of these plants and delayed flowering. It was also found that the response to demethylation was variable and did not correlate with genetic similarity between the inbred lines tested [144]. In contrast, studies with inbred lines of Antirrhinum majus showed that the global demethylation of the genome in these lines correlated with stem elongation in response to shading. This confirms that epigenetic changes are associated with phenotypic plasticity in plants [145]. The link between inbreeding and epigenetic mechanisms is well illustrated by the study of Han et al. [5] regarding maize. They found that inbreeding results in the hypermethylation of thousands of genomic regions at TCP-binding sites (TBS), which is accompanied by high di- or trimethylation of histone H3 (H3K9me2, H3K27me2 and H3K27me3). This high level of DNA methylation near TBS motifs in the promoters resulted in the reduced recruitment of the transcription factors ZmTCP (Zea mays TCP) and thus, a lower gene expression. The transcription factor TCP (Teosinte branched1/cycloidea/proliferating cell factor) controls plant development, as the target genes of the TCP transcription factor are involved in photosynthesis, energy metabolism and ribosome biosynthesis. Therefore, the reduced expression of these genes leads to reduced plant vigour. Moreover, the methylation of the CHH motif in TBS can influence inbreeding depression by modulating the diurnal clock (ZmCCA1b gene—maize CIRCADIAN-CLOCK ASSOCIATED1 (CCA1) homologs) and related genes involved in, e.g., the photosynthesis and starch metabolism, among others [5]. This suggests that inbreeding affects the regulation of TCP factor target genes involved in maize growth [5]. Another example shows that inbreeding can cause changes in the methylation of DNA and the expression of genes affected by TEs. Namely, the reduced expression of the metastable locus red1 (r1) and the activity of the mutator (Mu) transposon in maize were associated with a higher methylation of DNA during inbreeding. In addition, the hypermethylation of TEs was observed during inbreeding, a process preventing expansion of TEs; however, hypermethylation interacted with neighbouring genes and affected their expression [5]. Another type of example is provided by the studies with the Chinese cabbage (Brassica rapa ssp. pekinensis). Inbred lines show large phenotypic changes compared to wild-type plants, although there are no genetic differences between them. This suggests that epigenetic mechanisms must be involved in the phenotypic changes. The DNA methylation level of the genome of inbred lines is significantly reduced and alters the expression of many genes that influence the occurrence of traits typical of inbreeding depression [146]. DNA methylation changes can additionally be generated using a variety of techniques. For example, DNA methylation patterns in crop plants can be influenced by using the MSH1 (MutS Homolog1) gene suppression approach, using the RNAi mechanism [30,31,32]. In inbred lines of Sorghum bicolor, it is revealed that the epigenetic variability, induced by the MSH1 system, influenced plant yields and resistance. Regardless of whether selection was used or not, an increase in yield was observed, as in the case of normal and modified (low nitrogen content) field conditions. The MSH1 system can therefore be used in the design of appropriate breeding strategies by generating epigenetic changes [32]. Other studies of inbred maize lines show that DNA methylation is not always correlated with the modification of histones. For example, we observed the level of lysine 27 trimethylation of histone H3 (H3K27me3) varied among tissues of developing plants, which reveals the role of this modification in regulating the gene expression during plant development. In contrast, no such variation in H3K27me3 was observed between maize inbred lines [147,148] and for Brassica rapa L. [149]. In contrast, DNA methylation levels are more variable between inbred lines [147,148]. It has also been found that random crossing in a population of inbred lines can restore vigour and viability through heterosis. It turns out that epigenetic changes have a large impact on heterosis, especially through the reduction in the level of the DNA methylation; the research results indicate a high vigour of hybrids obtained as a result of crossing inbred lines, resulting from differences in gene expression. The analysis of the gene expression between inbred lines, used as parental components and progeny hybrids (6-day-old maize embryos), revealed differences in expression in 8.9–15.3% of genes [150]. Significant differences in the gene expression were also shown by the F1 progeny of inbred B73 and Mo17 maize lines, relative to their parents, both at the seedling stages and in the embryonic tissue [151]. The observed changes in the gene expression may lead to hybrid phenotypes with better or worse characteristics compared to the parental phenotypes [152,153,154,155]. What is more, for some traits, a correlation was found between the number of genes with different expression and the degree of heterosis [156,157]. Changes in gene expression between inbred lines and resulting hybrids are also caused by sRNA or histone modifications [158,159,160,161]. For example, Seifert et al. [158,159] assessed the sRNA variation in inbred and hybrid lines. They linked them to grain yield heterosis in the hybrid lines. The comparison of epigenetic changes in inbred lines and hybrids allows us to understand the potential role of these epigenetic mechanisms in heterosis [35]. 5. Epigenetic Recombinant Inbred Lines Natural epialleles are rare—therefore, populations of inbred lines, called epigenetic recombinant inbred lines, were developed to explore and understand the contribution of epialleles to transgenerational inheritance, the activation of transposable elements and phenotypic changes. EpiRILs were generated by crossing A. thaliana wild-type plants (WT) (ecotype; Columbia-0, Col-0) with met1 or ddm1 mutant lines. The resulting progeny were repeatedly self-pollinated until the obtaining of epiRILs that were homozygous in terms of a specific DNA methylation pattern [24,162] (Figure 2). The gene DDM1 (decreased DNA methylation 1) encodes a protein that is a chromatin remodeller interacting with the DNA methylation in all sequence contexts (CG, CHG, CHH) and is involved in the maintenance of the DNA methylation and silencing of repetitive sequences, including TE [163]. The mutation of this gene can lead to a reduction of DNA methylation by up to 70% [164]. The gene MET1 is responsible for the DNA methylation in the sequence of CG and other processes [165,166]. When this gene loses its function, there is incorrect gene expression and activation of TE due to the nearly complete absence of methylation of CG [36,167]. The insertion of the wild type of the DDM1 gene into a ddm1 mutant, or of MET1 into a met1 mutant, does not restore the DNA methylation at all loci where it was previously lost [168]. The inbreeding of met1 or ddm1 mutants contributes to obtaining stable epialleles [166,169]. EpiRILs are nearly isogenic, but they are characterised by the presence of differentially methylated regions (DMRs). DMRs are stably inherited and can influence the plant development, morphology and plasticity, growth rate, nutrient uptake or response to biotic and abiotic stresses [24,124,137,162]. DMRs are also used as markers to identify epiQTLs, which also allows correlating specific epigenomic regions with variation in the trait under study [170], including with flowering time, primary root length or tolerance to salinity [124,171]. Through the research of Liégard et al. [172], for example, numerous epiQTLs were found to be associated with resistance to Plasmodiophora brassicae, the causal agent of clubroot. Through the analysis of epiRILs in A. thaliana, four epiQTLs were identified to increase the plant resistance to Hyaloperonospora arabidopsidis (Hpa) without any associated reduction in resistance to other stresses or plant size [173]. EpiRIL studies reveal that epigenetic modifications are inherited from one generation to the next [174]. They also show that post-translational histone modifications are involved in determining target loci for the RdDM recruitment, which allows the formation of stable epialleles and allows us to understand how they are created. Non-methylated loci, for example, are characterised by the presence of high levels of H3K4me3 and H3K18ac. Tri-methylated H3K4 prevents RdDM recruitment, and the acetylation of H3K18 allows access for ROS1 (Repressor of Silencing 1), which does not allow the recovery of DNA methylation via the RdDM pathway [26,175]. EpiRIL studies have contributed to a better understanding of the phenotypic plasticity in inbred plants [25,61], e.g., as a response to drought and nutrient stress. It is an ability passed on to subsequent generations and possibly subject to selection [61,171]. However, some studies show a smaller impact of epigenetic variation on adaptive traits than had been assumed. With epiRIL, a significant correlation was found between the DNA methylation and glucosinolate accumulation. They are well understood and are mainly found in Brassicales. They are classified as defence substances whose metabolism is regulated in response to many environmental factors, including pathogens and herbivores, but also in relation to the availability of light and water [176,177,178]. Glucosinolates support the stress response of plants and the adaptation to changing environmental conditions through the interactions of signalling pathways [179,180,181]. However, a broad meta-analysis showed that the effect of DNA methylation on this adaptive trait is lower compared to standing genetic variation, which will allow for a faster response to selection than epigenetic variation does [170]. Latzel et al. [182], investigating the epiRILs of A. thaliana, showed that the occurrence of epigenetic variation can increase the productivity and stability of plant populations and enhance evolutionary potential [61]. Latzel et al. [182] analysed A. thaliana populations composed of epiRIL monocultures and populations composed of 2, 3 or 16 different epiRILs. He observed that epigenetically diverse populations produced more biomass than epigenetically homogeneous populations of this plant. A particular increase in biomass, by up to 40%, was seen in the presence of competitors and pathogens. In the analysis of DNA methylation variation in near-isogenic lines of the population of Arabidopsis, it was found that epigenetic variation can lead to functional diversity at the same level as the genetic variation [182]. Examples include the epiRIL population variation associated with a variation in flowering time or higher resistance to pathogens [148,162]. 6. Conclusions Inbreeding is associated with many genetic and epigenetic changes. Many studies demonstrate that there are differences in DNA methylation patterns between parental inbred lines and F1 hybrids [4,34,115]. The literature data presented in this review show some aspects of epigenetic changes associated with the inbreeding process, with particular emphasis on environment factors influencing the epigenetic variation and the formation of the phenotypic plasticity. EpiRIL, obtained by crossing isogenic parental lines, characterized by different DNA methylation profiles, were of greatest importance in understanding the impact of the environment on epigenetic variability or epiallele formation and inheritance. Comparative studies between epiRILs and recombinant inbred lines (RILs) show that both epigenetic and genetic variability have similar phenotypic potential. It should be noted, however, that such conclusions may not be absolute truth because epiRILs are characterized by a high epigenetic variability but a very low genetic variability, mainly resulting from the TE activity, while the genomes of RILs show a high genetic variability but also epigenetic variation [154]. In most of the natural populations, there is a distinct genetic variation that may or may not interact with the epigenetic variation. Therefore, more research should be conducted to verify the impact of epigenetic mechanisms on shaping phenotypes in natural populations [183]. Epigenetic analyses allowed us to understand the changes that occur during inbreeding and explain the phenomenon of inbreeding depression. These studies also enabled the explanation of changes in gene expression underlying heterosis. Further research and understanding of the regulation and interactions between DNA methylation, histone modification, sRNA and transcription will allow for even wider use of inbred lines in epibreeding in the future. Proper selection of inbred lines to create hybrids, with expected agriculturally important traits, may turn out to be crucial. Epigenetics and epigenomics contribute to understanding the mechanisms of plant phenotypic variability, the analyses involving epialleles, epiQTL, epihybrids and epiRIL and thus may, in the future, result in the design of effective crop improvement strategies. Author Contributions M.A.: conceptualization, writing and editing the manuscript. A.K.: writing and critical revision of the manuscript. E.S.: critical revision of the manuscript. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content. Follow MDPI Disclaimer/Publisher’s Note: The statements, opinions and data contained in all publications are solely those of the individual author(s) and contributor(s) and not of MDPI and/or the editor(s). MDPI and/or the editor(s) disclaim responsibility for any injury to people or property resulting from any ideas, methods, instructions or products referred to in the content.

111]. The more diverse the inbred lines are, the greater the heterosis effect that can result from masking of mildly deleterious mutations is. However, high diversity between crossed inbred lines can lead to hybrid depression [112]. 4. Inbreeding and Epigenetics Inbreeding is associated with many genetic and epigenetic changes. One epigenetic mechanism associated with changes in the gene expression during inbreeding is the DNA methylation, as demonstrated by studies on inbred lines of maize [113,114], A. thaliana [25,61], and the analyses of the differences between the inbred parental generation and F1 hybrids [4,34,115]. For example, the analysis of maize inbred lines showed differences in the DNA methylation patterns between individuals, mainly due to changes in CHG or CG/CHG methylation. It was also found that, among DMFs (differentially methylation fragments), up to 12% were inherited for at least six generations [116]. The best example of heritable epigenetic changes are epialleles, i.e., different forms of the same gene that differ in the way the sequence is methylated and are inherited mitotically and/or meiotically. They can occur spontaneously or be induced and lead to altered gene expression and phenotypic variation [116,117,118]. Epialleles may be important for the occurrence of heterosis, inbreeding depression, genetic incompatibility or plant response to stress [119,120,121]. It is very important to know how epialleles are formed and inherited [122] as they can influence the phenotypic variation in traits, such as plant height, flowering rate, resistance to diseases, root length or total yield [1,123,124,125]. Richards [126] distinguished three types of epialleles based on their correlation with genetic variation. They range from completely dependent, obligate epialleles, through partially dependent, facilitated epialleles, down to independent,

yes

Genomics

Are epigenetic changes hereditary?

no_statement

"epigenetic" "changes" are not "hereditary".. "hereditary" traits are not affected by "epigenetic" "changes".

https://www.pdsa.org/heredity-vs-non-heredity.html

for People with ITP - Heredity ... - Platelet Disorder Support Association

Heredity vs Non-Heredity: Understanding the Difference Is everything ‘genetic’ hereditary? No. Not everything that impacts our genes is hereditary. Only gene mutations within our germline that we are born with are inherited. Our ‘genetic code’ within our germline is present in all our cell types including our reproductive cells (egg or sperm), thus they can be passed on to offspring. If you have a pathogenic (disease-causing) germline mutation for a hereditary thrombocytopenia syndrome for instance, you did not cause it and could not have prevented it. Not even with diet and supplemental changes. Changes to our DNA that are acquired are due to non-inherited influences, such as aging and even outside influences such as prolonged exposure to damaging UV radiation for instance. Acquired changes in our DNA usually only impact certain cells in our body and we refer to these as somatic gene variants. These types of variants cause most non-inherited cancers. They cannot be passed on to offspring because they are not present in the egg or sperm cells and were not inherited from a parent. Genetic testing for somatic mutations is often done to determine the best course of treatment for targeted therapy in some conditions, such as cancer. Somatic mutations are also important in the diversity of the antibodies, T cell receptors, and B cell receptors. Somatic testing is not the same as germline testing for inherited (not acquired) germline mutations that can cause disease. It is important to be aware of the differences between germline and somatic mutations. The environment can also impact genes by affecting gene expression. This is known as epigenetics. Epigenetic changes affect the way genes are expressed but do not alter the genetic code itself. Epigenetics is often used to study variability in disorders. Researchers are now looking at whether outside influences, such as nutrition, affect gene expression and regulation. Testing for epigenetic signatures can be done through specialized testing centers but is not available at this time for every disorder. These changes are not inherited and not usually passed on. Basic Modes of Inheritance How are gene variants inherited? Dominant inheritance – If the mutation identified is ‘dominant’ that means only one allele (one copy of a particular gene, which come in pairs; one from each parent) needs to carry a pathogenic variant in order for the disease to manifest. Dominant variants are primarily inherited from one parent, but some can be de novo, meaning they can happen by chance. There is a 1 in 2 risk (or 50% chance) to pass on dominant variants to offspring. Recessive inheritance – If the genetic disorder is ‘recessive’ that means in order for the disease to manifest both copies of the gene (or allele) from each parent need to have a pathogenic variant for the same condition. If only one copy of the gene from one parent has a variant, then that person is referred to as a carrier, and is not usually affected by the disease. If both biological parents are carriers for the same recessive condition, there is a 25% risk (1 in 4 chance) to have a child affected with that particular condition. Sex-linked inheritance – If the variant identified is ‘sex-linked’ that means the variant is on the X or Y chromosome, usually the X chromosome (also called x-linked). Sex-linked conditions can be inherited in either a dominant or recessive fashion. Carrier testing - determines if you carry a recessive pathogenic (disease-causing) allele. Carrying one means you are a ‘carrier’ and not affected by the disorder. Cell – the smallest unit of living material. Cells are building blocks providing structure for the body, in addition to carrying out other important jobs. Chromosomes - are the structures that contain our DNA. De novo mutations – DNA changes that are ‘new’ that occurred first in you and are not inherited from your parents. De novo mutations can be passed on if they are present in the germline (sperm/eggs). Diagnostic testing - is used to identify the underlying cause of your symptoms or disease. Diploid – A zygote is ‘diploid’ meaning the cell (and all cells arising from it) have two copies of each chromosome, one from each biological parent. DNA – Stands for Deoxyribonucleic Acid. DNA is one of two forms of nucleic acid that can be found on chromosomes within our cells. DNA is the genetic material for all cellular life forms (organisms that are made from more than one cell) and many viruses. Dominant – A mechanism by which a genetic trait or gene mutation can be inherited. In dominant inheritance, only one allele copy (of a given gene) from one parent has a mutation. Embryo – early development of life. A group of cells made from a zygote is often referred to as an embryo once organs and critical structures are forming needed for life. Epigenetics – the study of gene expression. Epigenetic changes affect the way genes are expressed but do not affect the genetic code itself. Epigenetics is often used to study variability in disease. Epigenetic signature – the unique way in which epigenetics influences the way the genes release the information they carry. Exons – the coding sequence in a gene. Exons are the building blocks for amino acids which make proteins. Fluorescent In Situ Hybridization (FISH) – a type of test that has many purposes. It can be used to analyze chromosomes looking for the presence or absence of deletions or rearrangements. It can also provide researchers with a way to visualize and map the genetic maternal including specific genes or portions of genes. Gene expression – when the information stored in our genetic code is converted into instructions for making proteins or other molecules. It is a highly regulated process and acts as an ‘on/off’ switch to control when genetic instructions are used. There are two involved processes in gene expression; transcription and translation. Genetics – The scientific study of genes and chromosomes. Genetic Counseling – is both an individualized and family-focused process where the risks and effects of a genetic condition are determined, support and appropriate resources are given, genetic testing (when appropriate) is discussed, and counseling is provided by a qualified genetic counselor. Genetic Counselors – Healthcare professionals with specialized and advanced training in medical genetics and counseling. They typically hold a Master’s degree in the field and are certified through a professional association. Genetic counsellors assess and counsel individuals and their family members with a genetic disorder, or a suggestive medical history for a genetic disorder. The also meet with individuals and family members who may be at an increased risk for having and passing on a genetic disorder. Genetic testing – this type of testing analyzes parts of an individual’s DNA to find changes (variants/mutations) that cause disease or confer an elevated risk to develop disease. It is a diagnostic medical test. Genetic testing can be performed using any tissue type, including blood. Genetic screening – this type of test is not a genetic test. Screening simply determines which individuals may have a higher risk to have a particular condition or to carry a particular gene mutation within a specific population in question. It is not a diagnostic test. Screening test results are not always accurate and need to be followed up with diagnostic testing, such as genetic testing. It is usually performed on a blood sample. Genome – An individual’s complete set of genetic material. Genotype – Refers to the set of specific alleles carried. Germline – the source of DNA for all the cells in the body (fusion of genetic information in sperm and egg union). Germline variants – DNA changes that are present in all body cells, including the sperm or eggs. Changes in germline DNA can be passed on to offspring and are often inherited from parents. Haploid – Games are ‘haploid’ meaning they only contain one copy of each chromosome. Heredity – The study of measurable changes that can be pass on to future generations. Introns – the non-coding sequence in a gene. Introns are not building blocks for amino acids with make proteins. Karyotype – A laboratory technique designed to look at the chromosomes for structural problems such as chromosomal arrangements and aneuploidy (missing or extra chromosomes). This test is not advanced and as such as limitations as to how closely it can look abnormal chromosome numbers and structures. Maternal – pertains to the mother, or the mother’s family. Mutation – An alteration in the nucleotide sequence of a DNA molecule and the primary cause of diversity among all living things. Mutations can also occur in RNA (such as with viruses). Some mutations may cause disease, others may provide a beneficial advantage, and some mutations are neutral and do not have any affect. Neutral mutations contribute to the natural variation in living things. Negative result – Normal test results for a pathogenic (disease causing) mutation previously identified in a close family member. It may also be used to describe normal results from a genetic test that can diagnoses a condition based on the presence or absence of specific findings. Next generation sequencing (NGS) – is a massive sequencing-based technology that offers ultra-high throughput, speed, and scalability to determine the order of nucleotides in the gene or specific regions of DNA or RNA. Nucleotides – The building blocks for both DNA and RNA. Nucleus – a specialized structure (known as an organelle) within a cell where DNA, chromosomes, and genes reside. Panel (multi-gene) testing – A specialized genetic test using NGS technology where a selection of genes known to be associated with the development of a particular condition or collection of clinical symptoms under investigation are analyzed at once in hopes to find the underlying pathogenic (disease causing) gene mutation. Paternal – pertains to the father, or the father’s family. Pathogenic variant – Disease causing. Phenotype – The observable characteristics or physical traits based on the genotype. Polymorphism – Neutral (benign) variants that are more common in specific populations or locations around the world. They are seen in at a frequency of 1% or greater. Positive result – When a pathogenic (disease causing) mutation has been identified. Prenatal testing - determines if a developing baby has a genetic condition or has inherited a pathogenic mutation previously identified in a family member. Pre-symptomatic testing - identifies your risk for a disease that you are not symptomatic for. Progeny - An individual’s descendants (such as their children and their children’s children, etc.) Recessive - A mechanism by which a genetic trait or gene mutation can be inherited. In recessive inheritance, both alleles (of a given gene) from each parent have a mutation. Reduced (or incomplete) Penetrance – Penetrance refers to the proportion of individuals with a given genotype that express the expected phenotype. Reduced penetrance can be thought of as those who do not develop features of the disorder that are expected. (RNA) – Stands for Ribonucleic Acid. RNA is one of two forms of nucleic acid that can be found on chromosomes within our cells. RNA is actually a copy (or transcription) of DNA and it comes in various forms essential for making proteins (rRNA, mRNA, and tRNA). Sanger Sequencing – a type of genetic test where the nucleotide sequence of a particular gene is analyzed for possible pathogenic (disease-causing) mutations. Sex chromosomes – The last set of chromosomes. There are two types, X chromosomes and a Y chromosome. Sex-linked – A mechanism by which a genetic trait or gene mutation can be inherited. In sex-linked inheritance alleles (of a given gene) found on either the X chromosome or Y chromosome only are inherited from a parent(s) in either a dominant or recessive fashion. Usually, the term refers more to disorders linked to the X chromosome, sometimes called X-linked. Somatic mutations – DNA changes not present in eggs or sperm. Somatic changes only affect certain cells or tissues and cannot be passed on to offspring as they are not inherited from parents. They are due to environmental impacts. Somatic testing is often done on tumors to determine the best course of treatment. Not all somatic mutations are pathogenic (disease-causing). Syndrome – a collection or group of physical traits or behavioural symptoms which consistently occur together. It can also be thought of as a condition characterized by a set of associated symptoms or traits. Uninformative negative result – is a term used to describe a type of negative result from a genetic test where the cause of the condition in the family or individual has not been identified. This is not the same as a variant of uncertain significance and cannot be used when analyzing chromosomes. With an uninformative-negative result, an underlying mutation cannot be ruled out. It may have been missed due for various reasons. Variable Expressivity – This refers to the degree to which an expected phenotype is expressed based on having a particular genotype. It can be thought of as the ‘intensity’ of a particular genotype. Individuals even within the same family can show variable expressivity, meaning that some relatives will have a milder presentation that others. Variable expressivity also refers to the range of signs and symptoms that can occur in individuals with the same genetic condition. Variant – This is the same as a mutation, however, since changes in the nucleotide sequence do not always cause disease, the term ‘variant’ is more of an accepted term to use in medicine. Variant of uncertain significance (VUS) – When a mutation/variant has been identified, but it is not yet clear if it is disease causing or not. Whole exome sequencing – Using NGS technology to analyze only the coding regions of the genome (the exons) for potential pathogenic (disease-causing) mutations. Zygote – The union between a sperm and egg create an embryo, a single cell that had two sets of chromosomes (one from each gamete) and will generate all the cells required to create the living being. The zygote divides continually creating a group of cells in which some will become the embryo and others will become the placenta. IMPORTANT! The Platelet Disorder Support Association does not provide medical advice or endorse any medication, vitamins or herbs. The information contained herein is not intended nor implied to be a substitute for professional medical advice and is provided for educational purposes only. Always seek the advice of your physician or other qualified healthcare provider before starting any new treatment, discontinuing an existing treatment and to discuss any questions you may have regarding your unique medical condition.

Heredity vs Non-Heredity: Understanding the Difference Is everything ‘genetic’ hereditary? No. Not everything that impacts our genes is hereditary. Only gene mutations within our germline that we are born with are inherited. Our ‘genetic code’ within our germline is present in all our cell types including our reproductive cells (egg or sperm), thus they can be passed on to offspring. If you have a pathogenic (disease-causing) germline mutation for a hereditary thrombocytopenia syndrome for instance, you did not cause it and could not have prevented it. Not even with diet and supplemental changes. Changes to our DNA that are acquired are due to non-inherited influences, such as aging and even outside influences such as prolonged exposure to damaging UV radiation for instance. Acquired changes in our DNA usually only impact certain cells in our body and we refer to these as somatic gene variants. These types of variants cause most non-inherited cancers. They cannot be passed on to offspring because they are not present in the egg or sperm cells and were not inherited from a parent. Genetic testing for somatic mutations is often done to determine the best course of treatment for targeted therapy in some conditions, such as cancer. Somatic mutations are also important in the diversity of the antibodies, T cell receptors, and B cell receptors. Somatic testing is not the same as germline testing for inherited (not acquired) germline mutations that can cause disease. It is important to be aware of the differences between germline and somatic mutations. The environment can also impact genes by affecting gene expression. This is known as epigenetics. Epigenetic changes affect the way genes are expressed but do not alter the genetic code itself. Epigenetics is often used to study variability in disorders. Researchers are now looking at whether outside influences, such as nutrition, affect gene expression and regulation. Testing for epigenetic signatures can be done through specialized testing centers but is not available at this time for every disorder. These changes are not inherited and not usually passed on.

no

Intellectual Property

Are fashion designs protected under copyright law?

yes_statement

"fashion" "designs" are "protected" under "copyright" "law".. "copyright" "law" "protects" "fashion" "designs".

https://www.copyright.gov/docs/regstat072706.html

Protection for Fashion Design - U.S. Copyright Office

Statement of the United States Copyright Office before the Subcommittee on Courts, the Internet, and Intellectual Property, Committee on the Judiciary United States House of Representatives 109th Congress, 2nd Session July 27, 2006 Protection for Fashion Design The Copyright Office submits this written statement to the House Subcommittee on Courts, the Internet and Intellectual Property in connection with the Subcommittee's July 27, 2006 hearing on H.R. 5055, which would amend Title 17 of the United States Code to provide protection for fashion designs. Summary Congress has long considered offering sui generis protection for designs of useful articles, and came close to enacting such legislation as part of the Copyright Act of 1976. In 1998, as part of the Digital Millennium Copyright Act, Congress finally enacted such legislation, but limited its scope of the protection to the designs of vessel hulls.(1)The Vessel Hull Design Protection Act is codifed in Chapter 13 of Title 17. While the form of protection offered in chapter 13 is in many respects similar to the protection offered by copyright law, it is nevertheless a sui generis regime distinct from copyright law. Over the past year, the Copyright Office has engaged in many discussions with proponents of extending the protection offered under Chapter 13 to fashion designs. Based on those discussions, the tentative view of the Office is that there may well be merit to the view that fashion designs should be given protection similar to that enjoyed by vessel hull designs, but the Office does not believe it has thus far been presented with sufficient information to reach a conclusion on the need for such legislation. The Office looks forward to hearing the testimony of parties who would be affected by such legislation, which should shed greater light on the nature and scope of the problem that the legislation is intended to address. However, without taking a position on the overall merits of such legislation, the Office has worked with the proponents of the legislation on the legislative language that would amend Chapter 13. The Office is pleased that the proponents of the legislation have been receptive to the Office's suggestions, almost all of which have been included in H.R. 5055. The Office believes that if Congress concludes that fashion design protection legislation should be enacted, H.R. 5055 provides a sound basis for balancing competing interests. Background 1. Prior Congressional Consideration The issue of federal legislation to protect industrial designs is not new in the United States. Congress has taken up the matter on repeated occasions since 1914. Design protection bills passed the House in the 71st Congress,(2) and the Senate in the 87th, 88th and 89th Congresses.(3) In the 91st through 94th Congresses, design protection was coupled with the copyright general revision bill then pending in the Senate. The version of the copyright revision bill passed by the Senate in 1975 included a separate title on design protection.(4)The House Subcommittee, however, concluded that design protection should be considered separately from copyright revision. The copyright revision bill was enacted without a design protection component in October 1976, and became effective on January 1, 1978. Design protection bills were introduced in each Congress from the 96th through the 102d. Extensive hearings were held by the Subcommittee in 1990 and 1992.(5) There has been no further action in Congress on the general design protection issue since the 1992 hearing. However, the 105th Congress considered and enacted more limited design protection legislation in 1998 as part of the Digital Millennium Copyright Act (“DMCA”). Title V of the DMCA, the Vessel Hull Design Protection Act (“VHDPA”), offered sui generis protection to the design of vessel hulls. That legislation, codified in Chapter 13 of Title 17, was based largely on the previous legislation, but narrowed the subject matter of protection from designs of useful articles in general to designs of vessel hulls. The specific problem addressed in the VHDPA was “hull splashing.” As this Committee explained: Boat manufacturers invest significant resources in the design and development of safe, structurally sound, and often high-performance boat hull designs. Including research and development costs, a boat manufacturer may invest as much as $500,000 to produce a design from which one line of vessels can be manufactured. When a boat hull is designed and the design engineering and tooling process is complete, the engineers then develop a boat “plug” from which they construct a boat “mold.” The manufacturer constructs a particular line of boats from this mold. In contrast, those intent on stealing the original boat design, such as Thunder Craft, can simply use a finished boat hull in place of the manufacturer's plug to develop a mold. This practice is referred to in the trade as “splashing a mold.” The copied mold can then be used to create a line of vessels with a hull seemingly identical to that appropriated from the design manufacturer. “Hull splashing” is a problem for consumers, as well as manufacturers and boat design firms. Consumers who purchase copied boats are defrauded in the sense that they are not benefitting from the many attributes of hull design, other than shape, that are structurally relevant, including those related to quality and safety. It is also highly unlikely that consumer know that a boat has been copied from an existing design. Most importantly for the purposes of promoting intellectual property rights, if manufacturers are not permitted to recoup at least some of their research and development costs, they may no longer invest in new, innovative boat designs that boaters eagerly await.(6) Although boat designers had previously enjoyed protection against hull splashing under the laws of some states, in 1989 the Supreme Court had held such laws unconstitutional under the doctrine of federal preemption.(7) The Court reasoned that Congress' decision to leave the subject matter in the public domain under federal intellectual property law precluded states from enacting such a prohibition. (8) In enacting the VHDPA, Congress did not consider whether to expand the newly enacted Chapter 13's sui generis design protection to designs of useful articles other than vessel hulls, but it did offer a summary of some of the arguments for and against a more general federal design protection law: Critics from the academy as well as private industry have expressed their concerns that design protection possibly upsets a critical balance struck in intellectual property law, especially the law of patents: namely, that the promotion of innovation must, at some point, give way to imitation and refinement through imitation, both of which are “. . . necessary to invention itself and the very lifeblood of a competitive economy.” Bonito Boats, Inc. v. Thunder Craft Boats, Inc., 489 U.S. 141, 146 (1989) [hereinafter Bonito Boats]. These critics fear that comprehensive design legislation, practically applied, might diminish rather than stimulate net commercial activity throughout the economy. Their reasoning is that threshold requirements for protection under most design schemes are less demanding than those under traditional intellectual property law. This would result in increased litigation and a general unwillingness to manufacture competing products. Advocates of design protection insist that these concerns are overstated. They argue that, in the absence of creative development, there can be no imitation. In addition, if the threshold requirements for design protection are more easily met than those applying to copyright, trademark, and patent law, the solution is to offer less protection (usually measured by duration).(9) 2. Design Protection Available under Existing Law Past proposals for sui generis design protection legislation have sprung from a perceived lack of adequate protection at the federal level for the designs of useful articles. All three branches of federal intellectual property protection—copyright, patent and trademark—protect certain aspects of useful articles. In the aggregate, however, they provide only limited coverage(10) for the following reasons: First, copyright protection for the designs of useful articles is extremely limited. The design of a useful article(11) is protected under copyright “only if, and only to the extent that, such design incorporates pictorial, graphic, or sculptural features that can be identified separately from, and are capable of existing independently of, the utilitarian aspects of the article.”(12) According to the House report accompanying the copyright revision bill, the test for separability can be met by showing either physical or conceptual separability.(13) The purpose of the test is “to draw as clear a line as possible between copyrightable works of applied art and uncopyrighted works of industrial design.”(14) In keeping with this congressional intent, courts have applied the separability test in a way that excludes most industrial designs from copyright protection.(15) The Copyright Office has been similarly restrictive in its registration practices.(16) Second, design patents are difficult and expensive to obtain, and entail a lengthy examination process. An applicant for a design patent must meet the generally applicable standards of invention(17)—e.g., novelty and non-obviousness.(18) Many original designs that provide a distinguishable and appealing variation over prior designs for similar articles will fail to meet these standards. Even under the reduced fee schedule for small entities, the filing fee for a design patent is $100, the issue fee is $400, and the maintenance fees over the life of the patent are $3,500. This does not include attorneys' fees for prosecuting the application. It is our understanding that the process of applying for a design patent can take several years, which exceeds the life expectancy of the market for many designs. Third, trademark law does not provide general protection for designs as such. Rather, it protects certain product configurations that serve to identify the source of the product.(19) Aspects of product design that do not serve to identify source are not protected.(20) Even to the extent that a product configuration qualifies for protection under trademark law, the protection is only against uses of the design that confuse or mislead consumers, or create a substantial likelihood of such confusion.(21) Fourth, supplementary protection is not available at the state level. Boat hull design serves to illustrate the point: As noted above, in order to curb a practice known as “plug molding,” whereby an impression of a boat hull is taken and used to reproduce the hull design, some states enacted anti- plug molding statutes. In Bonito Boats, the Supreme Court held that Florida's anti-plug molding statute was invalid under the doctrine of federal preemption. The Court reasoned that Congress' decision to leave the subject matter in the public domain under federal intellectual property law precluded states from enacting such a prohibition.(22) 3. Protection under the Vessel Hull Design Protection Act Although Chapter 13 of Title 17 currently offers protection only for designs of vessel hulls, H.R. 5055 would extend that protection to fashion designs as well. Therefore, it is necessary to understand the design protection regime of Chapter 13.(23) Chapter 13 is written in the form of a general design protection statute offering protection to “an original design of a useful article which makes the article attractive or distinctive in appearance to the purchasing or using public.” (24) However, the statute's definition of a “useful article” is restricted to vessel hulls: A “useful article” is a vessel hull, including a plug or mold, which in normal use has an intrinsic utilitarian function that is not merely to portray the appearance of the article or to convey information. An article which normally is part of a useful article shall be deemed to be a useful article.(25) Thus, the statute was written is such a way that it could later be amended to cover designs of useful articles in general, simply by revising the statutory definition of “useful article” to reflect the plain meaning of that term. Alternatively, it could be amended to cover additional specific types of useful articles by revising the statutory definition to add those specific useful articles. Design protection for vessel hulls is for a period of ten years and is available only for original designs that are embodied in an actual vessel hull: no protection is available for designs that exist only in models, drawings, or representations. Staple or commonplace designs, “such as a standard geometric figure, a familiar symbol, an emblem, or a motif, or another shape, pattern, or configuration that has become standard, common, prevalent or ordinary” are not protected.(26) The statute also sets forth several circumstances under which an otherwise original design does not receive protection. A design that is embodied in a vessel hull “that was made public by the designer or owner in the United States or a foreign country more than two years before the date of application for registration” of the design is not eligible.(27) Section 1332 states that there is no retroactive protection: no protection is “available for any design that has been made public under § 1310(b)(28) before” October 28, 1998, the effective date of the VHDPA.(29) And designs may not be protected under chapter 13 of title 17 if they have design patent protection under title 35 of the United States Code.(30) As a result, vessel hulls protected under chapter 13 lose that protection if they acquire U.S. design patent protection. Unlike copyright law, where protection arises at the moment of creation, an original design is not protected under chapter 13 until it is made public or the registration of the design with the Copyright Office is published, whichever date is earlier. Once a design is made public, an application for registration must be made no later than two years from the date on which the design was made public. Making a design public is defined as publicly exhibiting it, distributing it or offering it for sale (or selling it) to the public with the design owner's consent.(31) Only the owner of a design may make an application for registration.(32) Once an application for registration is received by the Copyright Office, it is evaluated for completeness and sufficiency under the provisions set forth in chapter 13. If the Office refuses to register a design, the applicant may seek reconsideration by filing a written request within three months of the refusal.(33) Should such refusal be upheld, the applicant may seek judicial review of the final refusal.(34) For those applications deemed sufficient, a registration certificate is issued which includes a reproduction of the drawings or other pictorial representations of the design.(35) Notification that a registration has been made must be published by the Copyright Office, and the effective date of the registration is the date on which publication of it is made.(36) The Copyright Office publishes registrations by posting them on the Copyright Office web site. Any person who believes that he or she will be damaged by a registration made by the Office under chapter 13 “may upon payment of the prescribed fee, apply to the Administrator(37) at any time to cancel the registration on the ground that the design is not subject to protection under this chapter, stating the reasons for the request.” (38) Protected designs that are made public must bear a proper design notice.(39) Unlike notice of copyright, which is permissive, notice on a vessel hull design is mandatory. The design notice must state that the design is protected and contain the year in which the protection first commenced along “with the name of the owner [of the design], an abbreviation by which the name can be recognized, or a generally accepted alternative designation of the owner.”(40) A distinctive identification of the owner may be substituted for the actual name, provided that the distinctive identification has been previously recorded with the Copyright Office. Once a design has been registered, use of the registration number in place of the date of protection and name of the owner on the design notice is sufficient.(41) A design notice must be affixed to a location on the vessel so as to give “reasonable notice” that the vessel contains a protected design.(42) The owner of a design is entitled to institute an action for infringement of his or her design provided that he or she has first obtained a registration certificate from the Copyright Office.(43) An infringement suit may be brought in Federal(44) court or all of any part of a dispute may be settled by arbitration if the parties to an infringement dispute agree.(45)Remedies available for design infringement include damages, the infringer's profits, attorney's fees, injunctive relief and seizure and forfeiture of the infringing goods.(46) Chapter 13 also sets forth penalties for anyone who brings an infringement action knowing that the registration of the design was obtained through false or fraudulent representation, who knowingly makes a false representation in order to obtain a registration, or who knowingly applies a design notice to an unprotected vessel hull design.(47) The Proposed Legislation H.R. 5055 would make very few changes to Chapter 13. While the Copyright Office takes no position at present with respect to the merits of extending design protection to fashion designs, we believe that if it determined that such protection is warranted, H.R. 5055 in almost all respects strikes the proper balance. 1. Protection for Fashion Designs The major amendment, of course, would be the extension of design protection to fashion designs, by amending § 1301(a) to provide that “A fashion design is subject to protection under this chapter” and by amending § 1302(b) to include “an article of apparel” in the definition of “useful articles” subject to protection. The bill would make clear that for purposes of Chapter 13 a fashion design is the appearance as a whole of an article of apparel, including its ornamentation. The bill elaborates on what would constitute “apparel” for purposes of Chapter 13:(48) an article of men's, women's, or children's clothing, including undergarments, outerwear, gloves, footwear, and headgear; handbags, purses, and tote bags; belts; and eyeglass frames. As noted above, the Copyright Office takes no position at this time as to whether Chapter 13 should be amended to include protection for fashion designs. Proponents of such legislation have provided the Office with anecdotal evidence that fashion designers are harmed by the sale of “knockoffs” of high-end fashion designs. To be persuaded of the need for such legislation, we would have to see more such evidence, as well as some evidence quantifying the nature and extent of the harm suffered by fashion designers due to the lack of legal protection for their designs. To the extent that the Office has been presented with anecdotal evidence, that evidence relates to clothing designs. While there may well be similar evidence relating to the items identified in subparagraphs B, C and D of proposed § 1301(b)(9), the Office currently is not aware of such evidence. (A) Term of Protection In general, the protection for fashion designs would be identical to the existing protection for vessel hull designs, but with some significant exceptions. First, the term of protection for fashion designs would be only 3 years rather than the 10 years of protection offered to vessel hull designs. Proponents of the legislation have explained that the purpose of the legislation is to protect designs of haute couture during the period of time in which such high-end clothing is sold at premium prices of thousands of dollars and to prevent others from marketing clothing with those designs at substantially lower prices during that initial period, thereby undercutting the market for a hot new fashion design. Because the peak demand for such designs is relatively short-lived, a 3-year term is considered adequate to satisfy the designer's reasonable expectation of exclusivity. The Office applauds the proponents of fashion design legislation for seeking a modest term of protection that appears to be calibrated to address the period of time during which fashion designs are most at risk of being infringed and during which fashion designers are most likely be harmed by the sale of infringing goods. The Office would find it difficult to support fashion design legislation that offered such protection for the 10-year term enjoyed by vessel hull designs, but considers the 3-year term to be reasonable, assuming that the proponents of the legislation are able to make the case for protection. (B) Time Frame for Registration Because the term of protection for fashion designs would be significantly shorter than the term of protection for vessel hull designs, existing provisions(49) in Chapter 13 denying protection to a design that is embodied in a useful article that was made public more than 2 years before the application for registration of the design would be amended, with respect to fashion designs but not with respect to vessel hull designs, by changing the 2 year period to a period of 3 months. The purpose of this provision is to require prompt registration of protected designs, which gives notice to the world that design protection is claimed. While registration within 2 years may be considered relatively prompt with respect to vessel hull designs that are protected for a total of 10 years, a 2-year window to register a fashion design that is entitled to protection for only 3 years and that likely is already starting to go “out of fashion” after 2 years would make registration a relatively meaningless formality. Because offering legal protection to fashion designs would be a new form of legal protection and because we have been informed and believe that protection should and would be claimed only for a small proportion of fashion designs—i.e., primarily designs of haute couture for apparel sold at prices of four figures and more—the Office believes that a strong registration requirement as well as the notice requirement currently found in Chapter 13 are essential to any fashion design protection legislation. Competitors should be given clear notice of and opportunity to learn of a designer's claim of protection, so that they may avoid encroaching on the rights of a designer who wishes to claim protection under the new law. A requirement of prompt registration serves that purpose. H.R. 5055 would also amend § 1310(b), which provides that a design is made public (thereby triggering the period in which an application for registration must be made) by clarifying that one of the circumstances that constitute making a design public—when a useful article embodying the design is “offered for sale or sold to the public”—applies to “individual or public sale.” We believe that this amendment is probably declarative of the existing meaning of §1310(b). 4. Provisions Relating to Infringement The bill would also amend Chapter 13 in a few respects that would affect not only fashion designs, but vessel hull designs as well. For example, § 1309, which addresses infringement of protected designs, would be amended in two respects. First, an existing provision that it shall not be an act of infringement to make, import, sell, or distribute, any article embodying a design which was created without knowledge that the design was protected and was copied from such protected design would be amended to provide that the alleged infringer must not have had “reasonable grounds to know that protection for the design is claimed.” The Office considers this to be a reasonable amendment. Section 1309 would also be amended, in subsection (e), to clarify that an infringing article need not be copied directly from an article incorporating the protected design, but may also be copied from an image of the protected design. The Office considers this language to be a mere clarification that is simply declarative of the plain meaning of the existing language of § 1309(e). The final amendment to § 1309 would be more significant. It would add a new subsection (h) that would ensure that the existing doctrines of secondary liability that are part of the copyright law will also apply to design protection under Chapter 13. In our discussions with representatives of fashion designers, we were told of the existence of websites that offer detailed photographs of new fashion designs immediately after those designs have appeared for the first time on the runways of major fashion houses. Such websites apparently charge subscription fees and serve a clientele of clothing manufacturers who design knockoffs based on the photographs appearing on the websites. Early drafts of this legislation would have provided for liability for publishing such photographs. We believed that such a provision would encounter significant First Amendment problems and might deter reasonable and desirable news reporting. We suggested that a preferable means of addressing the problem would be to clarify that the doctrines of secondary liability such as contributory infringement, vicarious liability, and inducement of infringement as recently addressed in Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Studios, Inc. v. Grokster, Ltd.,(50) apply under the design protection law. This provision makes sense not only as a more reasonable way of addressing the problem of publication of photographs to facilitate infringement, but also as a general matter of sound policy. The same policy considerations that have led to the adoption of these doctrines of secondary liability in the law of copyright would appear to apply equally with respect to design protection. 5. Examination by the Copyright Office Another provision—requested by the Office—would amend §1313(a), which currently provides that when the Copyright Office examines an application for registration of a design, that examination involves a determination whether or not the application relates to a design which on its face appears to be subject to protection under this chapter. The amendment would replace “subject to protection under this chapter” with “within the subject matter protected under this chapter,” clarifying that the Office does not make judgments as to whether a particular design is sufficiently original or distinctive to qualify for protection, but rather examines the depiction of the design to ensure that it relates to the type of design (currently, a design of a vessel) protected under Chapter 13. Since the Office commenced its registration of vessel hull designs over 7 years ago, the Office has generally refrained from passing judgment on what is or is not an “original” design or a design that makes a vessel hull “attractive or distinctive,” requirements for protection under § 1301(a). The Office has no expertise in the design of vessels and cannot judge what is “original” in a vessel hull design. Moreover, the statute offers no clear guidance that would assist the Office in judging what is “attractive or distinctive” to the public in a vessel hull design. In contrast, the Office has made determinations, applying the statutory criteria, as to whether a particular design is a design of a vessel hull. Occasionally, the Office has rejected an application because, in the Office's judgement, it does not relate to the design of a vessel hull - e.g., when it is apparent that the design does not relate to a craft “that is designed and capable of independently steering a course on or through water through its own means of propulsion” and “that is designed and capable of carrying and transporting one or more passengers.”(51) The Office's experience with vessel hull registration has persuaded the Office that a statutory clarification of the Office's examining function would be desirable. Whether a design of a vessel hull meets these statutory requirements is more appropriately determined by a court of law, in an adversary proceeding in which evidence is presented (including the possibility of expert testimony) that permits a more informed determination on these matters. 6. Cancellation The Office also requests that the Subcommittee consider an additional amendment not currently included in H.R. 5055: the repeal of §1313(e), which provides for an administrative inter partes cancellation proceeding in the Copyright Office. We believe that disputes between a designer and a third party over whether the designer is entitled to claim protection in the design of a vessel hull or an article of apparel are best resolved in the courts, which are better equipped to weigh the evidence and make such determinations. Indeed, Chapter 13 already gives the courts the power to cancel registrations. (52) Removing the administrative cancellation provision would not remove the possibility of cancellation, but would simply ensure that such determinations are made by the institutions that are most competent to make them. 7. Recovery for Infringement The proposed legislation would also revise the existing provision governing damages for infringement. Section 1323(a) currently provides: Damages. - Upon a finding for the claimant in an action for infringement under this chapter, the court shall award the claimant damages adequate to compensate for the infringement. In addition, the court may increase the damages to such amount, not exceeding $50,000 or $1 per copy, whichever is greater, as the court determines to be just. The damages awarded shall constitute compensation and not a penalty. The court may receive expert testimony as an aid to the determination of damages. H.R. 5055 would increase the amounts set forth in § 1323(a) to “250,000 or $5 per copy.” We note that the effect of this amendment would be that the “increased” damages available under Chapter 13 would exceed the maximum award of statutory damages available for copyright infringement, which is only $150,000 in cases of willful infringement. While the Office takes no position at present as to whether, in principle, an award of $250,000 should be permitted under this provision of Chapter 13, Congress should not enact such a provision in a vacuum, without giving due consideration to the analogous provision in the Copyright Act. We are not suggesting that the maximum award of statutory damages should necessarily be increased, but only that we are skeptical that the maximum award for infringement of a protected design should exceed the maximum award for copyright infringement. In any event, the Office considers the existing § 1323(a) to be hopelessly confusing. In its first sentence, § 1323(a) provides for an award of “damages adequate to compensate for the infringement.” In the second sentence, § 1323(a) permits the court to increase the damages to up to $50,000 or $1 per copy (which H.R. 5055 would increase to $250,000 or $5 per copy) as the court determines to be just. And in its final sentence, § 1323(a) states that the damages awarded “shall constitute compensation and not a penalty,” suggesting that if the court has correctly calculated the damages under the first sentence, there will be no occasion in which the court may increase the damages under the second. The Office recommends that Congress consider a complete revision of § 1323(a) that would offer clearer guidance relating to the calculation of damages for infringement. It may well be that the second sentence of this provision serves no purpose if indeed the damages it provides for are purely compensatory. In contrast, it may be that the statute should be clarified to permit an award beyond mere compensation in certain cases—e.g., cases involving willful infringement. 8. Savings Clause The final amendment included in H.R. 5055 would amend the savings clause, § 1330, which currently provides that nothing in Chapter 13 shall annul or limit common law or other rights or remedies, if any, available to or held by any person with respect to a design which has not been registered under this chapter; or any right under the trademark laws or any right protected against unfair competition. The amendment would add a third class or rights not affected by any provisions of Chapter 13: any rights that may exist under provisions of this title other than this chapter. We believe this is a sensible amendment. In fact, with respect to fashion designs, there will be certain circumstances in which a fashion design might obtain some protection under the copyright law. Although articles of clothing are useful articles and therefore enjoy limited if any copyright protection,(53) there will be some instances in which a fashion design, or at least certain aspects of a fashion design, would enjoy some degree of copyright protection. Offering sui generis protection to fashion designs should not result in any diminution of whatever copyright protection might exist for such designs. 9. No Retroactive Effect In reviewing H.R. 5055 as this hearing approached, the Office has identified an additional amendment that should be considered. Section 1332 provides: Protection under this chapter shall not be available for any design that has been made public under section 1310(b) before the effective date of this chapter. The effective date of Chapter 13 was October 23, 1998. The purpose of § 1332 was to provide for protection of vessel hull designs prospectively, but to deny protection to designs that had been made public before the legislation was effective. H.R. 5055 contains no provision amending § 1332, meaning that if enacted, it would offer protection to fashion designs that had been made public prior to its enactment. Presumably, the same judgment that Congress made in extending protection to vessel hull designs should apply in extending protection to fashion designs, and§ 1332 should be amended to deny protection for any fashion designs that have been made public before the effective date of H.R. 5055. Should Fashion Design Legislation be Enacted? As stated above, the Office does not yet have sufficient information to make any judgment whether fashion design legislation is desirable. Proponents of legislation have come forward with some anecdotal evidence of harm that fashion designers have suffered as a result of copying of their designs, but we have not yet seen sufficient evidence to be persuaded that there is a need for legislation. We look forward to the Subcommittee's hearing, at which proponents of the legislation will have an opportunity to make their case and at which the voices of other affected parties can be heard. If the case is made for fashion design protection, we believe that H.R. 5055 offers an appropriate, balanced legislative proposal. We have suggested some minor amendments that we believe would improve the legislation, and we believe that some of the amendments included in H.R. 5055 and in our statement above are worthy of consideration whether or not fashion design legislation is enacted.(54) As always, the Office would be pleased to assist the Subcommittee as it continues its consideration of this legislation. 5. A more detailed account of the history of design protection legislation can be found in the written statement of Ralph Oman, then-Register of Copyrights, submitted to this Subcommittee on September 27, 1990. Industrial Design Protection: Hearings Before the Subcomm. on Courts, Intellectual Property, and the Administration of Justice of the House Comm. on the Judiciary, 101st Cong., 2d Sess., on H.R. 902, H.R. 3017 and H.R. 3499, at 436 (1991). 11. The Copyright Act defines “useful article” as “an article having an intrinsic utilitarian function that is not merely to portray the appearance of the article or to convey information. An article that is normally part of a useful article is considered a 'useful article'.” 17 U.S.C. § 101 (definition of “useful article”). 16. In order to register a copyright claim in the design of a useful article, the Copyright Office requires pictorial, graphic or sculptural features that are either physically separable or “while physically inseparable by ordinary means from the utilitarian item, are nevertheless clearly recognizable as a pictorial, graphic or sculptural work which can be visualized on paper, for example, or as a free-standing sculpture, as another example, independent of the shape of the useful article . . . .” Compendium II of Copyright Office Practices § 505.03 (1984). 23. The following description of the existing vessel hull design protection law is taken largely from the November 2003 joint study by the Copyright Office and the Patent and Trademark Office, The Vessel Hull Design Protection Act: Overview and Analysis, available at http://www.copyright.gov/reports/vhdpa-report.pdf. 53. See Id. § 101 (definition of “pictorial, graphic and sculptural works”: “the design of a useful article, as defined in this section, shall be considered a pictorial, graphic, or sculptural work only if, and only to the extent that, such design incorporates pictorial, graphic, or sculptural features that can be identified separately from, and are capable of existing independently of, the utilitarian aspects of the article.”). See also the discussion above relating to copyright protection for the designs of useful articles.

While the Copyright Office takes no position at present with respect to the merits of extending design protection to fashion designs, we believe that if it determined that such protection is warranted, H.R. 5055 in almost all respects strikes the proper balance. 1. Protection for Fashion Designs The major amendment, of course, would be the extension of design protection to fashion designs, by amending § 1301(a) to provide that “A fashion design is subject to protection under this chapter” and by amending § 1302(b) to include “an article of apparel” in the definition of “useful articles” subject to protection. The bill would make clear that for purposes of Chapter 13 a fashion design is the appearance as a whole of an article of apparel, including its ornamentation. The bill elaborates on what would constitute “apparel” for purposes of Chapter 13:(48) an article of men's, women's, or children's clothing, including undergarments, outerwear, gloves, footwear, and headgear; handbags, purses, and tote bags; belts; and eyeglass frames. As noted above, the Copyright Office takes no position at this time as to whether Chapter 13 should be amended to include protection for fashion designs. Proponents of such legislation have provided the Office with anecdotal evidence that fashion designers are harmed by the sale of “knockoffs” of high-end fashion designs. To be persuaded of the need for such legislation, we would have to see more such evidence, as well as some evidence quantifying the nature and extent of the harm suffered by fashion designers due to the lack of legal protection for their designs. To the extent that the Office has been presented with anecdotal evidence, that evidence relates to clothing designs.

no

Intellectual Property

Are fashion designs protected under copyright law?

yes_statement

"fashion" "designs" are "protected" under "copyright" "law".. "copyright" "law" "protects" "fashion" "designs".

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fashion_design_copyright

Fashion design copyright - Wikipedia

Although elements of fashion design copyright may be traced in Europe to as early as the 15th century,[1] as of 2016 most countries (including the United States and the United Kingdom) fashion design does not have the same protection as other creative works (art, film, literature, etc.), because apparel (clothes, shoes, handbags, etc.) are classified as "functional items", excluded from protection by copyright laws. This explains the success of the knockoff businesses to the detriment of both the established labels, as well as of emerging designers, the latter ones being especially damaged, because they rely on relatively few designs.[2] French king Francis I[1] gave out specific privileges related to the production of textiles. By 1711, in Lyon, illegalities were already being defined in regards to fashion materials, and in 1787, in England and Scotland fashion designers had fruitfully pushed their needs for protection into basic legislation. In 1876 Germany began protecting fashion patterns as well as models, and in 2002 European regulation on designs that were new and provided an aspect of fresh character or aesthetic were brought under protection.[3] From 2004 to 2006 the "total production volume for clothing decreased by about 5% each year... [and by] 2006 the European union trade deficit for clothing was at 33.7 billion."[4] These statistics show that while there are benefits of their advanced design legislation, the economic and external factors still hindered their industry growth in ways the U.S. can empathize with. As 2007 came to a close, WIPO, or the World Intellectual Property Organization, had registered twenty-nine international designs.[5] There are some elements of protection of fashion design, with limited effectiveness. The copyright law covers creative elements of fashion designs, such as print patterns. Trademark law protects items with visibly displayed protected logos. Intellectual property laws protect "trade dress", which is an appearance of a product which uniquely identifies its source to the level of a trademark.[2] Some countries introduced other laws to protect fashion design; however, the protection is inconsistent around the world.[2] ...an artistic feature of the design of a useful article is eligible for copyright protection if the feature (1) can be perceived as a two- or three-dimensional work of art separate from the useful article and (2) would qualify as a protectable pictorial, graphic, or sculptural work either on its own or in some other medium if imagined separately from the useful article.[6] Researcher Johanna Blakley argues that the very lack of regulation of fashion design has allowed the fashion industry to do very well economically and has led to the birth of fast fashion and a much faster changing of fashion trends and has enabled pieces of clothing to become pieces of art. She also refers to Tom Ford pointing out that the people who buy cheap lookalikes are a different demographic compared with people who buy the original very high-end products and that while many exclusive designers get copied, also the high end designers often attribute the inspiration of their creations to following street fashion, so the copying is a two-way street.[7]

Although elements of fashion design copyright may be traced in Europe to as early as the 15th century,[1] as of 2016 most countries (including the United States and the United Kingdom) fashion design does not have the same protection as other creative works (art, film, literature, etc.), because apparel (clothes, shoes, handbags, etc.) are classified as "functional items", excluded from protection by copyright laws. This explains the success of the knockoff businesses to the detriment of both the established labels, as well as of emerging designers, the latter ones being especially damaged, because they rely on relatively few designs.[2] French king Francis I[1] gave out specific privileges related to the production of textiles. By 1711, in Lyon, illegalities were already being defined in regards to fashion materials, and in 1787, in England and Scotland fashion designers had fruitfully pushed their needs for protection into basic legislation. In 1876 Germany began protecting fashion patterns as well as models, and in 2002 European regulation on designs that were new and provided an aspect of fresh character or aesthetic were brought under protection.[3] From 2004 to 2006 the "total production volume for clothing decreased by about 5% each year... [and by] 2006 the European union trade deficit for clothing was at 33.7 billion. "[4] These statistics show that while there are benefits of their advanced design legislation, the economic and external factors still hindered their industry growth in ways the U.S. can empathize with. As 2007 came to a close, WIPO, or the World Intellectual Property Organization, had registered twenty-nine international designs.[5] There are some elements of protection of fashion design, with limited effectiveness. The copyright law covers creative elements of fashion designs, such as print patterns. Trademark law protects items with visibly displayed protected logos.

no

Intellectual Property

Are fashion designs protected under copyright law?

yes_statement

"fashion" "designs" are "protected" under "copyright" "law".. "copyright" "law" "protects" "fashion" "designs".

https://www.wipo.int/wipo_magazine/en/2014/03/article_0007.html

Copyright and Fashion: A UK Perspective

Copyright and Fashion: A UK Perspective In 2006, the UK Government formally adopted the term “creative economy” to capture the sense of the wider contribution of the creative industries to economic and social life. Since then, it has increasingly recognized the importance of the creative industries, in particular the fashion industry, as a generator of jobs, wealth and cultural engagement. However, despite its current and future potential importance to the economy, fashion is not awarded the same level of copyright protection as other creative industries. Insofar as the fashion industry thrives on copycat designs and seasonal product lifespans, some question whether it has any desire or need to invoke copyright. However, if the UK's creative industries are to continue to flourish, protection is paramount. In an age where mobile phone cameras, 3D printers and online shopping combine to snap, recreate and sell knock-off products in the time it takes to display a collection at a fashion show, designers need to be able to protect their works just like other artists. Left: Designed by Gracie Wales Bonner, winner of the L’Oréal Professional Talent Award 2014. Right: Designed by Andrew Asai who recently graduated from Central Saint Martins, University of the Arts, London, UK, a world leading center for art and design education.(Photos: Gracie Wales Bonner, BA Fashion, catwalking.com) Does copyright protect fashion? Before considering the extent to which copyright protects fashion, a short word on design rights. Why, you may ask, should copyright protect works of fashion when design rights can protect the appearance of a product? This article does not explore the protection offered by registered designs nor does it argue that they are unimportant; rather it probes the extent to which copyright protects fashion. In principle, every original work is automatically protected under copyright, however, the WIPO-administered Berne Convention for the International Protection of Literary and Artistic Works gives countries some latitude in determining how to protect applied art such as fashion (Article 2(7)). To be protected by copyright in the UK, a work must fall within one of the eight categories set out at s.3 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 ("CDPA"). Logically, a work of fashion should be an original artistic work. Case law, however, does not favor this argument as garments and other works of fashion do not fall neatly into any of the listed sub-categories of artistic works. The most appropriate category, works of artistic craftsmanship, requires a work to be both artistic and a work of craftsmanship. The meaning of "artistic" has been considered in a number of cases. In Hensher v Restawhile, the House of Lords unanimously held that a prototype for a distinctive three-piece lounge suite, which was intended for mass production, was not artistic. The Lords differed in their reasons as to why. Since this case, a baby's cape has been held not to be artistic because there was no intention to create an artistic work and a patchwork bedspread was not deemed to be artistic because although the designs were "pleasing to the eye" they were not sufficiently creative. More relevant still to the fashion industry, sweaters and cardigans were held not to be artistic. Although they had been displayed in the Victoria and Albert Museum, they were exhibited as examples of developments in fashion rather than as works of art. Most recently the High Court has held that the storm trooper helmets used in the Star Wars films were not artistic because their purpose was not aesthetic. The Supreme Court later held that the helmets were not sculptures, and could not be protected in that way either. These cases suggest judges are reluctant to concede that works of fashion could be artistic. The meaning of "artistic" remains difficult to define; as a general rule it seems the work must be aesthetically appealing to the general population or must have been created as an artistic work. Demonstrating "craftsmanship" is easier. Knitting and tapestry-making have been treated as crafts (as were the storm trooper helmets). While works of fashion are likely to be considered works of craftsmanship if they are one-off pieces, the position with respect to mass-produced goods is unclear. In Hensher v Restawhile, Lord Reid and Viscount Dilhorne said that the requirement for craftsmanship implies that a work must be hand-made whereas Lord Simon held that "craftsmanship" cannot be limited to handicraft; nor is the word "artistic" incompatible with machine production. Overall, these cases demonstrate that the threshold for showing that a work is one of artistic craftsmanship is high, meaning that garments are not protected by copyright in the UK. Other countries, including France, Germany and the US, do not have closed list copyright systems; because they don't have to attribute works of fashion to a specific category of protected works they enjoy a broader scope of protection. Is the UK moving towards an open list system? In France, Germany and the US, any work which is original can be protected by copyright. In France, the threshold for originality is a work which "bears the stamp of the author's personality" and in Germany copyright protects "personal intellectual creations". This is similar to the "intellectual creation" test found in the Software Directive, the Database Directive and the Term Directive of the EU. This test was first used in respect of literary works at a European level in Infopaq, a case decided in 2009 concerning the copyright in a digital news reporting service. These cases have enabled the CJEU to migrate from a starting point where only computer programs, databases and broadcasts were harmonized works (see above Directives) and all other subject matter was protected as set out in national legislation, to fully harmonizing the notion of a work, so that anything which is the "author's own intellectual creation" is protected. This is, of course, inconsistent with the closed list approach in the CDPA. Lionel Bently, of Cambridge University, has critically defined this process as "harmonization by stealth". If the harmonized notion of a protected work is implemented in the UK, this could dramatically expand the scope for fashion designers to use copyright to protect their works. The test was considered in relation to originality by the High Court in Newspaper Licensing Agency v Meltwater. It found that the test for originality had been "re-stated but for present purposes not significantly altered by Infopaq". This was confirmed by the Court of Appeal. Subsequently in Temple Island Collections Ltd v New English Teas Ltd, the "red bus case", the then Patents County Court (now the Intellectual Property and Enterprise Court) was asked to consider whether copyright subsisted in the composition of a photograph of a red bus travelling over Westminster Bridge, against a monochrome background. It was common ground at trial that, following Infopaq, copyright may subsist in a photograph if it is the author's own "intellectual creation". As the works in this case were photographs, the analysis is in line with the Term Directive, however it is interesting that the court made reference to Infopaq rather than the Term Directive when stating the test. These cases indicate that the harmonized test for originality now applies in the UK; it therefore seemed likely that the harmonized notion of a work would also apply. However, when SAS Institute v World Programming Ltd returned from the CJEU to the High Court, Mr. Justice Arnold held otherwise saying that just because something was an intellectual creation it was not necessarily a work. The Court of Appeal dismissed the subsequent appeal but failed to address this point, leaving open the question of whether the intellectual creation test defines a protectable work in the UK. Protection in the US In the US, original works of authorship are protected by copyright. The test is whether they contain a "modicum of creativity". One of the main differences in the US is that the US Copyright Office operates a voluntary registration system for copyright – in line with the Berne Convention (Article 5(2)). Federal registration presumes ownership and validity, and crucially is necessary to file an infringement action. US law also provides for a fair use exception which is broader than the fair dealing exceptions seen in Europe. Fair use is an old doctrine which was codified by s.107 of the Copyright Act 1976. The question of whether use is fair is determined on the facts of each case, however the general principle is that the use must add to society or be "transformative". The US system therefore allows for works of fashion to be more easily protected than in the UK, and for registration, enabling designers to publically stake a claim in their designs. However it also permits a broader use of protected works before such use is deemed infringing. The Innovative Design Protection Act, more commonly known as the "Fashion Bill", was originally introduced to Congress in 2006, however 2012 saw its sixth, and likely final, failure to make law, meaning that legislative change in the US is unlikely any time soon. Perfumes If all "intellectual creations" were protected by copyright in the UK an example of a product that might benefit from protection is perfume – a global multi-billion dollar industry. While trade mark law and passing off may serve to protect a perfume's name and packaging (and even use of descriptors of the scent) it is not currently possible, in the UK, for fashion houses to protect the perfume itself. In other jurisdictions perfumes are already protected by copyright. In 2006, in Lancome Parfums v Kecofa BV, the Dutch Supreme Court held that Trésor by Lancôme was protected by copyright (see Copyright in the Courts: Perfume as Artistic Expression?). Dutch copyright law, which like French law follows a civil law tradition, therefore protects original works which bear the stamp of the author's personality. For a creation to qualify as a protected work, it suffices that it be expressed in a manner "perceptible to the senses". In this case, the Dutch Supreme Court concluded that while a perfume's scent was "too fleeting and variable and dependent on the environment," to be protected by copyright, the liquid making up the perfume was "sufficiently concrete and stable" to be considered a work. Since the liquid satisfies the perception requirement under Dutch law and perfume is a creative composition, it may be protected by copyright. In the same year, the French Cour de cassation held that perfume could not be protected by copyright as it was not sufficiently creative. In Bsiri-Barbir v Haarman & Reimer, the Cour de cassation ruled that perfumes are not eligible for protection under French copyright law because they "are a product of the application of purely technical knowledge and lack, therefore a discernible association with the individual personalities of their creators." The court was of the view that perfume makers were artisans, or craftsmen, rather than artists. It is ironic that in France a work is not protected if it is a work of craftsmanship whereas in the UK designers must try to demonstrate exactly the opposite. The Cour de cassation has since confirmed, in Beaute Prestige Int'l v. Senteur Mazal, that French copyright does not protect perfumes. Notwithstanding the inconsistencies surrounding the protection of perfume, fashion houses would find it easier to use copyright to protect works of fashion if the requirement that a copyright work fall within one of the eight categories set out at s.1 CDPA were abolished. This would be a radical change to copyright law in the UK, but it is a change which is currently a real possibility. In the UK, the political climate and the application of recent CJEU case law combine to create the potential for copyright law to change dramatically. If a judge were to confirm that, following Infopaq, any work which is the author's own intellectual creation is protected under English law this would open the door for fashion designers to argue that shoes, hats, clothes, perfume and make-up should all be protected by copyright. It seems fair, given the creative and original nature of works produced by the fashion industry, that copyright should extend in some form to protect fashion. It is up to the fashion industry to mould that argument in its favor and to maximize the opportunity presented by the current uncertainty surrounding the definition of a copyright work. To stay ahead of the game in fashion, the law in the UK needs to be updated; otherwise the UK's young designers and fledgling businesses may choose to launch in more favorable jurisdictions. The WIPO Magazine is intended to help broaden public understanding of intellectual property and of WIPO’s work, and is not an official document of WIPO. The designations employed and the presentation of material throughout this publication do not imply the expression of any opinion whatsoever on the part of WIPO concerning the legal status of any country, territory or area or of its authorities, or concerning the delimitation of its frontiers or boundaries. This publication is not intended to reflect the views of the Member States or the WIPO Secretariat. The mention of specific companies or products of manufacturers does not imply that they are endorsed or recommended by WIPO in preference to others of a similar nature that are not mentioned.

Professional Talent Award 2014. Right: Designed by Andrew Asai who recently graduated from Central Saint Martins, University of the Arts, London, UK, a world leading center for art and design education.(Photos: Gracie Wales Bonner, BA Fashion, catwalking.com) Does copyright protect fashion? Before considering the extent to which copyright protects fashion, a short word on design rights. Why, you may ask, should copyright protect works of fashion when design rights can protect the appearance of a product? This article does not explore the protection offered by registered designs nor does it argue that they are unimportant; rather it probes the extent to which copyright protects fashion. In principle, every original work is automatically protected under copyright, however, the WIPO-administered Berne Convention for the International Protection of Literary and Artistic Works gives countries some latitude in determining how to protect applied art such as fashion (Article 2(7)). To be protected by copyright in the UK, a work must fall within one of the eight categories set out at s.3 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 ("CDPA"). Logically, a work of fashion should be an original artistic work. Case law, however, does not favor this argument as garments and other works of fashion do not fall neatly into any of the listed sub-categories of artistic works. The most appropriate category, works of artistic craftsmanship, requires a work to be both artistic and a work of craftsmanship. The meaning of "artistic" has been considered in a number of cases. In Hensher v Restawhile, the House of Lords unanimously held that a prototype for a distinctive three-piece lounge suite, which was intended for mass production, was not artistic. The Lords differed in their reasons as to why. Since this case, a baby's cape has been held not to be artistic because there was no intention to create an artistic work and a patchwork bedspread was not deemed to be artistic because although the designs were "pleasing to the eye" they were not sufficiently creative. More relevant still to the fashion industry, sweaters and cardigans were held not to be artistic.

no

Intellectual Property

Are fashion designs protected under copyright law?

yes_statement

"fashion" "designs" are "protected" under "copyright" "law".. "copyright" "law" "protects" "fashion" "designs".

https://law.stanford.edu/publications/no-58-comparison-of-the-intellectual-property-protections-available-for-fashion-designs-in-the-u-s-and-the-eu/

No. 58: Comparison of the Intellectual Property Protections Available ...

No. 58: Comparison of the Intellectual Property Protections Available for Fashion Designs in the U.S. and the EU Details Author(s): Dagmar Strukelj Publish Date: June 12, 2020 Publication Title: TTLF Working Papers Publisher: Stanford Law School Format: Working Paper Citation(s): Dagmar Strukelj, Comparison of the Intellectual Property Protections Available for Fashion Designs in the U.S. and the EU, TTLF Working Papers No. 58, Stanford-Vienna Transatlantic Technology Law Forum (2020). Abstract The fashion industry is a fast-paced industry in which imitation is very common and to some extent desirable because it spurs creativity. However, the issues of imitation practices and copying have generated much debate among legal scholars. On the one hand, under a utilitarian perspective some scholars find all copying activities permissible and even crucial for the dissemination of high fashion designs to lower income consumers and for the development of new trends. They claim that protection for fashion designs from copying is unnecessary because the U.S. fashion industry is booming even without copying restrictions. On the other hand, their critics point out that, although design piracy is not a new phenomenon, counterfeiting is due to a rise of new technologies that make it easier and faster than ever before, and morally and economically disincentivize designers from further innovation. Furthermore, they emphasize that: first, widespread and copied items damage consumers’ expectations to signal that they belong to a superior class by owning a luxury item; and second, the prevalence of designer copies disables satisfying the needs of uniqueness-seeking consumers, whose desire is primarily to express their unique personal style without necessary communicating a status. The importance of protecting the interests and satisfying the needs of all types of consumers is another reason why strong IP protection should be in place. Today, unlike in the EU, the U.S. does not offer sui generis protection for fashion designers, which has led to design copying, as mentioned above, becoming a serious problem. The EU offers Unregistered Community Design (UCD), which offers three- year protection, and Registered Community Design (RCD), a 25-year protection for designs that are expected to stay in the market for a longer time. In contrast, U.S. law does not provide short-term protection similar to the EU’s UCD. Apart from RCD and UCD, the EU also protects fashion designs under copyright law, while in the U.S. fashion designs are regarded as useful articles and thus excluded from any copyright law shield. In the U.S., designs could be protected by design patent rights, but patent protection is less adequate for a fast-paced fashion industry because of the length of time required to obtain a patent protection and the patent preconditions of novelty and non-obviousness. The expensive procedures for obtaining a patent could be especially detrimental for emerging designers who do not have sufficient financial means to pursue a patent. Different studies have shown that designers rely merely on trademark and trade dress to protect themselves against design piracy. However, trademark law offers protection for goodwill and reputation, but it is not available for the cut of a garment.

They claim that protection for fashion designs from copying is unnecessary because the U.S. fashion industry is booming even without copying restrictions. On the other hand, their critics point out that, although design piracy is not a new phenomenon, counterfeiting is due to a rise of new technologies that make it easier and faster than ever before, and morally and economically disincentivize designers from further innovation. Furthermore, they emphasize that: first, widespread and copied items damage consumers’ expectations to signal that they belong to a superior class by owning a luxury item; and second, the prevalence of designer copies disables satisfying the needs of uniqueness-seeking consumers, whose desire is primarily to express their unique personal style without necessary communicating a status. The importance of protecting the interests and satisfying the needs of all types of consumers is another reason why strong IP protection should be in place. Today, unlike in the EU, the U.S. does not offer sui generis protection for fashion designers, which has led to design copying, as mentioned above, becoming a serious problem. The EU offers Unregistered Community Design (UCD), which offers three- year protection, and Registered Community Design (RCD), a 25-year protection for designs that are expected to stay in the market for a longer time. In contrast, U.S. law does not provide short-term protection similar to the EU’s UCD. Apart from RCD and UCD, the EU also protects fashion designs under copyright law, while in the U.S. fashion designs are regarded as useful articles and thus excluded from any copyright law shield. In the U.S., designs could be protected by design patent rights, but patent protection is less adequate for a fast-paced fashion industry because of the length of time required to obtain a patent protection and the patent preconditions of novelty and non-obviousness. The expensive procedures for obtaining a patent could be especially detrimental for emerging designers who do not have sufficient financial means to pursue a patent. Different studies have shown that designers rely merely on trademark and trade dress to protect themselves against design piracy.

no

Intellectual Property

Are fashion designs protected under copyright law?

yes_statement

"fashion" "designs" are "protected" under "copyright" "law".. "copyright" "law" "protects" "fashion" "designs".

https://www.newmediarights.org/business_models/artist/can_you_copyright_clothing_designs

Can you copyright clothing designs? | New Media Rights

Can you copyright clothing designs? Yes, sometimes, but in most cases, no. As with every legal question, there’s alwaysgeneral rule and then a mountain of exceptions to that rule. The extent that clothing can be copyrighted is one of those questions that lawyers and judges are still testing the limits of even today. It might be a fashion faux-pas to copy someone’s style, but it may be a surprise to learn that making a direct or substantially similar copy of clothing, in many circumstances is legal, because clothing designs are rarely protected by copyright law specifically. To understand how the rules work, it’s good to keep in mind that the general policy of copyright law is to encourage creativity so the public can benefit from that creativity. Because the law exists for the public’s benefit, not to make creators rich, it strikes a balance between giving creators enough rights so that they’ll have an incentive to continue to create, and making those rights limited and temporary enough so that the public can start adding onto the creations and advance culture, technology, and society. If phrases like, “Barack Obama is the 44th president of the United States” or “Turn the screw with a Phillips head screwdriver counterclockwise” could be copyrighted, no one could write a political blog or instructions to build furniture without paying huge licensing fees. This relates to fashion because courts have concluded that clothing is non-copyrightable for the exact same reason that those phrases are non-protectable, because clothing serves a utilitarian purpose. Yes, clothing does look nice, but its primary purpose—at least in the law’s eyes—is that it keeps us warm, keeps our delicate feet from being cut up by rocks, and covers us up enough so that we meet public community decency standards. Courts interpreting the copyright law have concluded that these utilitarian uses outweigh clothing’s ornamental features. Keeping in mind that things that are functional and utilitarian can’t be copyrighted, it’s easy to see why the cuts of dresses often don’t meet the requisite levels of originality to deserve copyright protection. Not even something as seemingly original as a Halloween costume is protectable. While it’s common sense to assume the main purpose of a Halloween costume is to look scary or sexy (or both at the same time), the law rarely falls directly in line with common sense. In the eyes of the law, even Halloween costumes serve the same utilitarian purpose that all other clothing does: to prevent nakedness. A. Some elements of clothing are fully protectable by copyright laws. The seemingly simple rule that clothing can’t be protected gets more complicated when you learn the major exception to it: “Features that can be identified separately from, and are capable of existing independently of, the utilitarian aspects of [clothing]” can be protected by copyright. It might be helpful to clarify this using the language from an important case on the subject, Brandir International, Inc. v. Cascade Pacific Lumber Co: “if design elements reflect a merger of aesthetic and functional considerations, the artistic aspects of a work cannot be said to be conceptually separable from the utilitarian elements. Conversely, where design elements can be identified as reflecting the designer's artistic judgment exercised independently of functional influences, conceptual separability exists.” To clarify this further: when a portion of your clothing, if taken off the clothing, could independently meet the requirements for copyright protection then that portion can be protected by copyright. For example, in Kieselstein-Cord v. Accessories by Pearl, Inc, the court needed to determine whether a designer belt buckle could receive copyright protection. The question came down to whether a designer belt buckle has a visual function that is not tied directly to its utilitarian function of holding a belt together. The court found that generally “sculptured designs cast in precious metals—decorative in nature and used as jewelry,” were separate enough to be protected by copyright even though belts were not generally protected. Here’s a counterexample where a sculpted design was not protected because the court found that it was utilitarian: In Carol Barnhart Inc. v. Economy Cover Corp, mannequins of the human torso with hollowed backs were denied copyright protection because the court believed that the design of the mannequins was dictated entirely by their utilitarian function as mannequins (which is to display clothes). B. Clothes may be protected by patent or trademark law. Clothes and elements of clothing can sometimes be protected by other laws like patent or trademark law. Keep in mind, though, that clothing rarely meets the standards to be patented, and in the unlikely context that it is patented, patent law will protect the clothing very narrowly. Utility patents and design patents are also potentially available if a clothing design is a “new and non-obvious” and provides some sort of novel function. Generally for normal, standard clothing items (shirts, dresses, hats, socks), design patents will be inapplicable. Fabric prints can have copyright protection. While “there is no copyright in the cut of the cloth, or the design of the skirt or jacket as a whole, since these articles are utilitarian,” the print found on the fabric of clothing is copyrightable to the extent it meets the three requirements for protection: fixation, expression, and originality, since fabric patterns exist separately from the utilitarian nature of the clothing. If you think about this logically, it makes sense. After all, it doesn’t matter whether a design is printed on a piece of fabric or printed on a canvas and displayed in a museum, as long as it meets the minimum requirements for copyright protection, it’s be protected. If you have T-shirts with original graphics on them that you made or paid to be made, then the law protects you from others’ copying/distributing/selling that graphic itself without your permission. If you plan on using the design on the shirt commercially, you could consider registering the copyright to take advantage of all of the benefits of registration. D. Changes in the law An official caucus on fashion was formed on Capitol Hill with the express purpose of pushing legislation through Congress that would stifle the knockoff industry, something that has been driving the CFDA (Councils of Fashion Designers of America) mad for ages. "We are working on a bill now for copyright protection and we are going to pass it this session," fashion caucus co-chair Carolyn B. Maloney (D., N.Y.) told WWD. If passed, the new bill would allow designers to register apparel, handbags, footwear, belts, and eyeglass frames for three years of copyright protection. E. Trademark and patent law relating to clothing In its simplest terms, trademark law protects against people trying to confuse customers into thinking they’re buying something that they’re not. Trademark law is not about prohibiting copied designs; it’s about prohibiting copied “labels” that mislead consumers into believing a copied design is an original. Counterfeits and fake labels “are absolutely prohibited by law, but it doesn’t provide any protection for the same fashion design when the pirates omit the label . . . One of the challenges we have is that people will go to a show and just sketch it, and by the end of the day, print it out and ship it out on the Internet to another country to make a copy of it.” [Amy Odell, http://nymag.com/daily/fashion/2010/05/fashion_caucus_determined_to_c.html] To complicate things a little bit, once a clothing design gets so well known that consumers associate that design only with that single designer that makes it, a design itself can receive trademark protection as well. That protection will prohibit anyone from copying the design directly. It will also allow the trademark holder to seize and destroy counterfeit direct copies of the product that might be brought into the country. However, clothing designs generally only gain trademark protection in the long term, after widespread sale and advertising. This is a very difficult hurdle for clothing designers to surmount, particularly because by the time the design is eligible trademark protection, it may already be out of style. Design patents are also potentially available if a clothing design is a "new and non-obvious" and provides some sort of novel utility. Generally, standard clothing (like shirts, dresses, hats) will not be eligible for design patents. The name of your clothing line, if you have one, would be most likely to be protected by trademark laws. However, it's necessary to have comprehensive research on the mark done prior to filing to ensure that there is no possibility of infringing upon another party’s trademark. Once a logo or design gets trademark or trade dress status, the mark can be registered with the U.S. Customs Office. Once registered, if someone attempts to import any clothing design featuring those marks without authorization, the U.S. Customs will seize it. This is how producers of high-profile brands manufactured abroad keep counterfeit fakes and grey-market versions of their products out of the United States. If you are a clothing designer with questions about the extent your designs or you’re a journalist interested in the proposed changes to the law, feel free to contact New Media Rights via our contact form to find out whether you qualify for free or reduced fee legal services. We also offer competitive full fee legal services on a selective basis. For more information on the services we provide click here. In our new book, we focus on issues you may encounter from the inception of your business to the moment (that hopefully doesn’t happen) you get a nasty lawyer letter for the first time. You’ll learn how to form your business, protect your intellectual property, and avoid problems when launching your project. Taking a few simple steps upfront to protect your business or project can save time and money down the road. Don't Panic has also been used in undergraduate & graduate classes nationwide to teach business and legal concepts to non-lawyers. Professors can request a FREE evaluation copy

If you think about this logically, it makes sense. After all, it doesn’t matter whether a design is printed on a piece of fabric or printed on a canvas and displayed in a museum, as long as it meets the minimum requirements for copyright protection, it’s be protected. If you have T-shirts with original graphics on them that you made or paid to be made, then the law protects you from others’ copying/distributing/selling that graphic itself without your permission. If you plan on using the design on the shirt commercially, you could consider registering the copyright to take advantage of all of the benefits of registration. D. Changes in the law An official caucus on fashion was formed on Capitol Hill with the express purpose of pushing legislation through Congress that would stifle the knockoff industry, something that has been driving the CFDA (Councils of Fashion Designers of America) mad for ages. "We are working on a bill now for copyright protection and we are going to pass it this session," fashion caucus co-chair Carolyn B. Maloney (D., N.Y.) told WWD. If passed, the new bill would allow designers to register apparel, handbags, footwear, belts, and eyeglass frames for three years of copyright protection. E. Trademark and patent law relating to clothing In its simplest terms, trademark law protects against people trying to confuse customers into thinking they’re buying something that they’re not. Trademark law is not about prohibiting copied designs; it’s about prohibiting copied “labels” that mislead consumers into believing a copied design is an original. Counterfeits and fake labels “are absolutely prohibited by law, but it doesn’t provide any protection for the same fashion design when the pirates omit the label . . . One of the challenges we have is that people will go to a show and just sketch it, and by the end of the day, print it out and ship it out on the Internet to another country to make a copy of it.” [Amy Odell, http://nymag.com/daily/fashion/2010/05/fashion_

yes

Intellectual Property

Are fashion designs protected under copyright law?

yes_statement

"fashion" "designs" are "protected" under "copyright" "law".. "copyright" "law" "protects" "fashion" "designs".

https://fashionindustrylaw.com/2021/08/19/how-the-european-union-tries-to-protect-fashion-designs/

How the European Union Tries to Protect Fashion Designs – The ...

How the European Union Tries to Protect Fashion Designs Being home to Paris and Milan, the European Union (“EU”) has every reason to draft its laws to protect fashion designers and their works with particular care. An efficient way of protecting fashion designs is through the Unregistered Community[1] design, which protects design works without requiring any registration process for a limited period of three years (instead of the five years of protection, with renewals, given to registered designs[2]). As the fashion industry often depends on short-lived, seasonal designs, many designers have concluded that the burden of going through the registration process each season is not worth the trouble. However, design law is not the only way to protect fashion designs. In fact, a fashion design can also be protected by copyright. The EU has set ground rules regarding the interaction between copyright and design law. One could expect that it would be extremely difficult to set such rules for twenty-seven jurisdictions with local laws and rules that differ considerably for cultural or historical reasons, but that has long been the challenge of a united Europe in so many different ways. For example, Italy and Germany grant copyright protection to fashion design works on the condition that the work be of superior artistic value pursuant to the scindibilità principle in Italy and the Stufentheorie in Germany. In contrast, France does not require such a showing of artistic value because a 1793 statute prohibits imposing such a requirement. The French rationale is that, if superior artistic value were to be considered in granting copyright protection, the judge would effectively act as an art critic or, at the very least, expert witnesses would have to be called to testify on the question of superior artistic value, thereby enabling art critics to influence copyright law in unforeseeable ways. So how does the EU deal with such differences? In the Cofomel case (Cofemel v G-Star Raw, C-683/17 – Sept 12, 2019), the Court of Justice ultimately chose to follow the French rule and held that, if the law of a member state were to require a showing of some sort of “aesthetic” value for a design to be eligible for copyright protection, that would contradict the requirement of objectivity (as to taste and art) as mandated under EU law. The Cofomel case had been initiated by the highest Portuguese court, which asked the Court of Justice if it should be inferred from Article 2(a) of the InfoSoc Directive[3] that member states are not allowed to interpret the word “work” in conformity with their own copyright law definitions. The answer was “Yes.” The notion of work in Article 2(a) is an independent EU notion that is not subject to interpretation by member states. Therefore, EU courts are not bound by the states’ own interpretation of the word work and will disregard any national requirement that a work have superior artistic value for it to receive copyright protection. As a result, EU law can be said to prohibit member states from denying copyright protection to designs that meet the requirements for copyright protection – including designs other than registered ones (subject to Article 17 of the Design Directive). That raises a theoretical question: would a fashion designer in Milan–whose work does not qualify for copyright protection under Italian law–have to move to Paris to benefit from French copyright law? Fortunately, the answer here is “No.” In the Flos case (CJEU Jan. 27, Flos SpA v Semeraro Casa e Famiglia SpA,C-168/09), the Court of Justice held that, although unprotected under Italian copyright law, the work in dispute was entitled to protection under EU copyright law regardless of which jurisdiction is the base of its designer. Ironically, the single standard in examining eligibility for copyright protection has given rise to the double protection of fashion design works – by copyright law and design law – because if a work satisfies the EU requirements for copyright protection, the protection is granted regardless of its use as protectible a fashion design. However, double protection means that there are two statutory tools available; for copyright purposes, the work is still subject to the three-step test for protection. That test emerged by treaty (known commonly by the acronym TRIPS) permits restrictive measures: in certain special cases, that do not conflict with the normal exploitation of the work; and that do not unreasonably prejudice the legitimate interests of the author/rights holder. In a way, that test is similar to the concept of fair use in the United States in that it gives leeway for a judge to decide what counts as a legitimate use of a copyrighted work in the absence of explicit permission. For a minority of French academics, a European law of fair use can be inferred from the test. However, the EU is not ready to do so at this time.[4] The Court of Justice is apparently trying to avoid the effects of liberal and often unpredictable interpretations of copyright exceptions such as the fair use exception has seen in the United States. Nonetheless, the Court of Justice did get some inspiration from the American fair use doctrine in the Nintendo case (CJEU Spt. 27 2017, Nintendo Co. Ltd v BigBen Interactive GmbH and BigBen Interactive SA, Joined Cases C-24/16 and C-25/16). There, the court defined the concept of “citation,” stating that Big Ben (a video game accessory seller) was merely “citing” Nintendo’s work in order to explain how to use its products on a video game console. The court therefore concluded that Big Ben’s use of a protected graphic design owned by Nintendo in order to explain or demonstrate the use of its accessories with Nintendo products was a legitimate, non-commercial use and did not constitute copyright or design law infringement, even without prior authorization from Nintendo. It is clear that the Court got this idea from the fair use and fair dealing concepts of US law. Although the EU does not formally recognize a broad judge-made exception to copyright and design law protection, the Court of Justice was still willing to create an exception in order to tidy up its own law. What that potentially means is that, when considering protection of designs in Europe, start your analysis at the EU level and work down from there to the individual national legal systems that may be involved. And, as with so much of design law worldwide, be prepared to expect the unexpected. Share this: By Fashion Industry Law Blog The Fashion Industry Law Blog is a publication of Phillips Nizer LLP, a mid-sized, full service law firm headquartered in New York City. To read about the Fashion Law Practice, please follow this link: http://www.phillipsnizer.com/industry/fashion_ind.cfm About This Blog The Fashion Industry Law Blog provides highlights on legal issues, business news and colorful anecdotes related to the fashion and apparel, jewelry, accessories, textiles and related industries. Contributions to our blog are made primarily by members of Phillips Nizer's Fashion Law Practice Group, with additional contributions from related practice areas of the firm and from guest contributors. Search for: Get New Posts By Email Enter your email address to follow this blog and receive notifications of new posts by email. Archives Grab Our Button! Phillips Nizer LLP Interested In Being On Our Mailing List? Disclaimer Attorney Advertising. The information on this blog is provided as a public service to highlight matters of current interest and does not imply an attorney-client relationship. It is not intended to constitute a full review of any subject matter, nor is it a substitute for obtaining specific legal advice from appropriate counsel. Information contained and referenced within all posts appearing on this blog is deemed accurate at the time of publication.

How the European Union Tries to Protect Fashion Designs Being home to Paris and Milan, the European Union (“EU”) has every reason to draft its laws to protect fashion designers and their works with particular care. An efficient way of protecting fashion designs is through the Unregistered Community[1] design, which protects design works without requiring any registration process for a limited period of three years (instead of the five years of protection, with renewals, given to registered designs[2]). As the fashion industry often depends on short-lived, seasonal designs, many designers have concluded that the burden of going through the registration process each season is not worth the trouble. However, design law is not the only way to protect fashion designs. In fact, a fashion design can also be protected by copyright. The EU has set ground rules regarding the interaction between copyright and design law. One could expect that it would be extremely difficult to set such rules for twenty-seven jurisdictions with local laws and rules that differ considerably for cultural or historical reasons, but that has long been the challenge of a united Europe in so many different ways. For example, Italy and Germany grant copyright protection to fashion design works on the condition that the work be of superior artistic value pursuant to the scindibilità principle in Italy and the Stufentheorie in Germany. In contrast, France does not require such a showing of artistic value because a 1793 statute prohibits imposing such a requirement. The French rationale is that, if superior artistic value were to be considered in granting copyright protection, the judge would effectively act as an art critic or, at the very least, expert witnesses would have to be called to testify on the question of superior artistic value, thereby enabling art critics to influence copyright law in unforeseeable ways. So how does the EU deal with such differences?

yes

Intellectual Property

Are fashion designs protected under copyright law?

yes_statement

"fashion" "designs" are "protected" under "copyright" "law".. "copyright" "law" "protects" "fashion" "designs".

https://smithhopen.com/2020/07/30/can-fashion-designs-be-protected-by-ip/

Can Fashion Designs Be Protected By IP? - Smith & Hopen

Can Fashion Designs Be Protected By IP? We have all seen the Spring fashion shows which showcase new designs from the big fashion houses. How do designers protect those designs from possible copycats? In some cases, knock-offs appear for purchase in the U.S. quickly after the shows. How is this possible? The U.S. affords fashion designers more limited protections than in some other countries in the world. For example, the European Union affords protections to unregistered designs for up to three years from the date the design was first made available to the public and up to 25 years of protection for registered designs. Copyright Protection for Separable Design Features In the U.S., copyright protection extends to original works of authorship and gives the owner the exclusive right to reproduce, publish, sell, or distribute such works. These “original works of authorship” include pictorial, graphic and sculptural works. Unfortunately for fashion designers, copyright protection does not extend to utilitarian articles such as clothing. However, under the separability doctrine, if the design of a useful article incorporates pictorial, graphic, or sculptural features that can be identified separately from, and can exist independently of, the utilitarian aspects of the article, these design features can be copyrightable. 17 U.S.C. §101. Star Athletica v. Varsity Brands The Supreme Court further clarified how to implement §101 with regard to clothing designs in Star Athletica, LLC v. Varsity Brands, Inc., 137 S. Ct. 1002 (2017). The Court promulgated a two part test to determine if a design of a useful article is capable of copyright protection. In step 1, the feature is examined to ascertain if it “can be perceived as a two- or three-dimensional work of art separate from the useful article”. In step 2, the feature must be examined to ascertain if it “would qualify as a protectable pictorial, graphic, or sculptural work – either on its own or fixed in some other tangible medium of expression – if it were imagined separately from the useful article into which it is incorporated”. If the answer to both steps is yes, then the design is eligible for copyright protection. The designs in question in this case are below: The Court ruled the surface decorations on the cheerleading uniforms were subject to copyright protections independent from the useful article. The Court made it clear however, that the shape, cut and dimensions of the actual cheerleading uniform were not copyrightable. Design Patents As detailed above, patterns on fabric and designs on clothing can be protected by copyright. How does a fashion designer protect the actual shape and cut of a clothing article? While used mainly to protect accessories such as handbags and shoes, some of the larger fashion houses file design patents on their more unique pieces. Design patents protect the ornamental design of an article of manufacture. A design patent lasts for 15 years from issuance. In general a design patent is easier to obtain than establishing trade dress rights. Trade dress rights require extensive use prior to filing. They also require an acquired distinctiveness or secondary meaning in the article of clothing to show the trade dress is a source indicator. In contrast, for a design patent, the clothing item must be new and unique. The clothing item must not affect the functionality of the article of clothing. The application filing must occur within one year of public disclosure. An example of a figure from a design patent for a dress owned by Stella McCartney Limited is below: In the image, solid lines delineate claimed elements of the clothing item. Broken lines represent features that are not part of the design claim. One caveat with design patent applications is the application covers only a single design in the U.S. unless the variations exhibit only very minor differences. In cases where multiple design embodiments are present in the application, the Patent Office will likely restrict the application to one single design. It may be possible to obtain two or more design patents having differing coverage for a clothing design. Conclusion In conclusion, the U.S. offers fashion designers some IP protection for their creations. Copyright law protects fabric designs and surface decorations in certain situations. For example, copyright protection is available if the design can be perceived as a work of art separate from the utilitarian aspect of the clothing article and the design would qualify as a protectable work if imagined separately from the useful article incorporating it. Design patents protect novel and unique designs. Always consult an experienced intellectual property attorney when protecting rights in your fashion designs to determine the best way to move forward.

The designs in question in this case are below: The Court ruled the surface decorations on the cheerleading uniforms were subject to copyright protections independent from the useful article. The Court made it clear however, that the shape, cut and dimensions of the actual cheerleading uniform were not copyrightable. Design Patents As detailed above, patterns on fabric and designs on clothing can be protected by copyright. How does a fashion designer protect the actual shape and cut of a clothing article? While used mainly to protect accessories such as handbags and shoes, some of the larger fashion houses file design patents on their more unique pieces. Design patents protect the ornamental design of an article of manufacture. A design patent lasts for 15 years from issuance. In general a design patent is easier to obtain than establishing trade dress rights. Trade dress rights require extensive use prior to filing. They also require an acquired distinctiveness or secondary meaning in the article of clothing to show the trade dress is a source indicator. In contrast, for a design patent, the clothing item must be new and unique. The clothing item must not affect the functionality of the article of clothing. The application filing must occur within one year of public disclosure. An example of a figure from a design patent for a dress owned by Stella McCartney Limited is below: In the image, solid lines delineate claimed elements of the clothing item. Broken lines represent features that are not part of the design claim. One caveat with design patent applications is the application covers only a single design in the U.S. unless the variations exhibit only very minor differences. In cases where multiple design embodiments are present in the application, the Patent Office will likely restrict the application to one single design. It may be possible to obtain two or more design patents having differing coverage for a clothing design. Conclusion In conclusion, the U.S. offers fashion designers some IP protection for their creations. Copyright law protects fabric designs and surface decorations in certain situations.

yes

Intellectual Property

Are fashion designs protected under copyright law?

yes_statement

"fashion" "designs" are "protected" under "copyright" "law".. "copyright" "law" "protects" "fashion" "designs".

https://www.copycatlegal.com/blog/what-should-i-know-about-copyright-and-fashion/

What Should I Know About Copyright and Fashion?

Does Copyright Law Protect Fashion? Whether you were a kid who loved to play dress up or you developed an eye for style later in life, the fashion industry is a fun, fast-paced environment for creative minds to express themselves through clothing. As a designer, you take great pride in your creations, which makes it devastating to see someone else copy your designs. Keep reading to learn what protections under copyright you can expect in the fashion industry and discover how design copyright infringement lawyers can help you. What Elements of Fashion Are Protected by Copyright Law? It’s important to understand that certain elements of fashion design have protections under copyright law. The most obvious is the physical drawing of a design. Just like any other piece of artwork, your sketches and drawing of fashion designs are original pieces of art, thus covered under copyright protection. Similarly, any graphic designs you put on a piece of clothing, like an original drawing on a shirt, are protected. This is because the law protects art printed on fabric just as it would if it were drawn on paper or painted on canvas. Similarly, logos are protected under copyright law. This means someone would not be able to sell a t-shirt with the Gucci logo on it, as this element of a brand is protected. As such, if someone steals your logo to print on clothing, they would be in violation of copyright law. On the other hand, the cut and color of a design are not protected under copyright law. However, there are other avenues for intellectual property fashion designers can explore, like trademarks or patents for their design. As such, there is nothing stopping a brand from stealing a uniquely designed shirt to reproduce and sell it as its own unless the designer takes alternative measures. What Should I Do if Someone Steals or Copies My Design? Unfortunately, theft in the fashion industry is nothing new. Whether it’s big brands stealing ideas and designs from independent fashion designers or small sellers taking creations from big brands, this can be frustrating. If you find your design on another website, you may not know what to do. Luckily, you may be able to take steps to remedy the damages. If it’s determined that the thief stole your sketches or graphic design to sell as their own, you can contact the seller directly. You’ll want to send a letter informing them of your copyrighted material, and you can demand they cease the reproduction and sale of your work. At CopyCat Legal, PLLC, we understand how frustrating it can be to find the products of your passion being sold on the internet by another party. As such, we will do everything possible to help you hold the thief responsible for their actions. Contact us today to learn more about how we can help you through this challenging process. The bottom line is that if you need a legal team of copyright infringement lawyers to represent you, CopyCat Legal is here to help. We proudly serve clients around the country, including in Florida, California, Colorado, Georgia, Illinois, Michigan, New York, Pennsylvania, Texas, and Washington, D.C. Contact us today so we can get started working on your case.

Does Copyright Law Protect Fashion? Whether you were a kid who loved to play dress up or you developed an eye for style later in life, the fashion industry is a fun, fast-paced environment for creative minds to express themselves through clothing. As a designer, you take great pride in your creations, which makes it devastating to see someone else copy your designs. Keep reading to learn what protections under copyright you can expect in the fashion industry and discover how design copyright infringement lawyers can help you. What Elements of Fashion Are Protected by Copyright Law? It’s important to understand that certain elements of fashion design have protections under copyright law. The most obvious is the physical drawing of a design. Just like any other piece of artwork, your sketches and drawing of fashion designs are original pieces of art, thus covered under copyright protection. Similarly, any graphic designs you put on a piece of clothing, like an original drawing on a shirt, are protected. This is because the law protects art printed on fabric just as it would if it were drawn on paper or painted on canvas. Similarly, logos are protected under copyright law. This means someone would not be able to sell a t-shirt with the Gucci logo on it, as this element of a brand is protected. As such, if someone steals your logo to print on clothing, they would be in violation of copyright law. On the other hand, the cut and color of a design are not protected under copyright law. However, there are other avenues for intellectual property fashion designers can explore, like trademarks or patents for their design. As such, there is nothing stopping a brand from stealing a uniquely designed shirt to reproduce and sell it as its own unless the designer takes alternative measures. What Should I Do if Someone Steals or Copies My Design? Unfortunately, theft in the fashion industry is nothing new. Whether it’s big brands stealing ideas and designs from independent fashion designers or small sellers taking creations from big brands, this can be frustrating. If you find your design on another website, you may not know what to do. Luckily, you may be able to take steps to remedy the damages.

yes

Intellectual Property

Are fashion designs protected under copyright law?

no_statement

"fashion" "designs" are not "protected" under "copyright" "law".. "copyright" "law" does not "protect" "fashion" "designs".

https://www.nutter.com/ip-law-bulletin/fashion-and-intellectual-property

Fashion and Intellectual Property: Many Options to Protect Your ...

IP Law Bulletin Imagine you’re a fashion designer with a unique clothing design. As with any other business, you wish to protect your intellectual property through the standard combination of patents, trademarks, and copyrights. Sounds simple, right? Wrong! There is no one-stop shop for protecting your intellectual property and, until recently, the law was not completely on your side. Though a single garment may be the result of a single creative process by a designer, multiple mechanisms may be needed to protect the design of that garment. One of those mechanisms—copyright law—historically has presented a significant hurdle to protecting fashion designs. The Supreme Court, however, recently clarified and expanded how copyright law can be leveraged to protect designs, often quickly and relatively inexpensively. Below is a high-level overview of the various legal forms of protection for the fashion industry and what those legal mechanisms cover. Copyright Law: Fabric Patterns and Surface Decorations Historically, it has been very difficult to protect clothing designs under copyright law. The recent U.S. Supreme Court holding in Star Athletica, LLC v. Varsity Brands has disrupted this pattern. The Supreme Court, asked to interpret the Copyright Act and in doing so resolve conflicting legal tests adopted by various regional federal appeals courts for determining whether clothing designs are protectable under copyright law, established a relatively simple test. Namely, a clothing design is protected under copyright law if it can be imagined as a two-dimensional work appearing independently from the clothing item as a pictorial or sculptural work that itself would qualify for copyright protection. In other words, if the clothing design can be imagined as an expressive work of textile art that you could hang on your wall, then it is protected. It is important to note that the Supreme Court has not opened the door to protecting more functional aspects of fashion design under copyright law, e.g., the cut or venting of the garment. Trademark Law: Logos and Other Indications of Source Trademark law provides protection of logos and other indications of source so that consumers can identify the origins of the products they purchase. Trademark registration is strongly recommended to enhance the available protection. In the interests of avoiding a “merely ornamental” refusal during the registration process, however, we recommend that clothing manufacturers and retailers include a logo in a more traditional trademark manner in addition to a design, e.g., on clothing labels and/or on “hang tags” in addition to placing the logo on the garment itself. Trademark protection, however, generally is limited to the logo itself and not the overall design of a garment because it is difficult to characterize clothing designs as having source-identifying significance. Trademark law additionally provides for legal protection of so-called “product configuration” trade dress, as distinguished from “product design” trade dress discussed in the paragraph immediately above. Product configuration trade dress relates to certain specific aspects of a product that are more functional or structural as opposed to ornamental, but that nevertheless signify for customers the source of the product. Protectable aspects of clothing or clothing accessories can be the use of a certain color, or perhaps particular straps or buckles. Generally, product configuration trade dress is more difficult and more costly to register or assert in court because proving ownership of rights requires demonstrating “secondary meaning” in the minds of the consumers. In other words, it must be shown that consumers have become conditioned to recognize the product configuration elements and associate them with the product source as a result of duration or intensity of product advertising. If this type of protection is sought, it can be advisable to call out specific product aspects in advertisements, e.g., “Look for the triangular buckle.” Design Patents: Ornamental Designs of Functional Items Design patents are another useful tool for securing protection of ornamental or decorative aspects of fashion designs. A design patent affords the patent holder the right to prevent others from making, using, selling, or otherwise copying the ornamental design elements of a utilitarian product (which can include clothing). One downside to a design patent is the cost and time associated with filing for protection. Generally speaking, copyright registrations are inexpensive, trademark registrations are more expensive than copyrights, and design patents are still more expensive. Patrick J. Concannon is a partner in Nutter's Intellectual Property and Corporate and Transactions Departments. Pat co-chairs the Trademarks and Brands practice, with over 25 years of experience devoted to helping businesses ... Maximizing the protection and value of intellectual property assets is often the cornerstone of a business's success and even survival. In this blog, Nutter's Intellectual Property attorneys provide news updates and practical tips in patent portfolio development, IP litigation, trademarks, copyrights, trade secrets and licensing.

IP Law Bulletin Imagine you’re a fashion designer with a unique clothing design. As with any other business, you wish to protect your intellectual property through the standard combination of patents, trademarks, and copyrights. Sounds simple, right? Wrong! There is no one-stop shop for protecting your intellectual property and, until recently, the law was not completely on your side. Though a single garment may be the result of a single creative process by a designer, multiple mechanisms may be needed to protect the design of that garment. One of those mechanisms—copyright law—historically has presented a significant hurdle to protecting fashion designs. The Supreme Court, however, recently clarified and expanded how copyright law can be leveraged to protect designs, often quickly and relatively inexpensively. Below is a high-level overview of the various legal forms of protection for the fashion industry and what those legal mechanisms cover. Copyright Law: Fabric Patterns and Surface Decorations Historically, it has been very difficult to protect clothing designs under copyright law. The recent U.S. Supreme Court holding in Star Athletica, LLC v. Varsity Brands has disrupted this pattern. The Supreme Court, asked to interpret the Copyright Act and in doing so resolve conflicting legal tests adopted by various regional federal appeals courts for determining whether clothing designs are protectable under copyright law, established a relatively simple test. Namely, a clothing design is protected under copyright law if it can be imagined as a two-dimensional work appearing independently from the clothing item as a pictorial or sculptural work that itself would qualify for copyright protection. In other words, if the clothing design can be imagined as an expressive work of textile art that you could hang on your wall, then it is protected. It is important to note that the Supreme Court has not opened the door to protecting more functional aspects of fashion design under copyright law, e.g., the cut or venting of the garment. Trademark Law: Logos and Other Indications of Source Trademark law provides protection of logos and other indications of source so that consumers can identify the origins of the products they purchase. Trademark registration is strongly recommended to enhance the available protection.

yes

Gemology

Are heated gemstones less valuable?

yes_statement

"heated" "gemstones" are less "valuable".. the value of "gemstones" decreases when they are "heated".

https://www.firemountaingems.com/resources/ask-the-experts/833z

Value of Dyed, Heated or Stabilized Gemstones - 833z - Fire ...

Ask the Experts about Jewelry Making Topics: Value of Dyed, Heated or Stabilized Gemstones Are dyed, heated or stabilized gemstones less valuable than the natural ones? And what is the difference between them? - Celine A. It depends on what you're comparing. If you're comparing a dyed or heated A grade citrine cabochon to a natural A grade citrine cabochon, then the dyed or heated cabochon will be less valuable than the natural one. This is only true if the only difference between the two cabochons is that one is dyed or heated and the other is natural and that--in all other ways, like color and clarity--they're the same quality. Most stones are treated in some way, as they would not be stable enough for use in jewelry in their natural state; turquoise is a good example. You can find information regarding enhancements for gemstone beads and cabochons in the ''Gemstone Treatment Guide''. There are many different types of stone grading systems in the world today. There are well established and respected standards for diamonds; however, there are few accepted and respected standards for other gemstones. The ''Gemstone Treatment Guide'' was developed by the American Gem Trade Association (AGTA)--of which Fire Mountain Gems is a charter member--to encourage enhancement disclosure in the gemstone trade. The AGTA scale starts with 'A' as the highest quality and works down the alphabet as the quality decreases (so a 'B' grade emerald will be more valuable than a 'D' grade emerald). A gemstone is considered dyed, by AGTA guidelines, when coloring matter has been introduced into the stone to give it new color, intensify its present color or improve its color uniformity. According to AGTA, a gemstone is considered heated when heat is used to create a change in color, clarity and/or phenomena. A gemstone is considered stabilized when a colorless bonding agent (commonly plastic) is used to give a porous gemstone added durability and improve its appearance. For information about specific gemstone materials, see our Gem Notes information section. It contains images of a wide selection of gemstones and includes design possibilities, gemstone histories and believed metaphysical properties for your convenience.

Ask the Experts about Jewelry Making Topics: Value of Dyed, Heated or Stabilized Gemstones Are dyed, heated or stabilized gemstones less valuable than the natural ones? And what is the difference between them? - Celine A. It depends on what you're comparing. If you're comparing a dyed or heated A grade citrine cabochon to a natural A grade citrine cabochon, then the dyed or heated cabochon will be less valuable than the natural one. This is only true if the only difference between the two cabochons is that one is dyed or heated and the other is natural and that--in all other ways, like color and clarity--they're the same quality. Most stones are treated in some way, as they would not be stable enough for use in jewelry in their natural state; turquoise is a good example. You can find information regarding enhancements for gemstone beads and cabochons in the ''Gemstone Treatment Guide''. There are many different types of stone grading systems in the world today. There are well established and respected standards for diamonds; however, there are few accepted and respected standards for other gemstones. The ''Gemstone Treatment Guide'' was developed by the American Gem Trade Association (AGTA)--of which Fire Mountain Gems is a charter member--to encourage enhancement disclosure in the gemstone trade. The AGTA scale starts with 'A' as the highest quality and works down the alphabet as the quality decreases (so a 'B' grade emerald will be more valuable than a 'D' grade emerald). A gemstone is considered dyed, by AGTA guidelines, when coloring matter has been introduced into the stone to give it new color, intensify its present color or improve its color uniformity. According to AGTA, a gemstone is considered heated when heat is used to create a change in color, clarity and/or phenomena. A gemstone is considered stabilized when a colorless bonding agent (commonly plastic) is used to give a porous gemstone added durability and improve its appearance. For information about specific gemstone materials, see our Gem Notes information section.

yes

Gemology

Are heated gemstones less valuable?

yes_statement

"heated" "gemstones" are less "valuable".. the value of "gemstones" decreases when they are "heated".

https://www.rafjewels.com/education/heat-vs-no-heat-sapphires

The Big Debate: Heat vs. No Heat Sapphires — RAF - Rare ...

If you are shopping for natural sapphires, you will come across stones that are either unheated (no heat) or enhanced(i.e., heat-treated). There are other methods of treatment performed on sapphires, however, this article compares unheated sapphires with heated sapphires as it is the most prevalent treatment method. Heat treatment application on sapphires dates back centuries and is widely accepted in the global gemstone and jewelry market. The treatment is effective and stable; additionally, it permits an affordable alternative to unheated natural sapphires, which are more expensive. While heated sapphires are readily available at brick-and-mortar or online jewelry retailers, natural unheated sapphires are difficult to procure, admired for their legends, and coveted for their appearance. Hence, they are more likely to hold value and are often used in iconic and uber-fine jewelry. GEMOLOGY 101: SAPPHIRE Sapphires are a variety of the mineral Corundum, which is chemically Aluminum Oxide. Other members of the corundum family include ruby, padparadscha (orangy-pink), pink sapphire, yellow sapphire, star sapphire, and many other hues of sapphires. But regardless of their color, the foundational chemical composition of all these gemstones is the same. What gives sapphires their blue color?Trace Elements. The blue color in sapphires is attributed to the type and amount of Titanium and Iron present in the crystal. The right balance of Titanium, Iron, and Aluminum Oxide will result in a beautiful blue sapphire color. Why do some sapphires exhibit low saturation of color? Stones that do not have a sufficient amount, type, and combination of trace elements throughout the stone will not have an intense saturation of blue. These sapphires are ideal candidates to undergo heat treatment for color improvement. ABOUT NATURAL HEATEDSAPPHIRES Why heat sapphires? To improve thecolor, offer various sizes, get a higher return on investment, and offer customers an affordable choice. An individual or company in the early stages of the supply chain felt that their unearthed, pre-heated stone lacked a desirable color. They can either leave the stone as-is or mark it for heat treatment. If they were to leave the stone in its original state, they would not reap a financial gain. But if they improve the color via heat treatment, the stone becomes more sellable, and they can get a better return on their investment. These stones are a great lower-cost alternative to natural, unheated sapphires for the consumer. After heating a sapphire, is the color permanent?Yes, and this is a boon for heated sapphires. The color of a heat-treated sapphire will remain permanent and will not change or fade unless the stone undergoes a secondary treatment. This is the reason why most retailers accept heat treatment on sapphires. Some high-end jewelry houses still prefer to offer only natural, unheated sapphires, but they would happily use a heated sapphire if their client requested it. Are all heated sapphires the same?No, and this is important. Heating only improves the color of a gemstone, but it is not an equalizer. The improved color will vary among stones, and all other quality attributes remain unique to each stone. Additionally, some stones go through multiple enhancements to improve their appearance and hide bothersome defects. Are heated sapphires undesirable?No, the critical factors for a desirable gemstone are a beautiful color, eye-clean clarity, well-cut, and pleasant crystal. However, heated sapphires lack the natural and exclusivity appeal of unheated sapphires. ABOUT NATURAL UNHEATED (NO-HEAT)SAPPHIRES By appearance, is there a difference between natural and heat-treated sapphires?Yes, but likely to a trained eye. Generally speaking, natural no-heat sapphires will have a softer luster and smoother surface appeal. Heated sapphires display a glass-like surface that feels hard and unnatural. Are natural, no-heat sapphires rarer and more valuable than heated sapphires?Yes, sapphires that have not undergone any color or clarity enhancement along the supply chain (mine to retail) are rare and, therefore, more valuable than heated sapphires that are abundant in the market. Are all unheated sapphires the same?No. Just like individuals, each unheated sapphire is unique and the sum of its attributes: color, clarity, cut, crystal, carat weight, and geographic origin. Why do unheated, gem-quality sapphires command high prices? Fine or gem-quality blue sapphires are rare and sought-after by collectors. For a sapphire to be considered gem-quality, it must exhibit the following: A beautiful combination of hue, tone, and saturation of blue (Color) Insignificant to no eye-visible inclusions (Clarity) A high degree of brilliance to reflect the color (Cut) A high degree of luster for the movement of light in the stone (Crystal) A moderate to a significant size (Carat Weight) No man-made treatments to enhance/improve the stone’s color or clarity (Enhancements) In short, there must be a strong balance and combination of nature's ingredients and a cutter's artistry. SIGNIFICANCE OF GEMOLOGICAL REPORTS OR CERTIFICATES How will I know if a sapphire is natural (unheated) or heated? Request a third-party gemological certificate. This scientific assessment can only be done by a highly experienced gemologist and more convincingly by a reputable laboratory such as GIA, AGL, Gübelin, SSEF, or GRS that have years of research data, high-tech equipment, and experienced gemologists analyzing their findings. Appraisals are insufficient because they assess value. Should I always request a certificate?It depends. If you are making a significant investment, you should request a certificate from a reputable gemological laboratory. In extremely high-value gemstones, we recommend multiple certificates. For small gems, the cost of a certificate may exceed the total purchase price. In such cases, it may not be advisable to spend the money on third-party certification and rely on the jeweler’s reputation and transparency. THE INVESTMENT VIEW Which is a better investment? Unheated Sapphires. Sapphires with vivid/royal blue color and fine clarity, which have not undergone any treatment, are the ideal investment. They are becoming increasingly rarer, and the demand remains high in 2023. Additionally, many signed, vintage, and antique pieces by famous houses are set with natural, unheated sapphires. While these pieces hold value due to their history, provenance, originality, design, period, etc., the appeal of unheated sapphires is precious and attractive. Whereas fine-quality natural unheated sapphires are becoming increasingly rare and have shown a substantial increase in market value over time, fine-quality heated sapphires have shown a marginal increase in value. Regardless, a fine-quality natural sapphire, whether unheated or heated, is a good niche. If you have further questions, please write to us - we would be happy to share our knowledge.

Heating only improves the color of a gemstone, but it is not an equalizer. The improved color will vary among stones, and all other quality attributes remain unique to each stone. Additionally, some stones go through multiple enhancements to improve their appearance and hide bothersome defects. Are heated sapphires undesirable?No, the critical factors for a desirable gemstone are a beautiful color, eye-clean clarity, well-cut, and pleasant crystal. However, heated sapphires lack the natural and exclusivity appeal of unheated sapphires. ABOUT NATURAL UNHEATED (NO-HEAT)SAPPHIRES By appearance, is there a difference between natural and heat-treated sapphires?Yes, but likely to a trained eye. Generally speaking, natural no-heat sapphires will have a softer luster and smoother surface appeal. Heated sapphires display a glass-like surface that feels hard and unnatural. Are natural, no-heat sapphires rarer and more valuable than heated sapphires?Yes, sapphires that have not undergone any color or clarity enhancement along the supply chain (mine to retail) are rare and, therefore, more valuable than heated sapphires that are abundant in the market. Are all unheated sapphires the same?No. Just like individuals, each unheated sapphire is unique and the sum of its attributes: color, clarity, cut, crystal, carat weight, and geographic origin. Why do unheated, gem-quality sapphires command high prices? Fine or gem-quality blue sapphires are rare and sought-after by collectors. For a sapphire to be considered gem-quality, it must exhibit the following: A beautiful combination of hue, tone, and saturation of blue (Color) Insignificant to no eye-visible inclusions (Clarity) A high degree of brilliance to reflect the color (Cut) A high degree of luster for the movement of light in the stone (Crystal) A moderate to a significant size (

yes

Gemology

Are heated gemstones less valuable?

yes_statement

"heated" "gemstones" are less "valuable".. the value of "gemstones" decreases when they are "heated".

https://gemdaia.com/blogs/gemstone/ruby-pricing-guide

Ruby Pricing Guide 2023 (What Determines It's Price) – Gemdaia ...

Ruby Pricing Guide (What Determines It’s Price) What determines the price of a ruby? The answer is far from simple. Rubies have fascinated human beings for centuries, and it’s easy to see why. The ravishing beauty of intense, blood-red rubies, and their rarity make them one of the most highly prized gemstones in the world. Our ruby pricing guide will give you all the insights you need about these dazzling gemstones. Rubies are a popular alternative to diamonds in engagement rings and jewelry. They are also very hardy gemstones that make great long-term investments. Ranking 9.0 on the Moh’s scale of hardness, rubies are only second to diamond and equal to sapphire in hardness. Ruby is considered the rarest of the “big three” gemstones, the other two being sapphire and emerald. Before making a decision to acquire these beautiful gemstones, it’s best to educate yourself about what truly makes a ruby’s worth. A ruby’s grading is primarily based on the following factors: Color Country of origin Treatment Clarity Cut Carat In addition to the 4 C’s, a ruby’s value changes significantly based on its country of origin. Rubies come from many parts of the world, but rubies from particular countries will be valued much higher than those from others. It is also common to find highly enhanced and lab-created rubies in the market. These are much cheaper than natural rubies. We will discuss these factors in more detail further in this ruby pricing guide. 1. Color A ruby’s color is the most important factor that comes into play when assessing its value. The most desirable and highly prized rubies are those that possess an intense, deeply saturated red color. The purer and more intense the color, the higher the value of a ruby. “Pigeon blood-red” stones are considered the most valuable among all rubies for their vividly fluorescent red color. There are vivid shades of rubies that do not fall within the range of pigeon blood-red stones, but are highly valued nevertheless. Rubies with pinkish or purplish tones are valued less than the purer colored rubies. A stone’s value will be lowered further as their color becomes darker or duller. Gemologists generally analyze the color factor based on three properties: hue, tone, and saturation. The hue of a stone refers to its basic color (e.g. red, blue, green, yellow etc.). Tone is the quality of a stone’s depth of color from light to dark. Saturation refers to the intensity of gemstone’s color, and can range from light to strong, to vivid. A basic grasp of these three factors can help you select the best ruby that fits your budget and gets you the best value for money. 2. Country of Origin Rubies are found all over the world and have their own distinctive qualities according to their country of origin. The best rubies are known to come from Burma (Myanmar), but rubies are also found in countries such as Australia, United States, Nepal, Sri Lanka, Kenya, Tanzania, Mozambique, and Madagascar. Rubies from Burma (now known as Myanmar) are widely regarded as the world’s most valued rubies. They possess a distinctive, deep-red color that is prized by jewelers and collectors around the world. Myanmar is also renowned for its pigeon blood rubies, which occur in far greater frequency than in any other ruby producing region. African rubies from countries like Mozambique and Madagascar are only second to Burmese rubies in popularity. These rubies are known to have a characteristic dark-red color with tinges of reddish-purple. African rubies are also generally more affordable than Burmese rubies. There are rubies produced in many countries such as Sri Lanka, Thailand, and Vietnam but these aren’t regarded, or valued as highly as Burmese rubies. 3. Treatment Rubies that have not been heated or treated in any way to enhance color are considered the benchmark among these gemstones. That being said, heat-treated rubies are also used widely in jewelry and are considered acceptable in spite of their lower value when compared to unheated stones. The value difference between a heated and unheated African ruby in 1 carat sizes is not significantly large, but we recommend selecting the unheated ruby over a heated one. For example, an exceptional 1 carat unheated African ruby ring like this can be valued upto $4,000 per carat where a heated African ruby with similar qualities would cost approximately $3,000 per carat. Nevertheless, the price difference between an unheated and heated ruby of over 2 carats could be much higher. This is particularly true for Burmese rubies, where the price difference between heated and unheated stones can be much higher. For example, a 2 carat, high-quality heated Burmese ruby can cost in the range of $7,000 per carat. An unheated ruby of the same quality on the other hand could cost up to $25,000 per carat. 4. Clarity Clarity is the term attributed to the presence (or absence) of natural inclusions in a gemstone. Inclusions are naturally occurring mineral formations within a gemstone. All natural rubies are known to have some level of inclusions in them. Rubies are generally known for being more included than sapphires, therefore the presence of inclusions in rubies should be considered a matter of fact. Inclusions may not be visible to the naked eye, but can be clearly visible under magnification. Their absence could indicate that a stone may have undergone some kind of treatment, or is of synthetic origin. “Eye-clean” rubies are the most prized of all rubies when analyzing their clarity factor. Eye-clean means the gemstone is free of inclusions when viewed by the naked eye. Eye-clean rubies are very rare to find, and most rubies will contain inclusions visible to the eye. The value that a ruby can command will be greater as the clarity of the stone increases. We at Gemdaia recommend slightly included rubies as they provide the best value for money. The scarcity of eye-clean rubies make them extremely expensive, and may not suit the practicalities of most buyers. 5. Size It goes without saying that the bigger a gemstone is, the higher its price tag. Unlike color, the size factor is not the primary variable that determines a ruby’s value, but it is important nevertheless. Every ruby’s value increases exponentially with every gradual increase in its carat weight. Rubies are commonly found in 1 carat sizes. Stones that weigh over 2 carats are considerably rarer and are prized much higher than sapphires of equal size. Rubies of over 3 carats, such asthis exceptional specimen in our store are extremely rare. These are considered far rarer than diamonds of the same weight. 6. Cut The faceting of a gemstone is referred to as its cut. Cut is the final factor that is considered in the ruby grading process. The color and clarity of a ruby takes far greater importance than its cut, but a finely cut ruby can enhance its reflectiveness and color. Rubies are generally cut in several standard shapes such as round, oval, pear, cushion, and cabochon, but the oval and cushion cuts are most popular among buyers. Conclusion There are many factors to consider when looking to purchase a ruby. They are the most valuable among colored gemstones, and an informed decision can help you make the correct choice that balances beauty with financial sense. Rubies are available for a range of prices that can suit your budget. For color, we always recommend that you go for vividly colored red rubies. For African rubies of 1 to 2 carats, we strongly suggest you choose unheated stones. But if you have a more accommodating budget and want a ruby with more value, we recommend that you consider 1 to 2 carat heated Burmese rubies. We hope our ruby pricing guide helped you get a clearer picture of the factors to consider when looking for the best value for your investment. Rubies are an excellent choice of gemstone for engagement rings and jewelry, and our online custom jewelry creation portal can help you design a unique piece of jewelry to compliment your gemstone of choice. You can look forward to more useful information about gemstones in our upcoming blogs! Gemdaia enables globally conscious customers to purchase ethically-sourced fine gemstone jewellery that they can hold onto forever. Crafted in bespoke batches in London, using only the highest quality materials, Gemdaia’s gemstones are sourced sustainably from Sri Lanka – where some of the world’s finest and rarest sapphires are mined.

The value difference between a heated and unheated African ruby in 1 carat sizes is not significantly large, but we recommend selecting the unheated ruby over a heated one. For example, an exceptional 1 carat unheated African ruby ring like this can be valued upto $4,000 per carat where a heated African ruby with similar qualities would cost approximately $3,000 per carat. Nevertheless, the price difference between an unheated and heated ruby of over 2 carats could be much higher. This is particularly true for Burmese rubies, where the price difference between heated and unheated stones can be much higher. For example, a 2 carat, high-quality heated Burmese ruby can cost in the range of $7,000 per carat. An unheated ruby of the same quality on the other hand could cost up to $25,000 per carat. 4. Clarity Clarity is the term attributed to the presence (or absence) of natural inclusions in a gemstone. Inclusions are naturally occurring mineral formations within a gemstone. All natural rubies are known to have some level of inclusions in them. Rubies are generally known for being more included than sapphires, therefore the presence of inclusions in rubies should be considered a matter of fact. Inclusions may not be visible to the naked eye, but can be clearly visible under magnification. Their absence could indicate that a stone may have undergone some kind of treatment, or is of synthetic origin. “Eye-clean” rubies are the most prized of all rubies when analyzing their clarity factor. Eye-clean means the gemstone is free of inclusions when viewed by the naked eye. Eye-clean rubies are very rare to find, and most rubies will contain inclusions visible to the eye. The value that a ruby can command will be greater as the clarity of the stone increases. We at Gemdaia recommend slightly included rubies as they provide the best value for money. The scarcity of eye-clean rubies make them extremely expensive, and may not suit the practicalities of most buyers. 5.

yes

Gemology

Are heated gemstones less valuable?

yes_statement

"heated" "gemstones" are less "valuable".. the value of "gemstones" decreases when they are "heated".

https://thenaturalgem.com/en/heat-treatment-of-gemstones/

Heat Treatment of Gemstones | The Natural Gem

Knowledge 05.09.2022Heat Treatment of Gemstones Heat treatment of gemstones is a widely used method to “improve” the quality of gemstones. Today, the vast majority of all gemstones sold are treated, because only about 2% of gemstones on the world market have “gemstone quality” without any treatment. The more treatments a stone has undergone, or the more intensive it was, the lower its retail value, because untreated gemstones are the most valuable. However, some particularly desirable color varieties are naturally occurring very rare, so there is also a demand for certain heated color gemstones. How does the heating of gemstones work? Exposing gemstones to heat has a long tradition. For thousands of years, gemstones have been heated in fire or ash to change their color. Nowadays, so-called muffle kilns are used for heating, which are generally used for ashing, annealing and heat treatment of workpieces. These are heated to a temperature between 300 and 1900 °C. Depending on the mineral and temperature, the heat treatment changes the color or the stone becomes purer. That’s because inclusions melt and diffuse, like for example rutile inclusions in rubies and sapphires. In addition to the temperature, the duration of the heat treatment, the atmosphere during heating and the chemical structure of the surrounding or co-fired materials also influence the final color result. Only about 2% of gemstones are of gem quality without treatment. Improve the color and purity of gemstones through heating Basically, there are low-temperature treatments used to change the color of some minerals (up to about 1,100 °C) and high-temperature treatments (up to 1,900 °C) to trigger color changes and also to remove inclusions. Sapphires that are light blue or milky become intensely blue by firing at 1,250 to 1,700 °C; colorless to pale yellow ones, in turn, become intensely yellow by heat treatments. Pink sapphires are fired to achieve the coveted orange-pink color variety “Padparadscha.” Low-temperature treatments are used on aquamarines, tourmalines, amethysts, and morganites to enhance their color. Thus, pink morganites are heated orange beryls. In the case of aquamarines, amethysts and tourmalines, the color is refined. For example, in naturally occurring amethysts, the color distribution is very often irregular. If you expose them to a temperature of about 300 °C, the color becomes more regular and fuller. However, above temperatures of 470 °C the color of the normally purple amethysts changes – it turns to yellow, the gems become citrines. Can you tell heated gemstones from untreated ones? The colors resulting from heat treatments are stable, i.e. they do not change even due to UV irradiation, temperature fluctuations or other factors. In high-temperature treatments, the so-called blast halos can be an indication that heat treatment has occurred: a bubble-like looking halo forms around the melted inclusion. However, these can also occur naturally in stones and form during the formation process. Low temperature treatments are more difficult to detect. Nevertheless, well-equipped gemological laboratories today can also determine whether a gemstone has been subjected to a low-temperature treatment. The “Confederation Internationale de la Bijouterie, Joallerie, Ofevrie, des Diamantes, Perles et Pierres (CIBJO)” declares in its trade rules that the treatment of gemstones by heat should be indicated when trading such stones. Common terms for this are “heat treated”, “heat enhanced” or “heated”. However, these rules do not have the force of law; they are to be understood as commercial practice. The price difference between a heat treated gem and a natural gemstone can be huge. When buying gemstones for investment purposes, always look for certificates from an independent gemmological laboratory! These always include an indication of whether a stone is natural color, untreated or heat treated. Always insist for a gemstone certificate from an independent laboratory. Dr. Thomas Schröck The founder and managing partner of THE NATURAL GEM has been active in international gemstone trading for 30 years. As a doctor of economics and a certified gemmologist in Switzerland, Germany and the USA, among other countries, he is one of Europe’s leading experts on naturally-coloured, untreated gemstones and investments in them.

Knowledge 05.09.2022Heat Treatment of Gemstones Heat treatment of gemstones is a widely used method to “improve” the quality of gemstones. Today, the vast majority of all gemstones sold are treated, because only about 2% of gemstones on the world market have “gemstone quality” without any treatment. The more treatments a stone has undergone, or the more intensive it was, the lower its retail value, because untreated gemstones are the most valuable. However, some particularly desirable color varieties are naturally occurring very rare, so there is also a demand for certain heated color gemstones. How does the heating of gemstones work? Exposing gemstones to heat has a long tradition. For thousands of years, gemstones have been heated in fire or ash to change their color. Nowadays, so-called muffle kilns are used for heating, which are generally used for ashing, annealing and heat treatment of workpieces. These are heated to a temperature between 300 and 1900 °C. Depending on the mineral and temperature, the heat treatment changes the color or the stone becomes purer. That’s because inclusions melt and diffuse, like for example rutile inclusions in rubies and sapphires. In addition to the temperature, the duration of the heat treatment, the atmosphere during heating and the chemical structure of the surrounding or co-fired materials also influence the final color result. Only about 2% of gemstones are of gem quality without treatment. Improve the color and purity of gemstones through heating Basically, there are low-temperature treatments used to change the color of some minerals (up to about 1,100 °C) and high-temperature treatments (up to 1,900 °C) to trigger color changes and also to remove inclusions. Sapphires that are light blue or milky become intensely blue by firing at 1,250 to 1,700 °C; colorless to pale yellow ones, in turn, become intensely yellow by heat treatments.

yes

Gemology

Are heated gemstones less valuable?

yes_statement

"heated" "gemstones" are less "valuable".. the value of "gemstones" decreases when they are "heated".

https://tanzaniteexperience.com/tanzanite-heat-treatment-is-it-a-quality-factor/

Tanzanite Heat Treatment; Is it a Quality Factor?

TABLE OF CONTENTS Tanzanite Heat Treatment; Is it a Quality Factor? Natural Tanzanite gemstone is a mix of grey, green, brown, and blue colors. The gem achieves its blue color through heat treatment. Most of the Tanzanites we see in the market are heated. The big question is does heating affect Tanzanite quality? Heating can occur naturally before the gem is mined. The earth’s thermal vents have been heating Tanzanite deposits for millions of years hence some gems are mined being already blue in color. After mining, the gems are usually heat treated regardless, in order to remove any residual unwanted colors. Natural Tanzanite gemstones can also be heat-treated to remove the brownish color and leave behind the blue and violet that we have all come to adore. Heating is done in temperatures ranging from 400 to 600 degrees centigrade for about an hour. The Tanzanite heat treatment is very mild compared to the heat treatment of other gems like rubies and sapphires. Such gems can be heated to temperatures between 1000 and 1800 degrees centigrade and held at those temperatures for days or weeks. Tanzanite’s color change through heating is not reversible and will remain unaffected by cutting and polishing. Be warned the color does not signify Tanzanite quality. Are Heated stones more Valuable? While heat treatment of Tanzanite may result in a more favorable color, it does not enhance the grade or value of the gemstone. If a piece of Tanzanite was medium-grade, heating will not enhance it to a top-grade Tanzanite. Heat treatment does not affect Tanzanite quality. The value of Tanzanite will still depend on other factors apart from color. These are the 4 Cs of Tanzanite. Along with color, there are Carat, Cut, and Clarity factors that determine the value of Tanzanite. UNDERSTANDING TANZANITE BUYER'S GUIDE Will Tanzanite Heat Treatment Enhance Color Saturation? The heating does not change the original color of this rare blue gemstone. It only removes the red/brown axis and leaves behind the desired blue/violet color. If the stone was originally pale blue, heating will not enhance it into a deeper blue. When a medium-grade stone which is normally lightish brown is heated, it will become pale blue/violet. When a top-grade stone which is normally deep brown is heated, it will become a deep blue/violet after heating. How to Distinguish Heat-Treated vs Unheated? The main difference between a heated and unheated gem is the removal of the yellow color due to heating. However, it is known in the mining industry that some Tanzanite has been naturally heated and may show no yellow color when extracted. Technically speaking, all gems are heated. Either through pre-mining thermal vent heating or post-mining in commercial jewelers. Heat treatment is a common practice and one should be expected. The practice goes back centuries. Heat treatment is basically a continuation of the heating processes that occurred in the ground. In today’s heat treatment, the stones are heated at very high temperatures hence speeding up the heating process that would have taken years if the stones were to be left in the ground. Only a very small amount of untreated gems with perfect color are found in the mine. This type of naturally blue Tanzanite has a much greater demand in the market as they are rare. Without heat treatment, the world would be with fewer colored gemstones. Heating allows us to change off-colored stones into beautiful-colored ones. Does Heat Treatment Affect The Quality? It is currently impossible to scientifically test the nature of the Tanzanite’s treatment, whether naturally heated or man-heated. Since all gems have been heated in one way or another, there is no effect on price. It is a common assumption that all gems have been heated at some point. Why Tanzanite Is Used In Fashion Jewelry Often? Tanzanite or blue zoisite is one of the most exquisite gemstones found in the world. Showcasing blue, purple, or a bit of both color, this gemstone is revered across the world by gemstone collectors and enthusiasts. What makes it more […] What Gemstones Are Found in Tanzania? Tanzania is one of the most renowned gemstone mining locations in the world. The entire Tanzanian exploration in East Africa offers a wide variety of rich mineral deposits which attracts gemstone enthusiasts worldwide. The gemstones produced in Tanzania hold distinct […] Lithotherapy: The Powers of Tanzanite (Updated 2023) Lithotherapy, commonly known as the art of using stones and crystals as an energy healing therapy, is an ancestral practice founded on the belief that stones have very specific vibrations and frequencies that can treat illness, unlock chakras, trigger auras, […] How to Differentiate Real and Fake Tanzanite? Elegant, beautiful, sparkly, and timeless, gemstones have been a token of style and wealth for centuries. Some of these rare colorful stones have even been known to be incredible stores of value as their worth tends to increase with time […] 10 Facts To Know About Tanzanite Among the rarest and most beautiful precious stones in the world, the Tanzanite has grown increasingly famous for its fire, hypnotic velvet blue, , and authenticity. Despite its young age, this gemstone has a lot of unique features.. 10 of the Best Jewelry Pieces of All Time. Mounted on intricate necklaces, set into shining tiaras, and handcrafted into iconic eggs, precious gemstones have always been a symbol of wealth, power, sophistication, and style. Over the ages, from the time of emperors and kings to the red carpet […] Tanzanite and the Unique Jewels of Tanzania Tanzania and eastern and southern Africa, as a whole, are the most significant producers of gold, diamonds, and other precious gemstones. Hosting the world's largest diamondiferous kimberlite pipe to date, the country's value in the public eye grew even more […] Is Tanzanite A Good Investment? Why do museums adorn the most lavish crown jewels? Why do the famous display outrageous necklaces and brooches on the red carpet? Why have maharajahs built whole rooms and vaults dedicated to showcasing their collection? Tanzanite, the Birthstone of December. December has rolled around. It is your birthday. The deep blue sits proudly at the base of your neck. It catches the light around your wrist. Its shimmering violet drops hang lightly from your ears. In rich blues and undertones […] How Tanzanite Prices Rose Since Its Founding And Current Prices For decades or even centuries now, gemstones have been a symbol of class, elegance, distinction, and even psychological gains. The price and value of gemstones such as diamonds have been dictated by their size, grade, and color. However, for rarer […]

The heating does not change the original color of this rare blue gemstone. It only removes the red/brown axis and leaves behind the desired blue/violet color. If the stone was originally pale blue, heating will not enhance it into a deeper blue. When a medium-grade stone which is normally lightish brown is heated, it will become pale blue/violet. When a top-grade stone which is normally deep brown is heated, it will become a deep blue/violet after heating. How to Distinguish Heat-Treated vs Unheated? The main difference between a heated and unheated gem is the removal of the yellow color due to heating. However, it is known in the mining industry that some Tanzanite has been naturally heated and may show no yellow color when extracted. Technically speaking, all gems are heated. Either through pre-mining thermal vent heating or post-mining in commercial jewelers. Heat treatment is a common practice and one should be expected. The practice goes back centuries. Heat treatment is basically a continuation of the heating processes that occurred in the ground. In today’s heat treatment, the stones are heated at very high temperatures hence speeding up the heating process that would have taken years if the stones were to be left in the ground. Only a very small amount of untreated gems with perfect color are found in the mine. This type of naturally blue Tanzanite has a much greater demand in the market as they are rare. Without heat treatment, the world would be with fewer colored gemstones. Heating allows us to change off-colored stones into beautiful-colored ones. Does Heat Treatment Affect The Quality? It is currently impossible to scientifically test the nature of the Tanzanite’s treatment, whether naturally heated or man-heated. Since all gems have been heated in one way or another, there is no effect on price. It is a common assumption that all gems have been heated at some point. Why Tanzanite Is Used In Fashion Jewelry Often?

no

Gemology

Are heated gemstones less valuable?

yes_statement

"heated" "gemstones" are less "valuable".. the value of "gemstones" decreases when they are "heated".

https://www.pricescope.com/community/threads/berilyum-heated-sapphires-and-rubies.237824/

Berilyum heated sapphires and rubies | PriceScope

DIAMOND CONCIERGE SERVICE Shopping for an engagement ring, but don’t know where to start? Been looking for a while, but still can’t find that perfect gift? Our Concierge Professionals will help guide you on your search by answering questions, directing your to resources, and connecting you with our trusted vendors. Super_Ideal_Rock There are many complex articles on the subject on the internet. However, in a nut shell, beryllium can completely alter the entire color of the gem, while regular heating only enhances the existing color and can help improve clarity. Ideal_Rock Heating is a “permissible” treatment for rubies and sapphires as is “oiling” for emeralds. It is done to improve clarity as the heating dissolves the rutile silk within the gem and enhances the colour. A “heated” gem is very common, most rubies and sapphire for sale are “heated”. Unheated is rarer and makes the gem much more valuable. Beryllium treatment is “frowned upon”, as it basically alters the gem as it adds colour to the gem. It can turn “rubbish” material into something saleable, same for “glass filling”. eBay is full of “beryllium treated” and “glass filled” rubies and sapphires, these gems don’t come with a GIA report and the sellers don’t always correctly describe the treatments. Buyer beware! A 1 carat glass filled or beryllium treated gem might be pretty but it is worthless as a gem. They might sell for a few $ to a couple of hundred dollars. A “real” heat only 1 carat ruby with certification might sell for $2,000 or more. An unheated 1 carat ruby with certification might start at $5,000 or more. Rubies are generally more expensive than sapphires and what some people call a Ruby, others might call a pink sapphire. So again, a lab certification will identify it as either a ruby or sapphire.. Just because a website says something is a certain price per carat, doesn't mean you should pay that. There's nothing wrong with beryllium treated corundum, but know what you're buying, and don't overpay. Brilliant_Rock Well, maybe the most used price guide in the trade, lists the wholesale price of Beryllium treated corundum as ranging from $10 to $900 per ct. depending of course on the size, color and overall make of the stone. Super_Ideal_Rock There is no difference between a beryllium treated ruby or beryllium treated sapphire - the treatment using beryllium is the same. It lowers the price significantly of both of those gemstones but is now a very common treatment as it allows lower graded gemstones to be sold looking very pretty. The value of anything that has been beryllium treated should be far lower than a natural gemstone. As for price, sellers sell at whatever they want so whilst Gene has given you guidance above, it's not unusual to see highly treated gemstones being sold very expensively and sometimes without disclosure. Rough_Rock There is no beryllium treated rubies, just glass filled or synthetics. There are 2 main differences: -beryllium is in quite small microscopic quantity that's difficult to detect, just few labs can have the necessary equipment, but lead glass is easily detectable by loupe. Beryllium, lead glass filled, and other treated corundum are all considered "natural" stones if the original material was mined from the earth. You cannot call lab created stones "natural." This goes for all gems, not Just corundum. Super_Ideal_Rock There is no beryllium treated rubies, just glass filled or synthetics. There are 2 main differences: -beryllium is in quite small microscopic quantity that's difficult to detect, just few labs can have the necessary equipment, but lead glass is easily detectable by loupe. "Although initially only orange to orangy pink (“padparadscha”-like) sapphires were seen, it is now known that a full range of corundum colors, including yellow and blue as well as ruby, have been produced or altered by this treatment. " Brilliant_Rock Try googling red sapphires and Songea rubies. These are the names some vendors call the BE treated reds. They call it "red sapphires" because the original color of the stones are not red, therefore, originally and without treatment, it's a sapphire. And Songea for the origin. There are pricier BE treated sapphires - those that are clean and treated to alter color. So a grayish or pale but clean sapphire can be BE treated, of which the cost will be more that what the manufacturers can sell the clean, pale or off-colored sapphires. Brilliant_Rock More like an accident. It was the accidental inclusion of a chrysoberyl (Beryllium Aluminum Oxide) in a batch of sapphires placed in the burner. It was then discovered that Beryllium alters the sapphire colors. For blue sapphires, titanium is used for diffusion. Ideal_Rock There is no beryllium treated rubies, just glass filled or synthetics. There are 2 main differences: -beryllium is in quite small microscopic quantity that's difficult to detect, just few labs can have the necessary equipment, but lead glass is easily detectable by loupe. Super_Ideal_Rock Be treated is fine as long as you know what you're getting and you pay a fair price. I think they make for good melee if you're looking for a specific color to highlight a main stone. On the other hand, lead glass filled is horrible material, not durable and mostly glass. Ideal_Rock Be treated is fine as long as you know what you're getting and you pay a fair price. I think they make for good melee if you're looking for a specific color to highlight a main stone. On the other hand, lead glass filled is horrible material, not durable and mostly glass. A good emerald with minor or faint treatment should hold up well to cleaning, although keep it away from ultrasonic cleaners and ammonia based cleaners. It is not the same as the lead glass filled junk on the market. I presume you have a very nice emerald. Cookie & Affiliate Policy: This site uses cookies to help personalise content, tailor your experience and to keep you logged in if you have registered. We may generate affiliate revenue through the links/ads on this site. We NEVER accept paid reviews and take great pride in providing honest opinions and objective information on products & services. By continuing to use this site, you are consenting to our use of cookie policy.

DIAMOND CONCIERGE SERVICE Shopping for an engagement ring, but don’t know where to start? Been looking for a while, but still can’t find that perfect gift? Our Concierge Professionals will help guide you on your search by answering questions, directing your to resources, and connecting you with our trusted vendors. Super_Ideal_Rock There are many complex articles on the subject on the internet. However, in a nut shell, beryllium can completely alter the entire color of the gem, while regular heating only enhances the existing color and can help improve clarity. Ideal_Rock Heating is a “permissible” treatment for rubies and sapphires as is “oiling” for emeralds. It is done to improve clarity as the heating dissolves the rutile silk within the gem and enhances the colour. A “heated” gem is very common, most rubies and sapphire for sale are “heated”. Unheated is rarer and makes the gem much more valuable. Beryllium treatment is “frowned upon”, as it basically alters the gem as it adds colour to the gem. It can turn “rubbish” material into something saleable, same for “glass filling”. eBay is full of “beryllium treated” and “glass filled” rubies and sapphires, these gems don’t come with a GIA report and the sellers don’t always correctly describe the treatments. Buyer beware! A 1 carat glass filled or beryllium treated gem might be pretty but it is worthless as a gem. They might sell for a few $ to a couple of hundred dollars. A “real” heat only 1 carat ruby with certification might sell for $2,000 or more. An unheated 1 carat ruby with certification might start at $5,000 or more. Rubies are generally more expensive than sapphires and what some people call a Ruby, others might call a pink sapphire.

yes

Gemology

Are heated gemstones less valuable?

yes_statement

"heated" "gemstones" are less "valuable".. the value of "gemstones" decreases when they are "heated".

https://www.buygemstone.info/ruby-treatment-guide/

Ruby Treatment Guide - Unheated, Heated, Flux-Filled, Lead-Glass ...

Simply checking the authenticity of the certificate and understanding the ‘treatment’ section, you can save thousands of dollars. This will also save you time and the harassment of getting scammed by the seller due to them not disclosing these facts to you. I hope this guide will provide you with a basic understanding of the different types of ruby treatments. I do want to emphasize that even if you read this guide, it does take years of experience seeing rubies to understand the different levels of treatments. If there is any doubt about your purchase – “Even that slight 1% chance” – it is always best to recheck the stone from a reliable gemstone laboratory or trustworthy gem dealer. RUBY TREATMENT GUIDE – UNHEATED, UNTREATED, COMPLETELY NATURAL RUBY Natural Ruby that are NOT heated or treated are quite easy to check. You will only need to see through a microscope or gem loupe for natural or intact inclusions. Natural Inclusions Are: Intact, fine, needle-like Silk (rutile needles) intersecting at 60 degrees angle. In the same plane or other fine needles at near right angles. Below are some sample images of rubies with these characteristics. Please note that it does take some experience to check and verify if the ruby you are looking at is completely natural or not. However, if you do have a great pair of eyes and can see these inclusions and NONE of the other inclusions described in the guide below, you can be sure that the ruby you have in hand is natural, unheated, and untreated, the rarest of all rubies! RUBY TREATMENT GUIDE – HEATED RUBIES Almost all rubies – 95% of rubies today – are heat-treated. There are different types and levels of heat treatment in rubies that can be classified from very slight to quite extreme. Distinguishing these levels of treatment can also affect the price of a ruby dramatically. Heat treatment is used to either develop or intensify a ruby’s natural color. Higher levels of heat treatments can also improve the clarity of a ruby by removing or reducing inclusions and making them less visible. The way this works is quite technical and I will not be explaining it in this guide. But you get an idea of why people heat treats rubies. They want an unattractive ruby to look a lot better, so it will be easier to sell. Inclusions of “Normal Heat” Treatment Rubies Are: Discoid fractures with tension halos. It looks like disk-like fractures with lace-like outer healing rims. This is caused by expansion of natural crystal inclusions. Burned or altered mineral inclusions. With rounded, often whitish, “cotton” like or snowball” appearances Broken silk or partially “reabsorbed” rutile needles Ruptured two-phase inclusions and negative crystals Sintered surface areas, especially around the girdle Prices for normal or slightly heated rubies are still not cheap. Good ones can still cost upward of US$5,000 per carat. However, before paying these high prices, PLEASE make sure the ruby which you are purchasing has not been subjected to newer or higher step treatments which are shown below. This is because the price for higher treatment rubies can drop dramatically. CERTIFICATION A good way to double-check if the ruby is what is stated is by asking your jeweler or gemstone wholesaler for a reliable certificate with the stone. On a GRS certificate, it will state the ruby is only subject to H treatment, or H (a) is also acceptable. GIA will classify normal heat treatment as ‘Heated.’ If it is written H(b) or below then you will know that the ruby has been subject to newer treatments and you should not pay the price for normal heat-treated ruby. GIA will classify higher levels of treatments as Heated (‘Minor or Moderate or Significant’ Residue). RUBY TREATMENT GUIDE – HEATED FLUX-HEALED RUBIES The next more extreme level of treatment for rubies is called heated ‘flux-healed’ rubies. On reliable certificate providers as stated above they will indicate these rubies as H(b) or ‘heated with residues.’ For this level of treatment, treaters add “foreign” material to the rubies by surrounding them with a flux-like material, which becomes molten at extremely high temperatures. The dissolved flux will then fill the fractures and cavities from the open stone’s surface which will then solidify into a glass-like substance. This process improves the apparent clarity of the ruby, but because the composition of these materials is not completely “natural,” the price for these rubies is substantially less. The price is depended on how much residue is presented in the heated rubies. Most labs do classify the amount of residue by stating it as minor, moderate, or significant residues. For each level of treatment, the price will drop accordingly on average by almost 20% to 50% per carat. Inclusions for Flux-Healed Rubies Are: Flux inclusions are generally white and have glue or sticky look. But, it might also appear near-colorless, whitish, brownish, or yellow to orange. PLEASE NOTE: Even though these inclusions indicate flux induced by the heat process. There are also flux-growth synthetic rubies which are man-made stones and NOT natural rubies. For more details please read our next post on synthetic rubies. The most aggressive type of ruby treatment that has flooded the markets is called lead-glass-filled rubies. The average prices for these rubies are usually US$ 5 per carat or less. These stones are really not worth anything. This is because, in their natural state, the rough would have been an ugly, highly included brown color, which would NOT have been saleable if not with the help of this treatment. How it works is usually this “bad” looking ruby – If you can call it ruby – is mixed with acid to remove mineralized inclusions making the stone texture soft and weak like a sponge. If you hold the stone in this state it will crumble into powder. This material is then infused with leaded glass to give back the strength and apparent good looks. For an average consumer, you would think this is a beautiful natural ruby, which I am getting in a cheap price or a good deal for. The problem with this type of treatment is many as listed below: NOT A RUBY ANYMORE These stones are not rubies anymore. It is a mixture of natural corundum and lead glass. Actually, most of these “rubies” have more lead glass in them. Yet they are still being sold as natural rubies in major stores and/or some eBay or online dealers which makes this a major disclosure issue. If the sellers actually disclose the treatments of these stones to their clients, the purchaser can then make a more informed decision on how much you should pay for this type of ruby. VERY FRAGILE, CAREFUL WHILE SETTING As it is not purely corundum anymore, this ruby can get ruined immediately if you give it without informing the ring setter. If the manufacturer torches the ring for resizing and it touches the stone with heat, it will crack. If you re-plate your rhodium plate white gold ring it will destroy the stone. For natural rubies, you don’t have to worry about any of the above issues. DURABILITY ISSUES Also, if you are not careful in wearing these “hybrid” rubies they will change over time. For example, if you accidentally spill some lemon juice while eating, the stone will slowly decay in a few days. Therefore, your supposedly “beautiful” stone, will now look like it was thrown from a high-rise building. Therefore, if you are in the market buying rubies it is very important to find out and check for these types of rubies. Inclusions for Lead-Glass Filled Rubies Are: Gas bubbles are sure indications of glass-filled rubies or synthetics. Usually very easy to spot under a microscope or a loupe with dark light background. Blue and Orange flash effect along with structural fractures when put under a black light. It is also a key indicator of lead-glass filled rubies Again, the best way to find out if the stone you are buying is lead-glass-filled rubies is by either having a great pair of eyes and check for the signs above or getting the stone certified by a reliable lab. GRS certificates will classify these rubies as “Hybrid” Ruby. It will have the following comment “Heat-treated and filled with a foreign solid substance (including lead). Special care when handling. I hope the above guide is helpful. If you have any additional questions. Please feel free to provide your comments below or send me a message at [email protected]. __________________ Contact us today to get all your wholesale gemstones, diamonds and jewelry needs. We can Source, Search and Supply anything you require. Related I have a 2.2carat untreated ruby with certificate. Just for the hell of it over the yeats i have been in several shops that buy colored stones. About 7. I would just bring in and say nothing about the cert. some said completely fake, some said minor heat treatment. Some said real and untreated but liw quality.lol maybe just bad luck huh? Pretty nice post. I just stumbled upon your blog and wished to say that I have really enjoyed surfing around your blog posts. In any case I’ll be subscribing to your feed and I hope you write again very soon! Thank you for this nice elaborated explanation on the ruby. I found a natural heat treated ruby from a local jewelers store known by paramount jewelers. It has been really hard to make the decision. So the Ruby I am talking about is a natural heated Mozambique Ruby. Which has 1.78 ct and they are asking for $2200 with their own certifications. How should i approach this deal. Please guide me at your best possible way, your help will be really appreciated Hi MD Hoque, The way I will approach this deal is by first checking if paramount jewelers, who is providing the certification, has someone qualified to do so. Usually most established jewelry stores will have a graduate gemologist (from GIA preferable) in house who can verify if the ruby is natural & only heat treated. If there isn’t any qualified individual who can do this than you should ask if they can provide a third party certification just to make sure you know what ruby you are getting. “Heated” natural ruby is also a very broad definition and as you can see from this blog article there is different “levels” of heat treatment, which can affect the ruby price. Price from highest to lowest is 1) Normal Heat treatment 2) Heat treatment with flux residue inside the ruby 3) Heat treatment with chemically diffusion…. For each level downward, the price drops dramatically, so that is why it is important for you to understand when the certification states heat treatment to check and see “what type it is”. I wish you the best of luck with ruby purchase and do feel free to ask me any question anytime. Regards, Tarun Gupta, Graduate Gemologist (GIA) Hello, I am the president of the company, working and living in Cambodia. Since 2008 I have been working on Burmese rubies, have partnered with Mogok. Personally fly to purchase stones. I would like to bring to your attention rubies, sapphires, spinel only from Mogok and just not warm stones. Stones are in stock and on order. Hello, what are your prices for rough rubies and sapphire (heated only-facetable- high quality) per ct ? Do you sell from cambodia? Do you have a contact tel number? Will appreciate if you can gave me please give me your best initial price as I am now looking to start . Hmm interesting. Please also say that Ruby is a ‘sapphire’ too, it’s just a red sapphire 🙂 Most people think ‘blue’ wwhen they hear ‘sapphire’, mostly prefer very deep, dark (but clear), blue. Also, since the best Ruby is harder to find than comparable diamond, and very rare, also that NO WAY is average person going to get natural heat Ruby at a few full carats. They won’t be at any chain jeweler s for sure! MOST rubies that look pink more than red are Thai rubies, and always considered far less valuable than African rubies which, ideally, should ‘glow’ blood/stop-light red rather than sparkle and NEVER have a brownish hue. Else they are probably red garnet, not ruby. Finally, unless person with expensive Ruby gem knows jewelers very well, NEVER to leave for cleaning with ANY jeweler and jeweler should ALWAYS clean rare gems such as these by appointment, IN FRONT OF customer WITHOUT BEING ASKED!! I had a relative who a friends family member once robbed by a very good jeweler-thief like that and she never, ever got over it and it was her word against the jeweler’s because she didn’t realise till much later that something ‘seemed wrong’ and this bad jeweler was counting on such trusts and getting away with it!!!!! The natural heat rubies grow increasingly rare and expensive, so it’s important people know this. Hi Steve, Thanks for your comment and you are correct by stating that by definition a ruby is a ‘red’ color sapphire. They both are in the same “corundum family” and therefore have the same toughness & hardness characteristics. In fact, sapphires come in all colors and it just depends on their chemical composition. Color ranges include blue, pink, yellow, green, purple, etc. Now regarding rubies being more ‘rare’ then diamonds, I completely agree with you in that statement and searching & sourcing a nice high quality ruby is not easy. I also agree with you that high quality ruby has been a good investment due to this rarity factor. However, your comment regarding African rubies being ‘higher’ priced in comparison to Thai rubies actually is not true at all. Yes, Thai rubies ‘generally’ are in darkish red color range, but as there aren’t any rubies being mined or produced from here anymore since the late 1980s, they are now very rare to find. Also, the most premium source of rubies are still Burmese rubies and they actually glow the most due to them having less iron in its composition which allows it to ‘fluoresce more’ in natural sunlight. There are of course beautiful Mozambique rubies but they are still a lot more affordable in comparison to a Thai or Burmese ruby as they more easily available due large production coming from that source. Tarun Gupta, Graduate Gemologist (GIA) I have bout 66.0 carat ruby I can send picture but I’m confused. I have oval hand cut untreated RUBY. RED&SLIGHTLY purple w/whitish streaks in it. It’s size color & being told such a variety of values. I only know sending to Swiss gemologist that it’s a ruby, but would that gemologist give me an impartial course of action as to where, how, which, if, or any opinion AS ITS FUTURE SHOULD TAKE. Mainly appreciative on understanding this subject. i was looking for the properties of natural and heated rubies as i deal in these stones.also nowadays labs are less reliable so i want to thank you a lot for such useful information which will make me improve my knowledge about the stones. Would someone plese give me a phone number from president of the company’s in Cambodia I’m looking for natural Burmese ruby and sapphire, certified I have very bad experience from USA and India purchase 2 ruby from dishonest people state that is reall ruby and it was glass filed I was craying and not was able to return them,! And it as gifts to my daughters, Hi Nena, We only have one main office which is located in Bangkok, Thailand, though we can ship across the globe through FedEx with full insurance. Now regarding getting cheated in buying your ruby, I believe our blog does cover very important points which you should check before making your purchase to make sure you getting the genuine thing. Also, always do remember that the most important thing in buying gemstones is to make sure you dealing with someone who you can “trust” and the certificate received is from reliable third party lab. Best Regards, Tarun Gupta, Graduate Gemologist (GIA) Thank you so much for this information. I recently purchased my first ruby for my favorite seller, who always informs if the stones are treated and includes pictures of the actual product, they even have a filter to separate fracture filled and flux healed stones from only heated ones, which is amazing. Im so happy to know my new 0.16 carat heated only ruby is still real!

For each level downward, the price drops dramatically, so that is why it is important for you to understand when the certification states heat treatment to check and see “what type it is”. I wish you the best of luck with ruby purchase and do feel free to ask me any question anytime. Regards, Tarun Gupta, Graduate Gemologist (GIA) Hello, I am the president of the company, working and living in Cambodia. Since 2008 I have been working on Burmese rubies, have partnered with Mogok. Personally fly to purchase stones. I would like to bring to your attention rubies, sapphires, spinel only from Mogok and just not warm stones. Stones are in stock and on order. Hello, what are your prices for rough rubies and sapphire (heated only-facetable- high quality) per ct ? Do you sell from cambodia? Do you have a contact tel number? Will appreciate if you can gave me please give me your best initial price as I am now looking to start . Hmm interesting. Please also say that Ruby is a ‘sapphire’ too, it’s just a red sapphire 🙂 Most people think ‘blue’ wwhen they hear ‘sapphire’, mostly prefer very deep, dark (but clear), blue. Also, since the best Ruby is harder to find than comparable diamond, and very rare, also that NO WAY is average person going to get natural heat Ruby at a few full carats. They won’t be at any chain jeweler s for sure! MOST rubies that look pink more than red are Thai rubies, and always considered far less valuable than African rubies which, ideally, should ‘glow’ blood/stop-light red rather than sparkle and NEVER have a brownish hue. Else they are probably red garnet, not ruby.

yes

Gemology

Are heated gemstones less valuable?

yes_statement

"heated" "gemstones" are less "valuable".. the value of "gemstones" decreases when they are "heated".

https://rsagems.com/educational/gemstone-treatments/

Gemstone Treatments - RSA Gems

There are a multitude of gemstone treatments on the market, which allows for much less expensive jewelry purchases. The downside to this is that often treatments are not disclosed and the buyer pays far too much for an inferior gemstone, often without the knowledge of the jeweler who is selling it. The following is a summary of gemstone treatments commonly practiced today, and a little on how these treatments affect the value of the finished gem. Heat Gemstones have been heated for thousands of years when it was found that heating of some gem material can cause a deepening of color, a lightening of color, and enhancement of clarity. There are many gemstones that are commonly found in the ground that underwent a significant period of heating after their initial formation. In this type of gem, it cannot be ascertained with certainty whether the stone was heated naturally or by man. In this case the value of the cut gem is not affected by heating. The following table lists some common gemstones and the impact that heating has on their value. Gemstone Variety Effect of heating Value compared to unheated of equivalent color and clarity Amethyst Changes purple to yellow Loses half its value Aquamarine Deepens color No impact Garnet No effect No impact Oregon Sunstone No effect No impact Ruby Clears inclusions, can change color Loses about half its value. Sapphire Changes color, clears inclusions Loses about half its value Spinel Clears inclusions Loses about half its value Tanzanite Changes color No impact Tourmaline Lightens color No impact Zircon Lightens color No impact Usually, to determine whether a gemstone has been heated or not requires a microscope and knowledge of what to look for. This is especially important in the case of ruby, sapphire, and spinel as these are expensive stones and lose a lot of value once heated. This is why we send our expensive rubies and sapphires to GIA to determine whether the stone was heated or otherwise treated in the rough. Most gems are not heated in the rough, but rather only after they are cut. Tanzanite is an excellent example of this. In fact, tanzanite is one case where if the color is not desirable, we may send it to be heated. In such cases we always disclose the heat treatment. Aquamarine can become a much deeper blue if heated and the value increases significantly. Irradiation There are a few gemstones on the market that owe their color to irradiation. Prasiolite is a green quartz that has been irradiated, as this color does not occur in nature. Swiss Blue Topaz, and London Blue Topaz are also irradiated stones. It is possible to find London Blue Topaz that came out of the ground with the dark natural color, but these stones are exceedingly rare. Irradiation is normally performed on colorless gem material to give it the pleasing colors that we see on the market. Irradiated gems are not valuable and RSA Gems does not purchase such gem rough for cutting. There is also some danger associated with irradiated gems. Once treated with radiation, a gemstone is supposed to be safely stored for a minimum of two years prior to selling it. There have been reports of radiation burns resulting from wearing jewelry with a recently irradiated gemstone. Fracture Filling Most emeralds on the market have been oiled, which is a form of fracture filling. The stone is placed under high pressure, and a clear oil that has the same refractive index as the stone is introduced. The oil flows into any cracks that break the surface, repairing (actually hiding is a better term) the cracks, sometimes deeply into the stone. It can be tricky to re-cut emeralds because the oil is likely to leak out during cutting, leaving a terribly included stone that will require re-oiling in order to sell it. Oiling is completely accepted in the jewelry market and a stone that has not been oiled is rare and worth much more than its oiled counterparts. Rubies and Sapphires may be fracture filled with leaded glass during heat treatments. The glass is the same density as the ruby or sapphire so it cannot be detected by weighing the stone. It is also colorless so is not easily detectable without a microscope. This is probably the most commonly committed fraud in the gem and jewelry industry worldwide. Many unscrupulous mine owners are known to send very poor quality rough stones to China or Thailand for heating and fracture filling. Then the stones are sent back to the mine where they are added to the rough material coming out of the mine. Thus, unwary or inexperienced rough dealers or tourist collectors are sold this material as if it was just coming out of the mine in that condition. Fracture filled ruby may be worth as little as one percent the value of natural ruby. Composites A composite stone is one that was heated and assembled in layers held together by leaded glass. This is a manufactured product consisting of natural stone, usually of unsellable quality and may contain as much as half its weight in glass! This is a very inexpensive product. Dye Diffusion This is practiced mainly in China, where dye is forced into the stone on the molecular level to permeate an otherwise colorless gem into one with beautiful, but unnatural color. A dye diffused stone is worth very little and should be relegated to costume jewelry. Lab Created While not a treatment on natural stone, these gems are probably the most commonly misunderstood by the public at large. Go to any chain jewelry store and you will see large jewelry pieces with many small rubies, sapphires, emeralds and the like. You can tell by the price tag that these are manmade gems. The sales people in these stores will say you are purchasing a ruby, sapphire, or emerald as the case may be and they will rarely tell you the stones are worth less than 1/1000th of their natural counterparts. Conclusion So what is the gemstone buyer to do to be sure the expensive gem they are purchasing is authentic, and untreated? The best thing you can do is to request a GIA report for the stone. If the seller is unwilling to get one (really, for an expensive gem the seller should already have obtained one) then you should pass on the purchase. Don’t take anyone’s word for it when it comes to big rubies and sapphires in particular. While we don’t have GIA reports for our less expensive stones we will be happy to send any stone to GIA on your behalf (and your expense) that you purchase from us. The process usually takes 2 to 3 weeks for GIA to complete.

There are a multitude of gemstone treatments on the market, which allows for much less expensive jewelry purchases. The downside to this is that often treatments are not disclosed and the buyer pays far too much for an inferior gemstone, often without the knowledge of the jeweler who is selling it. The following is a summary of gemstone treatments commonly practiced today, and a little on how these treatments affect the value of the finished gem. Heat Gemstones have been heated for thousands of years when it was found that heating of some gem material can cause a deepening of color, a lightening of color, and enhancement of clarity. There are many gemstones that are commonly found in the ground that underwent a significant period of heating after their initial formation. In this type of gem, it cannot be ascertained with certainty whether the stone was heated naturally or by man. In this case the value of the cut gem is not affected by heating. The following table lists some common gemstones and the impact that heating has on their value. Gemstone Variety Effect of heating Value compared to unheated of equivalent color and clarity Amethyst Changes purple to yellow Loses half its value Aquamarine Deepens color No impact Garnet No effect No impact Oregon Sunstone No effect No impact Ruby Clears inclusions, can change color Loses about half its value. Sapphire Changes color, clears inclusions Loses about half its value Spinel Clears inclusions Loses about half its value Tanzanite Changes color No impact Tourmaline Lightens color No impact Zircon Lightens color No impact Usually, to determine whether a gemstone has been heated or not requires a microscope and knowledge of what to look for. This is especially important in the case of ruby, sapphire, and spinel as these are expensive stones and lose a lot of value once heated. This is why we send our expensive rubies and sapphires to GIA to determine whether the stone was heated or otherwise treated in the rough.

yes

Gemology

Are heated gemstones less valuable?

yes_statement

"heated" "gemstones" are less "valuable".. the value of "gemstones" decreases when they are "heated".

https://www.thejewelleryeditor.com/jewellery/know-how/what-gemstone-enhancements-are-acceptable-rubies-emeralds-sapphires/

Discover which treatments are acceptable for gemstones. | The ...

Seeing is believing: what stone enhancements are acceptable? The aim of this article is to explain the most common enhancements or treatments for the 'big three', which are acceptable and within what parameters. 12 March 2019 by Christa Van Eerde Most of the ‘big three’ gemstones – emeralds, rubies and sapphires – are in some way enhanced or treated. Only the very pure, perfectly coloured and flawless can escape any type of enhancement, and this is reflected in their record-breaking prices. Perfection comes at a cost; the most valuable untreated ruby, the 25.59-carat Sunrise Ruby (below) fetched $30.3 million, which is just over $1 million per carat at Sotheby’s in Geneva in May 2015, far outstripping any price paid for a colourless diamond. Sotheby's jewellery auction in Geneva in May 2015 set a new world record for any coloured gemstone when the exceptional Sunrise Ruby sold for an astonishing $30.3 million. More than tripling the previous record, it is officially the most expensive ruby in the world to date at over $1 million per carat. The same is true for top quality emeralds and sapphires, the more naturally perfect, the more valuable. But as not every stone is perfect, I explore the range of treatments and within which parameters they are acceptable to make the right choice when buying an emerald, sapphire or ruby. As gem treatments vary considerably and though sellers are ethically obliged to disclose if a gemstone has been treated, here is my advice on red flags to look for when buying a gem. Colombian emeralds are the most prized and these exceptional examples from the Marcial de Gomar Collection include the 887-carat La Gloria from the wreck of the Atocha galleon sunk in 1622 off the coast of Florida. These untreated emeralds form part of one of the most valuable collections of emeralds in the world. Any man or machine improvement to a stone’s appearance or value is considered a gem treatment. When a gemstone comes out of the ground as a rough it will usually be cut and polished, and though this improves a stone’s sparkle and shine, neither is considered a gem treatment. The most common treatments for the ‘big three’ are surface modification, cavity and fracture-filling, heat treatment and lattice diffusion. Of these, heating and oil-filling are the most widespread and when applied correctly and disclosed are acceptable enhancements. Surface modification is only acceptable if the extent of the enhancement is fully disclosed. Cavity and fracture filling are acceptable but may not last so special care must be taken when cleaning jewels subjected to these treatments. Lattice diffusion that uses heat and chemicals must be disclosed as it lowers the value of the stone and is not visible other than under laboratory conditions. Most prized of all are no-heat sapphires such as those in these Alexandre Reza earring with Ceylon sapphires. They are further accented by baguette diamonds and French buffed sapphires. Treatments can allow for a much wider selection with more price points as well as increase the strength and magnificence of a stone. But if applied to outwit, treated items do not receive a second look or thought. Think of stone treatments in the way you would say a wooden dining table with multiple coatings of varnish or dyed fabrics, both of which are acceptable within reasonable parameters. However, like make-up, not all treatments are stable and ever lasting and some can even be removed in a moment. Any reputable source should be open about discussing enhancements to ensure that the buyer is aware of any treatments and be able to purchase with confidence. The Three Graces acrostic ring in 15ct yellow gold with the first letter of each gem spelling the word Regard: ruby, emerald, garnet, amethyst, ruby and diamond. This ring is in an early Georgian closed-foiled and closed-back setting. Other popular words spelled out by acrostic rings included dearest and adore. Surface modification This is the easiest treatment to spot with the naked eye when the stone is flipped over and viewed table-down. Examples include coatings and backings that have been used for thousands of years and are frequently seen in costume jewellery. Its use was so widespread during the Renaissance that laws were made to ban such treatments. Clear glass or light-coloured stones such as white sapphire if given a blue foil backing or a coating of blue plastic look like a blue sapphire. If the underside of a very light emerald is given a green glazing it can appear to be a stone of much greater worth, and if the jewellery mounting for a ruby is given a coat of red paint, the appearance of the stone can be deceptively enhanced for a time. So, whenever looking at a piece, it is important to view it from all directions to check for these tricks. A red flag is a closed-back setting that conceals the back of a stone. Conclusion: Surface modification is in my ‘buyer beware’ category. This treatment is only acceptable if its extent is fully disclosed and that the buyer knows for sure that the host stone is indeed one of the ‘big three’ and not an imitator. Also full disclosure is required on what care needs to be taken to increase the lifespan of the enhancement, as it will not last forever. Clearly visible under magnification is the large glass-filled cavity on the surface of a heated ruby from Mozambique. Glass-filled rubies are worth significantly less than their untouched counterparts. E. Billie Hughes for Lotus Gemology Cavity filling This applies to rubies and sapphires, that just like teeth, gemstones can have cavities that like ours can be sealed. Cavities in stones lessen their desirability because they create an optical void, which is why it is advantageous to conceal the pits or depressions and fill them with glass or plastic to create optical coherence and improve the stone’s beauty. The hardness and sheen of plastic or glass will differ greatly to the host sapphire or ruby (above), and this disparity is a red flag that can be seen with the help of a loupe with a ten times magnification (10x) capacity. Conclusion: Cavity filling is acceptable if disclosed; however, caution must be taken by the buyer, as common cleaning methods such as an ultrasonic bath can dislodge the filling and ruin the stone. A gem laboratory such as the GIA with the correct magnifying equipment will be able to detect treatments invisible to the naked eye. This emerald has been treated with coloured oils showing colour concentrations in the fractures. Copyright GIA Fracture filling This is similar to cavity filling, but while cavities are wide, fractures are slender and narrow. The most fracture-filled gem is emerald (above), and if a ruby of lesser quality is glass filled, the difference in appearance and apparent clarity can be remarkable. A vacuum is generally used to suck the air from the thin fractures and the fillers heated to become more liquid. Once the colourless fillers of glass, plastic, resins or oils that can range from cedar wood to palm oils are applied, the fissures are disguised. As alluded to earlier, caution must be taken if purchasing a fracture filled or oiled stone, as the fillings and oils can be removed with cleaning, sudden temperature change and even contact with cosmetics, perfumes, hairspray and common household chemicals. Detection is not easy and usually requires examination with a microscope by a gemmologist. Oiling does no harm to the stone and is reversible. It has been recorded as far back as Ancient Egypt and is acceptable and common, especially in emeralds, as it allows their ‘garden’ to appear in full bloom. The aforementioned fillers may have colour: for example red oil to improve the colour of ruby, in which case another treatment is engaged, dyeing. A dye can make a stone’s colour lighter, darker, evenly spread or change it entirely, at least for a time as many dyes fade or the oils may ooze out or dry up. The things to look out for, especially in rubies and emeralds, is concentrated dye visible within cracks. Conclusion: Dyeing is acceptable if the buyer is informed. That being said, if looking for an investment piece or jewellery to be handed down generation after generation, I would say it is in the ‘buyer beware’ category. Heat treatment This is a more stable treatment used to alter a stone’s colour that has been used since the ancient pharaohs. The majority of sapphires and rubies are in fact heat-treated. Sapphires considered too dark can be lightened or the near colourless ones can be given a deeper hue. Rubies that are deemed less valuable because they show a hint of blue can be treated to make the red what is known as ‘redder than purple’. The treatment can remove, generate or alter the appearance of inclusions. The temperature, environment, time of exposure and rate of heating and cooling all influence the stone’s characteristics. There are modern heat treatment facilities as well as locals in mining communities who pass their skills down from generation to generation on how to enhance colour by covering the stone in a lime and coconut husk paste and heating it over a charcoal fire by blowing through a slim tube for hours. Difficult to spot without gemmological training, evidence of heat treatment can be detected by a trained eye with a loupe and/or microscope. Conclusion: Heat treatment is totally acceptable. In fact, un-heated natural stones are very rare. Assume heated until proven otherwise with a report from a respected laboratory such as the SSEF, GIA, AGL, Gübelin or GRS. At Lotus Gemology laboratories treatments such as this lattice diffusion on a heated sapphire show the blue colour concentrations along the facet edges when immersed in diiodomethane. E. Billie Hughes for Lotus Gemology Lattice diffusion This treatment is less durable than heat treatment and is carried out by exposing the gemstone to chemicals and extreme heat, so that the elements penetrate the surface, deepening or altering the stone’s colour. This treatment is frequently used in sapphires (above), particularly the most rare variety known as padparadscha, which has the colour of a lotus flower. Blues become bluer and reds redder with the diffusion of iron and titanium or chromium, respectively. The treatment may be visible as a colour gradient from the stone’s surface to its core; however, it usually requires a gemmologist and advanced laboratory equipment to detect. Conclusion: Lattice diffusion does allow people to buy stones that would otherwise be beyond their price range such as padparadschas; however in my book, it is another ‘buyer beware’ treatment. And as a general and overall sum up: if looking for an affordable piece to wear often and enjoy, treated stones are perfectly acceptable if the seller has been transparent about the enhancement the stone has received. Nonetheless, if on the hunt for an investment piece or wanting to splurge on a hand-me down item to last lifetimes, the less treatment, the better. Here are some questions to ask when buying a stone: 1. Has the stone been treated? a. If so, what benefit did the treatment have on the stone? b. How did the treatment affect the value? c. If the treatment did affect the value, how can you prove this? d. Is there a report documenting the treatment? 2. Does the stone require any special care? a. Is it safe to use an ultrasonic machine to clean the stone if it were set in jewellery? 3. If the stone was re-set into a different setting, would there be any risk of damaging the stone? Some rubies have fissures too large to be closed via normal flux healing heat treatment alone so are often filled with glass, as displayed here. The glass has a much lower luster than the surrounding corundum and a gas bubble is visible that was cut through during the polishing process. E. Billie Hughes for Lotus Gemology This 40-carat rough ruby from Gemfields Mozambique mines shows the brilliant colour of a natural ruby in its raw form. Until a rough is cut it is not possible to determine whether it will need heat or any other treatments. Sotheby's jewellery auction in Geneva in May 2015 set a new world record for any coloured gemstone when the exceptional Sunrise Ruby sold for an astonishing $30.3 million. More than tripling the previous record, it is officially the most expensive ruby in the world to date at over $1 million per carat. Colombian emeralds are the most prized and these exceptional examples from the Marcial de Gomar Collection include the 887-carat La Gloria from the wreck of the Atocha galleon sunk in 1622 off the coast of Florida. These untreated emeralds form part of one of the most valuable collections of emeralds in the world. Most prized of all are no-heat sapphires such as those in these Alexandre Reza earring with Ceylon sapphires. They are further accented by baguette diamonds and French buffed sapphires. Damiani's Emozioni floral-inspired diamond rings have either a sapphire, emerald or ruby taking centre stage. When buying stones of this caliber the retailer should be open about discussing what treatments, if any, have been applied to the stone and their effect on the colour, surface texture and price. At Lotus Gemology laboratories treatments such as this lattice diffusion on a heated sapphire show the blue colour concentrations along the facet edges when immersed in diiodomethane. E. Billie Hughes for Lotus Gemology Clearly visible under magnification is the large glass-filled cavity on the surface of a heated ruby from Mozambique. Glass-filled rubies are worth significantly less than their untouched counterparts. E. Billie Hughes for Lotus Gemology A gem laboratory such as the GIA with the correct magnifying equipment will be able to detect treatments invisible to the naked eye. This emerald has been treated with coloured oils showing colour concentrations in the fractures. Copyright GIA The Three Graces acrostic ring in 15ct yellow gold with the first letter of each gem spelling the word Regard: ruby, emerald, garnet, amethyst, ruby and diamond. This ring is in an early Georgian closed-foiled and closed-back setting. Other popular words spelled out by acrostic rings included dearest and adore. Support our Work with a Contribution of any Amount We need your help to keep The Jewellery Editor’s independence so that we can continue to offer quality writing that’s open to everyone around the world. It means we can give a full and varied picture of the big, wide world of jewellery and watches whether it is on our website or social media channels. Every contribution is hugely appreciated and key to ensuring our future. Subscribe to our newsletter We use our own and third party cookies to improve your experience and our services. If you continue, we consider that you accept their use. You can get more information on your website at cookies policy.

This is a more stable treatment used to alter a stone’s colour that has been used since the ancient pharaohs. The majority of sapphires and rubies are in fact heat-treated. Sapphires considered too dark can be lightened or the near colourless ones can be given a deeper hue. Rubies that are deemed less valuable because they show a hint of blue can be treated to make the red what is known as ‘redder than purple’. The treatment can remove, generate or alter the appearance of inclusions. The temperature, environment, time of exposure and rate of heating and cooling all influence the stone’s characteristics. There are modern heat treatment facilities as well as locals in mining communities who pass their skills down from generation to generation on how to enhance colour by covering the stone in a lime and coconut husk paste and heating it over a charcoal fire by blowing through a slim tube for hours. Difficult to spot without gemmological training, evidence of heat treatment can be detected by a trained eye with a loupe and/or microscope. Conclusion: Heat treatment is totally acceptable. In fact, un-heated natural stones are very rare. Assume heated until proven otherwise with a report from a respected laboratory such as the SSEF, GIA, AGL, Gübelin or GRS. At Lotus Gemology laboratories treatments such as this lattice diffusion on a heated sapphire show the blue colour concentrations along the facet edges when immersed in diiodomethane. E. Billie Hughes for Lotus Gemology Lattice diffusion This treatment is less durable than heat treatment and is carried out by exposing the gemstone to chemicals and extreme heat, so that the elements penetrate the surface, deepening or altering the stone’s colour. This treatment is frequently used in sapphires (above), particularly the most rare variety known as padparadscha, which has the colour of a lotus flower. Blues become bluer and reds redder with the diffusion of iron and titanium or chromium, respectively. The treatment may be visible as a colour gradient from the stone’s surface to its core; however, it usually requires a gemmologist and advanced laboratory equipment to detect.

no

Gemology

Are heated gemstones less valuable?

yes_statement

"heated" "gemstones" are less "valuable".. the value of "gemstones" decreases when they are "heated".

https://beadworksphiladelphia.com/treated-gemstones-the-pros-and-cons/

Treated Gemstones: The Pros And Cons | BeadWorksPhiladelphia ...

Treated Gemstones: The Pros And Cons A gemstone is a piece of natural mineral, which is cut and polished to create a beautiful and durable piece of jewelry. Many gemstones are treated in some way to enhance their color or clarity. Some treatments are common and widely accepted, while others are controversial and may affect the value of the stone. The most common type of treatment is heating. Heat treatments are used to improve the color of gemstones such as sapphires, rubies, and amethysts. The stone is heated to a very high temperature and then cooled slowly. This process can change the color of the gemstone permanently. Other treatments include dying, which is used to improve the color of gemstones such as turquoise, and irradiation, which is used to improve the color of diamonds. Irradiation treatments are controversial because they can make the diamond radioactive. Treated gemstones are usually less valuable than untreated gemstones. However, some treatments, such as heating, can actually increase the value of the stone. It is important to disclose any treatments when selling or buying gemstones. A gemstone treatment is any process that improves or alters the appearance (color, clarity, or pattern) of a gemstone, other than cutting and polishing. Heat treatment, which is possibly the most ancient and widespread method of gemstone treatment, is used on a wide range of stones. A gem’s color is further enhanced by heating after it has been irradiated. To crystallize gems, they must be heated at extremely high temperatures and infused with elements such as beryllium, chromium, and/or titanium before they crystallize. A bleach is used to change the color of stone in the process of bleaching. In addition to filling in the cracks, impregnating treatment improves the adhesion of the surface and prevents breakage. A gemstone is sometimes not treated due to its color, such as a tourmaline, a garnet, or a spinel. Because traditional heat treatment does not require special care or handling, it is extremely durable. Amber, amethyst, aquamarine, citrine, ruby, sapphire, tanzanite, topaz, tourmaline are some of the gems that have been heat-treated. Are Treated Gemstones Real? Photo by – https://valigara.com Does this mean that my gemstone isn’t natural? Heat treatment is generally used to improve the color of gemstones such as sapphire, as well as to improve clarity and shine. To date, the use of gemstone heat treatment has resulted in its stability, durability, and longevity. These terms refer to stones that are natural, genuine, synthetic, simulated, treated, or combined. If the stone is naturally occurring, it should not have been treated, enhanced, or otherwise altered. Natural gemstones are no longer regarded as genuine gemstones, but they are genuine gemstones treated in laboratories. True, natural gems cannot be valued for their scarcity. Quality synthetic gems can complement the natural stone in fine jewelry. Synthetics aren’t always cheap, but should be much less expensive than natural stones of comparable size and quality. Synthetic gemstones are not as natural as simulated stones. Because treated gemstones typically last less than untreated gemstones, there is a disadvantage to treating them. The treatment used to improve the durability of gems can also alter their color, clarity, and even appearance. Are Heat-treated Gems Less Valuable? Heat-treated gemstones may not be as valuable as unheated ones, but they do carry a premium, especially if they are of high quality. However, as the quality of a Ruby or Sapphire is unchanged regardless of whether it is heated or not, this is a slightly different subject. How To Care For Treated Gemstones Photo by – https://jewelry-secrets.com A soft cloth and warm soapy water will clean the surface. There is no need to be afraid of dyeing. You should avoid being exposed to extreme lighting and heat, as stones can fade over time. Fill a bucket with warm soapy water and a soft cloth or brush to clean. Agate (Ayrshire Agate) is one of the gemstones found in the area. Amber (also known as amethyst), amethyst (also known as amethyst anah*-amethyst), amazonite (also known as amazonite), and amethyst (also known as anah*-amethyst) are among the other stones in the Agate database. Azurite (K2-Azurit) is available in a variety of colors, including yellow, Imperial, and Béryl fantaisie, as well as a variety of silver and golden varieties. Bloodstone (bloodstone) calcite (astrocalcite), carnelian calcite (carnelian), and apricot calcite (cadence) can all be found in the bloodstone family. Diamond (SI Red Diamond, SI Yellow Diamond, VS Blue Diamond, V1 Yellow Diamond) Diamonds Roshoite Garnet (AAA Mandarin Garnet and AAA Mozambique Garnet) are the same color as this gemstone. The name Mammut Elfenbein derives from the fossil in the book. This site is a Ruby fuchsite called Fuchsit. The term Gabbro refers to a Gabbro-Merlinit. Zwenkau druse wood and Bufonite fossil are fossils of petrified wood. The Hematite (Hematite) and Grandidierite (Granderite Cat’s Eye) minerals contain both iron and gold. A jasper is a variety of species of seashells such as bumblebee jasper, leopard jasper, norena jasper, ocean jasper, peanut jasper, picture jasper, Pilbara jasper, red jasper, Dendrite jasper, sunflower jasper, and turtella jasper. The Labradorite (Labradorite) and the Baronite (Cuprian zirconium) are the names given to this mineral. The main elements are muonionalusta meteorite (the one with the Vredefort name) and verievident meteorite (the one with the sun name). In addition to the Moonstone, there are Peachy Mystic Moon Stones and Green Moon Stones available. We are proud to carry the colors of AA Welo Opal, Australian Fire Opal, Blue Ethiopia Matrix Opal, and Lightning Ridge Crystal Opal. Blue, honey, midnight blue, and rose Nigerian rubellites are among the varieties of sapphire. The colors of rubies are usually referred to as bemainty, john sandal, and cat eye, in addition to rubies. Cat’s eye sunstone is the birthstone for October. Tibetanit (green Tibetanite) is also known as Tibetanite (rugged Tibetanite) or Tektite (indochinite). There are tourmalines (such as black tourmalines) as well as Tigers Eye tourmalines. Ouro Preto Imperial Pink Topaz (AAA Imperial Topaz, Imperial Katlang Topaz; Ouro Preto Imperial Topaz, Imperial Pink Topaz) is the most commonly found Topaz. As well as Variscite, Zarinite, and Zeolite, some other common names include Nitrolite. How Do You Take Care Of Colored Gemstones? You can clean colored stone jewellery gently with a lint-free cloth or soft-bristle toothbrush and warm soapy water. After that, use a lint-free cloth to apply the solution. To clean porous stones such as pearls and turquoise, use a soft cloth that has not been detergentized or sprayed with liquid. Do Heat-treated Gemstones Fade? Heat-treated sapphire has a permanent color and does not fade or change in appearance until it undergoes a secondary treatment. Because of this, heat treatment of sapphires is widely accepted by retailers. Do Dyed Gemstones Fade? When the gem comes into contact with an acetone or alcohol solvent, many dyes can be removed. Some dyes are irreversible if exposed to sunlight or if they are exposed to ultraviolet light. What Does It Mean When A Gemstone Is Coated Photo by – https://pinimg.com A coated gemstone is one that has been artificially coated with a transparent material or mineral to give it an extra sparkle and color. Colorless Quartz is frequently turned into Mystic Quartz using this technique, and colored Topaz is frequently turned into Mystic Topaz using this technique. Several references have been made to the proper sections of stone back coating to enhance color, improve effects, and conceal flaws. The coat1 of off-color diamonds can be used to enhance the color of the diamonds, according to the diamond course. Geologists have discovered emerald-like stones, but they were discovered to be far less valuable aquamarines covered in green plastic. Mystic Gemstone Beads: The New Semi-precious A mystic gemstone bead is a genuine stone with a thin metallic film attached to it. Metallic film coating is usually applied to gemstones by bonded them together. As a result, it is less likely that the coating will be chipped over time. A gemstone treatment, also known as a gemstone treatment, can improve the color or clarity, or it can be altered (color, clarity, or phenomenon). Most gems are now treated to improve their appearance, which is a common practice in the jewelry industry. Gemstone Treatments And Enhancements Most gemstone treatments and enhancements are done in order to improve the appearance of the stone. Common treatments include heating, dying, and irradiation. These treatments can improve the color, clarity, and overall appearance of the stone. However, it is important to note that these treatments may also decrease the value of the stone. The treatment and enhancement of gemstones has been carried out for hundreds of years. The effects of these enhancements are irreversible, cannot be detected, and are limited to nature. Other treatments may produce unintended results, such as a change in the color or clarity of the gemstone. Some treatments should be avoided by knowledgeable buyers because they are less stable. Heating improves the appearance of a gemstone in most cases. If a ruby or sapphire is not heated to the correct temperature, it will have microscopic rutile needles or tiny gas bubbles in its liquid pockets. The most expensive specimens are those that have not been subjected to any testing. A price premium is created by the rarity of being completely cold. The Nuclear Regulatory Agency, in order to ensure that no residual radiation is released, establishes a system of safeguards for radioactive gems. The most common example is blue topaz, which is a very popular gemstone. If tourmaline is illuminated, pink stones will be transformed into red ones. A pearl dyed in reflectors will cost the same as a pearl dyed in reflectors. Chalcedony and cultured pearls are commonly dyed, permanent, and acceptable. If they are dark gray, bluish, violet, nearly black, or intense bronze, you should dye them. Other materials that may be less suitable for dyeing include jade, lapis lazuli, turquoise, coral, emeralds, and sapphires. There is a chance that dyed jade will be difficult to detect, so be wary when purchasing it at a high price. Natural gem materials such as ivory, coral, pearls, and cultured pearls bleach, making them more durable. Opal can be stabilized with plastic to hide crowing, but this is not common practice. It is a widely used and described technique that has been in use for over 200 years. Lacquer or film is applied to a gem to enhance its appearance. Sapphire has always been made of dibasic material. Opals may be painted black on the back to give them a more vibrant appearance or to add a splash of color. A bluish flash should appear if a diamond is rotated under light closely. If your diamond becomes damaged, Yehuda and Ovied will most likely refill it for free. The lasered diamond would be classified as slightly or completely imperfect, regardless of whether clarity has improved. Gemstone Enhancements: A Brief History The practice of enhancing gems dates back thousands of years, and it has continued to improve the appearance, wearability, and value of gems. Today, there are numerous ways to improve gems, depending on the type and the desired effect. Ruby rubies, for example, can be treated with heat to increase their color and hardness. Emeralds can be treated with oil or radiation to restore their clarity or to keep them clean and scratch-free. Although all gemstones can be enhanced to some extent, the most valuable and expensive gems, such as emeralds, rubies, and sapphires, are the best to be treated. Diamonds can only be enhanced if they are the very best, most pure, perfectly colored, and flawless, and their record-breaking prices demonstrate this. Gemstone enhancement is an excellent way to enhance the appearance and value of a gem for a variety of reasons, including improving its appearance for everyday wear or increasing its value. Heat Treated Gemstones Heat treated gemstones are those that have been through a process of heating and cooling in order to improve their color, clarity, or hardness. This treatment is often done on diamonds, sapphires, and rubies. The heat can sometimes cause the stones to crack, so it is important to have them checked by a professional before wearing them. Throughout history, it has been possible to obtain the best characteristics of a stone through gemstone treatments. Heat treatment is used to improve the color and clarity of most colored gemstones on the market. Discover which heat-treated gemstones are the most common and distinguish between natural and enhanced gemstones. There are several well-known gemstones that are radiated, such as blue topaz. The color of Green Onyx is infused with color intensity by dyeing it and heating it. Ruby is colored in a different way depending on how it is heated, and the clarity improves as well. Heat is used to remove these colors from the skin. Sapphire is a blue dye that has been treated with heat to intensify its color. With heat treatment, for example, silk inclusions can be recrystalized to increase their visibility. To make stars shine, it is necessary to use this technique. With careful heating, amethysts can transform from light purple to yellow citrine. Sapphire is one of the most commonly treated gemstones, and heated treatment is used to obtain it. This natural process usually takes place in a transparent manner, resulting in no negative side effects on the stone’s quality or beauty. When sapphire is heated to a high temperature, it reacts with the surrounding materials, resulting in a rainbow of colors. If you choose a heated sapphire stone, you’ll get a more vibrant and saturated stone for your money because it is usually permanent. If a sapphires is not heated, it will still have inclusions that were naturally formed. Gemstone Treatment Codes Gemstone treatments are codes that are used to indicate how a particular gemstone has been treated. These codes are important to know because they can affect the value of the gemstone. For example, a gemstone that has been treated with heat to improve its color may be worth less than a gemstone that has not been treated. When gemstones become deeper within the earth’s surface, natural heating and pressure occur. Several companies are still using this process in addition to heating, pressure, or other treatments. Natural stones that are regularly enhanced by traditional methods are denoted by the code E (enhancement). The seller is aware of what specific treatment has been provided and should use a more precise code. gamma and electron irradiation are used to change a gem’s color using this code. Following the radiation, a heating process may be used to stabilize the color. This type of treatment is known as laser therapy. Diamonds are enhanced or changed in color by combining high temperatures and high pressures. To improve the appearance of a gemstone, it is impregnated with colorless wax, oil, or paraffin before being poured into porous opaque gems. A colorless agent (usually plastic) is used to bond a gemstone when it is porous. Irradiation is the process of changing color by bombarding it with neutrons. How To Tell If A Gemstone Has Been Heat Treated If a gemstone has been heat treated, it will usually have a more intense color than an untreated gemstone of the same variety. Heat treated gemstones may also be more lustrous and have fewer inclusions. To be sure, ask your jeweler for a gemological report from a reputable laboratory. It is common practice to use heating to change the color of gemstones. Ruby and sapphire are two of the most commonly heated gemstones, and corundum is another. There are no drawbacks to heat treatment at a lower temperature. The majority of the time, heating occurs only when a gem is heated to a high temperature, such as when rubies and sapphires are heated. It is not always obvious whether the treatment is effective. A mineral inclusions found within the gem may be larger than the one found in the host gem. Cracks may form in the wall, lowering its value. When sapphires are heated at high temperatures in a non-oxygen-free environment, they deepen their blue color, whereas when they are heated in the air, they lighten their color. Pyrolite, or amethyst, is also a color that can be heated to turn green. When yellow topaz is heated, it becomes pink topaz. Tanzanites are almost always heat treated to produce a vibrant blue color with a violet hue, and most are available on the market. Despite the fact that natural tanzanite has a deep blue hue, it is extremely rare. By heating the amber,’sun spangles’ can appear inside the amber, increasing its color. After heating the quartz crystals, it turns yellow, which is why it is commonly referred to as citrine. Gemstone Treatments A gemstone is a piece of mineral that is used to make jewelry or other decorative items. The vast majority of gemstones on the market have been treated in some way to improve their appearance. The most common treatments are heating, dying, and coating. Heating can improve the color of a gemstone, make it more transparent, or change its crystal structure. Dying can change the color of a gemstone, but it is not permanent and can fade over time. Coating a gemstone can improve its durability, change its color, or add other properties. The use of gemstones has been going on for hundreds of years. Pliny the Elder presented the first documentation of treatments. Due to the fact that some enhancements cannot be detected or are irreversible, there is a greater supply of beautiful gemstones on the market. Other treatments also cause dramatic changes in the clarity or appearance of a gemstone. The heating adds color to gemstones, allowing them to become more appealing. A scarcity of unheated fruits and vegetables, as well as the price premium associated with them, account for the price premium. When rubies and sapphires are heated to room temperature, microscopic rutile needles or bubbles of liquid form. Unearthed specimens can be worth a lot of money if they are in good condition. The Nuclear Regulatory Agency regulates radioactive gems in order to ensure that there is no residual radiation. Blue topaz is a fairly common example of topaz. Pink tourmaline stones can be darken to red by tourmaline. Ruby diamonds can be transformed into a rainbow of colors, including greens, yellows, blues, browns, and pinks, with the help of an engraving machine. It is customary and acceptable to dye chalcedony and cultured pearls both permanently and in the form of a chalcedony. Dark gray, bluish, violet, nearly black, and intense bronze should all be considered dyed. Other types of dyes, such as jade, lapis lazuli, turquoise, coral, rubies, emeralds, and sapphires, may be a concern. It can be difficult to detect the dyeing or polymer impregnation of jade without the use of spectrographic analysis. Bleaching is the process of cleaning organic gem materials such as ivory, coral, and cultured pearls. Stabilizing opal with plastic can help hide crazing, but this is not a common practice. The process of coating has been used for over 200 years. Lacquer or film is applied to a gem to improve its appearance. Some opals may have a black coating on the back that adds color or gives them the appearance of black opals. Glass may be used to clean up diamonds with inclusions in order for them to appear clearer. If you look closely at a diamond that has been filled, you should notice a bluish flash. If your diamond becomes damaged, Yehuda and Oved will usually refill it for you for free. If the clarity of the lasered diamond improves, it will be classified as either slightly imperfect or imperfect. Untreated Gemstones Untreated gemstones are those that have not been subjected to any type of treatment or enhancement. This means that they have not been heated, dyed, clarity enhanced, or anything else that would change their natural state. Many people prefer untreated gemstones because they are in their purest form and have not been altered in any way. If some gemstones are not treated, they are almost certainly not to be worn. Heat, radiation, dyes, and so on are not capable of enhancing an object. If the gemstone is valuable enough, the time and effort required may not be worth it. There is no such thing as 100% assurance, and there are some shady traders around. Our understanding of gemstones is that they are all completely natural, except for cutting and polishing. A Spessartite Garnet has a refractive index of higher than diamonds, making it an excellent sparkler and excellent color. Some of the garnet gemstones from Russia’s Ural Mountains are said to have enhanced heat treatment. Tourmaline treatments are difficult to detect, even in the laboratory, and their value has not yet been affected by the results. The name Andalusite refers to a gemstone with earthy or fall colors like orange, yellow, brown, green, and gold. Any treatment that does not involve nature will not work with meolite. Quartz is a gemstone that is popular not only for its beauty but also for its spiritual properties. Because Amazonite has not been treated or enhanced, the gemstones on the market are completely natural. Some opaque gemstones can be cut into oval cabochons or other unusual shapes by cutting them into shapes. It has a fascinating history, is extremely bright in color, and has striking patterns. Hematite gemstones have a silvery gray to nearly black finish, a shiny polish, and a smooth surface that makes them easy to clean. The treatment of Labradorite and spectrometers is unknown to us. The rarity of the Painite gemstone, which has made it so valuable, has aided in its rise in value over time. There is only one place on the planet where a gemstone can be found, and it is difficult to find it. It is unclear why its gemstone is so rare, but it may have something to do with its composition. The mineral painite is extremely rare, and finding it can be difficult. There are a lot of different types of painite, but one of the most common is painite. Why You Should Consider Orange Spessartite One of the most untreated gemstones is orange spessartite. The color of this gemstone is brilliant orange, and it has a decent hardness of around 32.5 K. A ring or amulet can be made out of it, or it can be cut into smaller shapes. As a result, it is less likely to be treated with a synthetic gemstone coating. Spencer Beck is the owner and creator of Beadworks, a website dedicated to providing information, tips, and tutorials on all things related to beads and gemstones. Spencer has been interested in beads and gemstones since he was a child, and has been crafting jewelry for over 10 years. About Author Spencer Beck is the owner and creator of Beadworks, a website dedicated to providing information, tips, and tutorials on all things related to beads and gemstones. Spencer has been interested in beads and gemstones since he was a child, and has been crafting jewelry for over 10 years. On Beadworks, you'll find information on everything from the different types of beads and gemstones available, to tips on how to create your own jewelry. You'll also find a variety of tutorials on different jewelry-making techniques, as well as ideas and inspiration for your next project.

Diamonds can only be enhanced if they are the very best, most pure, perfectly colored, and flawless, and their record-breaking prices demonstrate this. Gemstone enhancement is an excellent way to enhance the appearance and value of a gem for a variety of reasons, including improving its appearance for everyday wear or increasing its value. Heat Treated Gemstones Heat treated gemstones are those that have been through a process of heating and cooling in order to improve their color, clarity, or hardness. This treatment is often done on diamonds, sapphires, and rubies. The heat can sometimes cause the stones to crack, so it is important to have them checked by a professional before wearing them. Throughout history, it has been possible to obtain the best characteristics of a stone through gemstone treatments. Heat treatment is used to improve the color and clarity of most colored gemstones on the market. Discover which heat-treated gemstones are the most common and distinguish between natural and enhanced gemstones. There are several well-known gemstones that are radiated, such as blue topaz. The color of Green Onyx is infused with color intensity by dyeing it and heating it. Ruby is colored in a different way depending on how it is heated, and the clarity improves as well. Heat is used to remove these colors from the skin. Sapphire is a blue dye that has been treated with heat to intensify its color. With heat treatment, for example, silk inclusions can be recrystalized to increase their visibility. To make stars shine, it is necessary to use this technique. With careful heating, amethysts can transform from light purple to yellow citrine. Sapphire is one of the most commonly treated gemstones, and heated treatment is used to obtain it. This natural process usually takes place in a transparent manner, resulting in no negative side effects on the stone’s quality or beauty. When sapphire is heated to a high temperature, it reacts with the surrounding materials, resulting in a rainbow of colors.

no

Gemology

Are heated gemstones less valuable?

no_statement

"heated" "gemstones" are not less "valuable".. the value of "gemstones" does not decrease when they are "heated".

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gemstone

Gemstone - Wikipedia

A gemstone (also called a fine gem, jewel, precious stone, semiprecious stone, or simply gem) is a piece of mineralcrystal which, in cut and polished form, is used to make jewelry or other adornments.[1][2][3] However, certain rocks (such as lapis lazuli, opal, and obsidian) and occasionally organic materials that are not minerals (such as amber, jet, and pearl) are also used for jewelry and are therefore often considered to be gemstones as well. Most gemstones are hard, but some soft minerals are used in jewelry because of their luster or other physical properties that have aesthetic value. Rarity and notoriety are other characteristics that lend value to gemstones. Found all over the world, the industry of coloured gemstones (this meaning anything other than diamonds) is currently estimated to be around 10–12 billion US dollars.[4] The traditional classification in the West, which goes back to the ancient Greeks, begins with a distinction between precious and semi-precious; similar distinctions are made in other cultures. In modern use, the precious stones are emerald, ruby, sapphire and diamond, with all other gemstones being semi-precious.[5] This distinction reflects the rarity of the respective stones in ancient times, as well as their quality: all are translucent with fine color in their purest forms, except for the colorless diamond, and very hard, with hardnesses of 8 to 10 on the Mohs scale. Other stones are classified by their color, translucency, and hardness. The traditional distinction does not necessarily reflect modern values; for example, while garnets are relatively inexpensive, a green garnet called tsavorite can be far more valuable than a mid-quality emerald.[6] Another traditional term for semi-precious gemstones used in art history and archaeology is hardstone. Use of the terms 'precious' and 'semi-precious' in a commercial context is, arguably, misleading in that it suggests certain stones are more valuable than others, when this is not reflected in the actual market value. Gemstones are classified into different groups, species, and varieties.[7][8] For example, ruby is the red variety of the species corundum, while any other color of corundum is considered sapphire. Other examples are the emerald (green), aquamarine (blue), red beryl (red), goshenite (colorless), heliodor (yellow), and morganite (pink), which are all varieties of the mineral species beryl. Gemstones may also be classified in terms of their "water". This is a recognized grading of the gem's luster, transparency, or "brilliance".[9] Very transparent gems are considered "first water", while "second" or "third water" gems are those of a lesser transparency.[10] Gemstones have no universally accepted grading system. Diamonds are graded using a system developed by the Gemological Institute of America (GIA) in the early 1950s. Historically, all gemstones were graded using the naked eye. The GIA system included a major innovation: the introduction of 10x magnification as the standard for grading clarity. Other gemstones are still graded using the naked eye (assuming 20/20 vision).[11] A mnemonic device, the "four Cs" (color, cut, clarity, and carats), has been introduced to help describe the factors used to grade a diamond.[12] With modification, these categories can be useful in understanding the grading of all gemstones. The four criteria carry different weights depending upon whether they are applied to colored gemstones or to colorless diamonds. In diamonds, the cut is the primary determinant of value, followed by clarity and color. The ideal cut diamond will sparkle, to break down light into its constituent rainbow colors (dispersion), chop it up into bright little pieces (scintillation), and deliver it to the eye (brilliance). In its rough crystalline form, a diamond will do none of these things; it requires proper fashioning and this is called "cut". In gemstones that have color, including colored diamonds, the purity, and beauty of that color is the primary determinant of quality. Physical characteristics that make a colored stone valuable are color, clarity to a lesser extent (emeralds will always have a number of inclusions), cut, unusual optical phenomena within the stone such as color zoning (the uneven distribution of coloring within a gem) and asteria (star effects). Ancient Greeks, for example, greatly valued asteria gemstones, which they regarded as powerful love charms, and Helen of Troy was supposed to have worn star-corundum.[13][failed verification] Aside from the diamond, ruby, sapphire, and emerald, the pearl (not, strictly speaking, a gemstone) and opal[14] have also been considered[by whom?] to be precious. Up to the discoveries of bulk amethyst in Brazil in the 19th century, amethyst was considered a "precious stone" as well, going back to ancient Greece. Even in the last century certain stones such as aquamarine, peridot and cat's eye (cymophane) have been popular and hence been regarded as precious. Today the gemstone trade no longer makes such a distinction.[15] Many gemstones are used in even the most expensive jewelry, depending on the brand-name of the designer, fashion trends, market supply, treatments, etc. Nevertheless, diamonds, rubies, sapphires, and emeralds still have a reputation that exceeds those of other gemstones.[16] Gemstone pricing and value are governed by factors and characteristics in the quality of the stone. These characteristics include clarity, rarity, freedom from defects, the beauty of the stone, as well as the demand for such stones. There are different pricing influencers for both colored gemstones, and for diamonds. The pricing on colored stones is determined by market supply-and-demand, but diamonds are more intricate.[18] Diamond value can change based on location, time, and on the evaluations of diamond vendors.[19][failed verification] Institute for Gems and Gold Research of VINAGEMS (Vietnam), founded by Dr. Van Long Pham[citation needed] Each laboratory has its own methodology to evaluate gemstones. A stone can be called "pink" by one lab while another lab calls it "padparadscha". One lab can conclude a stone is untreated, while another lab might conclude that it is heat-treated.[15] To minimize such differences, seven of the most respected labs, AGTA-GTL (New York), CISGEM (Milano), GAAJ-ZENHOKYO (Tokyo), GIA (Carlsbad), GIT (Bangkok), Gübelin (Lucerne) and SSEF (Basel), have established the Laboratory Manual Harmonisation Committee (LMHC), for the standardization of wording reports, promotion of certain analytical methods and interpretation of results. Country of origin has sometimes been difficult to determine, due to the constant discovery of new source locations. Determining a "country of origin" is thus much more difficult than determining other aspects of a gem (such as cut, clarity, etc.).[22] Another important new gemstone that has been rising in popularity is Cuprian Elbaite Tourmaline which are also called "Paraiba Tourmaline". Paraiba tourmaline were first discovered in early 1990 and recently in 2007 in Mozambique, Africa.[23] They are famous for their Glowing Neon Blue Color. Paraiba Tourmaline have become one of the most popular gemstones in recent times thanks to their unique color and recently considered to be one of the important gemstones after Ruby, Emerald and Sapphire according to Gübelin Gemlab. Even though it is a tourmaline, paraiba are considered to be one of the most expensive gemstones. Gem dealers are aware of the differences between gem laboratories and will make use of the discrepancies to obtain the best possible certificate.[15] A few gemstones are used as gems in the crystal or other forms in which they are found. Most, however, are cut and polished for usage as jewelry. The two main classifications are stones cut as smooth, dome-shaped stones called cabochons, and stones which are cut with a faceting machine by polishing small flat windows called facets at regular intervals at exact angles. Stones which are opaque or semi-opaque such as opal, turquoise, variscite, etc. are commonly cut as cabochons. These gems are designed to show the stone's color or surface properties as in opal and star sapphires. Grinding wheels and polishing agents are used to grind, shape and polish the smooth dome shape of the stones.[24] Gems that are transparent are normally faceted, a method that shows the optical properties of the stone's interior to its best advantage by maximizing reflected light which is perceived by the viewer as sparkle. There are many commonly used shapes for faceted stones. The facets must be cut at the proper angles, which varies depending on the optical properties of the gem. If the angles are too steep or too shallow, the light will pass through and not be reflected back toward the viewer. The faceting machine is used to hold the stone onto a flat lap for cutting and polishing the flat facets.[25] Rarely, some cutters use special curved laps to cut and polish curved facets. Nearly 300 variations of diamond color exhibited at the Aurora display at the Natural History Museum in LondonA variety of semiprecious stones in a piece of jewellery The color of any material is due to the nature of light itself. Daylight, often called white light, is all of the colors of the spectrum combined. When light strikes a material, most of the light is absorbed while a smaller amount of a particular frequency or wavelength is reflected. The part that is reflected reaches the eye as the perceived color. A ruby appears red because it absorbs all the other colors of white light while reflecting the red. A material which is mostly the same can exhibit different colors. For example, ruby and sapphire have the same primary chemical composition (both are corundum) but exhibit different colors because of impurities. Even the same named gemstone can occur in many different colors: sapphires show different shades of blue and pink and "fancy sapphires" exhibit a whole range of other colors from yellow to orange-pink, the latter called "padparadscha sapphire".[26] This difference in color is based on the atomic structure of the stone. Although the different stones formally have the same chemical composition and structure, they are not exactly the same. Every now and then an atom is replaced by a completely different atom, sometimes as few as one in a million atoms. These so-called impurities are sufficient to absorb certain colors and leave the other colors unaffected. For example, beryl, which is colorless in its pure mineral form, becomes emerald with chromium impurities. If manganese is added instead of chromium, beryl becomes pink morganite. With iron, it becomes aquamarine. Some gemstone treatments make use of the fact that these impurities can be "manipulated", thus changing the color of the gem. Gemstones are often treated to enhance the color or clarity of the stone. In some cases, the treatment applied to the gemstone can also increase its durability. Even though natural gemstones can be transformed using the traditional method of cutting and polishing, other treatment options allow the stone's appearance to be enhanced.[27] Depending on the type and extent of treatment, they can affect the value of the stone. Some treatments are used widely because the resulting gem is stable, while others are not accepted most commonly because the gem color is unstable and may revert to the original tone.[28] Before the innovation of modern-day tools, thousands of years ago, people were recorded to use a variety of techniques to treat and enhance gemstones. Some of the earliest methods of gemstone treatment date back to the Minoan Age, for example, foiling, which is where metal foil is used to enhance a gemstone's colour.[29] Other methods that were recorded 2000 years ago in the book Natural History written by Pliny the Elder include oiling and dyeing/staining. Heat can either improve or spoil gemstone color or clarity. The heating process has been well known to gem miners and cutters for centuries, and in many stone types heating is a common practice. Most citrine is made by heating amethyst, and partial heating with a strong gradient results in "ametrine" – a stone partly amethyst and partly citrine. Aquamarine is often heated to remove yellow tones, or to change green colors into the more desirable blue, or enhance its existing blue color to a deeper blue.[30] Nearly all tanzanite is heated at low temperatures to remove brown undertones and give a more desirable blue / purple color.[31] A considerable portion of all sapphire and ruby is treated with a variety of heat treatments to improve both color and clarity. When jewelry containing diamonds is heated for repairs, the diamond should be protected with boric acid; otherwise, the diamond, which is pure carbon, could be burned on the surface or even burned completely up. When jewelry containing sapphires or rubies is heated, those stones should not be coated with boric acid (which can etch the surface) or any other substance. They do not have to be protected from burning, like a diamond (although the stones do need to be protected from heat stress fracture by immersing the part of the jewelry with stones in the water when metal parts are heated). The irradiation process is widely practiced in jewelry industry[32] and enabled the creation of gemstone colors that do not exist or are extremely rare in nature.[33] However, particularly when done in a nuclear reactor, the processes can make gemstones radioactive. Health risks related to the residual radioactivity of the treated gemstones have led to government regulations in many countries.[33][34] Virtually all blue topaz, both the lighter and the darker blue shades such as "London" blue, has been irradiated to change the color from white to blue. Most green quartz (Oro Verde) are also irradiated to achieve the yellow-green color. Diamonds are mainly irradiated to become blue-green or green, although other colors are possible. When light-to-medium-yellow diamonds are treated with gamma rays they may become green; with a high-energy electron beam, blue.[35] Emeralds containing natural fissures are sometimes filled with wax or oil to disguise them. This wax or oil is also colored to make the emerald appear of better color as well as clarity. Turquoise is also commonly treated in a similar manner. Fracture filling has been in use with different gemstones such as diamonds, emeralds, and sapphires. In 2006 "glass-filled rubies" received publicity. Rubies over 10 carats (2 g) with large fractures were filled with lead glass, thus dramatically improving the appearance (of larger rubies in particular). Such treatments are fairly easy to detect. Pearls are a gemstone that is commonly treated with hydrogen peroxide to remove unwanted colours Another treatment method that is commonly used to treat gemstones is bleaching. This method uses a chemical in order to reduce the colour of the gem. After bleaching, a combination treatment can be done by dying the gemstone once the unwanted colours are removed. Hydrogen peroxide is the most commonly used product used to alter gemstones and have notably been used to treat jade and pearls. The treatment of bleaching can also be followed by impregnation, which allows the gemstone's durability to be increased.[27] Synthetic gems are physically, optically, and chemically identical to the natural stone, but are created in a laboratory.[36] Imitation or simulated stones are chemically different from the natural stone, but may appear quite similar to it; they can be more easily manufactured synthetic gemstones of a different mineral (spinel), glass, plastic, resins, or other compounds. Examples of simulated or imitation stones include cubic zirconia, composed of zirconium oxide, synthetic moissanite, and un-colored, synthetic corundum or spinels; all of which are diamond simulants. The simulants imitate the look and color of the real stone but possess neither their chemical nor physical characteristics. In general, all are less hard than diamond. Moissanite actually has a higher refractive index than diamond, and when presented beside an equivalently sized and cut diamond will show more "fire". Cultured, synthetic, or "lab-created" gemstones are not imitations: The bulk mineral and trace coloring elements are the same in both. For example, diamonds, rubies, sapphires, and emeralds have been manufactured in labs that possess chemical and physical characteristics identical to the naturally occurring variety. Synthetic (lab created) corundum, including ruby and sapphire, is very common and costs much less than the natural stones. Small synthetic diamonds have been manufactured in large quantities as industrial abrasives, although larger gem-quality synthetic diamonds are becoming available in multiple carats.[37] Whether a gemstone is a natural stone or synthetic, the chemical, physical, and optical characteristics are the same: They are composed of the same mineral and are colored by the same trace materials, have the same hardness and density and strength, and show the same color spectrum, refractive index, and birefringence (if any). Lab-created stones tend to have a more vivid color since impurities common in natural stones are not present in the synthetic stone. Synthetics are made free of common naturally occurring impurities that reduce gem clarity or color unless intentionally added in order to provide a more drab, natural appearance, or to deceive an assayer.[citation needed] On the other hand, synthetics often show flaws not seen in natural stones, such as minute particles of corroded metal from lab trays used during synthesis. Includes ruby (red variation) and sapphire (other color variations) both of which are considered highly desired and valued.[38] Ruby was the first gemstone to be synthesized by Auguste Verneuil with his development of the flame-fusion process in 1902.[39] Synthetic corundum continues to be made typically by flame-fusion as it is most cost-effective, but can also be produced through flux growth and hydrothermal growth.[40] The most common synthesized beryl is emerald (green). Yellow, red and blue beryls are possible but much more rare. Synthetic emerald became possible with the development of the flux growth process and is produced in this way and well as hydrothermal growth.[41] Types of synthetic quartz include citrine, rose quartz, and amethyst. Natural occurring quartz is not rare is synthetically produced as it has practical application outside of aesthetic purposes. Quartz generates an electric current when under pressure and is used in watches, clocks, and oscillators.[42] Flame fusion process was the first process used which successfully created large quantities of synthetic gemstones to be sold on the market.[43] This remains the most cost effective and common method of creating corundums today. The flame fusion process is completed in a Verneuil furnace. The furnace consists of an inverted blowpipe burner which produces an extremely hot oxyhydrogen flame, a powder dispenser, and a ceramic pedestal.[44] A chemical powder which corresponds to the desired gemstone is passed through this flames. This melts the ingredients which drop on to a plate and solidify into a crystal called a Boule.[44] For corundum the flame must be 2000 °C. This process takes hours and yields a crystal with the same properties as its natural counterpart. To produce corundum, a pure aluminium powder is used with different additives to achieve different colors.[44] In 1918 this process was developed by J. Czocharalski[44] and is also referred to as the "crystal pulling" method. In this process, the required gemstone materials are added to a crucible. A seed stone is placed into the melt in the crucible. As the gem begins to crystallize on the seed, the seed is pulled away and the gem continues to grow.[38] This is used for corundum but is currently the least popular method.[43] Flux growth process was the first process which was able to synthesize emerald.[41] Flux growth begins with a crucible which can withstand high heat; either graphite or platinum which is filled with a molten liquid referred to as flux.[45] The specific gem ingredients are added and dissolved in this fluid and recrystallize to form the desired gemstone.This is a longer process compared to the flame fusion process and can take two months up to a year depending on the desired final size.[46] Hydrothermal growth process attempts to imitate the natural growth process of minerals. The required gem materials are sealed in a container of water and placed extreme pressure. The water is heated beyond its boiling point which allows normally insoluble materials to dissolve. As more material cannot be added once the container is sealed, in order to create a larger gem the process would begin with a "seed" stone from a previous batch which the new material will crystallize on. This process takes a few weeks to complete. Synthetic gemstones share chemical and physical properties with natural gemstones but there are some slight differences that can be used to discern synthetic from real.[47] These differences are slight and often require microscopy as a tool to distinguish differences. Undetectable synthetics pose a threat to the market if they are able to be sold as real rare gemstones. Because of this there are certain characteristic gemologists look for. Each crystal is characteristic to the environment and growth process under which it was created. Prior to development of synthesising processes the alternatives on the market to natural gemstones were imitations or fake. It was in 1837 that the first successful synthesis of ruby occurred.[43] French chemist Marc Gaudin managed to produce small crystals of ruby from melting together potassium aluminium sulphate and potassium chromate through what would later be known as the flux melt process.[44] Following this, another French chemist Fremy was able to grow large quantities of small ruby crystals using a lead flux.[45] A few years later an alternative to flux melt was developed which led to the introduction of what was labeled "reconstructed ruby" to the market. Reconstructed ruby was sold as a process which produced larger rubies from melting together bits of natural ruby.[46] In later attempts to recreate this process it was found to not be possible and is believed reconstructed rubies were most likely created using a multi-step method of melting of ruby powder.[44] Auguste Verneuil a student of Fremy went on to develop flame-fusion as an alternative to the flux-melt method. He developed large furnaces which were able to produce large quantities of corundums more efficiently and shifted the gemstone market dramatically.[49] This process is still used today and the furnaces have not changed much from the original design.[50] World production of corundum using this method reaches 1000 million carats a year. Painite was discovered in 1956 in Ohngaing in Myanmar. The mineral was named in honor of the British gemologist Arthur Charles Davy Pain. At one point it was considered the rarest mineral on Earth.[51] Tanzanite was discovered in 1967 in Northern Tanzania. With its supply possibly declining in the next 30 years, this gemstone is considered to be more rare than a diamond. This type of gemstone receives its vibrant blue from being heated.[52] Hibonite was discovered in 1956 in Madagascar. It was named after the discoverer, French geologist Paul Hibon. Gem quality hibonite has been found only in Myanmar.[53] Red Beryl - discovered in 1940 Red beryl or bixbite was discovered in an area near Beaver, Utah in 1904 and named after the American mineralogist Maynard Bixby. Jeremejevite was discovered in 1883 in Russia and named after its discoverer, Pawel Wladimirowich Jeremejew (1830–1899). Chambersite was discovered in 1957 in Chambers County, Texas, US, and named after the deposit's location. Taaffeite was discovered in 1945. It was named after the discoverer, the Irish gemologist Count Edward Charles Richard Taaffe. Musgravite was discovered in 1967 in the Musgrave Mountains in South Australia and named for the location. Black Opal – the rarest type of opal Black opal is directly mined in New South Wales, Australia, making it the rarest type of opal. Having a darker composition, this gemstone can be in a variety of colours.[52] Grandidierite was discovered by Antoine François Alfred Lacroix (1863–1948) in 1902 in Tuléar Province, Madagascar. It was named in honor of the French naturalist and explorer Alfred Grandidier (1836–1912). Poudretteite was discovered in 1965 at the Poudrette Quarry in Canada and named after the quarry's owners and operators, the Poudrette family. Serendibite was discovered in Sri Lanka by Sunil Palitha Gunasekera in 1902 and named after Serendib, the old Arabic name for Sri Lanka. Zektzerite was discovered by Bart Cannon in 1968 on Kangaroo Ridge near Washington Pass in Okanogan County, Washington, USA. The mineral was named in honor of mathematician and geologist Jack Zektzer, who presented the material for study in 1976.

A considerable portion of all sapphire and ruby is treated with a variety of heat treatments to improve both color and clarity. When jewelry containing diamonds is heated for repairs, the diamond should be protected with boric acid; otherwise, the diamond, which is pure carbon, could be burned on the surface or even burned completely up. When jewelry containing sapphires or rubies is heated, those stones should not be coated with boric acid (which can etch the surface) or any other substance. They do not have to be protected from burning, like a diamond (although the stones do need to be protected from heat stress fracture by immersing the part of the jewelry with stones in the water when metal parts are heated). The irradiation process is widely practiced in jewelry industry[32] and enabled the creation of gemstone colors that do not exist or are extremely rare in nature.[33] However, particularly when done in a nuclear reactor, the processes can make gemstones radioactive. Health risks related to the residual radioactivity of the treated gemstones have led to government regulations in many countries.[33][34] Virtually all blue topaz, both the lighter and the darker blue shades such as "London" blue, has been irradiated to change the color from white to blue. Most green quartz (Oro Verde) are also irradiated to achieve the yellow-green color. Diamonds are mainly irradiated to become blue-green or green, although other colors are possible. When light-to-medium-yellow diamonds are treated with gamma rays they may become green; with a high-energy electron beam, blue.[35] Emeralds containing natural fissures are sometimes filled with wax or oil to disguise them. This wax or oil is also colored to make the emerald appear of better color as well as clarity. Turquoise is also commonly treated in a similar manner.

no

Biomathematics

Are human facial features based on the Golden ratio?

yes_statement

"human" "facial" "features" are "based" on the golden "ratio".. the golden "ratio" influences "human" "facial" "features".

https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s00266-017-1032-7

Art or Science? An Evidence-Based Approach to Human Facial ...

Abstract Background Patients often seek guidance from the aesthetic practitioners regarding treatments to enhance their ‘beauty’. Is there a science behind the art of assessment and if so is it measurable? Through the centuries, this question has challenged scholars, artists and surgeons. Aims and Objectives This study aims to undertake a review of the evidence behind quantitative facial measurements in assessing beauty to help the practitioner in everyday aesthetic practice. Methods A Medline, Embase search for beauty, facial features and quantitative analysis was undertaken. Selection Criteria Inclusion criteria were studies on adults, and exclusions included studies undertaken for dental, cleft lip, oncology, burns or reconstructive surgeries. The abstracts and papers were appraised, and further studies excluded that were considered inappropriate. The data were extracted using a standardised table. The final dataset was appraised in accordance with the PRISMA checklist and Holland and Rees’ critique tools. Results Of the 1253 studies screened, 1139 were excluded from abstracts and a further 70 excluded from full text articles. The remaining 44 were assessed qualitatively and quantitatively. It became evident that the datasets were not comparable. Nevertheless, common themes were obvious, and these were summarised. Conclusion Despite measures of the beauty of individual components to the sum of all the parts, such as symmetry and the golden ratio, we are yet far from establishing what truly constitutes quantitative beauty. Perhaps beauty is truly in the ‘eyes of the beholder’ (and perhaps in the eyes of the subject too). Level of Evidence V This journal requires that authors assign a level of evidence to each article. For a full description of these Evidence-Based Medicine ratings, please refer to the Table of Contents or the online Instructions to Authors www.springer.com/00266. Working on a manuscript? Introduction Facial aesthetic treatments have a significant influence on the individual and her perception of life. Differences in facial appearance provide individuality and are readily noticeable. The increasing appreciation of facial volume and tissue change has allowed the innovation and widespread use of fillers and the evolution of filling techniques, particularly fat grafting [1]. Demand for facial aesthetic treatments has increased in the last 20 years [2, 3]. With this increase, it is becoming more important for the clinician delivering these treatments to understand what constitutes beauty and what motivates the patient to strive for beauty. Our self-perception of beauty has an impact on our everyday lives [4]. Others perceive a beautiful person to be more intelligent, sociable, friendlier and more desirable [5]. Many scholars throughout the centuries have debated what comprises beauty and indeed how to measure it in a standardised reproducible way [6]. Despite this centuries-old debate, there does not appear to be a validated, widely used set of evidence-based rules or measurements that can influence clinical practice. Understanding quantitative and objective features that constitute facial beauty is complex and confounded by multiple elements including society, culture, age and ethnicity [7]. Some argue that beauty is a myth and not reality and that the perception is learned and not developmental [8], and yet others argue that the perception of beauty is an innate developmental or biological ability [9]. Over the past few decades, the advancement of computer technology and computational capability may play a role in facilitating the assessment or evaluation of beauty. Differences in perceptions of facial aesthetics between professionals and patients have been well documented [10]. Pre-planning, managing expectations and discussion of potential sequelae are already established protocols used by clinicians for a successful outcome for the patient. If standardised facial measurements could be incorporated into this process, it might allow the measurement of outcomes, have the potential to change the dynamics of a consultation and act as a useful consultation tool, to help manage expectations. These measures based on evidence could be used as standards to guide the clinician. Based on the PICO framework [11], this study will aim to answer this research question—in the treatment of adults requesting facial aesthetic improvement, is there an evidence-based approach in quantitatively assessing beauty that is useful in everyday aesthetic practice? Methods A literature review was undertaken using Pubmed Medline, Medline Ovid, and EMBASE. Date limits were applied from 1970 to April 2017, and publications in English, humans and in peer-reviewed journals were included, with exclusions for abstracts presented at conferences. The search strategy was devised using three main concepts: (1) beauty AND (2) facial features AND (3) quantitative analysis (including terms proportions, distance, dimensions, length, height and width). Both thesaurus terms and text words (words or phrases appearing in the title or abstract of references) were identified for each concept. A manual check was undertaken given the sensitive nature of the search strategy used (use of quantitative analysis to aid in plastic or cosmetic surgical procedures to correct facial deformities or conditions); the search strategy is available. Inclusions Research papers, where adults were subjects, seeking facial aesthetic therapies or facial assessments were considered. Outcome variables of measured beauty parameters, facial measurements, ratios of measurements of the face, comparison of facial parameters were included. Exclusions were applied for facial measurements undertaken for research on cadavers, burns and trauma victims seeking aesthetic treatments. Exclusions were also applied where plastic and reconstructive or dental surgery would have been the predominant procedure. Results A total of 182 entries had been considered as duplicates from the search of 1455. The search criteria did not fully exclude articles with patients who were children or adolescents, and these were further excluded after reviewing the abstracts. Table 1 lists excluded articles and reasons for their exclusion. Of the remaining 44 studies, the full articles were extracted and checked. These were further scrutinised for their methodology and outcomes data. Due to the diversity of the types of studies, combining them was not appropriate statistically although some grouping was possible according to common themes (Fig. 1, Table 2). Discussion Measurements of facial proportions introduced by the Greeks, the Classical Canons and later adopted by the Renaissance artists, the Neoclassical Canons are used by surgeons today to understand ideals of beauty and reproduce aesthetically ‘beautiful’ proportions for patients. To date, there is no agreed standard to measure facial beauty, and this remains a challenging task. It is a vital consideration for the aesthetic surgeon because there is a positive association between the outcomes of aesthetic surgery and better mental and psychological health, and therefore measuring outcomes quantitatively would facilitate this endeavour [42]. The aim of this investigation was to undertake a review to answer the question. In the treatment of adults requesting facial aesthetic improvement, is there an evidence-based approach in quantitatively assessing beauty that is useful in everyday aesthetic practice? Upon reviewing the data, it became evident that the diverse measurement criteria, methodologies used and population types in trials made it difficult to compare data. For example, different measurements from different types of photographic techniques would introduce photographic bias [43]. The trials have at best been of Level III or less for evidence, mainly being cross-sectional studies or observational studies. Despite these difficulties, some common themes were discovered and are highlighted below. These were related to lip analyses, eye measurements, symmetry, ethnicity, automation of analysis and the golden ratio. Lip Measurements Lip augmentation is one of the most common aesthetic procedures undertaken to correct age-related changes [44]. In the perception of beauty and attractiveness, measurements for individual facial features have been used. Lip measurements, for example, are known to influence an aesthetically youthful appearance [45]. Some authors define an ‘ideal lip’ as having good definition of the vermillion border with lower and upper lip balance [46]. Bagheri et al. undertook lip measurements in a Turkish population of 200 persons who were classified into of full, medium, thin and very thin type lips. They concluded there were significant gender differences in lip sizes and the aesthetic ranking of lips. Medium and full lip types were the significant proportion in males, and in females, medium was predominant. They also concluded that very thin lip types are rare in both sexes [62]. Heidekrueger et al. undertook a cross-sectional analysis of lip size preference through an online survey of 9000 plastic surgeons and lay persons. With a response rate of 14% from 35 different countries, they suggested the ethnicity, country of residence and profession had an impact on lip shape preference. They found that surgeons, who are non-Caucasian or who practise in Asia, have a preference for larger lips, whereas European and Caucasians prefer smaller lips. In the follow-up of this paper using the same responses, the team was able to assess the most popular lip ratio in the survey takers. A ratio of 1:1 was preferred in 60% of responders, whereas Popenko et al., assessing the attractiveness ranking of lip dimensions in 100 morphed faces of Caucasian women, suggested 53.5% increase in surface area from baseline and 2:1 ratio of lower to upper lip was the more attractive. Penna et al. found there was a higher ratio of upper vermillion height to mouth–nose distance and of chin–nose distance in attractive females. These studies are not directly comparable due to the diverse measurements and populations but give us an insight into some lip preferences of patients and surgeons. Eyes Eye size, position, eyelid ptosis and eye ‘frame’ have all been related to perceptions of beauty. Bensilmane introduced ‘the Frame concept’ to quantify and assess the characteristics of the female periorbital region. The author highlighted the fact that aesthetic practitioners most often analyse both upper and lower lids separately and rarely the gaze itself. The author strives to validate this ratio using anthropometric measures, to prove his hypothesis that the narrower the frame the more aesthetically pleasing [16]. As Benslimane et al. validate ‘the frame’ concept, the authors agree that a jaguar-like upward slant of the lower eyelid is more pleasing [47]. Photographs of models were analysed and frame anthropometry measured. The frame height was found to be inversely correlated with attractiveness, and this was synonymous for classical portraits of beautiful females. Costa et al. reviewed photographs and historic artistic portraits and established that eye roundness, height and length were enhanced in artistic portraits, suggesting these features may be more beautiful. Larger eye size in proportion to the face has been shown to be more attractive in females [48]. Danel et al. identified that the eye–mouth–eye (EME) angle can be used as a quantitative measure of masculinity and fascial symmetry in males, which is independent of facial size. They concluded that there is a negative relationship between the EME angle and attractiveness. Hence, eye size, eyelid ptosis and frame contribute to beauty with a negative correlation with EME angle [49]. Symmetry Kaipainen et al. assessed regional facial asymmetry and its influence on attractiveness. In their small sample size, most had some facial asymmetry, particularly in the lower and middle third of the face. The team did not find any association between regional asymmetry and attractiveness. Komori et al. suggested that the female facial symmetry does not appear to affect attractiveness. Their sample size was small, and therefore their conclusions may not be extrapolated. Farrera et al. undertook measurements from photographs of 565 Mexican individuals and chose a sample of 100, to rate for attractiveness after grouping into asymmetry variation. Their conclusion was also that symmetry does not affect attractiveness. Other observers suggested that symmetry is important to facial beauty [50, 51]. Honn et al., for instance, argued that the symmetry has an influence on attractiveness [52]. Scientists and philosophers have traditionally attempted to appreciate attractiveness and beauty in terms of symmetry, and therefore, it may be that symmetry is not as important as previously thought, and perhaps beauty is related to proportions or ratios of the facial aesthetic units rather than to symmetry [53]. Ethnicity We live in a heterogeneous society with persons from diverse backgrounds seeking aesthetic treatments. It is therefore important that the clinician is aware of average facial characteristics of different ethnic groups. Bronfman’s systematic review looked at 13 different studies focusing on the Japanese preference for aesthetic profile and concluded that Japanese males had smaller noses and bilabial protrusion, whereas females had more bilabial protrusion and a less prominent chin when compared with white populations. American and Japanese examiners favoured a lip profile that was retruded compared to African examiners. This suggests that consideration should be given to the ethnicity of the patient and that the clinician should be aware that one’s own ethnic background may have an influence on the shared decision making during a consultation for aesthetic treatment. Technology and/or Automation Geometric evaluation of features and proportions is cumbersome and requires considerable investment of time. If the measurements can be predicted or calculated by software, a more rapid appraisal of beauty in the clinic setting is possible. Gan et al. introduced a novel method for extracting facial features from images using an algorithm through machine learning [54]. This approach may avoid the likelihood of manual intervention. Although the idea of automated beauty recognition is novel, his paper utilizes simple non-detailed information such as curves and edges and is not concerned with the individual facial structures such as the eyebrows and nose. This prediction, however, is based on two-dimensional photographs, possibly lending itself to measurement inaccuracies and photograph bias. Xie et al. argued the case for a dataset of geometric measurements for application in facial beauty analysis [55] They gave attractiveness ratings using classical and deep learning methods to develop an algorithm, to learn and to predict facial beauty automatically. Galantucci et al., on the other hand, set out to verify a facial beauty prediction modelling method of principal component analysis (PCA) for measuring facial features for beauty classification [56]. The team used three-dimensional digital photogrammetry on real Miss Italy 2010 beauty contestants to confirm beauty ranking and PCA analysis to conclude that it is not a valid prediction tool. Mojallal et al.’s commentary paper appreciates the value of quantitative measurement of volume loss through the use of a three-dimensional camera. The team argued that the classical anthropometry measurements of the face are highly inaccurate and the ‘differences in volume, distance, and projections’ are too small to measure by these methods. They suggest objective evaluation, through the use of digital three-dimensional stereophotogrammetry, after facial rejuvenation allowing 360° views of the individual. The advantage of this technique is that it allows for volume measurement as well as proportion measurement. The disadvantages are that the images require special manipulation and the technique is time consuming, and therefore it may not actually be useful in everyday practice [57]. Rossetti et al. also employed the use of three-dimensional stereophotogrammetry to investigate whether the ‘golden’ relationship exists between measurements of facial features [58]. They undertook measurements using reproducible three-dimensional techniques already described and validated [59]. Multiple measurements were undertaken, and the authors used previously acknowledged ‘traditional’ landmarks. Through their statistical analysis of the measurements, the team used ten ratios to compare with the golden ratio. Their analysis concluded there was no similarity to the golden ratio in their measurements. Their study is important because they utilise three-dimensional technology for measurements, allowing easy calculation of the distance between facial landmarks. This gives a highly representative sample to work with. Three-dimensional stereophotogrammetry in their study was useful to undermine the theory of the golden proportion, or golden ratio, in most measurements of facial proportion though it cannot be extrapolated to other ethnic groups. The Golden Ratio The concept of the golden ratio has been used since the time of Phidias, and its relation to aesthetic beauty still continues to be debated. Alam et al. investigated the association of facial measurements with the golden ratio in a Malaysian population [60]. Using direct facial measurements from surface landmarks rather than from photographs is possibly more accurate. This cross-sectional study of 286 patients found that, in this population, only 17.1% of facial proportions correlated with the golden ratio and concluded that an association does not exist between the facial measurements in their Malaysian population and the golden ratio. Jahanbin et al. used 50 standardised profile silhouette photographs and 20 judges scored these on a VAS score. Measurements were made to assess whether any facial proportions fit the golden ratio. After assessing five landmarks and five ratios, none had the golden ratio mean of 1.618. Park et al., testing 17 anthropometric ratios for portraits of femme fatales, showed a midface ratio of 36% of the total face height. The proportions from portraits are closer to ‘ideal’ than in ratios measured clinically. Jang et al. undertook measurements from three-dimensional sampling of 93 patients in a Korean population and concluded that a longer face, smaller lip and chin size were preferable in females of a Korean population and this is a deviation from the golden ratio [61]. Milutinovic et al. assess different facial proportions and their relationship to attractiveness in Caucasians and any deviations from the ideal proportions or the divine ratio. In their group, they found that in attractive females, the divine ratio was met in three out of the six measured parameters. They establish that attractive females have facial proportions nearer to the divine ratio. Medici et al. examined four ratios of frontal photographs of 20 Caucasian patients and concluded there is a relationship between the divine proportion close to or at a ratio of 1:1.618 and facial aesthetics. Kim et al. assessed the usefulness of the golden ratio and application through the use of the Marquardt’s mask in forty cases of pre- and post-operative photographs. Scores were compared for the applied mask and for those without applied photographs and concluded that the Marquardt’s mask was useful as an analytical tool for facial analysis, whereas Holland argued in his article that the Marquardt’s mask is less than ideal. He states the methodology used to assess the fit of the mask for faces is ‘faulty’, that the mask approximates to a masculinised European female face and that it does not appear to approximate to a desired ‘ideal’ face. Undoubtedly, all this evidence suggests that the jury is still out on the usefulness of the golden ratio and that a consensus does not yet exist on this issue. Conclusions There is an overwhelming desire to quantify beauty when planning aesthetic procedures in the light of increasing demand, and therefore an evidence-based approach is desirable. From the Greek scholars, through to the Renaissance polymaths, to today’s three-dimensional predictive modelling, we have attempted to define and measure beauty. Despite measures of individual components such as fuller lip size and defined vermillion border, larger eyes and the ‘Frame concept of eyes’, through to the sum of all the parts, symmetry and the Golden Ratio, we are yet far from establishing what truly constitutes quantitative beauty. It may ultimately be the case that measuring beauty may not provide great practical value because comparative measurements ignore the individuality in all of us. Perhaps as the famous poet Margaret Hungerford states that beauty is truly in the ‘eyes of the beholder’. Corresponding author Ethics declarations Conflict of interests Rights and permissions Open Access This article is distributed under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/), which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons license, and indicate if changes were made.

Alam et al. investigated the association of facial measurements with the golden ratio in a Malaysian population [60]. Using direct facial measurements from surface landmarks rather than from photographs is possibly more accurate. This cross-sectional study of 286 patients found that, in this population, only 17.1% of facial proportions correlated with the golden ratio and concluded that an association does not exist between the facial measurements in their Malaysian population and the golden ratio. Jahanbin et al. used 50 standardised profile silhouette photographs and 20 judges scored these on a VAS score. Measurements were made to assess whether any facial proportions fit the golden ratio. After assessing five landmarks and five ratios, none had the golden ratio mean of 1.618. Park et al., testing 17 anthropometric ratios for portraits of femme fatales, showed a midface ratio of 36% of the total face height. The proportions from portraits are closer to ‘ideal’ than in ratios measured clinically. Jang et al. undertook measurements from three-dimensional sampling of 93 patients in a Korean population and concluded that a longer face, smaller lip and chin size were preferable in females of a Korean population and this is a deviation from the golden ratio [61]. Milutinovic et al. assess different facial proportions and their relationship to attractiveness in Caucasians and any deviations from the ideal proportions or the divine ratio. In their group, they found that in attractive females, the divine ratio was met in three out of the six measured parameters. They establish that attractive females have facial proportions nearer to the divine ratio. Medici et al. examined four ratios of frontal photographs of 20 Caucasian patients and concluded there is a relationship between the divine proportion close to or at a ratio of 1:1.618 and facial aesthetics. Kim et al. assessed the usefulness of the golden ratio and application through the use of the Marquardt’s mask in forty cases of pre-

no

Biomathematics

Are human facial features based on the Golden ratio?

yes_statement

"human" "facial" "features" are "based" on the golden "ratio".. the golden "ratio" influences "human" "facial" "features".

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Physical_attractiveness

Physical attractiveness - Wikipedia

Physical attractiveness is the degree to which a person's physical features are considered aesthetically pleasing or beautiful. The term often implies sexual attractiveness or desirability, but can also be distinct from either. There are many factors which influence one person's attraction to another, with physical aspects being one of them. Physical attraction itself includes universal perceptions common to all human cultures such as facial symmetry,[9]sociocultural dependent attributes and personal preferences unique to a particular individual.[10] In many cases, humans subconsciously attribute positive characteristics, such as intelligence and honesty, to physically attractive people, a psychological phenomenon called the Halo effect.[11] From research done in the United States and United Kingdom, it was found that objective[12] measures of physical attractiveness and intelligence are positively correlated and that the association between the two attributes is stronger among men than among women.[13]Evolutionary psychologists have tried to answer why individuals who are more physically attractive should also, on average, be more intelligent, and have put forward the notion that both general intelligence and physical attractiveness may be indicators of underlying genetic fitness.[13] A person's physical characteristics can signal cues to fertility and health,[14][15][16] with statistical modeling studies showing that the facial shape variables that reflect aspects of physiological health, including body fat and blood pressure, also influence observers' perceptions of health.[17] Attending to these factors increases reproductive success, furthering the representation of one's genes in the population.[18] Generally, physical attractiveness can be viewed from a number of perspectives; with universal perceptions being common to all human cultures, cultural and social aspects, and individual subjective preferences. The perception of attractiveness can have a significant effect on how people are judged in terms of employment or social opportunities, friendship, sexual behavior, and marriage.[26] Some physical features are attractive in both men and women, particularly bodily[27] and facial symmetry,[28][29][30][31] although one contrary report suggests that "absolute flawlessness" with perfect symmetry can be "disturbing".[32] Symmetry may be evolutionarily beneficial as a sign of health because asymmetry "signals past illness or injury".[33] One study suggested people were able to "gauge beauty at a subliminal level" by seeing only a glimpse of a picture for one-hundredth of a second.[33] Other important factors include youthfulness, skin clarity and smoothness of skin; and "vivid color" in the eyes and hair.[28] However, there are numerous differences based on gender. A 1921 study of the reports of college students regarding those traits in individuals which make for attractiveness and repulsiveness argued that static traits, such as beauty or ugliness of features, hold a position subordinate to groups of physical elements like expressive behavior, affectionate disposition, grace of manner, aristocratic bearing, social accomplishments and personal habits.[34] An Italian study published in 2008 studied the positions of the 50 soft-tissue landmarks of the faces of 324 whiteNorthern Italianadolescent boys and girls to compare the features of a group of 93 "beautiful" individuals selected by a commercial casting agency with those of a reference group with normal dentofacial dimensions and proportions. The research found that, in comparison with the reference group, the attractive adolescents tended to have the following characteristics: the ratio between the volume of the forehead and that of the total face was larger; Symmetrical faces and bodies may be signs of good inheritance to women of child-bearing age seeking to create healthy offspring. Studies suggest women are less attracted to men with asymmetrical faces,[39] and symmetrical faces correlate with long term mental performance[40] and are an indication that a man has experienced "fewer genetic and environmental disturbances such as diseases, toxins, malnutrition or genetic mutations" while growing.[40] Since achieving symmetry is a difficult task during human growth, requiring billions of cell reproductions while maintaining a parallel structure, achieving symmetry is a visible signal of genetic health. Studies have also suggested that women at peak fertility were more likely to fantasize about men with greater facial symmetry,[41] and other studies have found that male symmetry was the only factor that could significantly predict the likelihood of a woman experiencing orgasm during sex. Women with partners possessing greater symmetry reported significantly more copulatory female orgasms than were reported by women with partners possessing low symmetry, even with many potential confounding variables controlled.[42] This finding has been found to hold across different cultures. It has been argued that masculine facial dimorphism (in men) and symmetry in faces are signals advertising genetic quality in potential mates.[43] Low facial and body fluctuating asymmetry may indicate good health and intelligence, which are desirable features.[44] Studies have found that women who perceive themselves as being more physically attractive are more likely to favor men with a higher degree of facial symmetry, than are women who perceive themselves as being less physically attractive.[45] It has been found that symmetrical females and males have a tendency to begin to have sexual intercourse at an earlier age, to have more sexual partners, and to have more one-night stands. They are also more likely to engage in infidelity.[46] A study of quarterbacks in the American National Football League found a positive correlation between facial symmetry and salaries.[29] Double-blind studies found that women prefer the scent of men who are rated as facially attractive.[47] For example, both males and females were more attracted to the natural scent of individuals who had been rated by consensus as facially attractive.[48] Additionally, it has also been shown that women have a preference for the scent of men with more symmetrical faces, and that women's preference for the scent of more symmetrical men is strongest during the most fertile period of their menstrual cycle.[49] Within the set of normally cycling women, individual women's preference for the scent of men with high facial symmetry correlated with their probability of conception.[49] Men's body odor is also affected by their diet, with women expressing preferences for male body odor associated with increased dietary fruit and vegetable and protein content, and reduced carbohydrate content.[50] Studies have explored the genetic basis behind such issues as facial symmetry and body scent and how they influence physical attraction. In one study in which women wore men's T-shirts, researchers found that women were more attracted to the bodily scents in shirts of men who had a different type of gene section within the DNA called major histocompatibility complex (MHC).[51] MHC is a large gene area within the DNA of vertebrates which encodes proteins dealing with the immune system[52] and which influences individual bodily odors.[53] One hypothesis is that humans are naturally attracted by the sense of smell and taste to others with dissimilar MHC sections, perhaps to avoid subsequent inbreeding while increasing the genetic diversity of offspring.[52] Furthermore, there are studies showing that women's natural attraction for men with dissimilar immune profiles can be distorted with use of birth control pills.[53] Other research findings involving the genetic foundations of attraction suggest that MHC heterozygosity positively correlates with male facial attractiveness. Women judge the faces of men who are heterozygous at all three MHC loci to be more attractive than the faces of men who are homozygous at one or more of these loci. Additionally, a second experiment with genotyped women raters, found these preferences were independent of the degree of MHC similarity between the men and the female rater. With MHC heterozygosity independently seen as a genetic advantage, the results suggest that facial attractiveness in men may be a measure of genetic quality.[54][55] General genetic heterozygosity has been demonstrated to be related to attractiveness in that people with mixed genetic backgrounds (i.e., mixed race people) as seen as more attractive than people with a more similar genetic parents. (i.e., single race people).[56] However, some studies have not found that mixed race individuals are rated as more attractive, and one found that only certain mixes were rated as more attractive; this study argued that equating race with genetics was incorrect and argued for social influences as the cause.[57] A 2010 OkCupid study on 200,000 of its male and female dating site users found that women are, except those during their early to mid-twenties, open to relationships with both somewhat older and somewhat younger men; they have a larger potential dating pool than men until age 26. At age 20, women, in a "dramatic change", begin sending private messages to significantly older men. At age 29, they become "even more open to older men". Male desirability to women peaks in the late 20s and does not fall below the average for all men until 36.[58] Other research indicates that women, irrespective of their own age, are attracted to men who are the same age or older.[59] For the Romans especially, "beardlessness" and "smooth young bodies" were considered beautiful to both men and women.[60] For Greek and Roman men, the most desirable traits of boys were their "youth" and "hairlessness". Pubescent boys were considered a socially appropriate object of male desire, while post-pubescent boys were considered to be "ἔξωροι" or "past the prime".[60] This was largely in the context of pederasty (adult male interest in adolescent boys). Today, men and women's attitudes towards male beauty has changed. For example, body hair on men may even be preferred (see below). A 1984 study said that gay men tend to prefer gay men of the same age as ideal partners, but there was a statistically significant effect (p < 0.05) of masculinity-femininity. The study said that more feminine men tended to prefer relatively older men than themselves and more masculine men tended to prefer relatively younger men than themselves.[61] Cross-cultural data shows that the reproductive success of women is tied to their youth and physical attractiveness[62] such as the pre-industrial Sami where the most reproductively successful women were 15 years younger than their man.[63] One study covering 37 cultures showed that, on average, a woman was 2.5 years younger than her male partner, with the age difference in Nigeria and Zambia being at the far extreme of 6.5 to 7.5 years. As men age, they tend to seek a mate who is ever younger.[64] 25% of eHarmony's male customers over the age of 50 request to only be matched with women younger than 40.[65] The 2010 OkCupid study found that female desirability to its male users peaks at age 21, and falls below the average for all women at 31. After age 26, men have a larger potential dating pool than women on the site; and by age 48, their pool is almost twice as large. The median 31-year-old male user searches for women aged 22-to-35, while the median 42-year-old male searches for women 27-to-45. The age skew is even greater with messages to other users; the median 30-year-old male messages teenage girls as often as women his own age, while mostly ignoring women a few years older than him. Excluding the 10% most and 10% least beautiful women, women's attractiveness does not change between 18 and 40. If extremes are included, however, "there's no doubt that younger [women] are more physically attractive – indeed in many ways beauty and youth are inextricable. That's why most of the models you see in magazines are teenagers".[58] Pheromones (detected by female hormone markers) reflects female fertility and the reproductive value mean.[66] As females age, the estrogen-to-androgen production ratio changes and results in female faces to appear more and more masculine (thus appearing less "attractive").[66] In a small (n=148) study performed in the United States, using male college students at one university, the mean age expressed as ideal for a wife was found to be 16.87 years old, while 17.76 was the mean ideal age for a brief sexual encounter. However, the study sets up a framework where "taboos against sex with young girls" are purposely diminished, and biased their sample by removing any participant over the age of 30, with a mean participant age of 19.83.[67] In a study of penile tumescence, men were found most aroused by pictures of young adult females.[68] Signals of fertility in women are often also seen as signals of youth. The evolutionary perspective proposes the idea that when it comes to sexual reproduction, the minimal parental investment required by men gives them the ability and want to simply reproduce 'as much as possible.'[69] It therefore makes sense that men are attracted to the features in women which signal youthfulness, and thus fertility.[69] Their chances of reproductive success are much higher than they would be should they pair with someone older—and therefore less fertile. This may explain why combating age declines in attractiveness occurs from a younger age in women than in men. For example, the removal of one's body hair is considered a very feminine thing to do.[70] This can be explained by the fact that aging results in raised levels of testosterone and thus, body hair growth. Shaving reverts one's appearance to a more youthful stage[70] and although this may not be an honest signal, men will interpret this as a reflection of increased fertile value. Research supports this, showing hairlessness is considered sexually attractive by men.[71] This drawing of two male figures is a remake of the drawing of the leg-to-body ratio (LBR) extremes used in the experiment by Swami et al. (2006) to find out what LBR is considered the most attractive for men and women. The figure with the lowest LBR and shortest legs at left had the highest average attractiveness ratings whereas the male figure with the highest LBR and longest legs at right had the lowest ratings from British men and women.[72] "Leg-to-body ratio" is seen as an indicator of physical attractiveness but there appears to be no single accepted definition of leg-length: the 'perineum-to-floor' measure[b] is the most frequently used, but arguably the distance from the ankle bone to the outer hip bone is more rigorous.[73] With the latter metric, the most attractive male leg-to-body ratio (judged by American women) is 1:1.[73] A Japanese study using the former metric found the same result for male attractiveness but women with longer legs than the rest of their body were judged to be more attractive.[74] Excessive deviations from the mean were seen as indicative of disease.[74] This drawing of two female figures is a remake of the drawing of the leg-to-body ratio (LBR) extremes used in the experiment by Swami et al. (2006) to find out what LBR is considered the most attractive. The female figure with the lowest LBR and shortest legs at left had the lowest average attractiveness ratings whereas the figure with the highest LBR and longest legs at right had the highest average attractiveness ratings from both British men and women.[72] A study using Polish participants found that legs 5% longer than the average for both sexes was considered most attractive.[75] The study concluded this preference might stem from the influence of long-legged runway models.[76] Another study using British and American participants found "mid-ranging" leg-to-body ratios to be most ideal.[77] A study by Swami et al. of British male and female undergraduates showed a preference for men with legs as long as the rest of their body and women with 40% longer legs than the rest of their body.[72] The researcher concluded that this preference might be influenced by American culture, in which long-legged women are portrayed as more attractive.[72] Marco Bertamini criticized the Swami et al. study for using a picture of the same person with digitally altered leg lengths which he felt would make the modified image appear unrealistic.[78] Bertamini also criticized the Swami study for only changing the leg length while keeping the arm length constant.[78] After accounting for these concerns in his own study, Bertamini, using stick figures, also found a preference for women with proportionately longer legs than men.[78] When Bertamini investigated the issue of possible sexual dimorphism of leg length, he found two sources that indicated that men usually have slightly proportionately longer legs than women or that differences in leg length proportion may not exist between men and women.[78] Following this review of existing literature on the subject, he conducted his own calculations using data from 1774 men and 2208 women. Using this data, he similarly found that men usually have slightly proportionately longer legs than women or that differences in leg length proportion may not exist between men and women. These findings made him rule out the possibility that a preference for women with proportionately longer legs than men is due proportionately longer legs being a secondary sex characteristic of women.[78] A 2006 study of 25,594 heterosexual men found that "men who perceived themselves as having a large penis were more satisfied with their own appearance".[79] A 2014 study criticized previous studies based on the fact that they relied on images and used terms such as "small", "medium", and "large" when asking for female preference. The new study used 3D models of penises from sizes of 4 inches (10 cm) long and 2.5 inches (6.4 cm) in circumference to 8.5 inches (22 cm) long and 7 inches (18 cm) in circumference and let the women "view and handle" them. It was found that women overestimated the actual size of the penises they experimented with when asked in a follow-up survey. The study concluded that "women on average preferred the 6.5-inch (17 cm) penis in length both for long-term and for one-time partners. Penises with larger girth were preferred for one-time partners."[80] Manual laborers who spent extended periods of time outside developed a darker skin tone due to exposure to the sun. As a consequence, an association between dark skin and the lower classes developed. Light skin became an aesthetic ideal because it symbolized wealth. "Over time society attached various meanings to these colored differences. Including assumptions about a person's race, socioeconomic class, intelligence, and physical attractiveness."[82] Some research has suggested that redder and yellower skin tones,[83] reflecting higher levels of oxygenated blood,[84] carotenoid and to a lesser extent melanin pigment, and net dietary intakes of fruit and vegetables,[85] appear healthier, and therefore more attractive.[86] However, there is little direct evidence that skin colour is actually related to health or immune system strength.[87] Les Deux PerlesFernand Le Quesne (The two pearls, 1889). This painting was intended to "contrast a Caucasian with an African beauty". In the painting, the black woman represents the beauty of a black pearl and the white woman represents the beauty of a white pearl.[88] A historical preference for lighter-skinned women has been documented across many cultures.[89][90] However, the accuracy of this research has been questioned by other authors.[91] Experimental studies show that white Western men are more attracted to dark-tanned women, rather than medium-tanned or pale women.[92][93][94] A 2010 study found a preference for lighter-skinned (but not lightest) women in New Zealand and California.[95] However, other research has found that African-American males and females consider medium complexion as more attractive than lighter or darker skin, while white and Hispanic women seek to tan their skin in order to increase their attractiveness to the opposite sex.[96] There is a direct correlation between being tan and self-perceived attractiveness, especially among young women.[97] The relationship between attractiveness and skin colour may also intersect with ethnicity and prior experience.[98] Skin color preferences may shift over time, as in Western culture, where tanned skin used to be associated with the sun-exposed manual labor of the lower-class, but since the mid-20th century it has generally been considered more attractive and healthier than before, with sun tanning becoming fashionable.[99][100][101][102][103] In the African state of Mali, skin bleaching is common as it is thought to improve one's social standing and attractiveness to the opposite sex, although there has also been vocal opposition to this notion from pop culture icons.[104] Skin radiance or glowing skin may influence perception of beauty and physical attractiveness.[105][106] Hands have been found to be physically attractive.[107] The type of hands that are physically attractive are those with longer index and ring fingers.[108] Men have a smaller index-to-ring-finger ratio than women. The gender differences in the ratio between the index and ring fingers are said to be influenced by exposure to testosterone within the womb.[109] In a study where participants were shown computer-based images of hands, male participants found feminine hands with a smaller index finger less attractive. Whereas females found masculine hands with a longer ring finger more attractive. The study suggests that finger length has an effect on physical attraction because it gives indication of the desirable sex-hormone dependent traits which one may possess.[108] Another study found that averageness, healthiness of the skin, how fat the hands appear to be, and the grooming of the hands, all affect the attractiveness of hands.[110] What is meant by averageness is the degree to which the hands look like an average of the hands in the population. Average-looking hands give an indication of an individual's health (because there are no abnormalities). The healthier-looking the skin on the hands, the more attractive they appear. Reasons given for this say skin health may reflect an individual's overall health. Healthy skin can show that someone is free from illness because some illnesses have a bad effect on the look of skin. These features are found attractive because they show that the person has good genes and is therefore a suitable mate to reproduce with. Skin health may also give an indication of socioeconomic status, as rough hands may indicate a low-paying, laborious job. Low socioeconomic status might show that someone does not have resources to provide for the offspring, and is therefore less attractive. The more fat the hands appear, the less attractive they are. This is because of the co-morbidity associated with obesity. If someone is overfat, they may have another disease, which means they may not be able to produce healthy offspring. The attractiveness of the hands also gives an indication of other features of the individual, people with more attractive hands have been found to be taller and slimmer.[107] In most of these hand attractiveness studies, only white, European hands were used, and the participants were 18–26 years old. So, the attractiveness of non-white hands and of different age groups was not tested. Also, the people who rated the hand attractiveness were white Europeans, so their ratings may not represent how individuals of other skin colours and cultures would rate the hands. Females' sexual attraction towards males may be determined by the height of the man.[111] The online dating Website eHarmony only matches women with men taller than themselves, because of complaints from women matched with shorter men.[65] Other studies have shown that heterosexual women often prefer men taller than they are, rather than a man with above average height. While women usually desire men to be at least the same height as themselves or taller, several other factors also determine male attractiveness, and the male-taller norm is not universal.[112] For example, taller women are more likely to relax the "taller male" norm than shorter women.[113] Furthermore, professor Adam Eyre-Walker, from the University of Sussex, has stated that there is, as yet, no evidence that these preferences are evolutionary preferences, as opposed to merely cultural preferences.[114] Still, the cultural perceived attractiveness preferences for taller men are powerful and confirmed by multiple studies. One study of speed-daters by Stulp found that "women were most likely to choose [men] 25 cm taller than themselves, whereas men were most likely to choose women only 7 cm shorter than themselves".[115] Additionally, women seem more receptive to an erect posture than men, though both prefer it as an element within beauty.[116] According to one study (Yee N., 2002), gay men who identify as "only tops" tend to prefer shorter men, while gay men who identify as "only bottoms" tend to prefer taller men.[117] In romances in Middle English literature, all of the "ideal" male heroes are tall, and the vast majority of the "valiant" male heroes are tall too.[118] Most men tend to be taller than their female partners.[21] It has been found that, in Western societies, most men prefer women shorter than themselves.[119] Having said this, height is a more important factor for a woman when choosing a man than it is for a man choosing a woman.[120] Western men tend to view women taller than themselves as less attractive,[119] and people view heterosexual couples where the woman is taller to be less ideal.[119] Women who are 0.7 to 1.7 standard deviations below the mean female height have been reported to be the most reproductively successful,[121] since fewer tall women get married compared to shorter women.[119] However, in other ethnic groups, such as the Hadza people from Tanzania, a study has found that height is irrelevant in choosing a mate.[112] Another study found the same preference in rural Gambia.[119] In Middle English literature, "tallness" is a characteristic of ideally beautiful women.[118]: 101 The British Fashion Model Agents Association (BFMA) says that female models should be at least 5 ft 8 in (1.73 m) tall.[122] A statue of Venus standing in a contrapposto pose with her weight borne predominantly on one leg. As shown here, this posture accentuates the curvature of her figure. Standing in a contrapposto posture (with bodyweight predominantly supported by one leg which is either straight, or very slightly bent, and with the other leg slightly bent) has been found to be more attractive looking than standing in a more plain, upright posture. This was found to be the case for both men and women. This posture may lower a person's observable waist-hip ratio and make their hips look wider and their waists thinner. For women especially, this can accentuate the curvature of their figure on one side of their body and make them seem more attractive. Such poses have been used in historical sculpture to emphasize an ideal of physical beauty.[123] The way an individual moves can indicate health and even age and influence attractiveness.[124] A study reflecting the views of 700 individuals and that involved animated representations of people walking, found that the physical attractiveness of women increased by about 50 percent when they walked with a hip sway. Similarly, the perceived attractiveness of males doubled when they moved with a swagger in their shoulders.[125] In the social psychology perspective, interpersonal attraction is when someone experiences a positive attitude or evaluation regarding a particular person having potential of being a significant other. This includes "three components conventionally ascribed to attitudes: behavioral (tendency to approach the person), cognitive (positive beliefs about the person), and affective (positive feelings for the person)."[126] With these three components, psychology has created five elements of interpersonal attraction. These include proximity, similarity, physical attractiveness, reciprocity, and responsiveness.[127] Women, on average, tend to be more attracted to men who have a relatively narrow waist, a V-shaped torso, and broad shoulders. Women also tend to be more attracted to men who are taller than they are, and display a high degree of facial symmetry, as well as relatively masculine facial dimorphism.[22][23] Women, regardless of sexual orientation, tend to be less interested in a partner's physical attractiveness than men.[128] The degree of differences between male and female anatomical traits is called sexual dimorphism. Female respondents in the follicular phase of their menstrual cycle were significantly more likely to choose a masculine face than those in menses and luteal phases,[129] (or in those taking hormonal contraception).[22][23][130][131] This distinction supports the sexy son hypothesis, which posits that it is evolutionarily advantageous for women to select potential fathers who are more genetically attractive,[132] rather than the best caregivers.[133] However, women's likeliness to exert effort to view male faces does not seem to depend on their masculinity, but to a general increase with women's testosterone levels.[134] It is suggested that the masculinity of facial features is a reliable indication of good health, or, alternatively, that masculine-looking males are more likely to achieve high status.[135] However, the correlation between attractive facial features and health has been questioned.[136] Sociocultural factors, such as self-perceived attractiveness, status in a relationship and degree of gender-conformity, have been reported to play a role in female preferences for male faces.[137] Studies have found that women who perceive themselves as physically attractive are more likely to choose men with masculine facial dimorphism, than are women who perceive themselves as physically unattractive.[45] In men, facial masculinity significantly correlates with facial symmetry – it has been suggested that both are signals of developmental stability and genetic health.[138] One study called into question the importance of facial masculinity in physical attractiveness in men, arguing that when perceived health, which is factored into facial masculinity, is discounted it makes little difference in physical attractiveness.[139] In a cross-country study involving 4,794 women in their early twenties, a difference was found in women's average "masculinity preference" between countries.[140][141] A study found that the same genetic factors cause facial masculinity in both males and females such that a male with a more masculine face would likely have a sister with a more masculine face due to the siblings having shared genes. The study also found that, although female faces that were more feminine were judged to be more attractive, there was no association between male facial masculinity and male facial attractiveness for female judges. With these findings, the study reasoned that if a woman were to reproduce with a man with a more masculine face, then her daughters would also inherit a more masculine face, making the daughters less attractive. The study concluded that there must be other factors that advantage the genetics for masculine male faces to offset their reproductive disadvantage in terms of "health", "fertility" and "facial attractiveness" when the same genetics are present in females. The study reasoned that the "selective advantage" for masculine male faces must "have (or had)" been due to some factor that is not directly tied to female perceptions of male facial attractiveness.[142] In a study of 447 gay men in China, researchers said that tops preferred feminized male faces, bottoms preferred masculinized male faces and versatiles had no preference for either feminized or masculinized male faces.[143] The physique of a slim waist, broad shoulders and muscular chest are often found to be attractive to both females and males.[146] Further research has shown that, when choosing a mate, the traits females look for indicate higher social status, such as dominance, resources, and protection.[147] An indicator of health in males (a contributing factor to physical attractiveness) is the android fat distribution pattern which is categorized as more fat distributed on the upper body and abdomen, commonly referred to as the "V shape."[147] When asked to rate other men, both heterosexual and homosexual men found low waist-to-chest ratios (WCR) to be more attractive on other men, with the gay men showing a preference for lower WCR (more V-shaped) than the straight men.[148] Other researchers found waist-to-chest ratio the largest determinant of male attractiveness, with body mass index and waist-to-hip ratio not as significant.[149] Women focus primarily on the ratio waist to chest or more specifically waist to shoulder. This is analogous to the waist to hip ratio (WHR) that men prefer. Some studies have shown that attractive bodily traits in the eyes of a heterosexual woman would include a tall, athletic physique, with wide shoulders, and a slim waist area.[150] Research has additionally shown that college males had a better satisfaction with their body than college females.[151] The research also found that when a college female's waist to hip ratio went up, their body image satisfaction decreased.[151] Some research has shown that body weight may have a stronger effect than WHR when it comes to perceiving attractiveness of the opposite sex. It was found that waist to hip ratio played a smaller role in body preference than body weight in regards to both sexes.[152] Psychologists Viren Swami and Martin J. Tovee compared female preference for male attractiveness cross culturally, between Britain and Malaysia. They found that females placed more importance on WCR (and therefore body shape) in urban areas of Britain and Malaysia, while females in rural areas placed more importance on BMI (therefore weight and body size). Both WCR and BMI are indicative of male status and ability to provide for offspring, as noted by evolutionary theory.[153] Females have been found to desire males that are normal weight and have the average WHR for a male. Females view these males as attractive and healthy. Males who had the average WHR but were overweight or underweight are not perceived as attractive to females. This suggests that WHR is not a major factor in male attractiveness, but a combination of body weight and a typical male WHR seem to be the most attractive. Research has shown that men who have a higher waist to hip ratio and a higher salary are perceived as more attractive to women.[154] Men's bodies portrayed in magazines marketed to men are more muscular than the men's bodies portrayed in magazines marketed to women. From this, some have concluded that men perceive a more muscular male body to be ideal, as distinct from a woman's ideal male, which is less muscular than what men perceive to be ideal.[156] This is due to the within-gender prestige granted by increased muscularity and within-gender competition for increased muscularity.[156] Men perceive the attractiveness of their own musculature by how closely their bodies resemble the "muscle man."[157] This "muscle man" ideal is characterized by large muscular arms, especially biceps, a large muscular chest that tapers to their waist and broad shoulders.[157] Among Australian university students, the male body composition found to be most attractive (12.16 kg fat, 63.27 kg muscle) was in line with the composition that was perceived as healthiest, and was well within the healthy range.[158] In a study of stated profile preferences on Match.com, a greater percentage of gay men than lesbians selected their ideal partner's body type as "Athletic and Toned" as opposed to the other two options of "Average" or "Overweight".[159] In pre-modern Chinese literature, such as in Romance of the Western Chamber, a type of masculinity called "scholar masculinity" is depicted wherein the "ideal male lover" is "weak, vulnerable, feminine, and pedantic".[144] In Middle English literature, a beautiful man typically has thick, broad shoulders, a square and muscular chest, a muscular back, strong sides that taper to a small waist, large hands and arms and legs with huge muscles.[118] Studies based in the United States, New Zealand, and China have shown that women rate men with no trunk (chest and abdominal) hair as most attractive, and that attractiveness ratings decline as hairiness increases.[160][161] Another study, however, found that moderate amounts of trunk hair on men was most attractive, to the sample of British and Sri Lankan women.[162] Further, a degree of hirsuteness (hairiness) and a waist-to-shoulder ratio of 0.6 is often preferred when combined with a muscular physique.[162] In a study using Finnish women, women with hairy fathers were more likely to prefer hairy men, suggesting that preference for hairy men is the result of either genetics or imprinting.[163] Among gay men, another study (Yee N., 2002) reported gay males who identify as "only tops" prefer less hairy men, while gay males who identify as "only bottoms" prefer more hairy men.[117] One study shows that men with facial hair covering the cheeks, upper lip, and lower jaw were perceived as more physically attractive than men with patchy facial hair.[164] In this study, men's facial hair was split into four categories, each differing in the thickness and coverage: very light, light, medium, and heavy. Light facial hair was rated as the most attractive, followed by medium, heavy, and the least attractive was 'very light'. This study suggests that some facial hair is better than none because it shows masculine development, as beard growth requires the conversion of testosterone. The study only examined the facial hair of brown-haired European males, so the results may not represent men of all ethnicities and hair colours. A different study found women are more attracted to clean-shaven faces than bearded faces.[165] Because it generates the gonial angle, the ramus has a function in attractiveness.[citation needed] The gonial or jaw angle is the angle formed by the ramus and the rest of the mandible. It can range from 90 to 140 degrees, with the population average being 128 +/- 2.36 degrees for males and 126 +/-2.41 degrees for females. Larger, more obtuse gonial angles result in a rounder, feminine appearance, whereas more acute gonial angles result in square, masculine faces.[166][167] This exact ratio is not seen as ideal in every ethnic group. Most research shows that attractive bigonial width and Ramus measurements have similarities, but the jutting square chin is a prominently European-heritage trait – which means it should not be held as a universal indicator of attractiveness.[168][169] Men with low submental fat were viewed to have "better jawlines" and a more "youthful look".[170] Research indicates that heterosexual men tend to be attracted to young[64] and beautiful women[171] with bodily symmetry.[172] Rather than decreasing it, modernity has only increased the emphasis men place on women's looks.[173]Evolutionary psychologists attribute such attraction to an evaluation of the fertility potential in a prospective mate.[64] Research has attempted to determine which facial features communicate attractiveness. Facial symmetry has been shown to be considered attractive in women,[175][176] and men have been found to prefer full lips,[177] high forehead, broad face, small chin, small nose, short and narrow jaw, high cheekbones,[39][178] clear and smooth skin, and wide-set eyes.[64] The shape of the face in terms of "how everything hangs together" is an important determinant of beauty.[179] Women with thick, dark limbal rings in their eyes have also been found to be more attractive. The explanation given is that because the ring tends to fade with age and medical problems, a prominent limbal ring gives an honest indicator of youth.[180] In Persian literature, beautiful women are said to have noses like hazelnuts.[181] In Arabian society in the Middle Ages, a component of the female beauty ideal was for women to have straight and fine noses.[182] In Jewish Rabbinic literature, the rabbis considered a delicate nose to be the ideal type of nose for women.[183] In Japan, during the Edo period, a component of the female beauty ideal was for women to have tall noses which were straight and not "too tall".[184] In a cross-cultural study, more neotenized (i.e., youthful looking) female faces were found to be most attractive to men while less neotenized female faces were found to be less attractive to men, regardless of the females' actual age.[185] In a study of Italian women who have won beauty competitions, it was found that their faces had more "babyish" (pedomorphic) traits than those of the "normal" women used as a reference.[186] In a cross-cultural study, Marcinkowska et al. said that 18-to-45-year-old heterosexual men in all 28 countries surveyed preferred photographs of 18-to-24-year-old white women whose faces were feminized using facial image editing software over faces of 18-to-24-year-old white women that were masculinized using that software, but there were differences in preferences for femininity across countries. The higher the National Health Index (based on eight national health statistics taken from the World Health Organization Statistical Information Service using data from 2002 to 2006) of a country, the more were the feminized faces preferred over the masculinized faces. Among the countries surveyed, Japan had the highest femininity preference and Nepal had the lowest femininity preference.[187] Michael R. Cunningham of the Department of Psychology at the University of Louisville found, using a panel of East Asian, Hispanic and White judges, that the female faces tended to be judged as more attractive if they had features such as high cheekbones and small chins, as well as "neonate large eyes, greater distance between eyes, and small noses".[188][189]Hispanic and East Asian women were judged as more attractive than White and Black women,[190] and they happened to possess more of the attributes defined as attractive, however the authors noted that it would be inaccurate to conclude that any ethnic group was more attractive than the other, based on their sample. Using a panel of African Americans and whites as judges, Cunningham found more neotenous faces were perceived as having both higher "femininity" and "sociability".[188] The authors found no evidence of ethnocentric bias in the Asian or White samples, as Asians and Whites did not differ significantly in preference for neonate cues, and positive ratings of white women did not increase with exposure to Western media.[191] Rather than finding evidence for purely "neonate" faces being most appealing, Cunningham found faces with "sexually-mature" features at the "periphery" of the face combined with "neonate" features in the "center of the face" most appealing in women.[188] Upon analyzing the results of his study, Cunningham concluded that preference for "neonate features may display the least cross-cultural variability" in terms of "attractiveness ratings"[188] and, in another study, Cunningham concluded that there exists a large agreement on the characteristics of an attractive face.[192][193] In computer face averaging tests, women with averaged faces have been shown to be considered more attractive.[31][194] This is possibly due to average features being more familiar and, therefore, more comfortable.[175] Commenting on the prevalence of whiteness in supposed beauty ideals in his book White Lies: Race and the Myth of Whiteness, Maurice Berger states that the schematic rendering in the idealized face of a study conducted with American subjects had "straight hair," "light skin," "almond-shaped eyes," "thin, arched eyebrows," "a long, thin nose, closely set and tiny nostrils" and "a large mouth and thin lips",[195] though the author of the study stated that there was consistency between his results and those conducted on other races. Scholar Liu Jieyu says in the article White Collar Beauties, "The criterion of beauty is both arbitrary and gendered. The implicit consensus is that women who have fair skin and a slim figure with symmetrical facial features are pretty." He says that all of these requirements are socially constructed and force people to change themselves to fit these criteria.[196] There are various opposing principles of female beauty including prettiness and rarity. So on average, symmetrical features are one ideal, while unusual, stand-out features are another.[197][better source needed][198] A study performed by the University of Toronto found that the most attractive facial dimensions were those found in the average female face. However, that particular University of Toronto study looked only at white women.[199] A study that used Chinese, Malay and Indian judges said that Chinese women with orthognathism where the mouth is flat and in-line with the rest of the face were judged to be the most attractive and Chinese women with a protruding mandible where the jaw projects outward were judged to be the least attractive.[200] A 2011 study, by Wilkins, Chan and Kaiser found correlations between perceived femininity and attractiveness, that is, women's faces which were seen as more feminine were judged by both men and women to be more attractive.[201] Historically, in Chinese and Japanese literature, the feminine ideal was said to include small lips.[204] Women would paint their lips thinner and narrower to align with this ideal.[205][206] Classical Persian literature, paintings, and miniatures portrayed traits such as long black curly hair, a small mouth, long arched eyebrows, large almond shaped eyes, a small nose, and beauty spots as being beautiful for women.[207] A study that investigated whether or not an eyelid crease makes Chinese-descent women more attractive using photo-manipulated photographs of young Chinese-descent women's eyes found that the "medium upper eyelid crease" was considered most attractive by all three groups of both sexes: white people, Chinese and Taiwanese nationals together as a group, and Taiwanese and Chinese Americans together as a group. Similarly, all three groups of both genders found the absence of an eye crease to be least attractive on Chinese women.[208] A study that used Russian, American, Brazilian, Aché, and Hiwi raters, found that the only strong distinguisher between men and women's faces was wider eyes relative to facial height for women, and this trait consistently predicted attractiveness ratings for women.[210] In Arabian society in the Middle Ages, a component of the female beauty ideal was for women to have dark black eyes which are large and long and in the shape of almonds. Furthermore, the eyes should be lustrous, and they should have long eyelashes.[182] A source written in 1823, said that a component of the Persian female beauty ideal was for women to have large eyes which are black in color.[202] In Persian literature, beautiful women are said to have eyes that are shaped like almonds.[181] In Chinese, the phrase "lucent irises, lustrous teeth" (Chinese: 明眸皓齒) is used to describe a beautiful woman with "clear eyes" and "well-aligned, white teeth", and the phrase "moth-feeler eyebrows" (Chinese: 蛾眉) is used to denote a beautiful woman by describing her eyebrows as being thin and arched like moth antennae. In the Chinese text The Grotto of the Immortals (Chinese: 遊仙窟) written during the Tang dynasty period, narrow eyes were the preferred type of eyes for women, and, in the Chinese text Jeweled Chamber Secrets (Chinese: 玉房秘訣) from the Six Dynasties period, the ideal woman was described as having small eyes.[184] In Japan, during the Edo period, one piece of evidence, the appearance of the "formal wife" of Tokugawa Iesada as determined by "bone anthropologist" Suzuki Hisashi, indicates that large eyes were considered attractive for women, but, another piece of evidence, the 1813 Japanese text Customs, Manners, and Fashions of the Capital (Japanese: 都風俗化粧伝), indicates that large eyes were not considered attractive for women.[184] Research has shown that most heterosexual men enjoy the sight of female breasts,[211] with a preference for large, firm breasts.[212] However, a contradictory study of British undergraduates found younger men preferred small breasts on women.[213] Smaller breasts were widely associated with youthfulness.[124] Cross-culturally, another study found "high variability" regarding the ideal breast size.[213] Some researchers in the United Kingdom have speculated that a preference for larger breasts may have developed in Western societies because women with larger breasts tend to have higher levels of the hormones estradiol and progesterone, which both promote fertility.[214] A study by Groyecka et al., in which they examined Poles and Yali of New Guinea, demonstrated that men's judgements of breast appearance is affected by the occurrence of breast ptosis (i.e., sagginess, droopiness).[215] Greater breast ptosis (more sagging breasts) is perceived as less attractive and attributed to a woman of older age. These findings are coherent with previous research that link breast attractiveness with female youthfulness. Unlike breast size, breast ptosis seems to be a universal marker of female breast attractiveness. A study showed that men prefer symmetrical breasts.[172][216] Breast symmetry may be particularly sensitive to developmental disturbances and the symmetry differences for breasts are large compared to other body parts. Women who have more symmetrical breasts tend to have more children.[217] Historical literature often includes specific features of individuals or a gender that are considered desirable. These have often become a matter of convention, and should be interpreted with caution. In Arabian society in the Middle Ages, a component of the female beauty ideal was for women to have small breasts.[182] In Persian literature, beautiful women are said to have breasts like pomegranates or lemons.[181] In the Chinese text Jeweled Chamber Secrets (Chinese: 玉房秘訣) from the Six Dynasties period, the ideal woman was described as having firm breasts.[184] In Sanskrit literature, beautiful women are often said to have breasts so large that they cause the women to bend a little bit from their weight.[218] In Middle English literature, beautiful women should have small breasts that are round like an apple or a pear.[118] This drawing is a remake of a drawing used in an experiment to research what South African, British white and British African men considered to be the most attractive size of posterior and breasts for white and black women. This image only shows the two extreme variations of size on black female figures used in the experiment. The figure at left received the highest average attractiveness rating from South African men while a figure with an intermediate size received the highest ratings from both white and black British men. The figure at right did not receive the highest average attractiveness rating from any group.[219] Biological anthropologist Helen E. Fisher of the Center for Human Evolution Studies in the Department of Anthropology of Rutgers University said that, "perhaps, the fleshy, rounded buttocks... attracted males during rear-entry intercourse."[220] In a recent study, using 3D models and eye-tracking technology Fisher's claim was tested and was shown that the slight thrusting out of a woman's back influence how attractive others perceive her to be and captures the gaze of both men and women.[221][222] Bobbi S. Low et al. of the School of Natural Resources and Environment at the University of Michigan, said the female "buttocks evolved in the context of females competing for the attention and parental commitment of powerful resource-controlling males" as an "honest display of fat reserves" that could not be confused with another type of tissue,[223] although T. M. Caro, professor in the Center for Population Biology and the Department of Wildlife, Fish, and Conservation Biology, at University of California, Davis, rejected that as being a necessary conclusion, stating that female fatty deposits on the hips improve "individual fitness of the female", regardless of sexual selection.[223] In a 1995 study, black men were more likely than white men to use the words "big" or "large" to describe their conception of an attractive woman's posterior.[224] Body Mass Index (BMI) is an important determinant to the perception of beauty.[225] Even though the Western ideal is for a thin woman, some cultures prefer plumper women,[188][226] which has been argued to support that attraction for a particular BMI merely is a cultural artifact.[226] The attraction for a proportionate body also influences an appeal for erect posture.[227] One cross-cultural survey comparing body-mass preferences among 300 of the most thoroughly studied cultures in the world showed that 81% of cultures preferred a female body size that in English would be described as "plump".[228] Availability of food influences which female body size is attractive which may have evolutionary reasons. Societies with food scarcities prefer larger female body size than societies that have plenty of food. In Western society, males who are hungry prefer a larger female body size than they do when not hungry.[229] BMI has been criticised for conflating fat and muscle, and more recent studies have concentrated on body composition. Among Australian university students, the most attractive body composition for women (10.31 kg fat, 42.45 kg muscle) was found to be lower in fat than both the most healthy appearing composition, and below the healthy range.[158] In the United States, women overestimate men's preferences for thinness in a mate. In one study, American women were asked to choose what their ideal build was and what they thought the build most attractive to men was. Women chose slimmer than average figures for both choices. When American men were independently asked to choose the female build most attractive to them, the men chose figures of average build. This indicates that women may be misled as to how thin men prefer women to be.[226] Some researchers believe women themselves may play a role in enforcing the thinness ideal, however they assert that this does not mean that the ideal doesn't ultimately trace its origins to patriarchical norms (the "male gaze").[230] Popenoe writes that societies with abundant food sources often value thin women, while those with food scarcity value women with fat bodies. In the West, women with thin bodies became the ideal in the 19th century, as the fat body became associated with criminality and backwardness.[231] Some implicated the fashion industry for the promulgation of the notion of thinness as attractive.[232] East Asians have historically preferred women whose bodies had small features. For example, during the Spring and Autumn period of Chinese history, women in Chinese harems wanted to have a thin body in order to be attractive for the Chinese emperor. Later, during the Tang dynasty, a less thin body type was seen as most attractive for Chinese women.[233] In Arabian society in the Middle Ages, a component of the female beauty ideal was for women to be slender like a "cane" or a "twig".[182] In the Chinese text Jeweled Chamber Secrets (Chinese: 玉房秘訣) from the Six Dynasties period, the ideal woman was described as not being "large-boned".[184] In the Victorian era, women who adhered to Victorian ideals were expected to limit their food consumption to attain the ideal slim figure.[234] In Middle English literature, "slender" women are considered beautiful.[118] According to research on females, women consider a full body with good distribution to be highly important to be considered attractive by men.[235] A WHR of 0.7 for women has been shown to correlate strongly with general health and fertility. Women within the 0.7 range have optimal levels of estrogen and are less susceptible to major diseases such as diabetes, heart disease, and ovarian cancers.[236] Women with high WHR (0.80 or higher) have significantly lower pregnancy rates than women with lower WHRs (0.70–0.79), independent of their BMIs.[237][238] Female waist-to-hip ratio (WHR) has been proposed by evolutionary psychologists to be an important component of human male mate choice, because this trait is thought to provide a reliable cue to a woman's reproductive value.[239] Both men and women judge women with smaller waist-to-hip ratios more attractive.[240] Ethnic groups vary with regard to their ideal waist-to-hip ratio for women,[241] ranging from 0.6 in China,[242] to 0.8 or 0.9 in parts of South America and Africa,[243][244][245] and divergent preferences based on ethnicity, rather than nationality, have also been noted.[246][247] A study found the Machiguenga people, an isolated indigenous South American ethnic group, prefer women with high WHR (0.9).[248] The preference for heavier women, has been interpreted to belong to societies where there is no risk of obesity.[249] In Chinese, the phrase "willow waist" (Chinese: 柳腰) is used to denote a beautiful woman by describing her waist as being slender like a willow branch.[184] In the Victorian era, a small waist was considered the main trait of a beautiful woman.[234] The term "wasp waist" describes an extreme fashion silhouette, produced by a style of corset and girdle. Men have been found to prefer long-haired women.[64][253][254] An evolutionary psychology explanation for this is that malnutrition and deficiencies in minerals and vitamins causes loss of hair or hair changes. Hair therefore indicates health and nutrition during the last 2–3 years. Lustrous hair is also often a cross-cultural preference.[124] A component of the female beauty ideal in Persian literature is for women to have black hair,[181] which was also preferred in Arabian society in the Middle Ages.[182] In Middle English literature, curly hair is a necessary component of a beautiful woman.[118] There are some subtle changes in women's perceived attractiveness across the menstrual cycle. During their most fertile phase, we can observe some changes in women's behavior and physiology. A study conducted by G. Miller (2007) examined the amount of tip earnings by lap dancers across the menstrual cycle. He found that dancers received nearly US$15 more when they were near ovulation than during the rest of the month. This suggests that women either are more attractive during ovulation phase, or they experience a significant change in their behavior.[255] Some other studies have found that there are subtle differences in women's faces when in their fertile phase. Bobst and Lobmaier (2012) created 20 prototyped photographs, some of a female during ovulation and some during the luteal phase. Men were asked to choose the more attractive, the more caring and the more flirtatious faces. They found a significant preference for the follicular phase (ovulation). This suggests that subtle shape differences in faces occurring during the female's ovulation phase are sufficient to attract men more.[256] This idea is supported by another study, where a similar experiment was done. Men and women had to judge photographs of women's faces taken during their fertile phase. They were all rated more attractive than during non-fertile phase. There are some subtle visible cues to ovulation in women's faces, and they are perceived as more attractive, leading to the idea that it could be an adaptive mechanism to raise a female's mate value at that specific time (when probability of conception is at its highest).[255] Women's attractiveness, as perceived by men and women, slightly differs across her menstrual cycle, being at peak when she is in her ovulation phase. Jones et al. (2008), focused on women's preferences for masculinity, apparent health and self-resemblance and found that it varies across the cycle. They explained that the function of the effects of menstrual cycle phase on preferences for apparent health and self-resemblance in faces is to increase the likelihood of pregnancy.[257] Similarly, females prefer the scent of symmetrically faced men and men with masculine faces during fertile phases as well as stereotypical male displays such as social presence, and direct intrasexual competitiveness.[258] During the follicular phase (fertile), females prefer more masculine traits (testosterone dependent traits such as face shape) than when in non-fertile phase. Those findings have been found in the voice, showing that females' preferences for more masculine voices over feminine voices increase the fertile phase of the menstrual cycle.[259] But not only females' preferences vary across cycle, their behaviours as well. Effectively, men respond differently to females when they are on ovulatory cycle,[255] because females act differently. Women in the ovulatory phase are flirtier with males showing genetic fitness markers than in low fertile phase.[260] It has been shown in some studies that women high in estrogen are generally perceived to be more attractive than women with low levels of estrogen, based on women not wearing make-up. High estrogen level women may also be viewed as healthier or to have a more feminine face.[261] Similarly, a study investigated the capacity of women to select high quality males based on their facial attractiveness. They found that facial attractiveness correlated with semen quality (good, normal, or bad depending on sperm morphology and motility). The more attractive a man's face is, linked to his sperm being of better quality.[262] Sexual ornaments are seen in many organisms; in humans, females have sexual ornamentation in the form of breasts and buttocks. The physical attraction to sexual ornaments is associated with gynoid fat, as opposed to android fat, which is considered unattractive.[263] In human females, proximate causes of the development of sexual ornaments are associated with the predominance of estrogen in puberty. The activation of estrogen receptors around the female skeletal tissue causes gynoid fat to be deposited in the breasts, buttocks, hips and thighs, producing an overall typical female body shape.[264] Specifically, female breasts are considered more attractive when symmetrical, rather than asymmetrical,[265] as this is thought to reflect good developmental stability.[266] Sexual ornaments are considered attractive features as they are thought to indicate high mate value, fertility,[267] and the ability to provide good care to offspring. They are sexually selected traits present for the purpose of honest signalling and capturing the visual attention of the opposite sex, most commonly associated with females capturing the visual attention of males. It has been proposed that these ornaments have evolved in order to advertise personal quality and reproductive value.[268] Honest signalling with sexual ornaments is associated with ultimate causation of these evolved traits. The evolution of these ornaments is also associated with female-female competition in order to gain material benefits provided by resourceful and high status males.[269] In humans, once these sexual ornaments develop, they are permanent. It is thought that this is associated with the long-term pair bonding humans engage in; human females engage in extended sexual activity outside of their fertile period.[270] This relates to another ultimate cause of sexual ornaments with function in obtaining non-genetic material benefits from males. In other animal species, even other primate species, these advertisements of reproductive value are not permanent. Usually, it is the point at which the female is at her most fertile, she displays sexual swellings.[271] Adolescence is the period of time whereby humans experience puberty, and experience anatomical changes to their bodies through the increase of sex hormones released in the body. Adolescent exaggeration is the period of time at which sexual ornaments are maximised, and peak gynoid fat content is reached.[269] In human females, the mean age for this is approximately 16 years. Female breasts develop at this stage not only to prepare for reproduction, but also due to competition with other females in displaying their reproductive value and quality to males.[269] Most studies of the brain activations associated with the perception of attractiveness show photographs of faces to their participants and let them or a comparable group of people rate the attractiveness of these faces. Such studies consistently find that activity in certain parts of the orbitofrontal cortex increases with increasing attractiveness of faces.[272][273][269][274][275] This neural response has been interpreted as a reaction on the rewarding nature of attractiveness, as similar increases in activation in the medial orbitofrontal cortex can be seen in response to smiling faces[276] and to statements of morally good actions.[269][275] While most of these studies have not assessed participants of both genders or homosexual individuals, evidence from one study including male and female hetero- and homosexual individuals indicate that some of the aforementioned increases in brain activity are restricted to images of faces of the gender participants feel sexually attracted to.[277] With regard to brain activation related to the perception of attractive bodies, one study with heterosexual participants suggests that activity in the nucleus accumbens and the anterior cingulate cortex increases with increasing attractiveness. The same study finds that for faces and bodies alike, the medial part of the orbitofrontal cortex responds with greater activity to both very attractive and very unattractive pictures.[278] For both men and women, there appear to be universal criteria of attractiveness both within and across cultures and ethnic groups.[19][279] When considering long-term relationships, some studies have found that men place a higher emphasis on physical attractiveness in a partner than women do.[280][281][282][283][284] On the other hand, some studies have found few differences between men and women in terms of the weight they place on physical characteristics when they are choosing partners for short-term relationships,[285][286][287][288] in particular with regard to their implicit, as opposed to explicitly articulated, preferences.[289] Other recent studies continue to find sex differences for long-term relationships.[290][291][292][287] While still valuing physical attractiveness, women tend to prioritize a man's status over his physical attractiveness, while men prioritize physical attractiveness over status.[293] There is also one study suggesting that only men, not women, place greater priority on bodily compared to facial attractiveness when looking for a short-term as compared to a long-term partner.[294] Some evolutionary psychologists, including David Buss, have argued that this long-term relationship difference may be a consequence of ancestral humans who selected partners based on secondary sexual characteristics, as well as general indicators of fitness which allowed for greater reproductive success as a result of higher fertility in those partners,[295] although a male's ability to provide resources for offspring was likely signaled less by physical features.[282] It is argued that the most prominent indicator of fertility in women is youth,[296][297][298] while the traits in a man which enhance reproductive success are proxies for his ability to accrue resources and protect.[298] Studies have shown that women pay greater attention to physical traits than they do directly to earning capability or potential to commit,[299] including muscularity, fitness and masculinity of features; the latter preference was observed to vary during a woman's period, with women preferring more masculine features during the late-follicular (fertile) phase of the menstrual cycle.[259][300] Additionally, women process physical attractiveness differently, paying attention to both individual features and the aesthetic effect of the whole face.[301] According to Bonnie Adrian, Taiwanese brides place great importance on physical attractiveness for their wedding photographs. These brides go through hours of makeup to transform themselves into socially constructed beauty. Adrian notes that female beauty standards and practices in Taiwan are quite different from those found in the West. Women in Taiwan tend to avoid tanning, while Taiwanese women with "tan" skin tones would be considered the ideal in the Western world.[302] According to strategic pluralism theory, men may have correspondingly evolved to pursue reproductive strategies that are contingent on their own physical attractiveness. More physically attractive men accrue reproductive benefits from spending more time seeking multiple mating partners and relatively less time investing in offspring. In contrast, the reproductive effort of physically less attractive men, who therefore will not have the same mating opportunities, is better allocated either to investing heavily in accruing resources, or investing in their mates and offspring and spending relatively less time seeking additional mates.[303] Research has suggested that people give high attractiveness ratings to same-sex people who look like them, but only in a non-sexual context. On the other hand, people generally do not find similar-looking people of the opposite sex to be sexually attractive. It is theorized that people may prefer sexual partners who look different from them, which is consistent with a pattern of inbreeding avoidance.[304][305][306] Although one study found that individuals show a preference for similar-looking mates, after a physiological stress test they preferred dis-similar looking mates.[307][308] One study found no strong evidence for a same-race preference in heterosexual people, and they note that evidence from two similar studies is conflicting. Some racial groups show a strong preference for partners of a different race or ethnicity, and this preference may be gendered.[309][310] One study suggested that attraction to people with different ethnic features may be related to the effects of heterozygosity, which are thought to be a fitness advantage.[311] A 2014 study found that racial preferences in Asian-Americans varied by gender: while heterosexual Asian women preferred to date white men, heterosexual Asian men preferred to date Asian women.[312] A 2012 study suggests that imbalance in interracial marriage (white male-Asian female marriages are more than twice as common as the reverse) may be attributed to the fact that Asian women are perceived as more feminine, and therefore more attractive, than white women.[313] This study received support from a 2018 study which tested its hypothesis using images of Asian and white individuals.[314] A 2012 study using Black and Caucasian subjects found that inter-ethnic and intra-ethnic differences in perceived male facial masculinity have no impact on attractiveness, and that skin color plays a more important role in attractiveness assessments of male faces within groups, but not between groups as a health signal.[315] The group attractiveness effect is where a group's overall attractiveness rating is higher than the mean of each individuals' attractiveness rating. This occurs because people selectively attend to the most attractive group members[316] and thus they get the most attention. Men selectively attend to attractive people more than women, it has been suggested that this could be because men are less invested in their offspring, so they are less choosy when it comes to sexual partners, and therefore they are more easily attracted. As a result of selective attention, people end up giving a group rating which is biased as the rating focuses mainly on the attractive members and ignores the less attractive members. So the overall attractiveness rating is skewed towards more attractive. The group attractiveness effect was investigated in a study which got participants to rate the physical attractiveness of a group of females as a whole, individually in a group, and individually on their own.[317] Participants were asked to give a rating of 1–7, with 1 being very unattractive and 7 being very attractive. The group attractiveness effect has been replicated with males as the main group and also with a group of both males and females. This effect may not be demonstrated across all cultures because the sample only contained Dutch university students. Perceptions of physical attractiveness contribute to generalized assumptions based on those attractions. Individuals assume that when someone is beautiful, then they have many other positive attributes that make the attractive person more likeable.[18] This is referred to as the halo effect, also known as the 'beautiful-is-good' effect.[18] Across cultures, what is beautiful is assumed to be good; attractive people are assumed to be more extroverted, popular, and happy. This could lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy, as, from a young age, attractive people receive more attention that helps them develop these characteristics.[318][319] In one study, beautiful people were found to be generally happier than less beautiful or plain people, perhaps because these outgoing personality traits are linked to happiness, or perhaps because beauty led to increased economic benefits which partially explained the increased happiness.[179] In another study testing first impressions in 56 female and 17 male participants at University of British Columbia, personality traits of physically attractive people were identified more positively and more accurately than those who were less physically attractive. It was explained that people pay closer attention to those they find physically beautiful or attractive, and thus perceiving attractive individuals with greater distinctive accuracy. The study believes this accuracy to be subjective to the eye of the beholder.[320] Recent results from the Wisconsin Longitudinal Study confirmed the positive link between psychological well-being and attractiveness (higher facial attractiveness, lower BMI) and also found the complementary negative association with distress/depression. Even though connections and confounds with other variables could not be excluded, the effects of attractiveness in this study were the same size as the ones for other demographic variables.[321] In developed western societies, women tend to be judged for their physical appearance over their other qualities and the pressure to engage in beauty work is much higher for women than men. Beauty work is defined as various beauty "practices individuals perform on themselves or others to elicit certain benefits from a specific social hierarchy."[322] Being "beautiful" has individual, social and institutional rewards.[322] Although marketers have started to target the "metro-sexual" male and produce hygiene and beauty products geared towards men, the expectations placed on them is less than women.[323] The time and money required for a man to achieve the same well-groomed appearance is much lower. Even in areas that men also face pressure to perform beauty work, such as haircuts/styling, the prices discrepancy for products and services are skewed. This phenomenon is called the "pink tax."[324][325] However, attractiveness varies by society; in ancient China foot binding was practiced by confining young girls' feet in tightly bound shoes to prevent the feet from growing to normal size causing the women to have an attractive "lotus gait". In England, women used to wear corsets that severely constricted their breathing in order to achieve a visual effect of an exaggeratedly low waist-to-hip ratio. People make judgments of physical attractiveness based on what they see, but also on what they know about the person. Specifically, perceptions of beauty are malleable such that information about the person's personality traits can influence one's assessment of another person's physical beauty. A 2007 study had participants first rate pictures for attractiveness. After doing distracting math problems, participants saw the pictures again, but with information about the person's personality. When participants learned that a person had positive personality characteristics (e.g., smart, funny, kind), that person was seen as more physically attractive.[326] Conversely, a person with negative personality characteristics (e.g., materialistic, rude, untrustworthy) was seen as less physically attractive. This was true for both females and males. Physical attractiveness can have various social effects. For instance, humans tend to self-organize into couples where both parties have loosely similar attractiveness levels as judged by third parties.[327][328][329] A survey conducted by London Guildhall University of 11,000 people showed that those who subjectively describe themselves as physically attractive earn more income than others who would describe themselves as less attractive.[26] People who described themselves as less attractive earned, on average, 13% less than those who described themselves as more attractive, while the penalty for being overweight was around 5%. According to further research done on the correlation between looks and earnings in men, the punishment for unattractiveness is greater than the benefits of being attractive. However, in women the punishment is found to be equal to the benefits.[330] Another study suggests that more physically attractive people are significantly more likely on average to earn considerably higher wages. Differences in income due to attractiveness was much more pronounced for men rather than women, and held true for all ranges of income.[331] In the US the earnings disparities along the attractiveness continuum (net of controls) are similar or greater than the black-white disparity.[332] A study from 2020 found that social scientists who are judged as being more attractive receive higher public speaking fees than less attractive social scientists, whereas for natural scientists, relative unattractiveness is a comparative advantage in terms of public speaking fees.[333] It is important to note that other factors such as self-confidence may explain or influence these findings as they are based on self-reported attractiveness as opposed to any sort of objective criteria; however, as one's self-confidence and self-esteem are largely learned from how one is regarded by their peers while maturing, even these considerations would suggest a significant role for physical appearance. One writer speculated that "the distress created in women by the spread of unattainable ideals of female beauty" might possibly be linked to increasing incidence of depression.[334] Many have asserted that certain advantages tend to come to those who are perceived as being more attractive, including the ability to get better jobs and promotions; receiving better treatment from authorities and the legal system; having more choices in romantic or platonic partners and, therefore, more power in relationships; and marrying into families with more money.[30][179][318][319][335] Those who are attractive are treated and judged more positively than those who are considered unattractive, even by those who know them. Also, attractive individuals behave more positively than those who are unattractive.[336] One study found that teachers tend to expect that children who are attractive are more intelligent, and are more likely to progress further in school. They also consider these students to be more popular.[337] Voters choose political candidates who are more attractive over those who are less attractive.[338] Men and women use physical attractiveness as a measure of how "good" another person is.[339] In 1946, Soloman Asch coined the Implicit Personality Theory, meaning that the presence of one trait tends to imply the existence of other traits. This is also known as the halo effect. Research suggests that those who are physically attractive are thought to have more socially desirable personalities and lead better lives in general.[11] This is also known as the "what-is-beautiful-is-good effect" or physical attractiveness stereotype. Discrimination against or prejudice towards others based on their appearance is sometimes referred to as lookism (prejudice or discrimination based on physical appearance and especially physical appearance believed to fall short of societal notions of beauty).[340] Concern for improving physical attractiveness has led many persons to consider alternatives such as cosmetic surgery. It has led scientists working with related disciplines such as computer imaging and mathematics to conduct research to suggest ways to surgically alter the distances between facial features in order to make a face conform more closely to the "agreed-upon standards of attractiveness" of an ideal face by using algorithms to suggest an alternative which still resembles the current face.[28] One research study found that cosmetic surgery as a way to "boost earnings" was "not profitable in a monetary sense."[179] Some research shows that physical attractiveness has a marginal effect on happiness.[347] The golden ratio, also known as the golden proportion, was considered the perfect measurement of harmony, beauty and proportion in Ancient Greece. Researchers Mohammad Khursheed Alam, Nor Farid Mohd Noor, Rehana Basri, Tan Fo Yew and Tay Hui Wen conducted a study to test if the golden ratio was a contributor to perceptions of facial attractiveness in various ethnic groups. A total of 286 people aged 18 to 25 participated in the survey, including 100 Malay (50 male, 50 female), 100 Malaysian Chinese (50 male, 50 female), and 86 Malaysian Indian (36 male, 50 female). This study excluded subjects of mixed race, those with craniofacial deformities, and those who had previously received orthodontic treatment or had face surgery. The results showed that the golden ratio had no significant association with physical attractiveness.[348][349] Some argue that body type preference is a mark of culture and regional beauty standards, and that there is no definitive "ideal body" for women, because it constantly shifts.[350][351][352] Some authors argue that body types have never been universal and that most evolutionary psychology studies on the "ideal female body" shape have been questioned or disproven due to external factors such as Eurocentric bias, unreliable data and idealized western gender roles.[353][354][355][356] On the internet, communities can create their own niche beauty standards that differ from the cultural norm.[357][358][359] It has been argued that the "perfect body" is a matter of personal preference and exposure to regional media.[360][361] ^However, one expert suggested that her "almost matronly representation" was meant to convey an "impressive appearance" rather than "ideal female beauty".[4] ^The "sitting body ratio" (SBR) is also quoted, where the trunk is measured with subject sitting on a flat table, and the leg-length determined by subtraction from standing height. This is almost the same as the perineum-to-floor distance but without the need to touch an intimate area. ^CBS News Staff (August 5, 2011). "Venus". CBS News. Retrieved August 5, 2011. The classical vision of beauty exemplified in Greek art, such as the 2nd century B.C. Venus de Milo (a.k.a. Aphrodite of Milos), was an ideal carried through millennia, laying the basis for much of Western art's depictions of the human form. ^ abBriscoe J (January 17, 2004). "Haven't I seen you somewhere before?". The Guardian. London. Retrieved July 15, 2011. Evolutionary psychologists claim there is an underlying standard script for beauty – a foundation for what we find appealing that transcends culture and ethnicity. There are various absolutes. For instance, to judge someone beautiful, the eye requires symmetry ^Dammann G (August 20, 2008). "Rules of attraction". The Guardian. London. Retrieved July 15, 2011. scientists from Brunel University have revealed that physical attraction is all down to bodily symmetry ^ abcKershaw S (October 8, 2008). "The Sum of Your Facial Parts". The New York Times. Retrieved July 15, 2011. Scientists ... trained a computer to determine, for each individual face, the most attractive set of distances and then choose the ideal closest to the original face. ... ^ abBerri DJ (September 16, 2008). "Do Pretty-Boy Quarterbacks Make More Money?". The New York Times. Retrieved July 15, 2011. Research, though, has indicated that what we think of as facial attractiveness is really just facial symmetry ^ abMurphy C (December 4, 2003). "In the eye of the beholder?". BBC News. Retrieved July 15, 2011. Art historians, anthropologists and human psychologists in general agree that it is the symmetry of a face, its perfect proportion, or indeed its averageness – where no feature stands out – that has consistently down the ages been deemed attractive. ... ^ abMcKeen S (February 10, 2006). "A beauty fix plumps up psyche and overall health". The Edmonton Journal. Archived from the original on November 10, 2012. Retrieved July 15, 2011. Evolution taught us to lust after symmetry – a nicely balanced body and face – because asymmetry signals past illness or injury. We therefore define beauty quite elegantly, right down to the most ideal ratio of hips to breasts and upper lip to lower lip. Singh says one study showed that people were able to gauge beauty at a subliminal level, when shown pictures for a mere one-hundredth of a second. Another study showed babies prefer pretty faces. ^Radford T (August 17, 2005). "How women dream of symmetrical men". The Guardian. London. Retrieved January 19, 2010. The research once again confirms a hypothesis that beauty is not merely in the eye of the beholder: it is an indicator of genetic fitness. From a choice of computer-generated faces, volunteers routinely choose the most symmetrical as the most attractive. Physical symmetry is interpreted as a sign of good inheritance. And therefore, the theory goes, women in a position to conceive would be more attracted to someone more likely to engender the healthiest offspring. ^Tybur & Gangestad 2011: "Indeed, at the current time, little direct evidence addresses whether skin tone or colour reflects current infection levels or infectability. More research is clearly needed.", ^Spielmann MH (1889). The Magazine of Art. London, Paris, New York, Melbourne: Cassell and Company Limited. ^Polovick 2017, p. 14: "The researchers discovered that their findings did not support Van den Berghe and Frost’s hypothesis that men were more attracted to lighter-skinned women, especially as linked to a sign of fertility, because their data showed a preference for women with darker skin (measured by color parameters that indicated a skin value based on blue and green in comparison to red components)." ^Polovick 2017, p. 12-13: "They chose to use tanned women as their research model because women have higher rates of tanning than men (Robinson et al. 1997b), and therefore are more likely to utilize tanned skin as an attractive trait. Their hypothesis was that both women and men would find a tanned female to be more physically and interpersonally attractive, healthier, taller, and thinner than a less tanned female. Only the men’s responses were statistically significant, demonstrating an overall preference for the dark-tanned female over then medium-tanned. Banerjee, Campo, and Greene found that their results contradict previous research that has shown a preference for medium tanned skin over dark-tanned skin (Broadstock et al. 1992). They also found that the men viewed the darker-tanned women as thinner" ... "They reason that women might tan more often than men because they believe men that find them more attractive that way; which, these perceptions of women by men were proven most likely accurate with their study." ^Bulmer, Martin; Solomos, John (October 2, 2017). Race, Migration and Identity. Routledge. p. 229. ISBN978-1-317-51969-0. "For example, in a recent study examining Latina female college students who identified as white, pale skin was viewed as unattractive compared to 'tan' skin (Stephens and Fernandez, 2012). Furthermore, having the ideal, tan skin colour was associated with being more desirable in peer and dating contexts; more sexually appealing to men ... For example, in a study of African American male and female college students, Coard, Breland and Raskin found that participants preferred a medium skin tone over a lighter or darker skin tone." ^ abcdJayson S (March 31, 2011). "Study: Beautiful people cash in on their looks". USA Today. Archived from the original on August 12, 2011. Retrieved July 15, 2011. Numerous studies, including his earlier research, have concluded that beauty helps the budget by providing greater wealth in several ways: Better-looking people generally earn more money and marry those who are better-looking and higher-earning, he says. ^Cunningham MR 1995, p. 267"Asian, Hispanic, and White participants were similar in giving higher ratings to targets with the neonate features of large eyes, greater distance between the eyes, and a smaller nose area (see Table 2). Women with the maturity qualities of higher cheek-bones and narrower faces and low levels of the male maturity cues of large chins and thick eyebrows were judged more positively." harvnb error: no target: CITEREFCunningham_MR1995 (help) ^Cunningham MR 1995, p. 267See table 1, Study 1. "All groups of judges made more positive ratings of the Asian and Hispanic targets compared with the Black and White targets. Further analyses indicated that the Asian and Hispanic targets happened to possess significantly larger eye height, eye width, nose width, eyebrow height, smile width, and upper lip width than the White and Black women. Because the targets were chosen for their availability rather than randomly selected from their populations, and the absolute number of targets in each group was small, it would be incorrect to conclude that any ethnic group was more attractive than any other." harvnb error: no target: CITEREFCunningham_MR1995 (help) ^Cunningham MR 1995, p. 271"The four-item measure of exposure to Western culture was not reliably associated with giving higher ratings to Whites (r = . 19, n s). The relation of rating Whites to frequency of viewing Western television, for example, was quite low(r=.01)." harvnb error: no target: CITEREFCunningham_MR1995 (help) ^From Cunningham (1986) Research with Western subjects disclosed significant consistency in evaluating attractiveness (Hatfield & Sprecher, 1986; Iliife, 1960). The females judged to be most attractive may have such similar facial features that they were hard to distinguish one from another (Light, Hollander, & Kayra-Stuart, 1981). Cross-cultural investigations on the judgment of facial attractiveness tended to highlight societal differences, but rough agreements in facial aesthetic preferences were shown by Asian-American and white females (Wagatsuma & Kleinke, 1979), Chinese, Indian, and English females judging Greek males (Thakerar & Iwawaki, 1979), South African and American males and females (Morse, Gruzen, & Reis, 1976), and blacks and whites judging males and females from both races (Cross & Cross, 1971). ^Tierney J (January 18, 2007). "The Waif From Ipanema". The New York Times. Archived from the original on January 21, 2007. Retrieved November 6, 2009. women's aesthetic judgments are so influenced by other women. Men prefer the wider hips, and most likely could [sic] care less about high heels and handbags. Yet for many women all these things are essential to marking their beauty status with other women (unpublished OpEd) ^Hrdy SB (2000). Mother nature: maternal instincts and how they shape the human species (1st ed.). New York: Ballantine. ISBN978-0-345-40893-8. ^ abTrafford A, Cherlin A (March 6, 2001). "Second Opinion: Men's Health & Marriage". Washington Post. Retrieved November 6, 2009. The major reason for the imbalance between men and women in the later decades of life is because men tend to marry younger women as they get older. ^Little, Anthony C.; Jones, Benedict C.; DeBruine, Lisa M. (June 12, 2011). "Facial attractiveness: evolutionary based research". Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. The Royal Society. 366 (1571): 1638–1659. doi:10.1098/rstb.2010.0404. ISSN0962-8436. PMC3130383. PMID21536551. Male and female 'siblings' of both male and female participants were manufactured using computer-graphic methods detailed in DeBruine et al. [163]. Participants judged self-resemblance to be more attractive in the context of own-sex faces than in the context of opposite-sex faces. However, there was no such opposite-sex bias when the same faces were judged for averageness. This own-sex bias in preferences for self-resemblance indicates that, while self-resemblance is attractive in an exclusively prosocial (i.e. nonsexual) context, it is less attractive in a potential mating context. Stronger attraction to cues of kinship in own-sex faces than in opposite-sex faces is likely to promote prosocial behaviour towards own-sex kin, while minimizing occurrences of inbreeding with opposite-sex kin. ^Goleman D (December 8, 1992). "A Rising Cost Of Modernity: Depression". The New York Times. Retrieved November 6, 2009. Competing explanations range from a loss of beliefs in God or an afterlife that can buffer people against life's setbacks, to the stresses of industrialization, to the distress created in women by the spread of unattainable ideals of female beauty, to exposure to toxic substances.

] One research study found that cosmetic surgery as a way to "boost earnings" was "not profitable in a monetary sense."[179] Some research shows that physical attractiveness has a marginal effect on happiness.[347] The golden ratio, also known as the golden proportion, was considered the perfect measurement of harmony, beauty and proportion in Ancient Greece. Researchers Mohammad Khursheed Alam, Nor Farid Mohd Noor, Rehana Basri, Tan Fo Yew and Tay Hui Wen conducted a study to test if the golden ratio was a contributor to perceptions of facial attractiveness in various ethnic groups. A total of 286 people aged 18 to 25 participated in the survey, including 100 Malay (50 male, 50 female), 100 Malaysian Chinese (50 male, 50 female), and 86 Malaysian Indian (36 male, 50 female). This study excluded subjects of mixed race, those with craniofacial deformities, and those who had previously received orthodontic treatment or had face surgery. The results showed that the golden ratio had no significant association with physical attractiveness.[348][349] Some argue that body type preference is a mark of culture and regional beauty standards, and that there is no definitive "ideal body" for women, because it constantly shifts.[350][351][352] Some authors argue that body types have never been universal and that most evolutionary psychology studies on the "ideal female body" shape have been questioned or disproven due to external factors such as Eurocentric bias, unreliable data and idealized western gender roles.[353][354][355][356] On the internet, communities can create their own niche beauty standards that differ from the cultural norm.[357][358][359]

no

Biomathematics

Are human facial features based on the Golden ratio?

yes_statement

"human" "facial" "features" are "based" on the golden "ratio".. the golden "ratio" influences "human" "facial" "features".

https://www.goldennumber.net/face/

The Human Face and the Golden Ratio - The Golden Ratio: Phi, 1.618

The Human Face and the Golden Ratio The human face is based on Phi and Golden Ratio proportions. The human face abounds with examples of the Golden Ratio, also known as the Golden Section or Divine Proportion. We’ll use a succession of golden ratios to create a golden ruler to understand design in the face: The head forms a golden rectangle with the eyes at its midpoint. The mouth and nose are each placed at golden sections of the distance between the eyes and the bottom of the chin. The beauty unfolds as you look further. Even when viewed from the side, the human head illustrates the Divine Proportion.The first golden section (blue) from the front of the head defines the position of the ear opening. The successive golden sections define the neck (yellow), the back of the eye (green) and the front of the eye and back of the nose and mouth (magenta). The dimensions of the face from top to bottom also exhibit the Divine Proportion, in the positions of the eye brow (blue), nose (yellow) and mouth (green and magenta). Human beauty is based on the Divine Proportion See the photo below which illustrates the following golden ratio proportions in the human face: The golden ratio face calculator grid: PhiMatrix provides transparent grids that can be applied to any image in any other software. In the golden ratio face grid shown above, it uses phi, or golden ratio proportions to identify the key dimensions of the human face. It has a free two week trial and is available for Windows and Mac. Note that the PhiMatrix golden ratio circles grid can be used to identify golden ratio proportions in the human eye: Even the dimensions of our teeth are based on phi The front two incisor teeth form a golden rectangle, with a phi ratio in the heighth to the width.The ratio of the width of the first tooth to the second tooth from the center is also phi.The ratio of the width of the smile to the third tooth from the center is phi as well.Visit the site of Dr. Eddy Levin for more on the Golden Section and Dentistry. Variations and other factors in beauty Even with a perfectly proportioned face though, there are endless variations in coloring and the shapes within this fundamental facial structure found in the Marquardt Beauty Mask. Variations in each facial feature (eyes, eyebrows, lips, nose, etc.) give rise to the distinctive appearance of each race and provide for endless variations in beauty that are as unique as each individual. The human face also communicates an incredible array of emotions which are an integral element of one’s total beauty. The human face creates more phi elements in its appearance when we smile. You’ll be perceived as more beautiful with a warm smile than with a cold-hearted look of anger, arrogance or contempt. Interestingly, symmetry in the face does not necessarily equate to beauty. Many, if not most, faces that are perceived as beautiful are usually not even close to being perfect in symmetry of the left and right sides. Perfect symmetry tends to result in a face that appears unnatural, animated or robot-like. Other factors influence perceptions of beauty as well, including skin tone, health and age. More importantly, the application of the golden ratio to beauty refers only to physical beauty, and that is only one element of what defines true beauty in humans. The saying “beauty is only skin deep” reflects this. Physical beauty is fleeting and passes with time. Other qualities of the mind and soul are the substance of true beauty. These include love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, gentleness and self-control, to quote from the Bible in Galatians 5:22-23. Our inner beauty is reflected in many ways, through our creative works, expressions of thought, compassion, friendship and acts of service for others. So while Hollywood and fashion magazines may trumpet physical beauty, true beauty in the human experience and the things that lead us to love and be loved are found in a beauty that runs much deeper, and that ultimately impacts physical beauty as well. That’s subject to debate. A naturalistic viewpoint would say that it’s simply the most efficient way for growth to occur. A theistic viewpoint would say that it’s the result of God’s design for beauty and harmony throughout creation. It does seem though that the golden ratio appears in some aspects of the human form where there is no purpose other than for its beauty, and our perception of it. Would like to know, if there is even an psychological/psychosocial and brain-activity corellation … would be quite interesting to hawe an entire city and its life day-circle based on this an its effects on the human population. I think that is an extremely interesting idea. However, I have an additional idea: If the golden ratio manifesting itself in virtually every physcial aspect of our bodies is the result of God’s design, then we can also look at God’s temporal ratio for our new city to run on as well. As mentioned by Dr. Roger Barrier (site linked below), God has woven a 6:1 ratio into our schedule–6 days of work, one day of rest. So if we work best if we go through time 6 days on, 1 day off, what if everything was scheduled that way? 60 minutes of work, 10 minutes off, 6 times per work day (with the seventh block of 60 minutes being off and the end of the work day). Do that six days per week, with the seventh day off, and every seventh week being a vacation period. It’s a bit less work (as far as time spent per week and year) than we do now, but it might just make productivity explode, since it is the natural rhythm of our lives. Combine that with every structure being based on the golden ratio, and you might have the most beautiful city imaginable inhabited by the most productive and happy people possible. That would be a perfect world, and you have a very interesting idea. However, I always thought: if there was a perfect world, what would happen? Would humans need a God and heaven if they already had everything here on earth? What would God do? Would he be happy that we humans were obeying his commands and living full lives, and then end the world in a peaceful way (such as merging the heavens and the earth together)? Of course, this will never happen, it is simply too impossible to believe that EVERYONE of the 7 billion people would be good, but it’s still achievable, so I always wonder…just food for thought in a very irrelevant place 🙂 Some more food for thought: Our “need” for God does not determine whether or not He exists, any more than your need for me determines whether I exist. God’s existence is either true or not true, and not a result of whether someone thinks they need Him or doesn’t think they need Him. Even if you think He doesn’t exist and you don’t need Him, you still need a very good explanation for how you got here that can never be answered by science. Why? For the simple reason that it’s impossible to observe the evidence or recreate the circumstances. the scientific reason is the quantum of life and death as the body grows in its life and adapts to their surroundings this mean that the brain in our big heads are smart enough remake the dimensions on to our bodies. JA Actually, its the genes in our trillions of little cells that remake the dimensions of our bodies. Our brain is just one of the many miraculous things they create. The genes themselves have no intelligence. They contain the code for how all life is to be created and function. Makes all our computers, cell phones and apps look like child’s play by comparison. And yet the question remains, “Why?” Other animals manage to procreate and create healthy offspring without any awareness at all of beauty or desire for it. Do you think that fish, birds, rats or even monkeys are drawn to select a mate because their thoughts linger on an aesthetic concept of that mate’s innate beauty? Do they have an understanding and awareness of beauty that invokes similar feelings of awe, enjoyment, attraction and inspiration when looking at a starry night or the beautiful array of colors in a sunset? No, there’s something much deeper in the human experience of life that appreciates beauty for its own sake, and that is completely unnecessary from an evolutionary perspective for a species to procreate and sustain itself. We might actually very well follow the same reasoning as animals when choosing a mate. I remember some social psychological research when attending university which indicated that what we perceive as beauty is in fact a proxy for health. In the study in question students were asked to attribute from a list of given traits to images of different people; like this person is rich, powerful, nice, healthy, mean, beautiful and so on. In the results were there no correlations between the groups of chosen traits, except two: health and beauty. I.e. the study’s participants considered the people they thought to be healthy also as beautiful and vice versa, indicating both things are kind of the same. Beauty would therefore be just a human specific cultural concept for health, which in turn means healthy offspring in a darwinist sense. Cut an apple in half through the middle horizontally and you see five seeds placed in a phi ration – the reason is that we evolved under the 8;5 orbit of the planet Venus. Venus forms five ‘petals’ as it orbits the Sun every eight years, 8 ÷ 5 = 1.6 of ‘phi’! All relationships are not necessarily causal relationships, so we can’t really conclude the ratio of the orbits of Earth and Venus “caused” the genetic code of living organisms to happen in a certain way. It is possible, however, that a higher guiding principle caused both. bc human being is the ultimate experiment moratal also immortal ,its finite since it have birth once born living forever,its a devination ratio a golden mean found every where from atom to galaxy to universe ,yet human body is a sample a derivative of universe Here’s an article on the golden mean as clock cycle of brain waves The abstract says the principle of information coding by the brain seems to be based on the golden ratio. Psychologists have claimed memory span to be the missing link between psychometric intelligence and cognition. By applying Bose–Einstein-statistics to learning experiments, a fit was foundn by Pascual-Leone correlating predicted and tested span. Multiplying span by mental speed (bits processed per unit time) and using the entropy formula for bosons, we obtain the same result. If we apply span as the quantum number n of a harmonic oscillator, we obtain this result from the EEG. The metric of brain waves can always be understood as a superposition of n harmonics times 2Φ, where half of the fundamental is the golden mean Φ (=1.618) as the point of resonance. Such wave packets scaled in powers of the golden mean have to be understood as numbers with directions, where bifurcations occur at the edge of chaos, i.e. 2Φ=3+φ3. Too me it replicates our progression through life.. As our Experiences build, our conclusions of those experiences will also build. One experience plus another experience will bring us to a conclusion/understanding (2) and life goes on. what i dont understand is the images of the front portrait and the apparent sizes of teeth – these images are taken face on, the teeth are in a curve and should be measured as such, individually not as a 2d face image – i just get the feeling that some images are made to fit the “golden rule”. The measurement from the front though is the view that is actually seen when viewed by another person. The golden ratios from that perspective are the basis for the studies of Dr. Eddy Levin in asthetics in cosmetic dentistry which are taught at numerous dental schools. Not everyone’s teeth conform to the golden ratio in this way, but teeth that do are in harmony with the idealized dimensions of overall facial proportions that are perceived by most people as more beautiful. Yes, the teeth are in a curve, but you cannot see all the way around someone all at once. If you look at them straight-on, you see only portions of some teeth as they recede behind the front incisors and each other, consecutively. Some people might alter images and camera angles in order to fit elements to the golden ratio, but Mr. Meisner’s articles, insofar as I have read them, seem to be trustworthy representations of actual cases. the picture of the girl with the freckle next to her nose seems to have a different ratio on her eyes than the woman with the towel on her head. The girl with the freckle has eyelid exposure equal to 0.618 x her eyeball exposure. The woman with the towel on her head on the other hand has the distance between her eye and eyebrow 0.618 x her eyeball exposure. Also how do the circles on the picture of the blue eye relate to the golden ratio? The photos are showing two different aspects of the golden ratio. The freckle woman is showing the eyelid vs visible eye. The towel woman is showing the visible eye vs. eyebrow, and the resolution of that photo was not sharp enough to compare the eyelid vs. visible eye. When the golden ratio appears, its properties make for golden ratios within golden ratios. Each circle has a diameter that is based on the golden ratio of the larger circle around it. The concentric circles define the width of the iris. The circles that are adjacent to the outer circle define the shape of visible part the eye. “Soon will We show them our Signs in the (furthest) regions (of the earth), and in their own souls, until it becomes manifest to them that this is the Truth. Is it not enough that thy Lord doth witness all things?” 41:53 I suppose there are several ways. I used to do this manually, doing on screen measurements in pixels and then using a calculator to determine the golden ratios for the lengths of the other lines. You could also create a template. I eventually wrote my software app PhiMatrix, which turned thirty to forty minutes of work into mere seconds. You can try it for free for two weeks. Daniel Craig was, is, and always will be the BEST JAMES BOND with his hella gorgeous SCOTTISH face which is a credit to his parents and ancestors! What insanity we have created by telling people, by this Phi Chart, you don’t measure up to a certain standard of beauty due to your parentage, LMAOF!!!!! Dr. Silva’s article doesn’t say that Daniel Craig isn’t even strikingly attractive. He just says that he’s not as attractive as the other Bonds. Hollywood is not in the business of putting unattractive men in the role of James Bond, and there is correlation between attractiveness and golden ratios in facial proportions. Yes. Please see the image at the bottom of the page and the reference to the work of Dr. Eddy Levin at http://www.goldenmeangauge.co.uk/. He developed tools for the application of the golden ratio in dentistry. Trackbacks […] face.’According to Dr Silva, his physical face dimensions are 92.15% ‘accurate’ to the Greek Golden Ratio of Beauty Phi.Golden Ratio is a mathematical ratio of 1.618:1 and manifests in some naturally occurring […]

See the photo below which illustrates the following golden ratio proportions in the human face: The golden ratio face calculator grid: PhiMatrix provides transparent grids that can be applied to any image in any other software. In the golden ratio face grid shown above, it uses phi, or golden ratio proportions to identify the key dimensions of the human face. It has a free two week trial and is available for Windows and Mac. Note that the PhiMatrix golden ratio circles grid can be used to identify golden ratio proportions in the human eye: Even the dimensions of our teeth are based on phi The front two incisor teeth form a golden rectangle, with a phi ratio in the heighth to the width. The ratio of the width of the first tooth to the second tooth from the center is also phi. The ratio of the width of the smile to the third tooth from the center is phi as well. Visit the site of Dr. Eddy Levin for more on the Golden Section and Dentistry. Variations and other factors in beauty Even with a perfectly proportioned face though, there are endless variations in coloring and the shapes within this fundamental facial structure found in the Marquardt Beauty Mask. Variations in each facial feature (eyes, eyebrows, lips, nose, etc.) give rise to the distinctive appearance of each race and provide for endless variations in beauty that are as unique as each individual. The human face also communicates an incredible array of emotions which are an integral element of one’s total beauty. The human face creates more phi elements in its appearance when we smile. You’ll be perceived as more beautiful with a warm smile than with a cold-hearted look of anger, arrogance or contempt. Interestingly, symmetry in the face does not necessarily equate to beauty. Many, if not most, faces that are perceived as beautiful are usually not even close to being perfect in symmetry of the left and right sides. Perfect symmetry tends to result in a face that appears unnatural, animated or robot-like. Other factors influence perceptions of beauty as well, including skin tone, health and age. More importantly, the application of the golden ratio to beauty refers only to physical beauty, and that is only one element of what defines true beauty in humans.

yes

Biomathematics

Are human facial features based on the Golden ratio?

yes_statement

"human" "facial" "features" are "based" on the golden "ratio".. the golden "ratio" influences "human" "facial" "features".

https://www.hindawi.com/journals/cin/2021/4423407/

Machine Learning-Based Facial Beauty Prediction and Analysis of ...

Abstract The beauty industry has seen rapid growth in multiple countries and due to its applications in entertainment, the analysis and assessment of facial attractiveness have received attention from scientists, physicians, and artists because of digital media, plastic surgery, and cosmetics. An analysis of techniques is used in the assessment of facial beauty that considers facial ratios and facial qualities as elements to predict facial beauty. Here, the facial landmarks are extracted to calculate facial ratios according to Golden Ratios and Symmetry Ratios, and an ablation study is performed to find the best performing feature set from extracted ratios. Subsequently, Gray Level Covariance Matrix (GLCM), Hu’s Moments, and Color Histograms in the HSV space are extracted as texture, shape, and color features, respectively. Another ablation study is performed to find out which feature performs the best when concatenated with the facial landmarks. Experimental results show that the concatenation of primary facial characteristics with facial landmarks improved the prediction score of facial beauty. Four models are trained, K-Nearest Neighbors (KNN), Linear Regression (LR), Random Forest (RF), and Artificial Neural Network (ANN) on a dataset of 5500 frontal facial images, and amongst them, KNN performs the best for the concatenated features achieving a Pearson’s Correlation Coefficient of 0.7836 and a Mean Squared Error of 0.0963. Our analysis also provides us with insights into how different machine learning models can understand the concept of facial beauty. 1. Introduction Facial beauty has long been a topic of intellectual discussion and its various attributes have been researched upon and studied. In medieval times, renaissance painters used unique ratios named “The Golden Ratios” to represent through paintings what the perfectly shaped human face would look like [1]. The Golden Ratios are ratios based on the value of 1.6, which was considered by the Greeks to be a perfect number. Many examples exist in architecture, too, from the Greek Empire, where the golden ratio was used in buildings and pantheons. This golden ratio was applied to facial beauty, where different facial ratios were calculated and compared against the value of 1.6. Although facial attractiveness can be debated on its objectivity or subjectivity, recent empirical results support the idea that attractiveness is objective and quantifiable, which is achieved by measuring cross-cultural differences [2], brain activity [3], and cognitive psychology [4]. Studies from medicine and psychology have also concluded that aesthetic features like facial averageness [5] and symmetry [6] are important when assessing attractiveness. Facial skin colors and texture also significantly contribute towards facial attractiveness [7, 8] and have been included in assessments of facial attractiveness [9, 10]. Moreover, research has shown that attractive faces follow defined ratios of facial proportions, such as neoclassical canons [11] and the golden ratio [12], which is considered the golden standard for beautiful faces since ancient times by artists, physicians, and cosmetic surgeons [13]. In machine learning, several methods have been proposed to assess facial attractiveness by using these facial features. However, due to less efficient feature extraction methods and the inability to combine various features together, this method has not been worked upon, even though this approach may close the gap between human and machine performance. Hence, there is a need for an efficient technique of facial beauty assessment from a machine’s perspective. In this paper, a technique for assessing facial beauty based on facial proportion factors is developed, which is widely believed to be the gold standard for facial beauty. Research conducted in Psychology and Biology settles the problem by making a hypothesis of which facial features contribute to attractiveness. Various features like sexual dimorphism, averageness, and symmetry influence the perception of beauty. Jones and Jaeger [10] showed that women appear more attractive based on these three features. Thornhill and Gangestad [14] proved that there is a significant correlation between average faces and facial beauty, but the most attractive faces are not average. Facial symmetry, although, does increase with facial averageness, as stated in Grammer and Thornhill [15], which also supports the same idea from evolutionary biology studies. Moreover, sexual dimorphism is shown to play a significant role in assessing a person’s facial beauty, as stated by Perrett et al. [16]. Sexual dimorphism is the presence of secondary sexual characteristics which appear during beauty. These secondary characteristics make people appear more masculine or feminine. Many studies provide evidence that masculinity and femininity provide more depth to a person’s beauty than symmetry [10, 17, 18]. Intrinsic features of the face, such as facial texture and skin color, can also affect the perception of beauty. Many researchers have proposed a connection between facial beauty and healthy skin, which consequently proves that the health of facial skin might be a surface-level feature that influences beauty assessments. Fink et al. [7] assessed facial beauty through the use of human ratings from facial textures and skin color. Fink et al. [19] show that the health of facial skin is positively correlated with the attractiveness index of the face. Also, since facial attractiveness is affected by various factors, facial shape features and appearance have also been considered for facial beauty assessments. Kagian et al. [9] analyzed facial beauty depending on the shape and facial geometry. Rhazi et al. [20] proposed a method to predict facial beauty based on golden ratios calculated from the extracted feature corners. Schmid et al. [21] have proposed a model to calculate facial beauty based on golden ratios, symmetry, and neoclassical canons. The neoclassical canons are ratios used by medieval painters in their paintings to represent their understanding of human beauty. Dornaika et al. [22] developed a semisupervised face beauty prediction technique using a graph-based method with a public dataset. Though semisupervised techniques require fewer training images, their model accuracy entirely depends on the graph density, which affects the prediction results. Lin et al. [23] used Attribute aware CNN to predict the facial beauty, with SCUT-FPB5500 dataset and trained with powerful GPU support. Xiao et al. [24] developed Beauty3DFaceNet, which is comprised a deep CNN to predict the attractiveness of 3D faces. They collected the 3D point cloud and facial texture of the image to train their network which will output attractiveness score. Although the approach is promising, they are limited by the data available to collect the 3D point cloud and also the training requires extensive computing. Wei et al. [25] assessed facial symmetry and attractiveness based on SVM and linear regression using a predefined dataset. Also, they have developed a mobile app based on their concluded features which are useful for plastic surgeons to plan reconstructive facial surgeries. Tong et al. [26] investigated facial attractiveness using facial putative ratios and DNN by training with 4512 face images. The DNN model was trained using NVIDIA Tesla K40 GPU. Recent research takes advantage of CNN and DNN to predict facial attractiveness, which is computationally expensive and requires a large number of training and testing datasets. Since facial beauty prediction mainly depends on how effectively the facial features are analyzed, it is required to determine which features influence the most. Thus, by determining the effective features, facial beauty prediction could be achieved with less computationally expensive state-of-the-art machine learning techniques. This paper aimed to predict the facial beauty of frontal images using machine learning techniques and traditional feature extraction methods. The proposed technique improves the performance of machine learning models on facial images through the fusion of facial landmarks and Texture, Color, and Shape Features. Nineteen facial ratios based on Golden Ratios and Symmetry are used in this paper. These facial ratios are fed as input to four regression-based machine learning models (Linear Regression, Random Forest, K-Nearest Neighbors, and an Artificial Neural Network) and trained to predict the beauty of the facial image. An Ablation Study is performed on the nineteen ratios to find out the best performing combination of ratios called the “Feature Set.” The Feature Set is concatenated with texture, color, and shape features (TCS Features). Also, another ablation study is performed to check the performance of each model in accurately predicting facial beauty. The ablation study is used to find out which of the TCS Features contributes to the prediction and how the model performance varies among each combination. The rest of the paper is organized as follows: At first, the steps to predict the facial beauty (extraction of the features from the dataset) are provided. Then, the discussion of various models used to predict facial beauty has been provided. Finally, the results of the implementation of various models and the best performing model are discussed. 2. Materials and Methods The following steps were used to predict the facial beauty score (Figure 1 represents the block diagram of the entire process):(i)Extraction of facial landmarks, texture, color, and shape (TCS) features.(ii)Extraction of best performing facial landmark feature set.(iii)Ablation study of TCS Features. Figure 1 Block diagram of the analysis performed. 2.1. Dataset Considered The dataset used in this study is SCUT-FBP5500, a dataset that consists of 5500 images of Asian and Caucasian males and females [27], where the dimension of each image is 350350 pixels. The dataset contains 5500 frontal, unoccluded faces aged from 15 to 60 with a neutral expression. It can be divided into four subsets with different races and genders, including 2000 Asian females, 2000 Asian males, 750 Caucasian females, and 750 Caucasian males. All the images are labeled with beauty scores ranging from 1–5 by a total of 60 volunteers aged from 18–27 (average 21.6), where the beauty score 5 means most attractive and a score of 1 or less means least attractive. The metrics used in this study to measure performance are Pearson’s Correlation Coefficient (PC), Mean Absolute Error (MAE), Mean Squared Error (MSE), and R2 Score. All the models are trained on the same dataset using Python 3.7 software. 2.1.1. Facial Landmark Localization Facial ratios are calculated by measuring the distance between certain points on the face image. These points are called Facial landmarks, which are coordinates on the face image. The SCUT-FBP dataset contains predefined facial landmarks for all the 5500 images. Each image had a total of 86 landmarks that covered the most important points in the face. These facial landmarks were used to calculate the nineteen facial ratios used in this analysis. Figure 2 illustrates the facial landmarks (Figure 2(b)) for the input sample image (Figure 2(a)). 2.1.2. Facial Feature Set Extraction The facial beauty rating for all the 5500 images available with the dataset was used as a label for the nineteen ratios. These ratios are used as input to the model for the prediction of facial beauty. The basic premise of the feature set is that certain proportions of the face should follow defined ratios. Here, 14 golden ratios and five symmetry values have been used. A total of 19 values are referred to as the feature set (FS). To assess facial beauty based on facial proportion features, 19 ratios in the FS are analyzed. A detailed description of the various ratios in the FS is given in Tables 1 and 2. In Tables 1 and 2, refers to the Euclidean distance between landmarks and . The ratio values in the FS were different so normalization had to be performed on the ratios. Table 1 Description of facial ratios used. Table 2 Description of Symmetry ratios used. In the Golden Ratios, attractive faces should have a ratio of 1.618 and in Symmetry Ratios, attractive faces should have a ratio of 1. So, z-score normalization and linear scaling are used to normalize the ratio values into an interval of [0, 1]. The normalization formula is given by the following:where and denote the ith original and normalized score values, respectively, () and () denote the mean and standard deviation of the FS, and denote the lower bound (zero) and upper bound (1.618) of a target score range, and () and () denote the minimum and maximum values of a given score set, respectively. Figure 3 shows the score distribution for each category in the dataset, namely Asian Male/Female and Caucasian Male/Female. The X-axis represents the score and the Y-axis represents the number of images. Figure 3 Distribution of beauty scores in the dataset. 2.1.3. Secondary Feature Set Extraction From previous literature, it is obvious that only facial landmarks and facial ratios cannot be used to provide good results while predicting facial beauty. Facial landmarks can only provide limited information regarding facial beauty. Also, it is known that humans decide beauty based on other characteristics like face color, shape, texture, etc. AL Jones [28] analyzed the effect that facial color had on the perception of facial beauty. Their study also concluded that better facial health, i.e., clear skin, reduced abnormalities, etc., positively correlated to higher attractiveness. Face shape also corresponds to attractiveness [23, 29], as shown in Jones and Zhao et al. The studies show that a more narrow face shape with sharp features corresponds to higher beauty as compared to a round face. Facial textures are also shown to correlate to higher beauty standards, as shown in Tan et al., [30]. The combination of facial textures and color provides more information about facial beauty than facial landmarks. This study aims to use facial shape, textures, and colors to predict facial beauty and infer the performance and contribution of features towards the performance of the model. These features are called as Secondary Feature Set or (SFS) in this study, and the types of features extracted are as follows:(i)Texture Features GLCM Features (Correlation, Contrast, Energy, and Homogeneity)(ii)Shape Features Hu’s Seven Invariant Moments(iii)Color Features Color Histograms in HSV Color Space GLCM or Gray Level Covariance Matrix is also known as the Gray Level Spatial Dependence Matrix, which learns about the texture of an image by calculating the frequency of pixel pairs with certain values in a spatial relationship that occurs in an image. Various statistical measures are then extracted from this matrix which provides textural information of the image. GLCM features are extracted for this study as they provide good information regarding the spatial relationships in the image. The statistical descriptors and their description are provided in Table 3. Each statistic returns a single feature value for an image and the four features of Correlation, Contrast, Energy, and Homogeneity make up a feature vector that is concatenated with the best performing FS’s given in the facial feature set extraction section. Table 3 Statistical descriptors for GLCM. Hu’s Moments [31] or Hu’s invariant moments are a set of 7 numbers calculated using central moments that are invariant to image transformations. The first 6 moments have been proved to be invariant to translation, scale and rotation, and reflection. While the 7th moment’s sign changes for image reflection. The 7 moments are calculated by the below equations: To calculate the facial color of the image, it is required to think about how an average person views a face. The HSV color space is more intuitive to how people experience color than the RGB color space [32]. As hue (H) varies from 0 to 1.0, the corresponding colors vary from red, through yellow, green, cyan, blue, and magenta, back to red. As saturation (S) varies from 0 to 1.0, the corresponding colors (hues) vary from unsaturated (shades of gray) to fully saturated (no white component). As value (V), or brightness, varies from 0 to 1.0, the corresponding colors become increasingly brighter. The sample image (Figure 4(a)) in Hue plane (Figure 4(b)), saturation plane (Figure 4(c)), and value plane (Figure 4(d)) are shown in Figure 4. With RGB, the color will have values like (0.5, 0.5, 0.25), whereas for HSV, it will be (30°, √3/4, 0.5). HSV is best used when a user is selecting a color interactively. It is usually much easier for a user to get the desired color as compared to using RGB [33]. 2.1.4. Models Used for Prediction In this study, the FS is used as input to the models and the corresponding scores as the labels. Also, four well-known regression models, Linear Regression (LR), K-Nearest Neighbors (KNN), Random Forest (RF), and Artificial Neural Network (ANN), were used for prediction. A small description for each model is given below. 2.2. Linear Regression Linear Regression is a statistical technique that uses several explanatory variables to predict the outcome of a response variable. It sets up a relationship between input variables and target variables which is represented by the following equation:where is the number of observations, is the target variable, is the input variable, is the y-intercept, is the coefficient for each input variable, and is the error term. 2.2.1. Random Forest Random forest is a Supervised Learning algorithm that uses ensemble learning methods for classification and regression. Random forest is a bagging technique and not a boosting technique. The trees in random forests are run in parallel. There is no interaction between these trees while building the trees. It operates by constructing a multitude of decision trees at training time and outputting the class that is the mode of the classes (classification) or mean prediction (regression) of the individual trees. A random forest is a meta-estimator (i.e., it combines the result of multiple predictions) which aggregates many decision trees, with some helpful modifications:(i)The number of features that can be split at each node is limited to some hyperparameter. This ensures that the model does not rely too heavily on any individual feature and makes fair use of all potentially predictive features.(ii)Each tree draws a random sample from the original data set when generating its splits, adding a further element of randomness that prevents overfitting. The above modifications help prevent the trees from being too highly correlated. 2.3. K-Nearest Neighbor (K-NN) kNN falls is a lazy learning method, which means that there is no explicit training phase before classification. The Euclidean distance formula and probability formula of the kNN method are given in the following equations, respectively:where A is the particular class/set, unseen observation x and a similarity metric d and K is an arbitrary integer. A weighted average of the K-nearest neighbors were used, where the weight was decided by the Euclidean distance of the K closest training samples. The number of clusters is set to [12, 22]. 2.4. Artificial Neural Network In ANN regression, a multilayer perceptron (MLP) is applied which is composed of an input layer, hidden layers, and an output layer. Each layer has one or more neurons directionally linked with the neurons from the previous and next layers. A sigmoid function was applied as the activation function to compute the output of the hidden layer in each neuron. Artificial Neural Networks have been used to predict facial beauty with much success, as shown in [34]. 2.6. Experimental Setup The dataset was split into training data (80%) and testing data (20%). All the experiments were run on an Intel i3 Processor with 12 GB of RAM using Python programming language. Two ablation studies were performed. One was to find the best performing FS out of all the primary features containing facial landmarks. The other ablation study was done to find out the performance variations amongst the concatenated SFS. The experimental results, along with the corresponding graphs, are explained in the results and discussion section. 3. Results and Discussion In our study on facial beauty prediction, we used facial landmarks as a base feature set for extracting facial features. From the facial landmarks, we calculate 19 facial ratios that are used for predicting the beauty of the facial image (explained in Appendix A). It is observed that extracting and employing more features does not improve the performance of the proposed model. Further, these 19 facial ratios holistically describe the facial landmarks of the face, which indeed predict the symmetry and quantify the associated beauty [36, 37]. The analysis compared the performance of computer models against human ratings and examined the performance of each model. Table 5 shows the performance of each model concerning the correlation and error metrics. Table 5 Best Performing FS for each model. In Table 5, each model has a relatively high correlation with human ratings and low errors for each of their corresponding best performing FS. In Figure 5, the x-axis represents human scores on a scale of 0–5 and the y-axis represents the computer-predicted scores in the same range. KNN has the highest correlation values with the lowest error. ANN has a higher correlation than LR, but LR has comparatively lower error than ANN. Also, ANN is much more scattered than LR. The red line in the graphs shows the regression fit of the data. ANN is most similar to the ideal case. The second similar measure is LR, with the least predictive measures being KNN and RF. Therefore, while KNN and RF can correlate much more with the human values, ANN and LR are better models for fitting the data. (a) (b) (c) (d) Figure 5 Regression curves for the best performing FS of each model. (a) Regression Curve for LR. (b) Regression curve for KNN. (c) Regression curve for RF. (d) Regression curve for ANN. Even though Table 6 provides information about the best performing FS, Figure 6 shows us how each model learns from each feature in the FS and how each feature contributes to the learning process. The X-axis in Figure 6 represents the number of features used in the ablation study, and the Y-axis represents the Score for each metric. The X-axis starts from 4 because the metrics for features 3 and below were very poor, and hence it was decided not to be added in the graph as it would be negligible in comparing the performance of the models. It is trivial from Figure 6(b) when the number of features is less (for 5 and 6 in X-axis), the R2 is in a negative trend which indicates that the fit with regression curve is worse. Meanwhile, by increasing the number of features, the R2 values are improved significantly. Table 6 Ablation study of PC and R2 score for various models (a) (b) (c) (d) Figure 6 Ablation study of the metrics of FS for the various models. (a) Ablation Study of Correlation for LR, KNN, RF, and ANN. (b) Ablation studies of R2 Score for LR, KNN, RF, and ANN. (c) Ablation studies of MSE for LR, KNN, RF, and ANN. (d) Ablation studies of MAE for LR, KNN, RF, and ANN. The nineteen features in the FS are ratios from Symmetry and Golden Ratios. From previous studies, it is known that Golden Ratios perform better than Symmetry Ratios. This phenomenon is proved when looking at the above tables. The best performing FS is obtained from the initial removal of Symmetry Ratios and the metrics decrease once the Golden Ratios are removed. Next, the ablation studies for the SFS have been performed. Tables 6 and 7 show the ablation studies performed for each model. Table 7 Ablation study of MAE and MSE score for various models. It is observed from Tables 6 and 7, the fusion of Texture, Color, and Shape features as the SFS along with the ratio features improves the overall performance of the model. The highest correlation is achieved by KNN, followed by RF. The least correlation is obtained through LR and ANN. In every model, each feature contributes differently to the performance of the model. Since the KNN model has achieved the highest correlation values and lowest errors, it is considered as the ideal model for facial feature analysis, and the obtained results are given in Table 8 (images and scores of few best and moderate prediction results). Table 8 Results obtained from the study through concatenation of TCS Features with SFS. From the above-obtained results, it is clear that our technique has avoided overfitting in our study through the following ways:(i)The dataset used is from SCUT-FBP5500, which is a collection of 5500 frontal facial images. This dataset has been extensively used by many researchers, and there is no class imbalance, as shown from the histogram (Figure 3). The dataset has an equal number of images of each class in the training and testing set, and the target labels are normally distributed. The data used is enough, and since it is already balanced, no preprocessing or data augmentation was required.(ii)An Ablation study was conducted to find the best performing feature set and to find the optimal number of features which can be used to achieve the best performance. We avoided overfitting by removing features and limiting the maximum number of features to 19. 4. Conclusion In this study, different computer models are analyzed to predict facial beauty using facial features like golden ratios, texture, shape, and color through Machine Learning. First, the models are analyzed and the performance on facial ratios is derived from Golden Ratios and Symmetry. Nineteen facial ratios were selected to represent the Feature Set (FS) from which the best performing features were derived by ablation study on each feature. From the best performing FS for each model, Texture, Color, and Shape Features were extracted from the dataset. This feature vector from secondary features (SFS) is fed to each model through an ablation study to measure the performance of each feature and observed the variation on performance metrics of the model. Experimental results showed that the beauty score obtained from KNN achieved the best metrics, followed by RF, LR, and ANN. The fusion of TCS Features with the FS to form the SFS performs the best, with the highest correlation being 78%. Therefore, a fusion of multiple feature types rather than a single feature type provided better performance than using one feature type. Also, heterogeneity of the feature vector increased the performance as compared to a homogenous feature vector. In addition, our analysis observed that Golden Ratios provided better information than Symmetry Ratios which was consistent with previous literature. Our analysis has shown that human judgments regarding facial beauty are consistent with the facial ratios derived from painters, architects, etc. These ratios from Symmetry, Golden Ratios, Neoclassical canons, etc., correlate highly with human ratings. But, there does exist the element of variation, which exists as secondary features like sexual features, facial health, etc. Our analysis has shown that combining secondary features like facial health, texture, and shape with facial proportions allows a computer model to learn better and correlate much more with its human counterparts. Overall, analysis has been limited with the facial beauty prediction of Asian and Caucasian males and females. Our future work will involve an analysis of facial beauty for different types of people. Alongside, our analysis will use more powerful algorithms to extract deep features and to use the same fusion technique on those features to achieve an even higher correlation and lower error. Also, it is aimed to increase the size of the dataset and variation to allow for better generalization. Another work is aimed to make a modular system that can rate beauty in real-time to allow for various beauty evaluation applications. Appendix A The results from the Ablation study for each model to predict the facial beauty are shown as Tables and Figures that experimentally verify that 19 facial ratios are indeed present the best performance. As can be seen from Tables 9–Table 12 and Figures 7–Figure 10 , the performance of each model after 19 features does not improve in any significant manner. Due to this reason, model performance was calculated until 19 features. As mentioned in the study, the below 4 features were not considered as the performance was poor, which can be seen from negative performance metrics. Table 9 Performance of each model according to correlation for 11–25 features. Conflicts of Interest The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest regarding the publication of this paper. Acknowledgments The authors want to express their sincere thanks and gratitude to the Vellore Institute of Technology, Vellore, India, and Shantou University, Shantou, China, for their support and for the resources provided to carry out this research. This work is supported by the National Natural Science Foundation of China (grant no. 82071992); Basic and Applied Basic Research Foundation of Guangdong Province (grant no. 2020B1515120061); the Guangdong Province University Priority Field (Artificial Intelligence) Project (grant no. 2019KZDZX1013); National Key R&D Program of China (grant no. 2020YFC0122103); the Key Project of Guangdong Province Science and Technology Plan (grant no. 2015B020233018); and the Scientific Research Grant of Shantou University, China, (Grant No : NTF17016).

Regression (LR), Random Forest (RF), and Artificial Neural Network (ANN) on a dataset of 5500 frontal facial images, and amongst them, KNN performs the best for the concatenated features achieving a Pearson’s Correlation Coefficient of 0.7836 and a Mean Squared Error of 0.0963. Our analysis also provides us with insights into how different machine learning models can understand the concept of facial beauty. 1. Introduction Facial beauty has long been a topic of intellectual discussion and its various attributes have been researched upon and studied. In medieval times, renaissance painters used unique ratios named “The Golden Ratios” to represent through paintings what the perfectly shaped human face would look like [1]. The Golden Ratios are ratios based on the value of 1.6, which was considered by the Greeks to be a perfect number. Many examples exist in architecture, too, from the Greek Empire, where the golden ratio was used in buildings and pantheons. This golden ratio was applied to facial beauty, where different facial ratios were calculated and compared against the value of 1.6. Although facial attractiveness can be debated on its objectivity or subjectivity, recent empirical results support the idea that attractiveness is objective and quantifiable, which is achieved by measuring cross-cultural differences [2], brain activity [3], and cognitive psychology [4]. Studies from medicine and psychology have also concluded that aesthetic features like facial averageness [5] and symmetry [6] are important when assessing attractiveness. Facial skin colors and texture also significantly contribute towards facial attractiveness [7, 8] and have been included in assessments of facial attractiveness [9, 10]. Moreover, research has shown that attractive faces follow defined ratios of facial proportions, such as neoclassical canons [11] and the golden ratio [12], which is considered the golden standard for beautiful faces since ancient times by artists, physicians, and cosmetic surgeons [13]. In machine learning, several methods have been proposed to assess facial attractiveness by using these facial features.

yes

Biomathematics

Are human facial features based on the Golden ratio?

yes_statement

"human" "facial" "features" are "based" on the golden "ratio".. the golden "ratio" influences "human" "facial" "features".

https://journals.plos.org/plosone/article?id=10.1371/journal.pone.0142914

Multiracial Facial Golden Ratio and Evaluation of Facial Appearance ...

Figures Abstract This study aimed to investigate the association of facial proportion and its relation to the golden ratio with the evaluation of facial appearance among Malaysian population. This was a cross-sectional study with 286 randomly selected from Universiti Sains Malaysia (USM) Health Campus students (150 females and 136 males; 100 Malaysian Chinese, 100 Malaysian Malay and 86 Malaysian Indian), with the mean age of 21.54 ± 1.56 (Age range, 18–25). Facial indices obtained from direct facial measurements were used for the classification of facial shape into short, ideal and long. A validated structured questionnaire was used to assess subjects’ evaluation of their own facial appearance. The mean facial indices of Malaysian Indian (MI), Malaysian Chinese (MC) and Malaysian Malay (MM) were 1.59 ± 0.19, 1.57 ± 0.25 and 1.54 ± 0.23 respectively. Only MC showed significant sexual dimorphism in facial index (P = 0.047; P<0.05) but no significant difference was found between races. Out of the 286 subjects, 49 (17.1%) were of ideal facial shape, 156 (54.5%) short and 81 (28.3%) long. The facial evaluation questionnaire showed that MC had the lowest satisfaction with mean score of 2.18 ± 0.97 for overall impression and 2.15 ± 1.04 for facial parts, compared to MM and MI, with mean score of 1.80 ± 0.97 and 1.64 ± 0.74 respectively for overall impression; 1.75 ± 0.95 and 1.70 ± 0.83 respectively for facial parts. In conclusion: 1) Only 17.1% of Malaysian facial proportion conformed to the golden ratio, with majority of the population having short face (54.5%); 2) Facial index did not depend significantly on races; 3) Significant sexual dimorphism was shown among Malaysian Chinese; 4) All three races are generally satisfied with their own facial appearance; 5) No significant association was found between golden ratio and facial evaluation score among Malaysian population. Competing interests: The authors have declared that no competing interests exist. Introduction It is commonly said that ‘beauty lies in the eyes of the beholder’. Nonetheless, is esthetic judgment entirely subjective and purely a matter of arbitrary personal preference or could there be some scientific backings that guide and govern our perception towards beauty? Ancient Greeks have ventured to question the meaning of beauty and believed that the world is beautiful because there is a certain order, harmony, measure and proportion between its elements [1]. For centuries, the Golden Ratio or Golden Proportion has been considered as the perfect or ideal ratio for beauty. First described by the Greek Mathematician Euclid as the extreme and mean ratio [2], whose definition reads ‘A straight line is said to have been cut in extreme and mean ratio when, as the whole line is to the greater segment, so is the greater to the lesser’; it is later discovered to have a numerical value of precisely 1 to 1.61803399 by Filius Bonacci [3,4] and it is not until the 20th century when the term “Phi” and its symbol Φ were coined by Mark Barr in commemoration of the Greek sculptor Phidias [5,6]. In essence, the golden ratio has captured the fascination of intellectuals from diverse fields and disciplines. Interestingly, golden ratio is also prevalent in nature, where it can be seen in the skeletons of animals and humans, in the arrangement of branches along the stems of plants, in the spirals of sea shells and in the wing dimensions and location of eye-like spots on moths. Even more intriguing is that Phi manifests throughout the human form such as the body, the face, the fingers and the teeth [7,8,9]. Since the divine proportion seems to evoke an aesthetically pleasing effect, it might have been hard-wired into our consciousness as a guide towards aesthetic judgment; as proposed by Jefferson in whose paper a universal standard for facial beauty measurement regardless of race, age, sex and other variables is shown [10]. In fact, several studies have also shown that beautiful faces have facial measurements close to the golden ratio [11,12,13,14,15,16,17]. Ricketts used a golden divider to prove that the harmonious faces of beautiful women followed golden proportions [18]. Presently, several studies on facial aesthetics have been carried out where facial analyses are done using lateral cephalograms [19,20,21], photographs [15,22,23,24,25] and by anthropometrical means with the employment of direct measurements [26,27,2] and three dimensional imaging [28,29], among others. More recent articles have also discussed angular and linear analyses of the soft-tissue profile [30,31,32,33,34] and lip morphology [35]. In addition, extensive literature on modern facial anthropometric data among North American white populations [36], North Eastern Nigerian [37], Indian Americans [38], North Maharashtrian [24], Malaysians [26], and Latvian [39] are available in this present day. Some studies have also attempted to classify facial shapes based on Golden Ratio to determine and compare the prevalence of faces conforming to or approaching the golden ratio across different ethnics and between genders [26,27]. There has been evidence supporting the idea that the objective appraisal of facial beauty is indeed possible and that faces which observe certain universal parameters, such as symmetry, the Neoclassical Canon and Golden Ratio, are deemed beautiful across different culture and ethnics [40,41,42]. However, there is currently little evidence of facial index in relation to the golden ratio in Malaysia. In contrast, other studies have suggested that beauty is multifactorial and its subjectivity is founded primarily on genetics [43], culture and environmental factors [44]. Studies have also been conducted to investigate the evaluation towards facial appearance where Japanese [45], Japanese-Brazillian [46], Indian Subcontinent [47] and Thai [48] laypersons were asked to perceive their own facial appearance and rate their satisfaction level, which has shown to vary across different demographic groups. However, up to this present day, there is no evidence to assess the evaluation and satisfaction of one’s own facial appearance and also to determine its association with the facial proportion in relation to the golden ratio among Malaysian population. Hence, our study aims to provide a facial anthropometric and aesthetic analysis of the three main ethnic groups in Malaysia and to determine the prevalence of ideal faces which conform to the Golden Ratio by obtaining the facial indices and classifying subjects’ faces into different facial shape groups. Additionally, by determining the level of satisfaction of subjects towards their own facial appearance, we are interested to know whether a certain relationship exists between Facial Golden Ratio and subjects’ evaluation towards their own facial beauty, hence establishing that the Golden Ratio does influence facial attractiveness. It is also necessary to assess the profile preferences of Malaysian adults, as similar studies have not been done to date for the Malaysian population. The specific aims of this study are as follows: To identify and classify Malaysian population into different facial shapes based on the golden ratio. To determine the existence of significant differences in facial measurements and indices between genders and three different races in Malaysia. To study the evaluation of self-facial appearance among Malaysian population. To determine the existence of significant differences in the evaluation of self-facial appearance between genders and three different races in Malaysia. To investigate the association of facial proportion and its relation to the golden ratio with the evaluation of facial appearance among Malaysian population. To determine the perception towards general facial aesthetic and preference of the lip and chin profiles among Malaysian population. Materials and Methods All participants provide their written informed consent. This study was approved by the Ethical Committee of the Hospital Universiti Sains Malaysia (HUSM) [USM/JEPeM/1405203], which complies with the Declaration of Helsinki. Subjects and Sample Selection The subjects of this study consisted of a total of 286 subjects, including 100 Malay (50 male 50 female), 100 Malaysian Chinese (50 male 50 female) and 86 Malaysian Indian (36 male 50 female) from 18 to 25 years of age. The sample comprising of students attending Universiti Sains Malaysia originate from all states in different parts of Malaysia and hence is a true representation of the whole Malaysian population aged 18–25 both in regards to the ethnicity ratio and also geographically. Subjects of mixed ethnicity, subjects with craniofacial deformity, and subjects with a history of orthodontic treatment or facial surgery were excluded from this study. Informed consents were obtained from the subjects before the study was carried out. Anthropometrical Facial Measurements Anthropometrical landmarks on the face used for facial measurements are shown in Fig 1, with their definitions provided in Table 1 [49,50]. The relevant participant has given written informed consent (as outlined in PLOS consent form) to publish the photograph in Fig 1 (Eyes were covered). Direct measuring technique, considered to be more accurate than indirect measuring technique, was employed and real-time measurement was done on the 286 subjects. The anthropometrical landmarks involved were palpated and located on the face of the subjects and a total of five measurements were taken including total facial height (Tr-Me), upper facial height (Tr-Gb), middle facial height (Gb-Sn) and lower facial height (Sn-Me) as well as width of face (Zy-Zy) using dental sliding vernier caliper (Boley Dental USA) and cephalometric protractor (Orthopli Corporation Philadelphia). Facial Index and Facial Shape The ratio of the bizygomatic width (FW) to the total facial height (TFH) of each subject was calculated and recorded as the subject’s facial index (FI). Subjects were categorized into different facial shapes based on the relationship of their facial indices to the Golden Ratio (1.6–1.699 = Normal, < 1.6 = Short, > 1.699 = Long) [26,27]. Facial Evaluation Questionnaire Subjects were also asked to fill up a questionnaire to assess their perception towards beauty and evaluation of their own facial appearance. The questionnaire consisted of 3 parts. Section 2 consisted of questions for silhouette study which included 2 series of 8 profiles each. The first series of profile showed changes in relation to the chin while the second series showed changes in relation to the lips. The average profile was No. 4. The chin or lips were protruded or retruded in 1-mm increments from the average profile, and the chin or lips positions were changed parallel to the Frankfort horizontal plane. Therefore, the chin was most protrusive in profile 1 and the most retrusive in profile 8 for the first series. Meanwhile, the lips were most protrusive in profile 8 and the most retrusive in profile 1 for the second series. Black and white silhouette profiles were used in this study to avoid any bias due to preferences in certain skin and hair style or colour. In this section, subjects were required to choose the most and least appealing profile of the lips and chin respectively. Lips and chin profiles [51] were assessed since these two facial elements are considered the most influential features of the face [29,52]. Section 3 consisted of questionnaire to assess the evaluation of the subjects towards their own facial appearance. In this section the subjects were asked to choose from 5-degree of satisfaction (1: satisfied, 2: somewhat satisfied, 3: neither satisfied nor dissatisfied, 4: somewhat dissatisfied, and 5: dissatisfied). Nine questions about the subjects’ overall impression such as the impression of the face and the outline of the face. The satisfaction score for overall impression is the mean of the responses to these nine questions. Fifteen questions about the satisfaction towards their own facial parts such as eyelids, eyes, nose, cheeks, lips, teeth, chin, lower lip, dentition, bite (anterior and posterior) and angle of jaw. The mean of the responses to these fifteen questions is recorded as the satisfaction score for facial parts. Statistical analysis The data were analyzed statistically using IBM SPSS Statistics for Windows, Version 22.0 (Armonk, NY: IBM Corp. Released 2013). The measurements and results of the questionnaires were presented as mean with standard deviation (SD). The statistical significance of intergender differences in mean values of the measured parameters and satisfaction scores from the questionnaire was examined using Independent t-test while One-Way ANOVA was done to investigate the existence of statistical significance between three different races. Subjects were then categorized into different facial shapes based on the relationship of their facial indices to the golden ratio (1.6–1.699 = Normal, <1.6 = Short, > 1.699 = Long)[26,27]. Graphical representation of the subjects with different facial shapes and the frequency of the lips and chin profile preferences were obtained from Microsoft excel 2010. Associations between different variables were analyzed using Simple Linear Regression. The confidence level was set at 95% (P < 0.05). Thirty (30) subjects were randomly selected and re-measured 1 month after the initial measurements. Intra-rater reliability was determined using the Intraclass Correlation Coefficient (ICC). Overall, the k value of the raters for each measurement was at least 0.70, indicating good intra-rater reliability. Cronbach's alpha was above 0.800 for all measurements, which indicated a high level of internal consistency. Interracial disparities Table 3 and Fig 3 highlights the mean measurements of each racial group. Our findings revealed a highly significant racial difference (P<0.001) for UFH between MC and MM, and also between MC and MI. MFH was statistically significant (P<0.05) between MM and MC. In regard to TFH, statistically significant difference was shown between MM and MC (P<0.001) and between MC and MI (P<0.01). A comparison between MC and MI showed significant racial difference (P<0.01) for Zygion to Zygion. However, no significant racial difference was found in LFH measurement and facial index. Table 4 illustrates interracial difference in facial measurements among male and female subjects. Significant difference was shown between MM and MI (P<0.05) and MC and MI (P<0.001) in UFH, between MM and MC (P<0.01) in MFH as well as between MM and MC (P<0.01) and between MC and MI (P<0.01) in TFH among male subjects. Among female subjects, UFH showed significant difference between MM and MC (P<0.001) and MC and MI (P<0.01). Besides, significant difference was also shown in TFH between MM and MC (P<0.01) as well as ZTZ between MC and MI (P<0.05). Classification of facial shapes based on the Golden Ratio Fig 4 revealed that in Malaysian Malay subjects, 16 (12 male, 4 female) had an ideal face, 55 (25 male, 30 female) had a short face, 29 (13 male, 16 female) had a long face. In Malaysian Chinese subjects, 18 (8 male, 10 female) had an ideal face, 53 (24 male, 29 female) had a short face, 29 (18 male, 11 female) had a long face. In Malaysian Indian subjects, 15 (8 male, 7 female) had an ideal face, 48 (20 male, 28 female) had a short face, 23 (8 male, 15 female) had a long face. Out of 286 subjects, the face shape was ideal in 49 subjects, short in 156 subjects, and long in 81 subjects. As shown in Table 6, mean evaluation scores for OI and FP were significantly higher in MC than MM and MI. Significant inter-racial difference was shown for mean OI score between MM and MC and between MC and MI (P<0.001). Figs 5 and 6 shows the mean evaluation score for each OI and FP, respectively. Significant differences between races for different variables were observed. No significant difference for mean facial evaluation score was found between different facial shapes, as shown in Table 7. Tables 8 and 9 highlight the association of mean overall impression score and mean facial parts score with various factors. No significant linear relationships are established between facial index with both mean overall impression score and mean facial parts score. Simple Linear Regression revealed no significant linear relationships between facial shape with both mean overall impression score and mean facial parts score among subjects with long face and short face when ideal face is used as the control. Simple Linear Regression also showed no significant linear relationships between sexes with both mean overall impression and facial parts scores. Interestingly, significant linear relationship was shown between race with both mean overall impression score (P<0.001) and mean facial parts score (P<0.001) only among MC with MM as the control. It is observed that Chinese subjects have a 37.7% higher score compared to the Malay group for mean overall impression score (CI 0.169, 0.585), and about 8.3% of variation in the mean overall impression score can be explained by race. Chinese subjects also scored 40.3% higher than the Malay subjects for mean facial parts score (CI 0.211, 0.594), with approximately 8.2% of variation in the mean facial parts score can be explained by race. Silhouette Studies: Lips and chin profiles preferences Fig 7 revealed that highest percentage of subjects selected the average, orthognathic profile 4 as the most appealing for chin position and the most protrusive profile 1 as the least appealing. As shown in Fig 8, profiles 4 and 5 were chosen as the most attractive for lips position, while the most protrusive profile 8 for lips was considered the least attractive by most male and female subjects. The present study and Packiriswamy et al. [26] both showed similar pattern and trend in interracial and intersexes comparison. Results from both studies showed that MC reported the highest value for both TFH and facial width in male and female subjects. It has been widely maintained that, in comparison to other races, MI males were revealed to have the lowest values for both TFH and facial width while MI females also had the lowest values for facial width. Moreover, both studies also reported that male subjects showed higher values for TFH and facial width compared to female subjects in all 3 Malaysian populations, which are consistent with values of other populations across the world reported by Raji et al. [37], Ngeow et al. [53,54], Omar et al. [38] and Erika et al. [39]. In contrast, Farkas et al. [36] reported that female subjects show higher value of TFH compared to male subjects in Czech and Indian population, while female Greek subjects show higher values for Facial Width compared to male subjects. TFH of Malaysian Chinese males (188.4mm) showed almost similar values with that of Singapore Chinese males (187.3mm) [36], which could possibly be explained by similar ancestral origin. Similar value of TFH was also shown by Latvian male subjects (187.3mm) [39]. TFH measurements of Malaysian Chinese female (172.6mm) also coincide with the values of North American females (172.5mm) [36]. TFH of Malaysian Indian males (178.3mm) was similar to that of Greek males (178.7mm) [36]. Malaysian Malay females (161.8mm) and Egyptian females (161.4mm) [36] showed almost similar TFH measurements. Facial width of female Malay subjects (114.8mm) was shown to be close to the value of North Eastern Nigerian females (115.1mm) [38]. Craniofacial parameters from our anthropometric studies on Malaysian populations can be used to provide crucial data for anatomical and anthropological research as well as research in forensic medicine. In clinical practice, these data can serve as important guidelines and references among reconstructive and plastic surgeons, maxillofacial surgeons, orthodontists and prosthodontists, particularly in analysis of treatment outcome [55,56,57,58]. For evaluation of variations in craniofacial morphology and also to detect potential pathological abnormalities, standards of anthropometric measurements should be established for Malaysian population. Interracial differences of facial measurements Significant difference was shown between MM and MC (P<0.01) for TFH in both sexes. This was in contrast to the result reported by Packiriswamy et al. [26] where significant difference of TFH was reported only among female subjects while male subjects showed significant interracial difference only for facial width and zygion to zygion. In contrast to our study where no significant difference in TFH and Zygion to Zygion for both genders was shown between MM and MI, Packiriswamy et al. [26] reported significant difference in both TFH and zygion to zygion among female subjects and TFH among male subjects. Between MC and MI, Packiriswamy et al. [26] reported a significant difference in TFH and zygion to zygion in both genders. However, in our study significant difference in TFH was found only among male subjects and zygion to zygion among female subjects. Packiriswamy et al. [26] showed no significant difference in facial index in both sexes between MM and MI and also between MC and MI, which is in accordance to the results reported by our study. Facial shapes according to the Golden Ratio Similar to studies done by Packiriswamy et al. [26] and Saraswathi et al. [27], the highest number of subjects had short face in our study. However, in contrast to the studies done by Packiriswamy et al. [26] and Saraswathi et al. [27], which reported the least number of subjects in the long face group, our findings showed that subjects with ideal face shape were the least in all three races. It was interesting to note that although Packiriswamy et al. [26] reported that none of the Malay female had long face, our study indicated that the percentage of Malay female with long face was the second highest percentage after Chinese male; while Chinese female recorded the lowest percentage in the long face group. On this point literature is not unanimous; this could be attributed to factors such as high hairline in the measurement involving trichion and many other ethnic variables that should be taken into account. Facial evaluation score of different populations As illustrated in Table 11, the mean evaluation score for both overall impression and facial parts of our study were lower than that among Thai laypersons [48], Japanese-Brazilian female laypersons [46] and Japanese laypersons [45], suggesting a higher satisfaction among Malaysian populations; but higher when compared to Indian subcontinent laypersons [47]. It is obvious in this study that although Malaysian population is generally satisfied with their own facial appearance, MC is the least satisfied of the three races. Regarding satisfaction for each facial element, the items which most subjects are least satisfied with were “teeth” and “dentition” for both male and female, which was similar to the findings by Luppanapornlarp et al. [48]. Similar to the study done among Thai laypersons [48], no statistically significant difference was noted between male and female for both mean satisfaction score of overall impression (P = 0.056) and facial parts (P = 0.395). Association of facial proportion and its relation to the Golden Ratio with the evaluation of facial appearance among Malaysian population Previous studies have been conducted using various applied method with different examined distances and ratios and facial views as well as analysed sample. Generally, the majority of investigations reported a weak correlation between golden proportion and attractiveness [28,59]. Similarly, a study done to investigate the association between the perception of facial beauty and divine proportion found that ratios of 3D facial distances were not related to attractiveness in young, white adults, as assessed by a panel of dental professionals [6]. To our knowledge, in no case has the relationship between golden proportion and perception towards subjects’ own facial appearance via facial satisfaction score evaluation been investigated. The results of the current study show that the examined facial index and facial shape have no relationship with the mean facial evaluation score. As shown in Table 9, one-way ANOVA test shows no significant difference in the mean facial evaluation score between subjects of different facial shapes. In the present study, Simple Linear Regression failed to establish significant association between facial index and mean facial evaluation score. The mean evaluation score where subjects rated their level of satisfaction on a degree of 1 to 5 in our questionnaire serves to objectify the subjectiveness of an individual’s perception towards his or her own facial esthetic. Since results from our study showed no association between facial measurement and the mean evaluation score, which is a reflection of how satisfied or dissatisfied the subjects were of their own face, hence it can be concluded that there is no association of facial proportion and its relation to the golden ratio with the evaluation of facial appearance among Malaysian population. In other words, individuals who find themselves attractive might not necessarily have facial measurements which conform to or approach the golden ratio. This might be attributed to the various psychological factors, different cultural landscapes, social acceptance and expectations, social economic status, ethnic origins, social demographic backgrounds in addition to inherent influences that affect the personal perception or judgments towards the concept of facial esthetics. Interestingly, Simple Linear Regression shows significant association between race and mean overall impression and facial parts score among Chinese subjects (P<0.001) with Malay as the control, suggesting that perception towards own facial appearance is different across different races. Silhouette studies: Lips and chin profiles preferences Previous methods used to assess facial profile attractiveness included profile line drawings [60], facial photographs and imagings [61,62] and silhouettes [63,64,65], which was adopted by our study. The overall trend in our study demonstrated that milder degrees of chin retrusion and protrusion were selected as more attractive compared to profiles with greater degrees of deviation, though the tendency was for chin protrusion to be perceived as less attractive than retrusion. This was supported by Mantzikos et al. [66] done among Japanese population who found that a straight profile was ranked the most attractive while mandibular retrognathic and prognathic profiles had poor rankings. Naini et al. [67] showed that the greater the retrusion or prominence of the chin, the lower the rating of the perceived attractiveness. Similar to a study by Maganzini et al. [68], our study indicated either a retrognathic or a prognathic mandible were found to be the least appealing by both male and female subjects. According to Polk et al. [64], significantly more African American male and female judges preferred more retruded jaw profiles, which in is accordance to our study. Similarly, Soh et al. [69,70] reported that profiles with protrusive mandibles were perceived to be the least attractive by dental professionals, dental students and laypersons in Singapore. A study done among Japanese adults showed that mandibular retrusion was generally more favoured than mandibular protrusion [71], but the results of this study did not provide confirmation, showing that most subjects selected the most protrusive chin position as the least appealing profile. In another study, Caucasian males also preferred mandibular protrusion more than retrusion [72]. Such discrepancies might be due to cross-cultural differences between different populations. Similar conclusions were obtained in certain studies in the orthodontic field, where in addition to the lips profile preferences, some facial profile angles were investigated. Similar to our study, Foster [73], Lines et al. [74] and Czarnecki et al. [63] used silhouette profiles with altered lip positions, where it was reported that significantly more males preferred retruded lip profiles compared to females. Other studies done among Mexican American judges [75] and Japanese orthodontists and students [65] also showed preference towards more retruded lip profiles. Our findings suggested that labial protrusion was slightly better tolerated in females compared to males, which was in line with the study by Czarnecki et al. [63]. In Summary, we found, Malaysian population has a total facial height value of 181.95 mm, facial width of 114.84 mm and facial index of 1.59. Only 17.1% of Malaysian facial proportion conformed to the golden ratio, with majority of the population having short face (54.5%). Facial index did not depend significantly on races; significant sexual dimorphism was shown among Malaysian Chinese. All three races are generally satisfied with their own facial appearance. Significant interracial differences in facial evaluation score were shown between Malaysian Chinese with Malaysian Malay and between Malaysian Chinese and Malaysian Indian; no sexual dimorphism was shown. No significant association was found between golden ratio and facial evaluation score among Malaysian population. An average profile of the lips and chin are preferred over more retrusive or protrusive profiles among Malaysian population. 46. Leonardo SE, Alam MK, Sato Y, Iida J 2006 The awareness of own facial appearance and profile in Japanese-Brazilian laypersons. 65th Annual Meeting of The Japanese Orthodontic Society, the 1st Joint Meeting of the Japanese Orthodontic Society and the Korean Association of Orthodontist, SapporoJapan. 47. Alam MK, Leonardo SE, Sato Y, Iida J 2006 A study regarding the awareness of facial appearance and their profile of Indian-subcontinent laypersons. 65th Annual Meeting of The Japanese Orthodontic Society, the 1st Joint Meeting of the Japanese Orthodontic Society and the Korean Association of Orthodontist, Sapporo, Japan.

[5,6]. In essence, the golden ratio has captured the fascination of intellectuals from diverse fields and disciplines. Interestingly, golden ratio is also prevalent in nature, where it can be seen in the skeletons of animals and humans, in the arrangement of branches along the stems of plants, in the spirals of sea shells and in the wing dimensions and location of eye-like spots on moths. Even more intriguing is that Phi manifests throughout the human form such as the body, the face, the fingers and the teeth [7,8,9]. Since the divine proportion seems to evoke an aesthetically pleasing effect, it might have been hard-wired into our consciousness as a guide towards aesthetic judgment; as proposed by Jefferson in whose paper a universal standard for facial beauty measurement regardless of race, age, sex and other variables is shown [10]. In fact, several studies have also shown that beautiful faces have facial measurements close to the golden ratio [11,12,13,14,15,16,17]. Ricketts used a golden divider to prove that the harmonious faces of beautiful women followed golden proportions [18]. Presently, several studies on facial aesthetics have been carried out where facial analyses are done using lateral cephalograms [19,20,21], photographs [15,22,23,24,25] and by anthropometrical means with the employment of direct measurements [26,27,2] and three dimensional imaging [28,29], among others. More recent articles have also discussed angular and linear analyses of the soft-tissue profile [30,31,32,33,34] and lip morphology [35].

yes

Biomathematics

Are human facial features based on the Golden ratio?

yes_statement

"human" "facial" "features" are "based" on the golden "ratio".. the golden "ratio" influences "human" "facial" "features".

https://jkamprs.springeropen.com/articles/10.1186/s40902-022-00358-2

Does 3-dimensional facial attractiveness relate to golden ratio ...

Abstract Background The established recommendations and guidelines regarding ideal measurements for an attractive face are mostly based on data gathered among Caucasian population. The aim of this study was to examine the relationship between perception of 3-dimensional facial attractiveness and golden ratio, neoclassical canons, ‘ideal’ ratios and ‘ideal’ angles in Hong Kong Chinese. Results More than half of the measurements (42/77) in females and thirty-two measurements in males were found to be significantly different from the ideal target value (p < 0.05) upon the comparison of the attractive faces with golden ratio, neoclassical canons, ‘ideal’ ratios and ‘ideal’ angles. Meanwhile, correlation tests between VAS scores and the parameters detected significant results (p < 0.05) in only six ratios, eight angles, one neoclassical canon and one proportion. Conclusions Despite several renowned ‘ideal’ parameters of attractive faces that have been recommended in the literature, only a few of them were found to be significantly correlated with attractive faces in Hong Kong Chinese. Background Face is known to be the key factor in the perception of physical attractiveness. Objective aesthetic criteria are important to evaluate and analyse patients who undergo aesthetic surgical procedures [1]. The computation of facial attractiveness has recently emerged as a new area of research. The groundwork, however, for the success of such technology relies on quantitative methods to define facial attractiveness [2]. Therefore, researchers have intended to quantify the perception of beauty using different facial parameters instead of subjective interpretations or individual observations of facial attractiveness [3]. Recommendations and guidelines in the literature regarding ideal measurements for an attractive face are mostly based on some recommended golden ratio, neoclassical canons, ‘ideal’ ratios and ‘ideal’ angles. Their ideal target values are normally based on average faces, faces perceived as ‘beautiful’ or authors’ preferences [4, 5]. Such ideal target values are presumably associated with attractive faces regardless of age, gender and ethnicity. Clinically, they are aimed as reference points by orthodontists, oral and maxillofacial surgeons and plastic surgeons for final treatment outcomes in both genders and all races. However, perception of facial attractiveness differs with race and ethnicity resulting in the application of some conventional rules for ideal facial attractiveness inappropriate [6]. Proportional or ratio analyses are considered to be more suitable in facial aesthetic appreciation as the comparison of absolute values among ethnicities and between genders is difficult due to inherent variation [7]. Up to date, many researchers [8,9,10,11] have suggested ‘ideal’ ratios or angles based on their collected data, which ultimately led to a plethora of ‘ideal’ parameters related to facial aesthetics available nowadays in literature. The researchers replaced the traditional cephalometric analysis to evaluate facial attractiveness with photographs some time ago. Today, the emerging 3-dimensional (3-D) photographic technology provides a more vivid and realistic appreciation of facial aesthetics. Full facial landscapes can be acquired quickly and accurately in a noninvasive manner using 3-D imaging techniques [12]. It is important to respect and appreciate the underlying ethnic differences for the success of aesthetic surgery [1]. Therefore, the objective of this study is to examine the relationship between the perception of 3-dimensional facial attractiveness and golden ratio, neoclassical canons, ‘ideal’ ratios and ‘ideal’ angles in Hong Kong Chinese. Materials and methods The ethical approval for this study was granted by the local authority (Institutional Review Board no.: UW 12–066). The study was conducted at Prince Philip Dental Hospital, The University of Hong Kong. Prior written informed consent was obtained from all the model volunteers and judges. 3-D photograph Ninety Chinese dental students ranging in age from 20 to 27 years old (mean = 22.8) have volunteered and been recruited as 3-dimensional (3-D) photograph models in this study. These 90 volunteers consisted of 30 individuals presenting dento-skeletal classes 1, 2, and 3 each. Each model obtained a 3-dimensional photograph in a neutral facial expression using the 3dMDface stereophotography system (3dMD, Atlanta, USA). To reduce potentially extraneous aesthetic factors during the photo-shooting session, their hair was covered. The make-up and jewellery were also removed. The 3-D photos of the models were imported into the 3dMDVultus software (3dMD LLC, Atlanta, GA, USA). Five models each for three different dento-skeletal patterns (classes 1, 2, and 3) of both genders were then selected randomly using the random number generator function of Microsoft Excel (Microsoft Office Professional Plus 2016, Microsoft Corporation). This resulted in 15 male and 15 female 3-D photographs with diverse dental and skeletal patterns. A 10-s video was generated for each 3-D facial photograph rotating around its y-axis, starting from left to right face (Fig. 1). All videos were converted into black and white to reduce potential bias caused by skin colour and complexion. Fig. 1 3D photographs of a female model from different angles adopted from the video sequence Judges Judges for this study were recruited from the pool of consecutive patients attending the oral and maxillofacial discipline seeking orthognathic treatment, as well as from those patients who have attended the Reception and Primary Care Clinic of the same hospital for reasons other than potential orthognathic treatment. Only Hong Kong Chinese between 18 to 40 years old were included. The judges were instructed to evaluate 30 videos based on a 100 mm visual analogue scale (VAS) from 0 (very unattractive) to 100 (very attractive). No time limit was set for the evaluation of the 3-D photographs. The consecutive videos were played only after the score for the previous video was recorded by the judges. The mean VAS score of each judging panel represented the final facial aesthetic score for each 3-D photograph. The soft tissue landmarks for each 3-D photograph were plotted using the 3dMDVultus software (3dMD LLC, Atlanta, GA, USA). The landmarks normally identified in the profile view of 2-D photographs were plotted in the midline of the frontal 3-D photograph view to prevent measurement errors due to horizontal deviations. The soft tissue landmarks used in this study are shown in Fig. 2. According to already established methodologies [4, 5, 13,14,15,16], the golden ratio, neoclassical canons, ‘ideal’ ratios and ‘ideal’ angles were applied in this study (Figs. 3, 4, 5 and 6). The differences between the measured parameters and the ‘ideal’ reference values were calculated. where \(\overline{\mathrm{x}}\) is the sample mean. The acceptable range for intra-examiner % TEM is < 1.5% [18]. Statistical analysis Descriptive statistics were used to analyse the demographic parameters of the judges. Paired t-test was performed to examine any differences between the mean VAS scores of orthognathic versus non-orthognathic judges. One-sample Wilcoxon signed-rank test was used to examine to differences between attractive faces with the ideal value of recommended parameters. Five female and male models with the highest VAS scores were selected for this analysis. Subsequently, the Pearson correlations test was used to examine the association between the mean VAS scores with all the measured independent variables. A p-value of < 0.05 was considered significant for all statistical tests. All data unless specified were analysed using the SPSS Statistics software version 23.0 (Armonk, NY: IBM Corp, USA). Results A total of 180 patients were recruited consecutively to be judges for this study; however, incomplete data was found in 17 of them. As a result, 163 judges (age: 27.1 ± 6.1 years old) were analysed for this study. Among them, 25 of 62 orthognathic and 40 of 101 layperson judges were male. All intra-assessor’s measured landmarks % TEMs were within the acceptable range (0.12–1.23%). While the recorded raw VAS scores ranged from 0 to 99.5, the mean VAS scores for the 3-D photographs were 49.76 ± 6.14 for male and 47.97 ± 7.62 for female 3-D photographs. No significant difference (p = 0.161) existed for the mean VAS score (− 0.67 ± 2.57) between orthognathic and layperson judges for all 3-D photos. Attractive faces versus recommended parameters More than half of the measurements (42/77) were found to be significantly different from the ideal target value (p < 0.05) upon comparison of the attractive female faces with golden ratio (Table 1), neoclassical canons (Table 2), ‘ideal’ ratios (Table 3) and ‘ideal’ angles (Table 4). An attractive female face can be interpreted as having a shorter (n-sn) and broader (al-al) nose, broader inter-endocanthus and inter-exocanthus width, shorter lower facial third, thicker vermillion of both upper and lower lips, shorter upper lip, flatter labio-mental fold and retrusive mandible comparing to the recommended ideal faces by reading these results together. Majority of these findings were found significant in both orthognathic and layperson judges. On the other hand, 32 measurements were found to be statistically significant in the measured parameters for male faces (Tables 1, 2, 3 and 4). A shorter and broader nose, broader inter-endocanthus and inter-exocanthus width, shorter lower facial third, retrusive mandible, thicker vermillion of upper lip, shorter upper lip and flatter labio-mental fold than the recommended value were found to be more attractive in male faces based on the analyses. Again, majority of the significant findings were found in both groups of judges. Analyses based on VAS scores Correlation tests between VAS scores and the parameters detected significant results in six ratios, eight angles, one neoclassical canon and one proportion (Table 5). These significant results were recorded at ratios 3, 5, 13, 17, 19 and 22, in angles 4, 7, 9, 10, 14, 15, 19, 22 and 23, in neoclassical canon 5, as well as to proportion 14. In subgroup analyses, it became obvious that significant correlations within the overall analysis of all models turned out not to be always significant for analyses of female or male faces and vice versa. The same applied to the results of the overall judges’ analyses when compared with the subgroup results of orthognathic and layperson judges respectively. Table 5 The correlations between the mean VAS scores and the deviations of the measured parameters from ideal target values The significant findings of angles 14, 15, 19, 22 and 23 may be interpreted as an association between increased VAS scores and decreased lower facial third height in female models (p < 0.05). As ratio 5 indicates, a significantly positive association was observed between the middle facial height and VAS scores in the male models (p < 0.05). Ratio 17 denotes a significant association between increased VAS scores and increased alar width in females (p < 0.05). On the other hand, the significant results of angles 4, 9 and 10 in male models pointed to an association between an increased VAS score and a more retruded mandible, whereas the result of the canon 5 suggested a significant relationship between a narrower facial width at zygion level and an increased VAS score in females. Discussion The perception of attractiveness is subjective and not constant through the years. An evident observation is a change in trends related to the ideal body shape over decades. Therefore, the ideal facial parameters should not be assumed to be constant too. Several previous studies have demonstrated that only a few suggested ‘ideal’ parameters were significantly associated with attractive [4, 7, 19,20,21] or norm [13, 22] faces. Some even suggested that the golden proportion does not relate at all to facial attractiveness [7, 23]. This study has found significant correlations between VAS scores and deviations of the measured parameters from ideal target values in only 14% of the overall investigated 77 parameters. This finding points out that suggested ideal values might not be applicable at all times in every population. Some [24, 25] think that the general principle of facial aesthetics applies to both genders, whereas others [22, 26] noted distinct differences between genders. Significant results in overall facial analyses do not always appear in gender-specific subgroup analyses and vice versa. The current study has found a preference for thicker upper and lower vermillion in females but only thicker upper vermillion in males. Therefore, it is worthwhile to further investigate and develop gender-based ideal target values in the future. This study has found a preference for a shorter lower facial third in both genders. In accordance with this finding, Mizumoto et al. (2009) [14] reported a relatively shorter lower anterior facial height among Japanese female models and actresses compared to post-orthodontic dento-skeletal class 1 patients. They further suggested a trend in aesthetic perception that favours small faces, especially small jaws. Furthermore, judges associate a shorter upper lip with attractiveness, a finding that corroborates results of other studies in the Asian population [14, 22]. Interestingly, a broader or wider nose was found to be more attractive in both genders. It may be hypothesized that this is related to the famous ‘face reading’ among the Chinese community which relates a round, fleshy and big nose to good fortune, wealth and success. It has also been suggested that the relationship between 2-D ratios and angles and facial attractiveness is low [7]. Previous studies on facial attractiveness were mainly based on 2-D photographs [4, 5, 27] and silhouette [28] evaluations. This study has used 3-D photographs to better appreciate facial details from multiple vantage points other than just frontal and profile views. To ensure all judges were able to assess the model faces at 180°, a short video clip of a rotating 3-D photograph from the right profile view, over the frontal to the left profile views, was produce for each model. This method reduces restriction or biases compared with showing judges only 2-D frontal and profile views of photographs. It is much more realistic when compared to our daily life 3-D vision. It has been reported elsewhere [7] that the dento-skeletal pattern does not affect facial attractiveness, and one need not be class 1 to be attractive. Therefore, the models for this study comprised of dento-skeletal classes 1, 2 and 3 patterns presenting a wide range of faces with different characteristics. This explains the high variation (0 to 99.5) among the raw VAS scores recorded in this study. Additionally, only a total of thirty 3-D photographs were presented to the judges, as larger numbers might lead to their exhaustion [29], potentially affecting their assessment. The here investigated ‘ideal’ ratios and ‘ideal’ angles are based on the recommendations of Kiekens et al. [4], 2008, who excluded parameters with low reproducible landmarks. To assess intra-assessor measurement error in this study, % TEMs of all landmarks were quantified, yielding low results, suggesting a high reproducibility of these landmarks. This study has analysed the perception of facial attractiveness in layperson and orthognathic judges separately. It has been reported that orthognathic patients perceived their facial profile in a different way than orthodontists, surgeons and laypersons [30]. Laypersons’ perception of the facial profile was suggested to be superior to that of specialists due to the lack of any eventual professional and academic preconditioning [11]. It might be argued that therefore due to various amounts of additional specific knowledge, orthognathic patients also might differ from laypersons in their perception of attractiveness. Furthermore, as facial aesthetics is one of their main concerns, an emotional component within this specific group of patients should not be underestimated. Low satisfaction with their dento-facial appearance [30], specifically concerning certain facial features, might probably affect and influence their perception of attractiveness. Additionally, it has been reported that self-perceived attractiveness affects one’s aesthetical perception towards others [31]. Therefore, judge subgroups analyses were performed as it was assumed that orthognathic patients might present a different beauty perception than laypersons. Interestingly, this study revealed that orthognathic but not layperson judges prefer a retrusive mandible, a somehow anticipated outcome given that Chinese and Japanese are in favour of a retruded ‘soft’ mandible [14]. Besides, correlations tests have revealed several different significant results between these two groups. These results suggested that orthognathic patients apply different facial attractiveness criteria when compared to laypersons. Generally, it might be speculated that orthognathic patients put more emphasis on facial attractiveness than others. Based on self-perceived own ‘shortcoming’ facial features, they might have a specific interest related to certain facial ratios or angles. All these factors together with specific emotional and psychological components might serve to explain the different results recorded between orthognathic patient and non-orthognathic layperson judges. Therefore, patients’ wishes are of utmost importance during the orthodontic, orthognathic and/or plastic surgery treatment planning, instead of relying completely on stereotypical so-called ideal values and/or measurements. Recommended ideal values should only serve as a rough guideline in the clinical daily work. Furthermore, unique ethnic facial characteristics must be considered during all facial aesthetic treatment planning. Conclusion Despite several renowned ‘ideal’ parameters of attractive faces that have been recommended in the literature, only a few of them were found to be significantly correlated with attractive faces in Hong Kong Chinese. In general, a broader inter-endocanthus and inter-exocanthus width, shorter and broader nose, shorter lower face, shorter upper lip, flatter labio-mental fold and retrusive mandible comparing to the recommended ideal faces were perceived as attractive by the judges. Availability of data and materials All data generated or analysed during this study are included in this published article. Corresponding author Ethics declarations Ethics approval and consent to participate The ethical approval for this study was granted by the local authority (Institutional Review Board no.: UW 12–066). The study was conducted at the Prince Philip Dental Hospital, The University of Hong Kong. Prior written informed consent was obtained from all the model volunteers and judges. Consent for publication Consent for publication of photograph was obtained from all photograph models. Competing interests The authors declare that they have no competing interests. Additional information Publisher’s Note Springer Nature remains neutral with regard to jurisdictional claims in published maps and institutional affiliations. Rights and permissions Open Access This article is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License, which permits use, sharing, adaptation, distribution and reproduction in any medium or format, as long as you give appropriate credit to the original author(s) and the source, provide a link to the Creative Commons licence, and indicate if changes were made. The images or other third party material in this article are included in the article's Creative Commons licence, unless indicated otherwise in a credit line to the material. If material is not included in the article's Creative Commons licence and your intended use is not permitted by statutory regulation or exceeds the permitted use, you will need to obtain permission directly from the copyright holder. To view a copy of this licence, visit http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/.

Ratio 17 denotes a significant association between increased VAS scores and increased alar width in females (p < 0.05). On the other hand, the significant results of angles 4, 9 and 10 in male models pointed to an association between an increased VAS score and a more retruded mandible, whereas the result of the canon 5 suggested a significant relationship between a narrower facial width at zygion level and an increased VAS score in females. Discussion The perception of attractiveness is subjective and not constant through the years. An evident observation is a change in trends related to the ideal body shape over decades. Therefore, the ideal facial parameters should not be assumed to be constant too. Several previous studies have demonstrated that only a few suggested ‘ideal’ parameters were significantly associated with attractive [4, 7, 19,20,21] or norm [13, 22] faces. Some even suggested that the golden proportion does not relate at all to facial attractiveness [7, 23]. This study has found significant correlations between VAS scores and deviations of the measured parameters from ideal target values in only 14% of the overall investigated 77 parameters. This finding points out that suggested ideal values might not be applicable at all times in every population. Some [24, 25] think that the general principle of facial aesthetics applies to both genders, whereas others [22, 26] noted distinct differences between genders. Significant results in overall facial analyses do not always appear in gender-specific subgroup analyses and vice versa. The current study has found a preference for thicker upper and lower vermillion in females but only thicker upper vermillion in males. Therefore, it is worthwhile to further investigate and develop gender-based ideal target values in the future. This study has found a preference for a shorter lower facial third in both genders. In accordance with this finding, Mizumoto et al. (2009) [14] reported a relatively shorter lower anterior facial height among Japanese female models and actresses compared to post-orthodontic dento-skeletal class 1 patients.

no

Biomathematics

Are human facial features based on the Golden ratio?

yes_statement

"human" "facial" "features" are "based" on the golden "ratio".. the golden "ratio" influences "human" "facial" "features".

https://wpamelia.com/golden-ratio/

Golden Ratio in Design: What You Need to Know About It

Golden Ratio in Design: What You Need to Know About It Designing is no easy job, considering how many aspects you have to keep in mind. UX design gets even more complicated, as you will have to come up with ideas that are all at once innovative, beautiful, and functional to provide people with the best experience on a website or app. What many people don’t know is that the best artists in the world have always used certain aesthetic principles to make sure that their work is as close as possible to perfection. From Da Vinci to Dali, famous artists have emphasized their native genius by consistently incorporating age-old design principles in each of their creations. One of these principles is the golden ratio. If you’ve never heard about the golden ratio before, prepare for an amazing lecture created by our team at Amelia (probably the best WordPress reservation plugin). Defining the Golden Ratio (the Golden Ratio Explanation) If you’ve only just stumbled upon this term now, you will be amazed when learning more about it. By the end of this article, you will know how to use the golden ratio to create nearly perfect designs. Ok, so what is the golden ratio? First of all, you should know that the numbers associated with the golden ratio are 1:1.618. The mathematical equation that led to these numbers is a bit complicated, but it’s enough to remember the answer to be able to use it. When the ratio is used, you are building a golden ratio section, meaning that your work respects the 1:1.618 proportion. If you really want to go into the math of this. The golden ratio is best approximated by the famous Fibonacci sequence. The Fibonacci sequence starts with 0 and 1, and continues by adding the previous two numbers. The next numbers in the Fibonacci sequence, for instance, are 1,2,3, and 5. Designers of all types agree that following this principle typically leads to the most aesthetically-pleasing result, regardless of the subject. In order to create instant visual appeal, you simply need to apply this so-called divine proportion, which is deep-rooted in mathematics and nature. The golden ratio is present everywhere around you, even though you might not be aware of it. The great Egyptians used it when they built the Pyramids of Giza, Da Vinci included it in his famous La Gioconda, and even today big brands use it in their logos (Pepsi, Twitter, Apple, etc.). Golden ratio in design has been used since ancient times. It is also known as the Golden Section, the Divine Proportion, or Phi (not to be mistaken for Pi). The golden ratio grid appears when one line is divided into two different parts. The longer part of the golden section is further divided by the smaller part which is equal to the sum of the previous parts. The longer part A, which is divided by B is equal to A+B/A. Mathematically, the result is 1.618 all the time. Putting it simply, the golden formula (the golden ratio equation) looks like this: Phi = A/B = (A+B)/A = 1.618033987 = Φ Golden Ratio’s Importance in Design Anything that helps to create a visually-pleasing effect is welcomed in the design industry. Most works of art are based on certain proportions, and these same proportions are used in architecture, painting, sculpture, photography, and more. The use of the golden ratio in design is well-justified, as it offers structure and natural elegance. Because the human brain automatically perceives the golden ratio as aesthetic, using it in design generates a subconscious attraction. Even slight details that bring the design closer to the golden ratio grid can have a huge impact on the design. The golden ratio grid should be used as a design tool that ensures that everything is placed correctly to generate the desired emotional response. In some cases, people apply the golden ratio principle without even realizing it, which is another proof that following the grid makes sense intuitively. It is important to understand how golden ratio design works and then apply these rules to your own projects. Ultimately, the ratio helps to create harmony and keep elements balanced. Considering that the first impression is essential in UX design, the golden ratio can also contribute to creating a feeling of natural comfort and harmony that keeps the user enchanted. How Can You Use It in Design? Golden ratio design can be applied in graphics, logos, product design, web design, or any other industry that is related to visual form. A website’s user interface is meant to attract users and keep them engaged, and this won’t happen unless it creates a good first impression by showing, not telling. As a web designer, you have to make sure that the implementation of the golden ratio in design doesn’t negatively influence the user experience, and only enhances it. Here are a few tips on how to apply the golden ratio in web design: Creating the perfect layout Every designer knows how difficult it is to fit a lot of elements into a reduced amount of space. The golden ratio grid can help save the day when it is used to determine the dimensions of a layout and where each element will go. An easy way to start a layout design is to set the dimensions to 1:1.618 from the very beginning and work with that framework going forward. The easiest approach is to use the basic 960 px width and divide it by 1.618. The obtained number should be used as a height. Leaving enough space between elements Many designers tend to forget the value of white space when putting together their layouts. It’s not always easy to imagine where to put negative space, but using the golden ratio will give you a sensible starting point. Determining how much space you should leave behind elements without having a reference point can be time-consuming and require a lot of effort. Instead, use the golden ratio diagram. Use the squares to determine where you should use positive space and where you should use negative space. Now you don’t have to calculate proportions from scratch any longer. Arranging content The same idea goes for arranging content. Using the golden ratio in design allows you to determine where each element should go. For this task, trace the golden spiral across the available space. You will find out what the center is and then arrange elements around it. Place the elements that are more important close to the focal point and the ones that are less important towards the edges of the spiral. Creating a balanced composition Another way of dividing the space using the golden ratio would be by separating the space into three different sections. The sections won’t be equal, but they will respect the 1:1.618 ratio. Split the space and place the elements based on their importance. Deciding what fonts to choose Choosing between different typefaces is also complicated in the design process. The golden ratio grid could be a great tool for selecting a typeface that meets the composition’s requirements. If the body text is 10 px, multiply it by 1.618. You will obtain 16.18 px which can be rounded to 16 px. This is the size you should use for headings. Designing a logo There are a few shapes that are called golden: triangle, square, circle, and spiral. When building a business logo, use a combination of golden shapes to create visual balance. Of course, you can embellish the logo using a lot of other design principles, but its base structure should be built using the golden ratio. Tips to Follow When Using the Golden Ratio Here are some other tips you may want to apply when using the golden ratio in design: Use the golden ratio to create grids for websites. If you apply the golden ratio to the basic size of a website layout, you will obtain a content area width of 846 px and a sidebar area of 520 px wide. Leave the height as it is when working with the sidebar and content area. You can use the golden ratio squares to determine how much space to leave between elements. Consider the golden rectangle for elements that are more important and smaller squares for elements that are less essential. Pay attention to golden ratio examples in design and see what difference they make. It will help you structure elements in your own projects. FAQs about the golden ratio 1. What is the golden ratio and how is it calculated? The larger amount to smaller quantity ratio must be equal to the ratio of the total of both quantities to the larger quantity in order to be considered the golden ratio, which is a mathematical notion. The Greek letter phi () is frequently used to represent this ratio, which has a rough value of 1.61803398875. There are numerous ways to compute it, such as utilizing the Fibonacci sequence and the square root of 5’s continuous fraction expansion. 2. What are some real-life examples of the golden ratio in nature and art? The spiral patterns in seashells, tree branches, and the arrangement of leaves on stems are just a few examples of how the golden ratio appears in nature. The golden ratio has been utilized in artistic compositions, including the positioning of subjects in paintings and the creation of sculptures and architectural designs. Examples include the Parthenon in Greece and the Vitruvian Man by Leonardo da Vinci. 3. What is the significance of the golden ratio in architecture and design? The golden ratio is important in architecture and design because it gives a building a sense of harmony and balance. The golden ratio is used by architects and designers to establish the proportions of structures, furniture, and other items. They frequently use the ratio while arranging floor plans, choosing window and door sizes, and placing ornamental features. 4. Can the golden ratio be found in the human body and facial features? The human body exhibits the golden ratio, particularly in facial features. According to studies, the distance between the eyes, the length of the nose, and the distance between the forehead and the chin all have proportions that are similar to the golden ratio. These observations, however, have come under fire for being subjective and lacking in scientific rigor. 5. Is the golden ratio a universally accepted principle of beauty? As a beauty rule, the golden ratio is not universally regarded. While many artists and designers have employed it throughout history, some detractors contend that doing so can result in formulaic and dependable creations. Others contend that as beauty is a matter of opinion, it cannot be summed up in a single mathematical ratio. 6. How has the golden ratio been used in music composition and instrument design? The length of musical sections and the placement of musical motifs have both been based on the golden ratio in musical composition. The Stradivarius violin, which is supposed to have been built utilizing the golden ratio, is just one example of a piece of musical equipment that has been said to have been designed using it. 7. Is it possible to create an infinite sequence of numbers that follow the golden ratio? The answer is that one can generate an unlimited series of numbers that adhere to the golden ratio. The Fibonacci sequence is a set of numbers where each number is the sum of the two numbers before it. The ratio of each number to the one before it gets closer to the golden ratio as the sequence goes on. 8. How has the golden ratio influenced mathematics and geometry? The golden ratio has had a variety of effects on geometry and mathematics. It has been used to determine the characteristics of numerous geometric shapes, including the pentagon, dodecahedron, and icosahedron, as well as to solve problems in number theory. It has also been applied to the study of chaos theory and fractals. 9. Are there any criticisms or controversies surrounding the use of the golden ratio? The subjectivity of the golden ratio and the dearth of concrete data to back up its application in design are some of its detractors. Some opponents contend that rather than being an innate concept of beauty, it is the result of cultural and historical biases. Also, the golden ratio can occasionally produce compositions that are too inflexible and predictable. 10. Can the golden ratio be applied in finance and investing? In banking and investing, the golden ratio has been used in a number of ways, including technical analysis and the computation of risk ratios. Based on trends in stock prices, some investors use the golden ratio to decide when to purchase or sell equities. Although the efficacy of these strategies is in question, many financial experts do not use the golden ratio as their main tool when making investments. Final thoughts on the golden ratio formula Now you know what the golden ratio is and how it can be used in design, it’s time to put it into practice. Play with golden shapes and see how they impact your design and transform the overall look of the project. Keep in mind that the golden ratio might not apply to particular projects. Ask for feedback and see what clients feel about it. Remain patient, as mastering the golden ratio in design could take years. Even so, memorize these handy tips and apply them whenever you have the chance and you will find your designs improving magically before your very eyes. If you enjoyed reading this article on golden ratio in design, you should check out this one on login page design. Ivan Zdravkovic is a front-end developer with extensive hands-on experience with booking plugins. He always tries to deliver innovative solutions and provide users with a more personalized experience with Amelia. Ivan spends his spare time creating hand-made furniture, crafting wood, and making traditional drinks. Privacy Overview This website uses cookies to improve your experience while you navigate through the website. Out of these, the cookies that are categorized as necessary are stored on your browser as they are essential for the working of basic functionalities of the website. We also use third-party cookies that help us analyze and understand how you use this website. These cookies will be stored in your browser only with your consent. You also have the option to opt-out of these cookies. But opting out of some of these cookies may affect your browsing experience. Necessary cookies help make a site usable to end-users by enabling basic functions like page navigation, security, network management and accessibility and access to secure areas of the Website. The Website cannot function properly without these cookies. Cookie Duration Description __cfduid 1 month The cookie is used by cdn services like CloudFlare to identify individual clients behind a shared IP address and apply security settings on a per-client basis. It does not correspond to any user ID in the web application and does not store any personally identifiable information. ac_enable_tracking 1 month This cookie is set by the Active Campaign. 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Leave the height as it is when working with the sidebar and content area. You can use the golden ratio squares to determine how much space to leave between elements. Consider the golden rectangle for elements that are more important and smaller squares for elements that are less essential. Pay attention to golden ratio examples in design and see what difference they make. It will help you structure elements in your own projects. FAQs about the golden ratio 1. What is the golden ratio and how is it calculated? The larger amount to smaller quantity ratio must be equal to the ratio of the total of both quantities to the larger quantity in order to be considered the golden ratio, which is a mathematical notion. The Greek letter phi () is frequently used to represent this ratio, which has a rough value of 1.61803398875. There are numerous ways to compute it, such as utilizing the Fibonacci sequence and the square root of 5’s continuous fraction expansion. 2. What are some real-life examples of the golden ratio in nature and art? The spiral patterns in seashells, tree branches, and the arrangement of leaves on stems are just a few examples of how the golden ratio appears in nature. The golden ratio has been utilized in artistic compositions, including the positioning of subjects in paintings and the creation of sculptures and architectural designs. Examples include the Parthenon in Greece and the Vitruvian Man by Leonardo da Vinci. 3. What is the significance of the golden ratio in architecture and design? The golden ratio is important in architecture and design because it gives a building a sense of harmony and balance. The golden ratio is used by architects and designers to establish the proportions of structures, furniture, and other items. They frequently use the ratio while arranging floor plans, choosing window and door sizes, and placing ornamental features. 4. Can the golden ratio be found in the human body and facial features? The human body exhibits the golden ratio, particularly in facial features. According to studies, the distance between the eyes, the length of the nose, and the distance between the forehead and the chin all have proportions that are similar to the golden ratio.

yes

Biomathematics

Are human facial features based on the Golden ratio?

no_statement

"human" "facial" "features" are not "based" on the golden "ratio".. the golden "ratio" does not determine "human" "facial" "features".

https://bostonheartdiagnostics.com/news/a-healthy-waist-is-less-than-half-your-height/

A Healthy Waist is Less than Half Your Height – Boston Heart

A Healthy Waist is Less than Half Your Height Leonardo da Vinci’s globally recognized illustration “Vitruvian Man”, created around 1490 AD, is an inspirational reminder that human bodies are amazingly symmetrical, beautiful and functional. For example, human arm span is the same length as body height, forming a square in his illustration. At the center of a circle, circumscribed by outstretched arms and legs, is the navel. The navel is also located at the “golden ratio” point along the human body. The golden ratio, a measure of symmetry and natural beauty famous among mathematicians and architects (symbolized by the Greek letter phi), can be found throughout the body when analyzing the lengths of related body parts, body dimensions, and facial features. In fact, symmetry and special ratios can be found throughout the natural world, and in the physical laws of nature and the universe. (Learn more about the golden ratio). The very special ratio of waist circumference to body height (W:Ht ratio), scientifically validated primarily by Dr. Margaret Ashwell, is an important health measure. A healthy waist circumference, measured at the navel, is less than half the body height. Excess unhealthy body fat, which increases risk for heart disease, diabetes, and related health problems, produces a waist to height ratio of 0.5 or higher. A ratio of 0.6 or higher is especially concerning. A ratio of less than 0.4 is also out of balance from being too slender or underweight. Once you measure your waist size and height, you can check your ratio by using this chart. This “golden” waist to height ratio applies to all people. This is what makes it so beautiful and attractive, both philosophically and medically. No matter your age, race, gender, build, muscularity, or just about any other factor—the healthy range holds true. This is also a great advantage over using the Body Mass Index (BMI) to estimate excess body fat. BMI measurements compare the body weight to the body height, a reasonable but notoriously imperfect way of indicating obesity, overweight, or normal body weight. For example, some individuals with a BMI of 25.0 (kg per sq. meter) have excess unhealthy body fat, while others do not—especially lean athletes with a muscular build, and taller healthy men. However, accounting for the waist size will distinguish between healthy and unhealthy (excess) body fat levels better than body weight or BMI because it matters where the body fat is carried. Scientific studies1-2 document the superiority of the waist-to-height ratio over body mass index (or waist size alone) for predicting heart disease, type 2 diabetes, and related risk factors, as well as longevity. Therefore, measuring the waist size is a highly recommended step. Doing so might be a little bit more effort than measuring the weight, but it adds important health information about heart disease risk and longevity not captured by the scale alone. The Boston Heart Lifestyle Program, which provides patients with scientifically designed, individualized dietary and exercise advice and support, uses the waist-to-height ratio rather than BMI. A proven way to get closer to the healthy “golden” waist-to-height ratio, is to embrace the power of lifestyle change, get a Life Plan, and work with our registered dietitian coaches via telephone to minimize your risk and maximize your health. The time to act is now! As Leonardo da Vinci himself exclaimed: “I have been impressed with the urgency of doing. Knowing is not enough; we must apply. Being willing is not enough; we must do.” Boston Heart Diagnostics is transforming the treatment of cardiovascular disease and related diseases with novel diagnostics, reports, and a personalized, scientifically designed nutrition and lifestyle program that have the power to change the way healthcare providers and patients communicate about heart health.

A Healthy Waist is Less than Half Your Height Leonardo da Vinci’s globally recognized illustration “Vitruvian Man”, created around 1490 AD, is an inspirational reminder that human bodies are amazingly symmetrical, beautiful and functional. For example, human arm span is the same length as body height, forming a square in his illustration. At the center of a circle, circumscribed by outstretched arms and legs, is the navel. The navel is also located at the “golden ratio” point along the human body. The golden ratio, a measure of symmetry and natural beauty famous among mathematicians and architects (symbolized by the Greek letter phi), can be found throughout the body when analyzing the lengths of related body parts, body dimensions, and facial features. In fact, symmetry and special ratios can be found throughout the natural world, and in the physical laws of nature and the universe. (Learn more about the golden ratio). The very special ratio of waist circumference to body height (W:Ht ratio), scientifically validated primarily by Dr. Margaret Ashwell, is an important health measure. A healthy waist circumference, measured at the navel, is less than half the body height. Excess unhealthy body fat, which increases risk for heart disease, diabetes, and related health problems, produces a waist to height ratio of 0.5 or higher. A ratio of 0.6 or higher is especially concerning. A ratio of less than 0.4 is also out of balance from being too slender or underweight. Once you measure your waist size and height, you can check your ratio by using this chart. This “golden” waist to height ratio applies to all people. This is what makes it so beautiful and attractive, both philosophically and medically. No matter your age, race, gender, build, muscularity, or just about any other factor—the healthy range holds true. This is also a great advantage over using the Body Mass Index (BMI) to estimate excess body fat. BMI measurements compare the body weight to the body height, a reasonable but notoriously imperfect way of indicating obesity, overweight, or normal body weight. For example, some individuals with a BMI of 25.

yes

Biomathematics

Are human facial features based on the Golden ratio?

no_statement

"human" "facial" "features" are not "based" on the golden "ratio".. the golden "ratio" does not determine "human" "facial" "features".

https://drseanmoodley.co.za/beauty-is-in-the-eye-of-the-beholder-golden-ratio/

Beauty is in the eye of the beholder - Dr Sean Moodley

Beauty is in the eye of the beholder The Golden Ratio Debate In my practice as a plastic surgeon, I am often asked the question by my patients: do you consider me beautiful? And I am certain many of you have had to answer this question at some point or the other. It shouldn’t be an easy question to answer and yet we tend to respond in a split second. What is it that makes a person physically beautiful? We all know physical beauty when we see it, but what are the instant cognitive processes that lead to these quick judgements on what is beautiful and what is not? I’d like to share with you my thoughts and insights on the matter. The question of what leads us to make these judgements has preoccupied the minds of many scientists, philosophers and mathematicians over centuries. Aristotle said “The chief forms of beauty are order and symmetry and definiteness ” and claimed that science proved this wherever you looked. He defined beauty as “a sense of harmonious or aesthetically pleasing proportionality,” and during this booming era of Greek philosophy (c. 500 BC), multiple arithmetic principles such as 1:1 “unity” ratio, the axial facial division into thirds, and the Golden Ratio came to light. The Golden Ratio, also known as phi or 1.618, is found by dividing a line such that the ratio of the short segment to the long segment is equivalent to the ratio of the long segment to the entire line (Figure 1). figure 1. Initially described as the Parthenon Phidias, it has been referred to as the Fibonacci ratio or the “divine proportion” and is found throughout nature, from the structure of DNA to the Milky Way, architecture and art, with probably the most famous pieces being the Vetruvian Man (Figure 2) and the Mona Lisa by Leonarda Da Vinci. figure 2. Some suggest that facial features that adhere to the Golden Ratio are physically more attractive. I don’t know if this is entirely true, but I do know how important balance is for facial appearance. Beauty in symmetry arises from balanced proportions rather than simply mirror images. Symmetry is considered to be a reflection of genetic superiority. Furthermore, there is a strong correlation between beauty and happiness: through increased economic advantages and earning potential, popularity and confidence, contributing to the notion that “beauty is power”. The most alluring ratio seen throughout our world is TheGolden Ratio. Dr. Stephen R. Marquardt[1], an American plastic surgeon, performed cross-cultural surveys on beauty in modern and historical times. He found that beauty is related to the Golden Ratio and it is the same for both genders and for all races and cultures. This finding led him to develop the controversial Marquardt Mask, completely based on the Golden Ratio as a model applied to human faces to determine optimum beauty. Dr. Mounir Bashour[2], an American ophthalmologist, conducted a study which supports Marquardt findings. Bashour applied the mask on 72 European Caucasian individuals and judged their appearance accordingly. He found that the mask model correlated strongly with attractiveness, however, contradictory to the previous studies, Holland’s study[3] found that Marquardt’s mask describes “facial proportions of masculinized white women as seen in fashion models,” and does not accurately reflect the“ideal” faces of all other women, especially non-Caucasians. Irrespective of the common importance of balance and the Golden Ratio, individuals of different cultures have different perceptions of beauty. This observation is further complicated by the dynamic nature of the face and the swift ability of the human eye to detect irregularities and asymmetries in movement. When I create a surgical plan for my patients, I always keep balance in mind and strive to ensure that each change I make improves the facial harmony, balance and flow. Flow indicates how one facial area flows into the next. This flow must be as natural and unobstructed as possible. When carrying out aesthetic procedures, I am also aware of the dangers of creating a statically beautiful face but one that is less so on movement. The importance of facial movement has nurtured my keen interest in the development of 3D image captivation and led me to include videos of my facial surgery patients rather than just static photographs in my portfolio and attempting to quantify beauty in motion subjectively and objectively and not apply a one-mask-fits-all approach to them. Bringing facial features into better balance can improve overall appearance. For example two surgeries I often use to enhance facial harmony are rhinoplasty (surgical and non-surgical) and facial implants (chin implants) and fillers. If your face is out of balance and you want to improve your Golden Ratio, these procedures will work well. It is evident that the aesthetic characterisation of facial beauty cannot be reduced to merely an“ ideal” Golden Ratio. The Golden Ratio is simple and beguiling as a theory but it is ultimately incomplete. It does however offer a good explanation of upon what basis the quick judgements about beauty are being formed. My job as a plastic and reconstructive surgeon is to first of all understand my patients’ needs and background. I take as much into account as possible and strive to make my patient look naturally rejuvenated and become a more aesthetically pleasing version of an already beautiful person. So in my world of plastic surgery, it is never a case of a quick fix: I rather opt for a thorough understanding of the situation and my patient, promote efficient decision making regarding a treatment plan based on a comprehensive range of research and results. He retired from active surgical practice after 27 years and currently conducts his research on human attractiveness in Orange County, California. Marquardt is an active member of the Societies of Maxillofacial Surgeons. He has developed what is called the “Beauty Masks” or “Facial Masks” which use mathematics to try to measure the ratios of beauty.[1] [2] Dr. Mounir Bashour is an ophthalmologist in Syracuse, New York. He received his medical degree from McGill University Faculty of Medicine and has been in practice for more than 20 years. He also speaks multiple languages, including Arabic and French.

The Golden Ratio, also known as phi or 1.618, is found by dividing a line such that the ratio of the short segment to the long segment is equivalent to the ratio of the long segment to the entire line (Figure 1). figure 1. Initially described as the Parthenon Phidias, it has been referred to as the Fibonacci ratio or the “divine proportion” and is found throughout nature, from the structure of DNA to the Milky Way, architecture and art, with probably the most famous pieces being the Vetruvian Man (Figure 2) and the Mona Lisa by Leonarda Da Vinci. figure 2. Some suggest that facial features that adhere to the Golden Ratio are physically more attractive. I don’t know if this is entirely true, but I do know how important balance is for facial appearance. Beauty in symmetry arises from balanced proportions rather than simply mirror images. Symmetry is considered to be a reflection of genetic superiority. Furthermore, there is a strong correlation between beauty and happiness: through increased economic advantages and earning potential, popularity and confidence, contributing to the notion that “beauty is power”. The most alluring ratio seen throughout our world is TheGolden Ratio. Dr. Stephen R. Marquardt[1], an American plastic surgeon, performed cross-cultural surveys on beauty in modern and historical times. He found that beauty is related to the Golden Ratio and it is the same for both genders and for all races and cultures. This finding led him to develop the controversial Marquardt Mask, completely based on the Golden Ratio as a model applied to human faces to determine optimum beauty. Dr. Mounir Bashour[2], an American ophthalmologist, conducted a study which supports Marquardt findings. Bashour applied the mask on 72 European Caucasian individuals and judged their appearance accordingly.

yes

Philosophy

Are humans fundamentally good or evil?

yes_statement

"humans" are "fundamentally" "good".. the nature of "humans" is "fundamentally" "good".

https://www.bbc.com/future/article/20130114-are-we-naturally-good-or-bad

Are we naturally good or bad? - BBC Future

Are we naturally good or bad? It's a question humanity has repeatedly asked itself, and one way to find out is to take a closer look at the behaviour of babies.… and use puppets. F Fundamentally speaking, are humans good or bad? It's a question that has repeatedly been asked throughout humanity. For thousands of years, philosophers have debated whether we have a basically good nature that is corrupted by society, or a basically bad nature that is kept in check by society. Psychology has uncovered some evidence which might give the old debate a twist. One way of asking about our most fundamental characteristics is to look at babies. Babies' minds are a wonderful showcase for human nature. Babies are humans with the absolute minimum of cultural influence – they don't have many friends, have never been to school and haven't read any books. They can't even control their own bowels, let alone speak the language, so their minds are as close to innocent as a human mind can get. The only problem is that the lack of language makes it tricky to gauge their opinions. Normally we ask people to take part in experiments, giving them instructions or asking them to answer questions, both of which require language. Babies may be cuter to work with, but they are not known for their obedience. What's a curious psychologist to do? Fortunately, you don't necessarily have to speak to reveal your opinions. Babies will reach for things they want or like, and they will tend to look longer at things that surprise them. Ingenious experiments carried out at Yale University in the US used these measures to look at babies' minds. Their results suggest that even the youngest humans have a sense of right and wrong, and, furthermore, an instinct to prefer good over evil. How could the experiments tell this? Imagine you are a baby. Since you have a short attention span, the experiment will be shorter and loads more fun than most psychology experiments. It was basically a kind of puppet show; the stage a scene featuring a bright green hill, and the puppets were cut-out shapes with stick on wobbly eyes; a triangle, a square and a circle, each in their own bright colours. What happened next was a short play, as one of the shapes tried to climb the hill, struggling up and falling back down again. Next, the other two shapes got involved, with either one helping the climber up the hill, by pushing up from behind, or the other hindering the climber, by pushing back from above. Already something amazing, psychologically, is going on here. All humans are able to interpret the events in the play in terms of the story I’ve described. The puppets are just shapes. They don't make human sounds or display human emotions. They just move about, and yet everyone reads these movements as purposeful, and revealing of their characters. You can argue that this “mind reading”, even in infants, shows that it is part of our human nature to believe in other minds. Great expectations What happened next tells us even more about human nature. After the show, infants were given the choice of reaching for either the helping or the hindering shape, and it turned out they were much more likely to reach for the helper. This can be explained if they are reading the events of the show in terms of motivations – the shapes aren't just moving at random, but they showed to the infant that the shape pushing uphill "wants" to help out (and so is nice) and the shape pushing downhill "wants" to cause problems (and so is nasty). The researchers used an encore to confirm these results. Infants saw a second scene in which the climber shape made a choice to move towards either the helper shape or the hinderer shape. The time infants spent looking in each of the two cases revealed what they thought of the outcome. If the climber moved towards the hinderer the infants looked significantly longer than if the climber moved towards the helper. This makes sense if the infants were surprised when the climber approached the hinderer. Moving towards the helper shape would be the happy ending, and obviously it was what the infant expected. If the climber moved towards the hinderer it was a surprise, as much as you or I would be surprised if we saw someone give a hug to a man who had just knocked him over. The way to make sense of this result is if infants, with their pre-cultural brains had expectations about how people should act. Not only do they interpret the movement of the shapes as resulting from motivations, but they prefer helping motivations over hindering ones. This doesn't settle the debate over human nature. A cynic would say that it just shows that infants are self-interested and expect others to be the same way. At a minimum though, it shows that tightly bound into the nature of our developing minds is the ability to make sense of the world in terms of motivations, and a basic instinct to prefer friendly intentions over malicious ones. It is on this foundation that adult morality is built. If you would like to comment on this story or anything else you have seen on Future, head over to our Facebook page or message us on Twitter.

Are we naturally good or bad? It's a question humanity has repeatedly asked itself, and one way to find out is to take a closer look at the behaviour of babies.… and use puppets. F Fundamentally speaking, are humans good or bad? It's a question that has repeatedly been asked throughout humanity. For thousands of years, philosophers have debated whether we have a basically good nature that is corrupted by society, or a basically bad nature that is kept in check by society. Psychology has uncovered some evidence which might give the old debate a twist. One way of asking about our most fundamental characteristics is to look at babies. Babies' minds are a wonderful showcase for human nature. Babies are humans with the absolute minimum of cultural influence – they don't have many friends, have never been to school and haven't read any books. They can't even control their own bowels, let alone speak the language, so their minds are as close to innocent as a human mind can get. The only problem is that the lack of language makes it tricky to gauge their opinions. Normally we ask people to take part in experiments, giving them instructions or asking them to answer questions, both of which require language. Babies may be cuter to work with, but they are not known for their obedience. What's a curious psychologist to do? Fortunately, you don't necessarily have to speak to reveal your opinions. Babies will reach for things they want or like, and they will tend to look longer at things that surprise them. Ingenious experiments carried out at Yale University in the US used these measures to look at babies' minds. Their results suggest that even the youngest humans have a sense of right and wrong, and, furthermore, an instinct to prefer good over evil. How could the experiments tell this? Imagine you are a baby. Since you have a short attention span, the experiment will be shorter and loads more fun than most psychology experiments. It was basically a kind of puppet show; the stage a scene featuring a bright green hill, and the puppets were cut-out shapes with stick on wobbly eyes; a triangle, a square and a circle, each in their own bright colours.

yes

Philosophy

Are humans fundamentally good or evil?

yes_statement

"humans" are "fundamentally" "good".. the nature of "humans" is "fundamentally" "good".

https://www.nationalaffairs.com/publications/detail/human-nature-and-the-constitution

Human Nature and the Constitution | National Affairs

number 56 • Summer 2023 Human Nature and the Constitution Winter 2023 Implicit in every political ideology is a conception of human nature, even if it is only the conceit that humans have no fixed nature. Are people fundamentally good or bad? Are they intractable and incorrigible, or are they pliable, perhaps perfectible? Are they atomistic, ever intent on prioritizing their own good at the expense of others, or are they altruistic, naturally inclined to aid and support those around them? The answers to such questions will shape one's vision of government, and sustain in some the hope that a day may dawn when man no longer has any need for it. No doubt there are insights to be gleaned from man's inability to dispose of such questions, though what those insights may be is unclear. Does that inability speak to man's ignorance or inquisitiveness? To his profundity or vacuity? To his limitations or want thereof? Perhaps one insight to be garnered from this perennial quest for answers is that without some shared consensus, it is difficult for a people to remain united — that is, to remain a people. While conflicting views of human nature can be balanced among nations, if often only precariously, that balance becomes much more delicate when a people wars with itself over such matters of foundational import. Vexed and riven thus, a nation cannot long remain a nation. This is ultimately because governments are reflections of the people they govern. While man's need for government may be the greatest of all reflections on human nature, different forms of government will reflect that nature differently. Oftentimes the conceptions of human nature embedded in those forms of government are done so only tacitly, but the American form does so deliberately. As Alexander Hamilton wrote in Federalist No. 1: [I]t seems to have been reserved to the people of this country, by their conduct and example, to decide the important question, whether societies of men are really capable or not of establishing good government from reflection and choice, or whether they are forever destined to depend for their political constitutions on accident and force. In their efforts to design a government and help decide that important question, the framers were guided by a particular conception of man — a classical-liberal conception, one that cannot be reconciled with the classical (as in pre-liberal) view that antecedes it and the (post-)modern one that threatens to undo it. Whether America conserves its classical-liberal roots or propagates a post-modern rootlessness is no trifling matter; America swayed by a reconception of man would be an America reconceived. NATURAL ENDS The classical conception of human nature was rooted in a teleological view of the cosmos and man's place in it. On this understanding, all beings in nature — human ones included — have ends toward which they are naturally directed. The paradigmatic example is that of an acorn whose natural end is to become a mighty oak. An acorn that did not manage to sprout and take root would be considered deficient, on the grounds that it failed to hit its designated target or actualize its latent potentiality. As with acorns, so too with humans. What distinguishes man from other organisms is speech, or reason and understanding. It is the development of this particular quality that is man's telos. Accordingly, the life of the mind and the life of bodily pleasure are not commensurable, since one is the distinctive way of humans and the other is indistinguishable from the ways of brutes. Given that contemplativeness is so rarely in season, one might descry in this cosmic scheme a prodigality of astounding proportions. For just as the majority of acorns never reach their natural end, so too do the majority of humans fail to reach theirs. Perhaps the odds are never in one's favor, and so as to ensure a modicum of success, nature sows her seeds liberally and — given that the vast majority must wither — callously. Like children, nature can be cruel. From these premises, an anti-democratic predilection logically results. As Cambridge professor Paul Cartledge observed, "ancient Greek authors who wrote...about democracy as such, or about particular democracies...wrote very consciously against democracy, either on principle or on pragmatic grounds or both." The enduring fact of the matter is that wisdom has ever been reserved for the few — a truth that the age of democracy emphatically affirms in spite of itself. Whether this is a constitutional element of humanity, as Alexis de Tocqueville would have it ("[i]ntellectual inequality comes directly from God and man cannot prevent it from existing always"), or a dispositional one, as Friedrich Nietzsche would have it ("men everywhere...have a propensity for laziness"), is, for present purposes, immaterial: The outcome is the same. Democracy is tantamount to mob rule; it entails, inevitably it would seem, that the wise be (mis)led by the unwise. The ability to realize one's potential demands a great deal of discipline or compulsion. Insofar as nature prescribes what her children ought to be or how they ought to develop, one is not free to become whatever one likes. A teleological land is not exactly one of opportunity: To put it somewhat paradoxically, man does not reach his natural end naturally — or maybe slightly less paradoxically, automatically. What follows is that, from a teleological vantage point, democracy is deleterious, in no small part because democracies are intrinsically directionless. At the very least, they have no higher aim. The animating principle of the democratic regime is freedom, but a negative freedom, a freedom from restraint, a freedom that amounts to license. Animated thus, democratic man flouts the natural order by contravening the hierarchy that inheres in it. In essence, then, the democratic order is a disorder, for among those whom appetite rules, there can be no rule (understood here as "measure"). In the bedlam that ensues, higher and lower are confused, if not effaced outright, and the contemplative life cedes its pride of place to the appetitive. It is hardly a coincidence that the discovery that man is in substance but a beast was reserved for the age of democracy. NATURAL BEGINNINGS The anti-democratic leanings that littered antiquity withered away with the advent of modernity. The degree to which democracy is venerated in the present day — even North Korea thinks it profitable to present itself as one — indicates how sharply modern man's perspective diverges from that of his classical predecessors. To some extent, that divergence can be traced back to the abandonment of the teleological mindset, which coincides with the dawn of modernity — and not incidentally, but instrumentally. From the modern method, questions of purpose were excluded. Instead of conceiving man in the light of his natural end, modern thinkers began to ponder him in the light of his natural beginning. This approach was emblematized by the state-of-nature theorists who "returned" to a pre-societal world to divine what human beings would be like in the absence of government. Whether such a state ever existed is in some ways beside the point. The question that spurred their speculative endeavors was: What would humans, shorn of all societal accoutrements, look like? If society were to break down, would man reveal himself to be more angel or beast? What they beheld — at least the early modern theorists among them — was not uplifting: At heart, man is a rapacious knave who will maltreat his fellow man to profit himself, and will cease only when his own fears and physical limitations compel him to do so. This leads to Thomas Hobbes's famous characterization of man's natural state as a bellum omnium contra omnes [war of all against all], wherein "the life of man [is] solitary, poore, nasty, brutish, and short." From such foundational insights certain political lessons could be drawn, not least of which is that without authority there can be no peace; and not just any authority, but — in Hobbes's view, at least — an absolute one. On the face of it, this is not exactly an antidote to the anti-democratic teachings of the ancients, but Hobbes's notion of human nature had liberalizing consequences all the same. For what the Monster of Malmesbury concluded was that man's inhumanity is ineradicable. The proof was that neither the classical commitment to virtue nor the Christian exaltation of charity had done much, if anything, to ameliorate his nefarious ways — a lesson mercilessly hammered home in Hobbes's day during the Thirty Years' War, when Christian fell upon Christian with staggering savagery. Since humans evidently could not be corrected, it would be best to constrain them. And for this, in Hobbes's telling, an indivisible and absolute sovereign would be most effective. It was John Locke who grasped the rather glaring problem with this solution — namely that giving absolute power to a sovereign possessed of the same vices that convulse those he lords over is a recipe for man's ruin, not his happiness. But Locke's teaching is not so much a repudiation of Hobbes as it is a reformation: Limited government, not absolute government, is the key to peace and prosperity. While Locke rejects Hobbes's remedy, he accepts his premise that at bottom, man is an incurable miscreant whose avarice cannot be stamped out, but can be restrained or channeled. To mitigate the interminable discord that has pervaded history, Locke argued it would be more effective to establish institutions designed to check, rather than mend, the wicked ways of man. What follows from this — for Hobbes no less than Locke — is that human beings should largely be left alone. That is, the state — be it absolute or limited — should posit clear bounds regarding lawful behavior, but within those bounds should leave people free to pursue their own interests as they see fit, without paying any heed to the loftiness (or lack thereof) of those pursuits. Here lies the groundwork for classical liberalism, whose qualifier should not conceal its very modern bent. The state exists for the people, not the people for the state, and the object of the state is not to elevate or ennoble the people, but to protect the people and their elemental rights from the malign forces that perennially threaten to destroy them. Locke is typically credited with siring liberalism, but as Leo Strauss noted: If we may call liberalism that political doctrine which regards as the fundamental political fact the rights, as distinguished from the duties, of man and which identifies the function of the state with the protection or the safeguarding of those rights, we must say that the founder of liberalism was Hobbes. MAN DENATURED Whatever liberalism's lineage may be, a radically different vision of human nature emerged in the century that succeeded Hobbes and Locke — a vision that lent itself to a commensurately radical conception of the state. It was Jean-Jacques Rousseau who most forcefully undercut the accounts of his predecessors — both ancient and (early) modern. Rousseau accepted the reductive approach of the state-of-nature theorists, but he rejected their findings. In his view, those theorists had not gone back far enough. "The philosophers who have examined the foundations of society," he proclaimed, "have all felt the necessity of going back to the state of nature, but none of them has reached it." The being those philosophers purported to espy in the state of nature had too many of the trappings of civilization — as Rousseau put it, "they spoke of savage man but described civil man." Thinking through this experiment to its logical conclusion (or beginning), Rousseau found that man is by nature subhuman; a being with neither reason, nor speech, nor pride, nor property — features that, in various permutations, inhered in man naturally according to Hobbes and Locke, and defined who or what he is. In Rousseau's telling, man's natural state is not one of war and privation, but one of peace and plenty. Ironically, it was only when humans quit this Arcadian world that their existence was beset by that host of ills that has been a consistent source of lamentation throughout the ages: strife, scarcity, oppression, and the like. Perhaps the most momentous takeaway from all this was that, far from being naturally bad, man was naturally good. He was not warped by nature, but by society. Yet if man was naturally good and had become bad, he could be made — or remade — to be good again. And not just good: Man could be perfected. From this conception of human nature, a very different state — or maybe more to the point, a state with a very different raison d'être — is born. For the classical liberal, there is something stubborn in man that refuses to bend. Because it is folly to attempt to straighten what must remain crooked, the state should not concern itself with man's wayward desires, but only with those actions aroused by them that threaten the social order. A law-abiding reprobate is to be tolerated, not edified. Though himself no classical liberal, something of this spirit is reflected in Immanuel Kant's remark that the "problem of organizing a state, however hard it may seem, can be solved even for a race of devils, if only they are intelligent." But for the modern (or post-modern) liberal — and under this title should be subsumed not just the welfare-state liberal, but the socialist and communist as well — there is, in effect, nothing in man that cannot be bent. Humans are prodigiously pliant; almost limitlessly so. To permit man to remain crooked when it is possible to straighten him out would be irresponsible, even unconscionable. The problems that plague people are not so much their own fault, but society's. They stem not from some irrevocable defect that lurks in the human breast, but rather from the defective social order in which people find themselves immured. To rid the world of those problems, it is enough to simply rearrange that order. Correct society, and man will follow suit. Of course, for that Augean endeavor, a state of Herculean power is needed. THE NATURE OF THE STATE From the teleological point of view, the state is an almost tangential concern. What is required to put man on the right path — that is, the path that points toward the end to which nature (pre)disposes him — is the proper orientation of his inner world; an orientation that the state, however it is arranged, is ill-suited to effect. The ordering of his soul counts for much more than the political order under which he lives. This is not to say that the political order is irrelevant. The likelihood that a soul might flourish and bear fruit under a tyrant who brutalizes his people is appreciably smaller than it is in a democracy where freedom abounds and all walks of life — including the highest — may be found (a saving grace of democracy in the eyes of those doggedly anti-democratic ancients). One lesson to be gleaned from Plato's Republicis that while the factionless state is a chimera, the factionless soul is not. The key to achieving that harmony or health of soul is education — not of the state-funded or state-mandated variety, but of the sort one might procure at the Academy or the Stoa Poikile (or, once upon a time, a liberal-arts college). This reading of the Republic appears not to have been lost on Rousseau, who characterized it as "the most beautiful educational treatise ever written." Under the classical-liberal approach, the state assumes an importance it hitherto did not enjoy on account of a reconceiving of man — conceived no longer in light of his natural end, but his natural beginning. The orientation of man's inner world becomes a matter of inconsequence, while the proper administration of his external world becomes a matter of grave consequence. Or, to frame it differently, the equanimity that comes from living with a healthy soul is abandoned for the comfort that comes with living under a healthy state. Because human corruption cannot be effectively expunged, it is, pace Hobbes, vital to the stability of the state and the people who live under it that the state be limited — strong enough to rein in the people but not so strong that it can tyrannize over them. As James Madison mused in that wonderful distillation of the classical-liberal spirit: If men were angels, no government would be necessary. If angels were to govern men, neither external nor internal controls on government would be necessary. In framing a government which is to be administered by men over men, the great difficulty lies in this: You must first enable the government to control the governed; and in the next place, oblige it to control itself. This sense of resignation regarding the imperfectability of man is evident in the framers' constitutional design, which makes no effort to correct human behavior but many efforts to constrain it. It is true that the framers comprehended the existence of human greatness, no doubt recognizing that to varying degrees they partook of it, and consciously made space for that greatness in the system they constructed (e.g., by allowing for the re-eligibility of the executive, thereby providing a suitable outlet for "the love of fame, the ruling passion of the noblest minds," as Hamilton put it in Federalist No. 72). It is no less true that the system of federalism, wherein power is partitioned between a national government on the one hand and state and local governments on the other, allows for the sort of moral commitments at the local level that are neglected at the national one. But such caveats cannot conceal the passivity that is implicit in them. The constitutional design allows for greatness without promoting it, and in those laboratories of democracy that are scattered across the federal republic, people are no more obliged to tinker with virtue than they are with vice — a verity made evident in the current day when, in many of those laboratories, all manners of vice are not only indulged, but invited. The dearth of greatness in American politics and the societal decay that is so prominently on display in many corners of the republic would have disconcerted the framers, but the fact remains that while their constitutional order did not predestine such a dénouement, it did little to forestall it. What their constitutional order did succeed in forestalling, with astonishing success, no less, was its own dissolution. The realization that human depravity was at once ineradicable (as was evident from a study of human nature and, more demonstratively, from that of history) and manageable proved pivotal to that success. The framers' view of history inclined toward Voltaire's, which had it that history is but "the register of crimes and misfortunes" — hence their futile efforts to find a historical model to guide them in their novel undertaking: framing a democratic republic that would preserve the liberty of the people while preventing them from abusing that liberty to the point of tearing the republic (and themselves) apart. What the historical record revealed to the framers was that, for all his efforts to elevate himself — whether those efforts were made by ancient regimes dedicated to virtue or medieval ones devoted to God — man had depressingly little to show for it. In the end, the worst of man always got the better of him. Since humans could not be purged of their depravity, prudence compelled the framers to devise a political order in such a manner that man's misdeeds could be abided without sacrificing the lofty ends of that order. The system would absorb vice without being undone by it. This approach is evident in the Madisonian republic as expounded in Federalist No. 10. What comes to light in that celebrated essay is a sober, if not somber, assessment of a human nature into which the "latent causes of faction are...sown." Historically, factions have proven fatal for popular governments, and if that danger is but dimly felt today, it is due not to the common sense of the American people, but to the uncommon sense of those who framed their republic. For Madison, factions were not slight headaches that could be ignored until they passed, but "mortal diseases under which popular governments have everywhere perished." Plato, who lacked Madison's historical record to survey, understood the malignancy of factions not just for popular governments, but for all political orders. As he argued, the best regime was the one that was "freest from faction," for it is faction that lies at the root of all political decay. Plato's — or Socrates' — solution to this perennial problem was to construct a regime that relied on noble lies, a rigorous education of body and soul (with more rigor for the latter), a rigid stratification of society based on merit, and the marriage of wisdom and power (i.e., the rule of philosopher kings). The infeasibility of this ideal has been lost on many readers of the Republic and has done little to thwart the ambitions of modern revolutionaries, from the French to the Russian and beyond, who have embraced the spirit of the Socratic city, if not its letter. As that revolutionary work and those historical revolutions attest, it is an oppressive spirit, one that is categorically antipathetic to freedom. (Even the Republic's philosopher kings are unfree inasmuch as they are obliged to leave behind the supernal world of eternal Forms for the subterranean world of ephemeral shadows.) This solution to the problem of faction was not lost on Madison, who understood that "[l]iberty is to faction what air is to fire, an aliment without which it instantly expires." But he rejected it. In his mind, such a remedy was worse than the disease. For, in the absence of liberty, man ceases to be man; something vital in him is extinguished. If factions could not be eliminated, they would have to be accommodated, but in such a manner that the pestiferous effects of that incurable mortal disease would be palliated. Madison's ingenious and paradoxical solution to this problem was, in part, to foster the proliferation of factions. Whereas Plato and his epigones sought (in vain) to prevent the outgrowth of faction (and by implication, transform human nature), Madison and his fellow founders encouraged that outgrowth by extending the territory, so as to multiply and diversify factions and prevent the pernicious preponderance of any one. As a result America, by its very design, signifies a rebuke to the homogeneity demanded of all orders that have sought to cure "the mischiefs of faction" by removing its causes rather than controlling its effects. The other expedient intended to blunt faction's baleful effects can be found in America's republican, as opposed to democratic, form. And here, too, the framers' acceptance of man's incorrigibility can be detected. Democracy — understood as a social order in which the people themselves participate directly, rather than indirectly, in government — is fatally flawed, for its success depends on a transfiguration of man that cannot be effected. Even the radically egalitarian Rousseau appears to have appreciated as much: "If there were a people of gods, it would govern itself democratically," he observed. "So perfect a government is not suited to men." As Madison suggested, "[t]heoretic politicians, who have patronized [democracy], have erroneously supposed that by reducing mankind to a perfect equality in their political rights, they would, at the same time, be perfectly equalized and assimilated in their possessions, their opinions, and their passions." A more penetrating grasp of human nature permitted Madison and his brethren to apprehend what those theoretic politicians could not: that liberty and inequality inevitably go hand in hand, and that, because the "faculties of men" are "different and unequal," an equality of rights invariably leads to an inequality of outcomes. It is this inequality of outcomes — really, the "various and unequal distribution of property" — that has proven "the most common and durable source of factions." Perhaps a more enlightened race of beings would be able to put their latent differences and resulting inequalities aside and not permit their private interests to undermine the common good, but such beings would not be human. It is not so much that man is incapable of enlightenment, but that he is incapable of preventing his passions from confounding whatever enlightenment he has procured. As Hamilton observed, "[m]en are rather reasoning than reasonable animals, for the most part governed by the impulse of passion." It is for this reason that humans tend to disregard the common good in pursuit of their private one, insofar as the passions that are attached to one's own good are felt much more strongly than those attached to the common one (to the extent they are felt at all). By having the interests of the people represented by elected officials who themselves do not necessarily share them, the republican form of government achieves a mediation of the passions. A man who might be "disposed to vex and oppress" others to advance or defend his own interests will be apt to behave more moderately when he is advancing or defending the interests of others. America's constitutional system was designed to bring about an equilibrium between the antagonisms that must repose in any social order devoted to securing the blessings of liberty. It would be a poor design if the equilibrium it effected encompassed the governed but omitted those who govern — all the more so in view of the well-established correlation between corruption and power. If the corruptness of man is inborn, it would be folly to give to him too much power, for corruption feeds off power much as faction feeds off liberty. The problem is that one cannot govern effectively without power — a lesson the fledgling nation learned the hard way under the Articles of Confederation. What to do, then, about the need to deposit power in the hands of those who are liable to abuse it? The framers' solution here mirrors their approach to the problem of faction: They constructed a system that would check human behavior without aiming to correct it. Much as the factional interests that riddle the republic would offset one another, the ambitions of those who roam the corridors of power would counteract one another. It is not simply that powers are to be separated so as to forestall the concentration of too much power in one place; rather, the officials in each repository of power must be given the incentives and the means to protect their purview from the encroachments of others. Give the legislature the power of impeachment to check the gross misconduct of federal officers; the executive a veto power to check the machinations of an overbearing legislature; the court the power of judicial review to check those legislative and executive agendas that would subvert the Constitution rather than conform to it. A system framed thus is predicated on the conviction that man cannot be trusted with the power he is given. Indeed, the tendency to succumb to the temptations of power is so great and enduring that, for the framers, even this arrangement would not prove adequate. Accordingly, they disbursed power not only among the separate branches of the national government, but among subnational (i.e., state) governments as well. In doing so, they created a "compound republic" — a federalist system wherein the ambitions of states would counteract the ambitions of the national government and vice versa, thereby constituting a further check on the abuse of power and providing "a double security...to the rights of the people." It is a convoluted and consternating system, one that invites friction and often prevents business from getting done with much celerity. But that is the point: Human nature being what it is, the framers thought it better to create a system that checks the misbehavior of the many than one that relies on the good behavior of the few. It is a system fit for men, not angels; for incorrigibly crooked beings who, in spite of their best efforts (and worst), never can be made straight. LEVIATHAN UNBOUND Those who maintain that man's intrinsic plasticity holds the promise that he can one day be straightened reject the framers' classical-liberal approach. In the minds of (post-)modern liberals, humans in effect are angels; fallen, to be sure, though not because they have sinned, but because they have been forsaken. It is not some inward depravity that afflicts them, but material deprivation. To resurrect man's natural goodness, it is necessary to rid society, not man, of iniquities. Thus, in the minds of (post-)modern liberals, the aim of the state is to ensure that resources are (re)distributed equitably and that every member of society has his needs and wants met. The apprehension that man might be the sort of creature whose envy is ineradicable or thirst unslakable — who always wants more the more he has — is easily dismissed by those who champion this objective because humans once lived without want and knew contentment. Humans cannot be returned to the state of nature, but because humans are malleable and remediable, a state of perpetual happiness can be restored to them. And it is the state that will deliver it to them — or them to it. Motivated by this messianic ambition, the state and all those who serve it — whether directly or indirectly — are permitted an extraordinary latitude and scope of activity, including activity that otherwise would be considered impermissible. A classical liberal shares with his teleological precursor the conviction that human behavior needs to be constrained. The reasons for that constraint or the end for which that behavior is constrained may be different, but that there is a need for constraint is beyond dispute. "Why has government been instituted at all?" asked Hamilton rhetorically. "Because the passions of men will not conform to the dictates of reason and justice, without constraint." That need becomes much more tenuous with the advent of modern liberalism. To paraphrase Dostoyevsky's popularized dictum, if human nature does not exist, everything is permitted. For the (post-)modern liberal, this perspective does not pave the way for nihilism, but for justice. In order to attain a state of social harmony, a tremendous amount of disharmony is sanctioned, even encouraged. This logic underlies all revolutions that persecute and purge inordinate numbers of people in the name of some putative higher good, be it equality, perpetual peace, or universal brotherhood. It is a logic that can be discerned in Thomas Jefferson's exculpatory reflections on Jacobin excess ("[m]y own affections have been deeply wounded by some of the martyrs to this cause, but rather than it should have failed, I would have seen half the earth desolated"), as well as Eric Hobsbawm's condoning of mass murder and mass suffering. (When the Marxist historian was asked if "the loss of fifteen, twenty million people" would be justified to reach "the radiant tomorrow," Hobsbawm replied, "yes.") And it is a logic that, in a comparatively more mild manner, is reflected in the disdain for the rule of law that is so prominent among (post-)modern liberals today. That disdain has been painfully evident in the left's condoning of the "mostly peaceful protests" that brought about widespread destruction in the summer of 2020, its failure to secure the nation's borders and disregard for the dire ramifications that result from that failure, and the blithe neglect of crime that is consuming cities across the country. No wonder Friedrich Hayek considered the prevailing commitment to social justice — that "hollow incantation" — to be "at present probably the gravest threat to [the] values of a free civilization." A PITCHFORK IN THE ROAD With an eye to forestalling any specious retorts, let what ought to go without saying be said: Lawlessness is not the exclusive province of any one group of people. No faith, be it political or religious, can cleanse the soul of its corruption; no ideology can transmute men into angels. Indeed, that is one of the central precepts of classical liberalism. In spite of their reason and any feelings of natural sympathy they may harbor, people are, as a rule, dictated by self-interest, and will readily undermine the well-being of others to advance their own. But that is why, in principle at least, law and order are esteemed so highly in the classical-liberal tradition — for without it, men are reduced to savage beasts. And it is why transgressions of law and order are, again, in principle, not brooked lightly, for as Hamilton cautioned, "every breach of the fundamental laws...forms a precedent for [future] breaches." It should be lost on no one that the events of January 6th, 2021, have no defenders, save perhaps for those on the proverbial fringe, while the events of the summer of 2020 have no shortage of defenders, most of them comfortably removed from any fringe. There is an insoluble tension between these competing visions of human nature, wherein one sees man as being innately and incorrigibly flawed and the other as being inherently good and eminently perfectible. While Oliver Wendell Holmes, Jr., was right to note that the Constitution "is made for people of fundamentally differing opinions," the ascendancy of that latter vision cannot be squared with the spirit of the Union, for there can be little doubt that as conceived, America is rooted in the classical-liberal tradition. The Constitution, with its antipathy to change and cumbersome checks and balances, was designed to protect the people and their republic from themselves. That design is becoming increasingly insufferable to those who chafe under such restraints and who contend that, to quote H. L. Mencken, the "cure for the evils of democracy is more democracy." The anti-democratic components of America's constitutional order — from an Electoral College that marginalizes the popular vote, to a Senate that flouts the principle "one man, one vote," to an independent judiciary empowered to defy the will (and tyranny) of the majority — are fated to perish in the hands of (post-)modern liberals. But those components are not arbitrary or extraneous inclusions; they are integral to the constitutional framework. To remove them from that framework does not amount to tweaking the system, but to overturning it. When Elizabeth Powel stopped Benjamin Franklin outside the Pennsylvania State House to inquire about the type of government that the delegates had devised, Franklin's portentous reply was, "a republic, if you can keep it." One suspects that the framers would be much more surprised by how long Americans managed to keep it than by the swelling desire to do away with it. Tragically, those who hasten the demise of the republic are galvanized by an unbending faith in the plasticity and goodness of man that history is bound to repudiate yet again. And, what is more tragic still, they do so for naught.

In Rousseau's telling, man's natural state is not one of war and privation, but one of peace and plenty. Ironically, it was only when humans quit this Arcadian world that their existence was beset by that host of ills that has been a consistent source of lamentation throughout the ages: strife, scarcity, oppression, and the like. Perhaps the most momentous takeaway from all this was that, far from being naturally bad, man was naturally good. He was not warped by nature, but by society. Yet if man was naturally good and had become bad, he could be made — or remade — to be good again. And not just good: Man could be perfected. From this conception of human nature, a very different state — or maybe more to the point, a state with a very different raison d'être — is born. For the classical liberal, there is something stubborn in man that refuses to bend. Because it is folly to attempt to straighten what must remain crooked, the state should not concern itself with man's wayward desires, but only with those actions aroused by them that threaten the social order. A law-abiding reprobate is to be tolerated, not edified. Though himself no classical liberal, something of this spirit is reflected in Immanuel Kant's remark that the "problem of organizing a state, however hard it may seem, can be solved even for a race of devils, if only they are intelligent." But for the modern (or post-modern) liberal — and under this title should be subsumed not just the welfare-state liberal, but the socialist and communist as well — there is, in effect, nothing in man that cannot be bent. Humans are prodigiously pliant; almost limitlessly so. To permit man to remain crooked when it is possible to straighten him out would be irresponsible, even unconscionable. The problems that plague people are not so much their own fault, but society's.

yes

Philosophy

Are humans fundamentally good or evil?

yes_statement

"humans" are "fundamentally" "good".. the nature of "humans" is "fundamentally" "good".

https://www.reddit.com/r/changemyview/comments/21ic6x/cmv_i_dont_believe_people_are_fundamentally_good/

CMV: I don't believe people are fundamentally good. : r/changemyview

There is so much unnecessary suffering in the world. Hunger, violence, hate, war etc. The only thing stopping world peace is just for people to stop fighting each other. There is more then enough food to feed everybody, but still so many are hungry. In the western world, people will kill each other over matters that seem banal when contrasted to the fact that children are dying by the millions (six million per year). There is absolutely no reason for this other then that people are only good as so far it's good for them to be good. Civilization is only skin deep. Once people are really challenged, so few pas the test. We praise those who do, these unlikely heroes, precisely because we know it's not in our nature to act unselfishly. We are just animals. Though evolved to be intelligent and social, still unable to create the paradise we can all imagine. And even though we may have, as Rousseau puts it, 'the softest of hearts', our heart is still so much blacker then we like to think it is. Change my view. Edit: There seem to be a couple of returning points that i shall address here. Saying people are not fundamentally good is not saying people are bad/evil. If we can't define what is good or bad (or define what morality is), then people can't be fundamentally good. Archived post. New comments cannot be posted and votes cannot be cast.

There is so much unnecessary suffering in the world. Hunger, violence, hate, war etc. The only thing stopping world peace is just for people to stop fighting each other. There is more then enough food to feed everybody, but still so many are hungry. In the western world, people will kill each other over matters that seem banal when contrasted to the fact that children are dying by the millions (six million per year). There is absolutely no reason for this other then that people are only good as so far it's good for them to be good. Civilization is only skin deep. Once people are really challenged, so few pas the test. We praise those who do, these unlikely heroes, precisely because we know it's not in our nature to act unselfishly. We are just animals. Though evolved to be intelligent and social, still unable to create the paradise we can all imagine. And even though we may have, as Rousseau puts it, 'the softest of hearts', our heart is still so much blacker then we like to think it is. Change my view. Edit: There seem to be a couple of returning points that i shall address here. Saying people are not fundamentally good is not saying people are bad/evil. If we can't define what is good or bad (or define what morality is), then people can't be fundamentally good. Archived post. New comments cannot be posted and votes cannot be cast.

no

Philosophy

Are humans fundamentally good or evil?

yes_statement

"humans" are "fundamentally" "good".. the nature of "humans" is "fundamentally" "good".

https://plato.stanford.edu/entries/mencius/

Mencius (Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy)

Mencius Mencius (fourth century BCE) was a Confucian philosopher. Often referred to as the “Second Sage” of Confucianism (meaning second in importance only to Confucius himself), Mencius is best known for his claim that “human nature is good.” He has attracted interest in recent Western philosophy because his views on the virtues, ethical cultivation, and human nature have intriguing similarities with but also provocative differences from familiar Humean and Aristotelian formulations. 1. Life and Confucian Background “Mencius” is a Latinization (coined by Jesuit missionaries in the 17th century) of the Chinese “Mengzi,” meaning Master Meng. His full name was “Meng Ke.” Our main access to Mencius’s thinking is through the eponymous collection of his dialogues, debates, and sayings, the Mengzi (Mencius). This work was probably compiled by his disciples or disciples of his disciples. It was subsequently edited and shortened by Zhao Qi in the second century C.E., who also wrote a commentary on the text. This version of the text was used by subsequent scholars and is the version available to us nowadays. The received text of the Mengzi is divided into seven “books,” each of which is subdivided into two parts (labeled “A” and “B” in English), and then further subdivided into “chapters.” As a result, a passage can be uniquely identified in any translation; for example, 1A1 is the first passage in any edition or translation of the text and 7B38 is the last. Mencius lived in the second half of the Zhou dynasty (c. 1040–221 BCE), a period of great social and intellectual ferment. The founders of the Zhou dynasty had justified their rule by claiming that it was mandated by Heaven (tiān). Heaven is a higher power that is responsible for the general course of history, and that favors those with Virtue (dé).[1] However, during the Eastern Zhou period (770–221 BCE), it seemed increasingly clear that the Zhou dynasty had lost Heaven’s favor. The Zhou king had become merely a figurehead, and real power lay in the hands of the rulers (typically dukes) of the different states into which the realm was divided. These rulers increasingly usurped the power and prerogatives of the Zhou king, and also waged war against each other. Those in positions of power lived in fear of execution or assassination, while peasants suffered under the burden of heavy taxation, the depredations of bandits, and the devastation of invading armies. During this period, “masters” articulated various accounts of the Way (dào, the right way to live and to organize society) that would rescue people from the contemporary chaos and suffering. One of these thinkers was Mencius, who self–identified as a follower of Confucius: “Ever since man came into this world, there has never been one greater than Confucius” (2A2; Lau 2003, 67). Consequently, it is helpful in understanding Mencius to know something about the basic themes of Confucianism. Confucius is the first individual thinker we know of to advocate a systematic vision of the Way. The Analects is traditionally viewed as a reliable source of his sayings, but in contemporary scholarship there is considerable controversy over its historical accuracy.[2] Nonetheless, we clearly find in the Analects expressions of all the major themes that would be characteristic of Confucianism for the next two and a half millennia. In particular, the Confucius of the Analects emphasizes the importance of (1) revivalistic traditionalism; (2) rule through Virtue rather than brute force; (3) ritual as a model for ethical behavior; (4) the family; and (5) ethical cultivation. Confucius saw himself as merely explicating and defending the teachings of the wise sage kings of the past: “I transmit rather than innovate. I trust in and love the ancient ways” (Analects 7.1; Slingerland 2003, 64). However, Confucius himself called for changes, sometimes radical ones, to contemporary practice. Like revivalists of modern times (such as Martin Luther King, Jr., Gandhi, or William Sloane Coffin), Confucius sought to bring about positive change in the present by reviving ideals from his own tradition that were treated by his contemporaries as stagnant platitudes. Mencius similarly took inspiration from the ancient sages. However, Mencius also stressed the need to read the classics creatively and critically. Speaking of one of the Confucian classics, he stated, “It would be better not to have the Documents than to believe everything in it” (7B3; Van Norden 2008, 185). One of the lessons Confucius learned from the ancient texts was the importance of ruling the people through ethical inspiration rather than coercion. Many rulers and government ministers in Confucius’s era advocated the use of military power to address external threats and strict punishments to deal with internal disorder. Confucius did not completely dismiss the use of force, but he regarded it as a last resort, and as ultimately ineffective when used as the primary method of governing. “If you try to guide the common people with coercive regulations and keep them in line with punishments, the common people will become evasive and will have no sense of shame” (Analects 2.3; Slingerland 2003, 8). (We see a similar denigration of the use of brute force in Mencius. In a memorable turn of phrase, Mencius warned one ruler that to attempt to conquer the world through warfare is as hopeless as “climbing a tree in search of a fish” [1A7].) In place of penal sanctions, Confucius advocated leading the people by moral inspiration and by the subtle but ubiquitous effect of social mores: “If, however, you guide them with Virtue, and keep them in line by means of ritual, the people will have a sense of shame and will rectify themselves” (ibid.). Confucius’s reference to Virtue here reflects the concept’s political origins. The word we render “Virtue” is “de.” It originally referred to a sort of political charisma a king accumulated through his good character and acts of kindness and generosity. Subjects would willingly follow a ruler with Virtue, without the need for coercion. Although Virtue was originally something only a true king could possess, it came to be thought of as an attribute of any person with good character (i.e., a “virtuous” person), regardless of social status.[3] By the end of the Zhou dynasty, it had come to be used as a countable noun referring to specific virtues, such as benevolence, courage, and wisdom.[4] Although de is thus very close to our concept of virtue, its associations with royal charisma are distinctive. Consequently, it has become conventional to use “Virtue” (with a capital “V”) when translating the specific term “de,” and to use “virtue” (with a lower case “v”) when one needs a generic term for referring to traits of good character, such as righteousness and loyalty. As Analects 2.3 (quoted above) suggests, ritual plays an important role in Confucius’s social and ethical philosophy. “Ritual (lĭ)” originally referred to formal ceremonies, such as burnt offerings of food and wine to the spirits of one’s ancestors. However, its meaning gradually expanded over time to include etiquette (e.g., the proper way to greet or say farewell to a guest) and ethics in general. Confucius stressed that appropriate emotions are essential to correct performance of rituals: “Someone who lacks magnanimity when occupying high office, who is not respectful when performing ritual, and who remains unmoved by sorrow when overseeing mourning rites—how could I bear to look upon such a person?” (Analects 3.26; Slingerland 2003, 18) Mencius also stressed the importance of ritual. However, he emphasized that ritual cannot be followed inflexibly (see Section 2, below, and Mengzi 4A17, 5A2, 6B2, and Analects 9.3). The family is central to Confucian ethics in at least two ways. First, Confucius advocates agent–relative constraints on action that are based on familial relationships.[5] When the ruler of a state brags to Confucius that his subjects are so “upright” that a son turned in his father for stealing a sheep, Confucius responds, “Among my people, those who we consider ‘upright’ are different from this: fathers cover up for their sons, and sons cover up for their fathers. ‘Uprightness’ is to be found in this” (Analects 13.18; Slingerland 2003, 147). Second, the family is a crucial environment for nurturing virtue. Confucius’s disciple Youzi sketched an influential account of the role of filial piety in the development of complete virtue: “A young person who is filial and respectful of his elders rarely becomes the kind of person who is inclined to defy his superiors, and there has never been a case of one who is disinclined to defy his superiors stirring up rebellion. The gentleman applies himself to the roots. ‘Once the roots are firmly established, the Way will grow.’ Might we not say that filial piety and respect for elders constitute the root of Goodness?” (Analects 1.2; Slingerland 2003, 1) We see here the beginning of what became one of Mencius’s most influential doctrines: that benevolence and righteousness are achieved though “extension” of the love and respect first manifested in the family. Confucius was painfully aware that virtue and the proper performance of the rituals are not common in his society: I have yet to meet a man who loves Virtue as much as he loves sex (Analects 9.18; cf. Slingerland 2003, 92). Nowadays “filial” means simply being able to provide one’s parents with nourishment. But even dogs and horses are provided with nourishment. If you are not respectful, wherein lies the difference? (Analects 2.7; Slingerland 2003, 10) Consequently, one of the central issues in Confucianism is how to cultivate virtues such as benevolence, loyalty, and filial piety. Confucius stresses the importance of both learning (by studying classic texts and following the rituals) and reflecting: “If you learn without reflecting, you will be lost. If you reflect without learning, you will be in danger” (Analects 2.15; cf. Slingerland 2003, 13). However, many of the debates among Confucians of the following two and a half millennia are about the precise form that learning and reflecting take, and their relative importance (see Ivanhoe 2000). Xunzi (discussed in Section 5, below) emphasized study of the classics and performance of rituals, as did Dong Zhongshu, whose formulation of Confucianism was deeply influential in the Han dynasty (202 BCE-220 CE). In contrast, Mencius, while not denying the value of the classics and ritual, stressed reflection based upon one’s own innate dispositions toward virtue. Mencius was born about a century after the death of Confucius.[6] Details of Mencius’s early life are sketchy and uncertain, but he is said to have been born in the state of Zou, in what is now Shandong Province. His father supposedly died when Mencius was young, leaving him and his mother in poverty, and there are several famous stories of the determination of Mencius’s mother to provide a good education for her son.[7] Mencius is said to have studied under Confucius’s grandson Zisi, and then as an adult he traveled to different states in an attempt to convince their rulers to govern through benevolence and moral suasion rather than brute force. Like the majority of later Confucians, Mencius was what we would describe as a “public intellectual.” He offered advice on everything from foreign policy to the minutiae of public works. One passage from the Mengzi is a detailed treatise on tax policy (3A3), which includes Mencius’s famous proposal to adopt the “well–field system” of taxation: a village’s fields would be divided into nine equal sections, so that the borders between them looked like what we would recognize as a tic–tac–toe grid. (This shape happens to resemble the character for “well,” hence the name “well–field.”) One family would be assigned to each of the eight outer squares, and would keep the produce from that field. Caring for the inner field would be the joint responsibility of all the families, and the produce from that field would belong to the government as its tax. Mencius held office in the state of Qi (2B6–7). During this period, he was involved in Qi’s invasion of Yan, although the precise nature of his role was disputed. The state of Yan was in turmoil due to a succession crisis. Mencius was asked, unofficially, whether it might be legitimate to invade Yan to restore order. He replied that it was. However, after Qi successfully invaded and annexed Yan, Mencius complained that he had not encouraged the specific actions that Qi took, which apparently included widespread killing of noncombatants and taking spoils of war (see 2B8, 1B10, 1B11, and 2B9, in that order). Mencius eventually resigned his position, when it became clear to him that the ruler was unwilling to enact any of the reforms that he proposed (2B10–13). After years of traveling from state to state, trying to advise rulers, Mencius retired from public life. Mencius advocated acceptance of the will of Heaven (2B13); however, he must have been disappointed with his inability to improve government during his lifetime, and this is reflected in the plaintive tone of the closing passage of the Mengzi: “From Confucius to the present time is a little more than one hundred years. It is not long from the era of a sage, and we are close to the home of a sage. Yet where is he? Where is he?” (7B38; Van Norden 2008, 197). 2. The Virtues and Their Cultivation One of Mencius’s most influential views was his list of four innate ethical dispositions, which he treats as what Western ethicists would call cardinal virtues: benevolence (rén), righteousness (yì), wisdom (zhì), and propriety (lĭ). Each of the four virtues is associated with a characteristic emotion or motivational attitude: “The feeling of compassion is benevolence. The feeling of disdain is righteousness. The feeling of respect is propriety. The feeling of approval and disapproval is wisdom” (Mengzi 6A6; Van Norden 2008, 149). Among these four, Mencius devotes the most discussion to benevolence and righteousness. Benevolence is manifested in the affection one has for his or her own kin, as well as compassion for the suffering of other humans, and even concern for non–human animals. However, according to Confucians, one should always have greater concern for, and has greater obligations toward, relatives, teachers, and friends than one does for strangers and animals (7A45). Benevolence is not simply a matter of feeling a certain way: it also has cognitive and behavioral aspects. A fully benevolent person will be disposed to recognize the suffering of others and to act appropriately. Thus, a genuinely benevolent ruler will notice how his policies will affect his subjects, and will only pursue policies consistent with their well being (1B5). Righteousness is a disposition to disdain or regard as shameful dishonorable behavior or demeaning treatment. As is the case with benevolence, righteousness has cognitive and behavioral aspects. Thus, a righteous person would object to being addressed disrespectfully (7B31), and would not engage in an illicit sexual relationship (3B3). A fully righteous person would also recognize that it is just as shameful to accept a large bribe as it is to accept a small bribe (6A10), and so would refuse to accept either. Mencius suggests that wisdom and propriety are secondary in importance to benevolence and righteousness: “The core of benevolence is serving one’s parents. The core of righteousness is obeying one’s elder brother. The core of wisdom is knowing these two and not abandoning them. The core of ritual propriety is the adornment of these two” (4A27; Van Norden 2008, 101). As the preceding passage suggests, wisdom involves an understanding of and commitment to the other virtues, especially benevolence and righteousness. Other passages indicate that a wise person has the ability to properly assess individuals and has skill at means–end deliberation (5A9). Mencian wisdom (somewhat like Aristotelian phronēsis) seems to be only partially constrained by rules. He notes that no sage would kill an innocent person, even if it meant obtaining control of (and being able to benefit) the whole world (2A2). However, he also stresses that sages often act very differently from one another, but if they “had exchanged places, each would have done as the other” (Mengzi 4B31; Van Norden 2008, 114; cf. 4B29). The ultimate standard for any action is “timeliness” (5B1), which seems to mean performing the right action out of the appropriate motivation for this particular situation. Propriety is manifested in respect (6A6) or deference (2A6) toward elders and legitimate authority figures, especially as manifested in ceremonies and etiquette. The character for the virtue of propriety is identical with the one for ritual, reflecting the close connection between this virtue and such practices. Mencius thinks that matters of ritual place legitimate ethical demands on us, but he stresses that they are not categorical, and can be overridden by more exigent obligations. For example, he notes that rescuing one’s sister–in–law if she were drowning would justify violation of the ritual prohibition on physical contact between unmarried men and women (4A17; cf. 5A2, 6B2). Knowing when to violate ritual is a matter of wisdom. Mencius discusses other virtues in addition to benevolence, righteousness, wisdom, and propriety, but it seems that they are ultimately manifestations of the preceding virtues. For example, in a nuanced account of courage, Mencius distinguishes between courage as exemplified in stereotypically daring behavior (assaulting anyone who insults you), in fearlessness, and in a commitment to righteousness. Mencius suggests that the last kind of courage is the highest form. Courage based on righteousness will lead to fearless opposition to wrongdoing, but also humble submission when one finds oneself in the wrong.[8] Mencius holds that all humans have innate but incipient tendencies toward benevolence, righteousness, wisdom, and propriety. Employing an agricultural metaphor, he refers to these tendencies as “sprouts” (2A6). The sprouts are manifested in cognitive and emotional reactions characteristic of the virtues. For example, all humans feel compassion for the suffering of other humans and animals, at least on some occasions, and this is a manifestation of benevolence. Similarly, every person has some things that he or she would be ashamed to do, or some forms of treatment he or she would disdain to accept, and these are expressions of righteousness. However, as Mencius’s carefully chosen sprout metaphor suggests, humans are not born with fully formed virtuous dispositions. Our nascent virtues are sporadic and inconsistent in their manifestations. Consequently, a ruler who manifests genuine benevolence when he spares an ox being led to slaughter may nonetheless ignore the suffering of his own subjects. Likewise, someone who would disdain to be addressed disrespectfully may feel no compunction in acting against his convictions in the face of a large bribe. In order to become genuinely virtuous, a person must “extend” or “fill out” his or her nascent virtuous inclinations. As Mencius puts it: “People all have things that they will not bear. To extend this reaction to that which they will bear is benevolence. People all have things that they will not do. To extend this reaction to that which they will do is righteousness. If people can fill out the heart that does not desire to harm others, their benevolence will be inexhaustible. If people can fill out the heart that will not trespass, their righteousness will be inexhaustible” (Mengzi 7B31; Van Norden 2008, 192). One of the most intriguing issues in Mencius’s philosophy is the proper way to understand his claim that we must “extend” (tui, ji, da) or “fill out” (kuo, chong) our innate but incipient virtuous reactions (1A7, 2A6, 7A15, 7B31). The discussion of this issue has a long history, but was revived in Western scholarship by Nivison (1980).[9] In a much–discussed example (1A7), Mencius draws a ruler’s attention to the fact that he had shown compassion for an ox being led to slaughter by sparing it. Mencius then encourages the king to “extend” his compassion to his own subjects, who suffer due to the ruler’s wars of conquest and exorbitant taxation. The basic structure of Mencian extension is clear from this example. There is a paradigm case, C1, in which an individual’s sprout of compassion is manifested in cognition, emotion, and behavior. (In 1A7, C1 is the ox being led to slaughter. The king perceives that the ox is suffering, feels compassion for its suffering, and acts to spare it.) There is also a case that is relevantly similar to the paradigm case, C2, but in which the individual does not currently have the same cognitive, emotional, and behavioral reactions. (In 1A7, C2 is the king’s subjects. Although his subjects suffer, the king ignores their suffering, has no compassion for it, and does not act to alleviate it. The relevant similarity between C1 and C2 in the case of 1A7 is suggested by the fact that the king describes the ox as having a “frightened appearance, like an innocent going to the execution ground.”) Extension is the mental process by which one comes to recognize the ethically relevant similarity of C1 to C2, have the same emotional reaction to C2 as to C1, and behave the same toward C2 as to C1. (Were the king to extend from the ox to his subjects, he would notice their suffering, feel compassion for them, and change his current military and civil policies. Later in 1A7, Mencius provides concrete advice about which policies to enact.) Nivison’s work raises the issue of how the cognitive, motivational, and behavioral aspects of Mencian extension are related. What is the connection between the king perceiving the logical similarity of the suffering of the ox to the suffering of his own people and the king actually being motivated to act to help his people?[10] Mencius suggests that, for most people, there are three prerequisites for extension: an environment that meets people’s basic physical needs, ethical education, and individual effort. (1) Only a handful of people, Mencius argues, have the strength of character to “have a constant heart” in the face of physical deprivation. Most people will resort to crime in the face of hunger and fear: “When they thereupon sink into crime, to go and punish the people is to trap them. When there are benevolent persons in positions of authority, how is it possible for them to trap the people?” (1A7; Van Norden 2008, 14) Consequently, Mencius stresses that it is the obligation of government to ensure that the people are well–fed and free from the fear of violence. (2) Nonetheless, the satisfaction of physical needs is insufficient to ensure the virtue of the common people. Socialization is also necessary: “The Way of the people is this: if they are full of food, have warm clothes, and live in comfort but are without instruction, then they come close to being animals” (3A4; Van Norden 2008, 71). This socialization includes learning the rituals (the etiquette and ceremony of social interactions) as well as instruction in the fundamental “human roles”: “between father and children there is affection; between ruler and ministers there is righteousness; between husband and wife there is distinction; between elder and younger there is precedence; and between friends there is faithfulness” (ibid.). (3) The first two factors are necessary and sufficient to ensure that most people will not become bestial. However, achieving the level of a “sage” or “worthy” requires considerable individual effort. Mencius illustrates this with an example of learning the board game of go: Now, go is an insignificant craft. But if one does not focus one’s heart and apply one’s intention, then one won’t get it. ‘Go Qiu’ was the best at go throughout the world. Suppose you told Go Qiu to teach two people go, and one focuses his heart and applies his intention to it, listening only to Go Qiu. The other, although he listens to him, with his whole heart thinks about hunting swans, reflecting [sī] only upon drawing his bow to shoot them. Although he learns together with the other person, he will not be as good as he. Will this be because his intelligence is not as great? I answer that it is not. (6A9; Van Norden 2008, 153) Mencius refers to the mental activity required for full extension as “reflection (sī).” Whether someone engages in reflection is ultimately dependent upon the individual’s commitment to doing so (see 6A6 and 6A15, discussed in Section 3 below). However, classic texts and teachers can assist by inducing or guiding these activities. Thus, Mencius is trying to induce reflection in the king in 1A7 by directing the king’s attention to the similarities between the ox he felt compassion for and his own subjects. Mencius similarly tries to induce reflection in a government official who asks whether it is permissible to reduce the crushing tax burden on the peasants slightly this year, and wait until next year to lower it to a reasonable level. Mencius replies, “Suppose there is a person who every day appropriates one of his neighbor’s chickens. Someone tells him, ‘This is not the Way of a gentleman.’ He says, ‘May I reduce it to appropriating one chicken every month and wait until next year to stop?’ If one knows that it is not righteous, then one should quickly stop” (3B8; Van Norden 2008, 83). Mencius also guides reflection through philosophical dialogue (7A40, literally, “question and answer”). This is illustrated in discussions with his disciples Wan Zhang (5A1–9) and Gongsun Chou (2A1–2). Stories from classic Confucian texts (particularly the Odes and Documents) are often a stimulus for these discussions, helping to illustrate the role such works play in Mencian ethical education. One aspect of reflection is particularly salient: it is insufficient for successful extension that one merely recognize, in an abstract or theoretical manner, the similarity between two situations. One must come to be motivated and to act in relevantly similar ways. Because of the preceding requirement, an intense topic of discussion among later Confucians influenced by Mencius is the relationship between knowledge and action. For example, Wang Yangming (1472–1529) famously argued for the “unity of knowing and acting,” as the most plausible interpretation of Mencius’s view: “There never have been people who know but do not act. Those who ‘know’ but do not act simply do not yet know” (Tiwald and Van Norden 2014, 267). From a Western perspective, one of the noteworthy aspects of Mencius’s view of extension is that he regards emotions as a crucial part of ethical perception and evaluation. Although it would be anachronistic to saddle him with any specific contemporary account of the emotions, it seems clear that his underlying view is close to what Western psychologists and philosopher call an “appraisal theory” of emotions, according to which emotions are motivational states closely connected to evaluations of situations (de Sousa 2014, Section 4). 3. The Goodness of Human Nature Mencius is perhaps best–known for his claim that “[human] nature is good” (xìng shàn). As A.C. Graham (1967) demonstrated in a classic essay, Mencius and his contemporaries regarded the nature of X as the characteristics that X will develop if given a healthy environment for the kind of thing X is. A characteristic, C, can be part of the nature of X even if there exists an X such that X does not have C. For example, language use is part of the nature of a human being, but there are cases of humans who, due to neurological damage or simply failure to be exposed to language prior to the onset of adolescence, fail to develop a capacity for language use. It is even possible for C to be part of the nature of X if most instances of X do not have C. For example, it is the nature of an orange tree to bear fruit, but the majority of orange seeds do not even germinate, much less grow to maturity. Consequently, an important aspect of Mencius’s claim that human nature is good is that humans have a tendency to become good if raised in an environment that is healthy for them. This thesis runs the danger of becoming viciously circular: we might characterize goodness as the result of growing up in a healthy environment, and a healthy environment as one that results in humans being good.[11] However, Mencius’s claims about human nature, virtues, ethical cultivation, and political philosophy are nodes in a complex web of beliefs that appeals to our intuitions (e.g., it is normal for humans to show compassion for the suffering of others) as well as empirical claims (e.g., humans are less likely to manifest compassion when subject to physical deprivation). Mencius’s views might be mistaken, but they cannot be casually dismissed as naively circular; rather, they must be evaluated as a complex and subtle account of ethics and philosophical psychology. Probably the two most important passages for understanding Mencius’s view of human nature are 6A6 and 6A15. In the former, Mencius’s disciple Gongsun Chou asks him to explain how his position differs from those who say that “human nature is neither good nor not good,” those who claim that “human nature can become good, and it can become not good,” and those who state that “there are natures that are good, and there are natures that are not good.” Mencius replies, As for what they are inherently [qíng], they can become good.[12] This is what I mean by calling their natures [xìng] good. As for their becoming not good, this is not the fault of their potential. Humans all have the feeling [xīn] of compassion. Humans all have the feeling of disdain. Humans all have the feeling of respect. Humans all have the feeling of approval and disapproval. The feeling of compassion is benevolence. The feeling of disdain is righteousness. The feeling of respect is propriety. The feeling of approval and disapproval is wisdom. Benevolence, righteousness, propriety, and wisdom are not welded to us externally. We inherently have them. It is simply that we do not reflect upon [sī] them. (Van Norden 2008, 149) Human nature is good, on this view, because becoming a good person is the result of developing our innate tendencies toward benevolence, righteousness, wisdom, and propriety. These tendencies are manifested in distinctively moral emotions, correlated with the virtues. Each human “inherently” has a heart with the capacity for these emotions. They will manifest themselves, at least sporadically, in each human. If we “reflect upon” these manifestations, we can develop our innate capacities into fully formed virtues. If the human capacity for goodness is rooted in our nature, isn’t our capacity for evil equally grounded in our nature? Mencius addresses the problem of human wrongdoing in 6A15, when his disciple Gongduzi asks, “We are the same in being humans. Yet some become great humans and some become petty humans. Why?” Mencius replies, “those who follow their greater part become great humans. Those who follow their petty part become petty humans.” Gongduzi persists, “We are the same in being humans. Why is it that some follow their greater part and some follow their petty part?” Mencius replies, It is not the function of the ears and eyes to reflect, and they are misled by things. Things interact with things and lead them along. But the function of the heart is to reflect [si]. If it reflects, then it will get it. If it does not reflect, then it will not get it. This is what Heaven has given us. If one first takes one’s stand on what is greater, then what is lesser will not be able to snatch it away. This is how to become a great person. (6A15; Van Norden 2008, 156) In modern Western philosophy, we primarily think of “ears and eyes” as organs of sensory perception, whose characteristic errors are cognitive (e.g. Descartes’ example of a square tower that appears round from far away). However, in ancient Chinese thought, eyes, ears, and the other sensory organs are primarily associated with sensual desires (e.g., lovely sights, beautiful music, fine foods, etc.). Physical desires are never treated as intrinsically problematic. However, they can “mislead” by leading us to focus on them to the exclusion of a more inclusive comprehension that includes our ethical motivations.[13] Thus, according to the account Mencius sketches in 6A15, our sensual desires can lead us to wrongdoing if we pursue them without also engaging our ethical motivations. This is an especially acute danger because our sensory desires always respond automatically and effortlessly to their appropriate objects, while our moral motivations are more selective. Mencius suggests the mechanical responsiveness of our sense organs by describing them as simply “things”: “Things interact with things and lead them along.” In contrast, the full development of our ethical motivations requires that our heart engage in “reflection”: “If it reflects, then it will get it. If it does not reflect, then it will not get it.” The heart “gets it” in that it engages the appropriate ethical motivations.[14] Mencius provides a concrete illustration of moral failure and how to overcome it in a dialogue with a ruler who confesses, “I have a weakness. I am fond of wealth.” Mencius explains that a great ruler of ancient times was similarly fond of wealth, but he ensured that “those who stayed at home had loaded granaries, and those who marched had full provisions…. If Your Majesty is fond of wealth but treats the commoners the same, what difficulty is there in becoming [a great] King?” The ruler continues to temporize: “I have a weakness. I am fond of sex.” Mencius cites the example of an ancient ruler who was also fond of sex. However, he made sure (by not wasting male lives in needless warfare, or collecting an unusually large harem) that “there were no bitter women in private, or any unmarried men in public. If Your Majesty is fond of sex but treats the commoners the same, what difficulty is there in becoming [a great] King?” (1B5; translation slightly modified from Van Norden 2008, 23–24) The ruler’s desires for wealth and sex are not problematic in themselves, but he has been pursuing them in a manner that ignores benevolence, which would direct him to share his joys with others. The preceding discussion suggests that Kwong–loi Shun’s summary is correct: in stating that human nature is good, “Mencius was saying that human beings have a constitution comprising certain emotional predispositions that already point in the direction of goodness and by virtue of which people are capable of becoming good…. One’s becoming bad is not the fault of one’s constitution, but a matter of one’s injuring or not fully developing the constitution in the appropriate direction” (Shun 1997, 219–20). The statement that “[human] nature is good [xìng shàn]” is often misquoted as “[human] nature is fundamentally good [xìng bĕn shàn].” The latter phrase actually derives from a gloss on Mencius’s view popularized by the seminal commentator Zhu Xi (1130–1200). Zhu Xi held that Mencius was simply explicating what was implicit in the sayings of Confucius. Confucius stated that “natures are close to one another, but become far from one another by practice” (Analects 17.2). In order to explain why Confucius described human natures as merely “close to” one another, while Mencius referred to them as identically “good,” Zhu Xi argued that Mencius was referring to the ultimate, underlying human nature in itself, whereas Confucius was referring to human nature as manifested in concrete embodiments.[15] Zhu Xi’s view became orthodoxy, and was even written into the opening lines of the Three Character Classic, a primer for learning to read Chinese that was memorized by schoolchildren for centuries: At its beginning, human nature is fundamentally good. Human natures are close to one another, but become far from one another by practice. It is only when there is not education, that their natures deviate.[16] While ingenious, this interpretation of Mencius is unmotivated without the assumption that the Analects and Mengzi must be expressing the same view. The term “nature” occurs in only 17 passages in the Mengzi (3A1, 4B26, 6A1–4, 6A6, 6A8, 6B15, 7A1, 7A21, 7A30, 7A38, 7B24, 7B33), and the specific phrase “[human] nature is good” only occurs in two of these (3A1, 6A6). However, there is some plausibility to Zhu Xi’s suggestion that the latter claim is operative in many passages where it is not mentioned explicitly, because of how intimately it is connected with other aspects of Mencius’s view (Tiwald and Van Norden 2014, 213). This will become clearer as we consider Mencius’s critiques of other philosophers in his era. 4. Mencius and His Philosophical Opponents Mencius was often an incisive critic of other philosophers. In response to a philosopher who advocated price fixing, Mencius asks, “If a fine shoe and a shoddy shoe are the same price, will anyone make the former?” (3A4; Van Norden 2008, 73) When the same philosopher suggests that rulers and government officials should farm the land, just like their subjects, Mencius draws an analogy with other crafts: just as the potter, blacksmith, and farmer each benefit by focusing on his craft and exchanging goods with the others, so does everyone benefit when good rulers and officials focus on their own activities in exchange for financial support from the other members of society (3A4). Another philosopher argues that human nature is identical with the characteristics a human has in virtue of being alive. Mencius performs a swift reductio ad absurdum, pointing out that—since dogs, oxen, and humans are the same in being alive—the proposed definition entails that dogs, oxen, and humans have the same nature (6A3).[17] Mencius viewed himself as a defender of the Confucian tradition, and saw the two major contemporary threats to that tradition as the doctrines of Mozi and Yang Zhu: “the doctrines of Yang Zhu and Mozi fill the world. If a doctrine does not lean toward Yang Zhu, then it leans toward Mozi. Yang Zhu is ‘for oneself.’ This is to not have a ruler. Mozi is ‘impartial caring.’ This is to not have a father. To not have a father and to not have a ruler is to be an animal” (Mengzi 3B9; Van Norden 2008, 85). Mozi (fifth century BCE) is the first systematic philosophical critic of Confucianism. He is generally interpreted as a sort of impartial consequentialist, who grounds ethics in maximizing overall benefit or profit, where this is defined in terms of material goods such as wealth, populousness, and social order. On this basis, Mozi criticizes the Confucian emphasis on ritual, regarding as wasteful such Confucian practices as elaborate funerals, lengthy mourning periods, and musical performances. In addition, Mozi advocated impartial caring (jiān ài, sometimes translated “universal love”), which he distinguished from the filial piety or differentiated caring of the Confucians. Mozi argued that caring more for oneself, one’s family, or one’s state was the cause of the warfare and cruelty of his era, and that impartial caring would lead to greater harmony and material satisfaction. Mozi certainly did not advocate eliminating the family as a social institution. However, he clearly rejected Confucian differentiated caring in favor of impartial caring: “I have heard that in order to be a superior person in the world, one must regard the well-being of one’s friends as one regards one’s own well being; one must regard the parents of one’s friends as one regards one’s own parents. Only in this way can one be a superior person” (Ivanhoe and Van Norden 2001, 70). Mozi presented a number of ingenious arguments in favor of his position, including a “state of nature” argument to justify government authority (Mozi 11; Ivanhoe and Van Norden 2005, 65),[18] and a thought-experiment to justify impartial caring that seems almost game-theoretic in its precision (Mozi 16; Ivanhoe and Van Norden 2005, 69–70). In addition, to win over those attracted to Confucianism, Mozi argues that the goal of filial piety will in fact be best achieved by not favoring one’s own parents over others: “Clearly one must first care for and benefit the parents of others in order to expect that they in turn will respond by caring for and benefiting one’s own parents. And so for such mutually filial sons to realize unlimited good results, must they not first care for and benefit other people’s parents?” (Ivanhoe and Van Norden, 75; emphasis mine)[19] Mozi acknowledged that people do not seem to be predisposed to have impartial care for others. However, he argued that human motivations are highly malleable, and can be radically altered, so long as humans are given appropriate rewards for compliance and punishments for disobedience. As evidence for his claim, he cites the example of King Ling of the state of Chu [who] was fond of slender waists. During his reign the people of Chu ate no more than one meal a day and became so weak that they could not raise themselves up without the support of a cane nor could they walk without leaning against a wall. Curtailing one’s food is something very difficult to do, but masses of people did it in order to please King Ling. Within a single generation the people changed because they wanted to accord with the wishes of their superior. (Ivanhoe and Van Norden 2005, 75) Mozi was not just an original philosophical thinker; he was also the founder of an organized movement, the Mohists, which survived his death and continued to be influential until the Qin dynasty (221 BCE–207 BCE) reunified China. There is controversy about what the views of Yang Zhu (fifth to fourth century BCE) were.[20] However, a plausible case can be made that he defended ethical egoism based on a particular conception of human nature. Yang Zhu’s line of argument has considerable plausibility in his philosophical context. Although Mohists and Confucians disagreed about many things, they agreed on two key points: the proper Way to live and to organize society is dictated by Heaven, and this Way will sometimes demand extreme self–sacrifice of those who follow it. Yang Zhu invoked the notion of “human nature [rén xìng]” to drive a wedge between the former commitment and the latter. Yang Zhu appealed to the fact that nothing seems more natural for humans than self–preservation. But if there is a human nature, it must be dictated by Heaven, and therefore must be consistent with the Way. Consequently, following one’s instinct for self–preservation is actually the highest expression of Heaven’s will, and the self–sacrificing practices of the Confucians and Mohists are simply perversions of our Heaven–given nature. The Mohist response to this, as suggested by the example (cited above) of King Ling of Chu, was that there is no such thing as human nature; human motivations are highly malleable, and almost exclusively the products of environmental influences. Mencius’s doctrine that human nature is good was part of his strategy to present a Confucian response to both the Mohists and Yang Zhu. Mencius agreed with Yang Zhu that humans have a determinate nature. However, he presented arguments that there is more to human nature than the purely self–interested motivations identified by Yang Zhu. His most famous argument for this conclusion is the thought experiment of the child at the well: The reason why I say that all humans have hearts that are not unfeeling toward others is this. Suppose someone suddenly saw a child about to fall into a well: anyone in such a situation would have a feeling of alarm and compassion—not because one sought to get in good with the child’s parents, not because one wanted fame among one’s neighbors and friends, and not because one would dislike the sound of the child’s cries. From this we can see that if one is without the feeling of compassion, one is not human. (Mengzi 2A6; Van Norden 2008, 46) Consequently, Mencius agreed with Yang Zhu that we are following the will of Heaven (and hence the Way) by following our nature. However, he argued that Yang Zhu had an implausibly impoverished conception of what human nature is like. Against the Mohists, Mencius argues that human nature places practical and ethical constraints on an ethical doctrine. These points are expressed in an argument Mencius has with the Mohist Yi Zhi. Mencius asks the rhetorical question, “Does Yi Zhi truly hold that one’s affection for one’s own nephew is like one’s affection for a neighbor’s baby?” (3A5; Van Norden 2008, 74) In other words, since humans naturally care more for relatives than for strangers, any ethical system that, like Mohism, demands impartiality will be impractical. Mencius also states, “Heaven, in giving birth to things, causes them to have one source, but Yi Zhi gives them two sources” (ibid.). In other words, the Mohists acknowledge the ethical authority of Heaven (the “source” of the Way), but their doctrine of impartial care is set up as a second “source,” and one that demands deviating from our Heaven–endowed nature. In summary, the impartial caring advocated by the Mohists is both perverse and impractical.[21] Mencius also presents an argument that the Mohist position is self–defeating in practice.[22] When he is politely greeted by a ruler who suggests that Mencius had deigned to visit because he “must have a way of profiting my state,” Mencius rebukes him: Why must Your Majesty speak of “profit”? Let there simply be benevolence and righteousness. If your majesty says, “How can I profit my state?” the Chief Counselors will say, “How can I profit my clan?” and the nobles and commoners will say, “How can I profit my self?” Superiors and subordinates will seize profit from each other, and the state will be endangered. … Never have the benevolent left their parents behind. Never have the righteous put their ruler last. Let Your Majesty speak only of benevolence and righteousness. Why must one speak of “profit”? (1A1; Van Norden 2008, 1) Although the Mohists are not mentioned explicitly in this passage, the word “profit” is central to their formulation of impartial consequentialism, so it is likely that Mencius intended their views as part of his target. Cheng Yi (1033–1107) concisely summarized the argument here: “A gentleman never fails to desire profit, but if one is single–mindedly focused on profit, then it leads to harm. If there is only benevolence and righteousness, then one will not seek profit, but one will never fail to profit” (Van Norden 2008, 2). 5. Later Influence and Interpretations In his own era, Mencius’s views were criticized by the Daoist Zhuangzi and by his fellow Confucian Xunzi. Zhuangzi never refers to Mencius by name, but several passages seem to clearly be directed at him. In a passage that argues against the possibility of objective ethical knowledge, Zhuangzi states, “From where I see it, the sprouts of benevolence and righteousness and the pathways of right and wrong are all snarled and jumbled” (Zhuangzi 2; Ivanhoe and Van Norden 2005, 222). The phrase “sprouts of benevolence and righteousness” (rén yì zhī duān) is quite unusual, and many translators struggle to make sense of it.[23] The key is to remember Mencius’s phrases “sprout of benevolence” (rén zhī duān) and “sprout of righteousness” (yì zhī duān) from 2A6. While Mencius compares our innate but incipient dispositions toward virtue to the sprouts of plants, which must be cultivated in order to reach maturity, Zhuangzi suggests that there is no way to disentangle “sprouts” from weeds, if there even is any non–arbitrary distinction between them. Another implicit critique of Mencius is found in a fictional dialogue in which Zhuangzi uses “Confucius” as the spokesperson for his own views, and advises someone, “Do not listen with your heart but listen with your qì. … The heart stops with signs. Qi is empty and waits on external things. Only the Way gathers in emptiness. Emptiness is the fasting of the heart” (modified from Ivanhoe and Van Norden 2005, 228). So Zhuangzi prioritizes following the qi, the impersonal fluid that flows through all things and binds them together, over following the heart. This seems to be a deliberate inversion of Mencius’s view in 2A2, where he advises, “What you do not get from your heart, do not seek for in the qi” (2A2; Van Norden 2008, 37). Notice also that, whereas Mencius encourages us to cultivate our heart, Zhuangzi encourages us to “fast” it.[24] Xunzi attacks Mencius by name in his essay, “Human Nature Is Bad”: Mengzi says: When people engage in learning, this manifests the goodness of their nature. I say: This is not so. This is a case of not attaining knowledge of people’s nature and of not inspecting clearly the division between people’s nature and their deliberate efforts. … Those things in people that cannot be learned and cannot be worked at are called their “nature.” Those things in people that they become capable of through learning and that they achieve through working at them are called their “deliberate efforts.” (Ivanhoe and Van Norden 2005, 299) It is common to observe that Mencius and Xunzi are speaking at cross–purposes, because they assume different conceptions of the key term “nature” (Graham 1967). For Mencius, a paradigmatic example of something fulfilling its nature is a sprout maturing into a full–grown plant. This process requires a healthy environment and is assisted by active cultivation on the part of the farmer. In contrast, for Xunzi, only the characteristics that something has fully and innately are part of its nature: “Now people’s nature is such that their eyes can see, and their ears can hear. … it is clear that one does not learn these things” (Ivanhoe and Van Norden 2005, 299–300). However, it is possible that Mencius and Xunzi still have a substantive disagreement, even if Xunzi’s way of framing that disagreement is misleading. As we have seen, Mencius thinks that all humans are born with innate but incipient dispositions toward virtue. Xunzi seems to explicitly deny this: “As for the way that the eyes like pretty colors, the ears like beautiful sounds, the mouth likes good flavors, the heart likes what is beneficial, and the bones and flesh like what is comfortable — these are produced from people’s inborn dispositions and nature” (Ivanhoe and Van Norden 2005, 300). In contrast, “… ritual and the standards of righteousness are produced from the deliberate effort of the sage …” (ibid.). The fundamentally different views of Mencius and Xunzi on human nature are reflected in their different metaphors for ethical cultivation. For Mencius, ethically cultivating human nature is like encouraging the innate tendency of a sprout to grow to maturity; for Xunzi, humans require ethical cultivation just as “crooked wood must await steaming and straightening on the shaping frame, and only then does it become straight. Blunt metal must await honing and grinding, and only then does it become sharp” (Ivanhoe and Van Norden 2005, 298). Confucianism became a state–sponsored ideology during the Han dynasty (202 BCE–220 C.E.), but it was a syncretic form of the philosophy that included elements of Daoism, Legalism, and the cosmological notions of yin–yang and the Five Phases. Mencius’s writings were only one of many influences in this period. After the fall of the Han, Buddhism became increasingly influential socially and intellectually, reaching a peak in the Tang dynasty (618–907). This provoked a Confucian revivalist movement, the Learning of the Way (Dàoxué), conventionally referred to in English as Neo–Confucianism. The polemical anti–Buddhist writings of Han Yu (768–824) are often seen as the flashpoint for the Confucian revival. In addition to denouncing Buddhist practices as unnatural and antithetical to the well being of the state, Han Yu singles out Mencius as the “most pure” of the followers of Confucius. Neo–Confucianism only comes to philosophical maturity, though, during the Song and Southern Song dynasties (960–1279). The major intellectual competitors to Confucianism at this time were Buddhism and Daoism. Neo–Confucians compared Mozi’s impartial caring to Buddhist universal compassion. Similarly, Yang Zhu’s egoism was seen as anticipating the Daoist search for individual immortality. Consequently, Neo–Confucians availed themselves of Mencius’s arguments against his contemporaries to combat their own intellectual rivals. As a result, Neo–Confucians came to regard Mencius as having a particularly profound grasp of the true meaning of the teachings of Confucius, elevating him to the status of the “Second Sage.” The most influential Neo–Confucian philosopher was Zhu Xi, who grouped the Mengzi along with three other Confucian classics (the Great Learning,Analects, and Mean) as the Four Books, and wrote clear, detailed commentaries on each. Zhu Xi’s interpretations of the Four Books became orthodoxy, and generations of intellectuals literally memorized them in order to pass the civil service examinations. Although the traditional exams were abolished at the beginning of the twentieth century, Zhu Xi’s commitment to reading the Four Books in the light of each other, and his interpretations of specific concepts and passages, continue to have an immense influence, even today.[25] Ironically, due to the pervasive influence of Buddhism, Neo–Confucian philosophers often reinterpreted Mencius’s views in the light of Buddhist metaphysical and ethical concepts. Confucians adopted the view that ethical cultivation was a matter of becoming enlightened (wù) about the fundamental Pattern (lǐ, also translated principle) of the universe and thereby overcoming the selfishness (sī) of human desires (rén yù) and forming one body (yì tǐ) with everyone and everything else. However, these terms are either absent or used in different senses in the texts of Confucius and Mencius.[26] This criticism was made within the Chinese tradition by later Confucians such as Dai Zhen (1724–1777), who argued that, due to Buddhist influence, the Neo–Confucians understood terms like “Pattern” in anachronistic ways, and were led to an ethics that unnaturally devalued physical human desires (see Dai 1777). In the early 20th century, many Chinese intellectuals became part of the May 4th Movement, which called for China to rapidly Westernize and modernize. As a result, Mencius’s intellectual reputation suffered along with the rest of Confucianism. This trend continued during the rule of Mao Zedong, when Confucianism was dismissed as a decadent part of China’s “feudal past.”[27] However, interest in Mencius continued in Hong Kong and Taiwan as part of the movement known as New Confucianism. New Confucianism is a diverse movement and it is difficult to find a commonly agreed–upon characterization of what is central to it. However, many New Confucians are influenced by the views of Mou Zongsan (1909–1995), who argued that Mencius and the Neo–Confucian Wang Yangming accurately explicated what is implicit in the views of Confucius. In addition, Mou saw Kant as providing a way of understanding what is distinctive about the Mencian conception of morality, but also thought that Confucian ethics transcends certain limitations of Kant’s thought.[28] Since the death of Mao, there has been a resurgence of interest in Confucianism in mainland China. As a result, Mencius has become embroiled in contemporary debates over the role of Confucianism in Chinese ethics and political philosophy. In two much–debated passages, Mencius endorses the actions of a ruler who seems to put loyalty to his family over the welfare of the state (5A3, 7A35). Some argue that this illustrates that Mencius (and Confucianism in general) is committed to a form of nepotism that encourages corruption (see, e.g., Liu 2007). Others have argued for alternative interpretations of the significance of these passages (e.g., Guo 2007). Mencius is also at the center of the larger debate about whether Confucianism is consistent with democracy (see Chan 1999). Mencius has been invoked as providing a potential foundation for democracy (Bai 2008), but others have cautioned about overestimating the extent to which he champions the will of the people as the source of political authority (Tiwald 2008). Another recent trend in the study of Mencius and other Confucian philosophers has been the application of the framework of virtue ethics, beginning with Yearley (1990).[29] Mencius does seem similar to some major virtue ethicists such as Aristotle in emphasizing wisdom as a flexible responsiveness to complex situations, the cultivation of virtue over action–guiding rules, and nuanced discussions of the differences between genuine virtues and semblances or counterfeits of them (e.g., 7B37). However, as advocates of virtue ethics interpretations acknowledge, there are also substantial differences between Mencius and any Western virtue ethics. For example, Western virtue ethicists such as Aristotle place great value on purely theoretical contemplation, which Confucians typically regard as lacking intrinsic value. An additional contrast is that Confucians like Mencius see familial life as an important and intrinsic component of living well, whereas Aristotelians (arguably) see the family as, at best, a necessary means to supporting virtuous action. New Confucian and virtue ethics interpreters of the Mengzi have both been criticized for projecting an alien vocabulary onto the text. Indeed, sometimes advocates of the two approaches make these objections against one another (see Yu 2008, and Angle and Slote 2013). However, any interpreter must bring to the text her own vocabulary for explicating what seems obscure. This is true whether the commentators are Song dynasty Confucians using Buddhist–influenced terms in Middle Chinese, New Confucians availing themselves of Kantian notions while writing in contemporary Mandarin, or English–language scholars employing the vocabulary of virtue ethics. Consequently, the only real issue is whether they have provided the most plausible explanation of what is implicit in the texts they interpret. The ongoing debates on these issues promise to be exciting and productive. Guo, Qiyong, 2007, “Is Confucian Ethics a ‘Consanguinism’?” Dao, 6.1 (March): 21–37. (See also the essay by Liu [2007], and the two special issues of Dao [7(1) (March 2008) and 7(2) (June 2008)] devoted to articles commenting on their exchange.) Legge, James (trans.), 1970, The Works of Mencius, reprint, New York: Dover Books. Liu, Qinping, 2007, “Confucianism and Corruption: An Analysis of Shun’s Two Actions Described by Mencius,” Dao, 6(1) (March): 1–19. (See also the reply by Guo [2007], and the two special issues of Dao [7(1) (March 2008) and 7(2) (June 2008)] devoted to articles commenting on their exchange.) Nivison, David S., 1980, “Mencius and Motivation,” Journal of the American Academy of Religion, Thematic Issue S, supplement to Journal of the American Academy of Religion, 47(3) (September): 417–432. (The full version of the essay is reprinted in Nivison [1996e].) Wang, Robin R. (ed.), 2003, Images of Women in Chinese Thought and Culture: Writings from the Pre–Qin Period through the Song Dynasty, Indianapolis: Hackett Publishing. (See the translation of the stories about Mencius’s mother on pp. 150–155.)

Mencius replies, As for what they are inherently [qíng], they can become good.[12] This is what I mean by calling their natures [xìng] good. As for their becoming not good, this is not the fault of their potential. Humans all have the feeling [xīn] of compassion. Humans all have the feeling of disdain. Humans all have the feeling of respect. Humans all have the feeling of approval and disapproval. The feeling of compassion is benevolence. The feeling of disdain is righteousness. The feeling of respect is propriety. The feeling of approval and disapproval is wisdom. Benevolence, righteousness, propriety, and wisdom are not welded to us externally. We inherently have them. It is simply that we do not reflect upon [sī] them. (Van Norden 2008, 149) Human nature is good, on this view, because becoming a good person is the result of developing our innate tendencies toward benevolence, righteousness, wisdom, and propriety. These tendencies are manifested in distinctively moral emotions, correlated with the virtues. Each human “inherently” has a heart with the capacity for these emotions. They will manifest themselves, at least sporadically, in each human. If we “reflect upon” these manifestations, we can develop our innate capacities into fully formed virtues. If the human capacity for goodness is rooted in our nature, isn’t our capacity for evil equally grounded in our nature? Mencius addresses the problem of human wrongdoing in 6A15, when his disciple Gongduzi asks, “We are the same in being humans. Yet some become great humans and some become petty humans. Why?” Mencius replies, “those who follow their greater part become great humans. Those who follow their petty part become petty humans.”

yes

Philosophy

Are humans fundamentally good or evil?

yes_statement

"humans" are "fundamentally" "good".. the nature of "humans" is "fundamentally" "good".

https://www.shortform.com/blog/rutger-bregman-humankind/

Rutger Bregman: Humankind Is Fundamentally Good | Shortform ...

Are humans fundamentally good or bad? Or are we neither? How do expectations define human behavior? In his book Humankind, Rutger Bregman argues that our view of humanity creates a feedback loop. In other words, we get what we expect from people. By changing our mindsets, we can create a positive feedback loop that leads to a friendlier and more peaceful world. In this article, we’ll discuss why Bregman believes having a more positive outlook on humanity can create positive change in our society. Our View of Humanity Creates a Feedback Loop In his book Humankind, Rutger Bregman asserts that people are fundamentally good, but their behavior also depends on expectations. If we expect people to be selfish, they’ll act selfishly. However, the opposite holds as well: If we see humans as fundamentally decent creatures, we’ll treat each other with respect, trust, and dignity, which will encourage others to be kinder and more compassionate in turn. Research suggests that expectations have a significant impact on behavior. For example, if a parent consistently tells their child that the child is unathletic, then the child will start to believe it. She might avoid playing sports with other children. If she does play, she’ll see every failure as proof that she’s unathletic, instead of as an opportunity to improve. She, therefore, enters a negative feedback loop. The dangers of optimism bias can apply to how we see human nature. As we discuss above, Bregman believes that a more positive view of human nature can create a positive feedback loop. However, seeing all humans as friendly can be dangerous because it can lead us to be too trusting, which can cause us pain. To avoid over-optimism, Kahneman suggests two general strategies. First, he recommends taking a more objective view: Imagine that you’re observing someone else in your situation, then set your expectations accordingly. Second, he says to plan backwards: Imagine what could go wrong, then address those potential difficulties. This will increase your chances of success because it lets you build a realistic roadmap towards your goal. These strategies can help you avoid over-optimism in your goal-setting as well as your relationships with other people. There are also more specific strategies that can help you consciously decide whether to trust someone, rather than blindly seeing all humans positively as Bregman suggests. For example, talking to a close friend or family member about a relationship can help you get a more objective perspective on it, thus helping you to decide whether or not the other person deserves your trust. Furthermore, it can be helpful to define what trustworthiness means to you: For many people, trust requires consistency, respect for you and your time, and compassion and kindness. Bregman maintains that, while it may sound idealistic, evidence from prisons, corporations, and politics shows that these positive feedback loops create better results in the real world. Let’s take a look at the possibilities of a positive mindset. The Criminal Justice System According to Bregman, one of the places where our society creates negative feedback loops is in prisons. He maintains that seeing prisoners from a Hobbesian perspective—as inherently evil criminals who require strong punishment—actually leads to more crime. For example, in the United States, prisons are often punishment-based. Prisoners live in overcrowded cells with little to no time for exercise, and they receive punishments like solitary confinement when they break the rules. These strict rules make it harder for ex-convicts to adapt to life outside of prison, which isn’t as structured or punishment-based. Bregman suggests that this contributes to high reoffending rates in the United States. However, Bregman argues that we can create positive feedback loops in the criminal justice system. In Norway, for example, prisons are reform-centered. Guards rarely carry weapons, and they treat prisoners with respect. In one prison, inmates live in a type of commune, plowing the land and growing their own food. Norway’s recidivism rate—the percentage of prisoners who end up in prison a second time—is significantly lower than that of the United States. What’s more, Norway’s success isn’t uniquely Norwegian: This type of reform works in the United States as well. According to Bregman, United States prison officials have borrowed some of Norway’s methods. They’ve found that when guards have more conversations with prisoners, conditions begin to improve: There are fewer instances of disobedience and fewer fights, and the guards enjoy their jobs more. Why Do Norwegian Prisons Work? Bregman mentions several aspects of Norway’s prison system, including communal living and guards without weapons. In addition to these, there are several other practices that differentiate Norwegian prisons. For example, one prison assigns each inmate a guidance counselor, who monitors their progress and helps them develop a life plan. Prisoners also receive more privileges as they show good behavior, including overnight family visits, access to classes and job training, and limited time outside the prison (accompanied by guards). This creates a gradual progression into the outside world, mitigating the difficult transition that Bregman describes. As Bregman mentions, several places in the United States have borrowed ideas from Norwegian prisons with positive results, including the state of Oregon. However, despite this, some people doubt whether the United States can fully implement this reform-based system. Critics point out that the United States government doesn’t pay for as many social services as Norway. Norway’s model of high quality, state-funded prisons is therefore unlikely to gain popular political backing in the US. Furthermore, others note that Norway has a better mental health system than the United States, including publicly-funded emergency responders trained in psychology. This is an important factor in rehabilitating prisoners, who often suffer from mental health disorders. According to these critics, simply reforming the prison system wouldn’t be enough to improve recidivism rates—the United States would also have to change the way it views mental health. Corporations According to Bregman, we can also create positive feedback loops in corporations. He suggests that when managers see and treat their workers as lazy and untrustworthy, workers are less intrinsically motivated and creative. For example, bonuses and pay-per-hour systems, which seek to hold “lazy” workers accountable, can make workers so focused on working a certain number of hours or getting paid more money that they no longer care about doing the job well. Instead, Bregman suggests that businesses should minimize bureaucracy and trust their employees to find creative solutions. The Company Without Hierarchy: AgBiome One example of a company that aligns with Bregman’s theory is AgBiome, a biotech company in the agriculture industry. The company doesn’t have managerial hierarchies. Instead, it lets its employees set their own schedules, determine the best strategies for solving problems, and create teams to tackle specific projects. Employees also form committees to handle finances and other logistical issues. However, even though companies like AgBiome have been successful, Bregman’s unstructured management theory doesn’t necessarily work for everyone. James Baron, a business professor at Yale whose work inspired AgBiome’s founders, notes that AgBiome is in the science and technology industry, where quick decision-making and teamwork is especially important. Companies in industries that don’t value or require these attributes may not suit this management style. Government Bregman also extends his positive feedback loop theory to civic engagement. Studies show that when city governments give their citizens more power to negotiate and make political decisions, there’s more participation and interest in politics, less polarization, and less corruption. Inequality decreases because citizens of all social classes and groups have a seat at the table. Participate locally. While local government is much smaller than national or state government, it can make a big difference in peoples’ lives.To get involved, attend local government discussions on issues in your community, get to know your local representatives, and join organizations such as school boards to create change. Support candidates that you believe in. One of the most basic ways that citizens participate in democracies is by electing candidates. You can help elect a candidate that you believe in by voting, mobilizing others to vote, and volunteering as a campaign official. Create a community of people who care. One of the ways that citizens create change is through banding together. Consider creating or attending a debate club in your community and talking to others about your beliefs. You can also use social media to raise awareness about issues that are important to you. Darya Sinusoid Darya’s love for reading started with fantasy novels (The LOTR trilogy is still her all-time-favorite). Growing up, however, she found herself transitioning to non-fiction, psychological, and self-help books. She has a degree in Psychology and a deep passion for the subject. She likes reading research-informed books that distill the workings of the human brain/mind/consciousness and thinking of ways to apply the insights to her own life. Some of her favorites include Thinking, Fast and Slow, How We Decide, and The Wisdom of the Enneagram.

Are humans fundamentally good or bad? Or are we neither? How do expectations define human behavior? In his book Humankind, Rutger Bregman argues that our view of humanity creates a feedback loop. In other words, we get what we expect from people. By changing our mindsets, we can create a positive feedback loop that leads to a friendlier and more peaceful world. In this article, we’ll discuss why Bregman believes having a more positive outlook on humanity can create positive change in our society. Our View of Humanity Creates a Feedback Loop In his book Humankind, Rutger Bregman asserts that people are fundamentally good, but their behavior also depends on expectations. If we expect people to be selfish, they’ll act selfishly. However, the opposite holds as well: If we see humans as fundamentally decent creatures, we’ll treat each other with respect, trust, and dignity, which will encourage others to be kinder and more compassionate in turn. Research suggests that expectations have a significant impact on behavior. For example, if a parent consistently tells their child that the child is unathletic, then the child will start to believe it. She might avoid playing sports with other children. If she does play, she’ll see every failure as proof that she’s unathletic, instead of as an opportunity to improve. She, therefore, enters a negative feedback loop. The dangers of optimism bias can apply to how we see human nature. As we discuss above, Bregman believes that a more positive view of human nature can create a positive feedback loop. However, seeing all humans as friendly can be dangerous because it can lead us to be too trusting, which can cause us pain. To avoid over-optimism, Kahneman suggests two general strategies. First, he recommends taking a more objective view: Imagine that you’re observing someone else in your situation, then set your expectations accordingly. Second, he says to plan backwards: Imagine what could go wrong, then address those potential difficulties. This will increase your chances of success because it lets you build a realistic roadmap towards your goal.

yes

Philosophy

Are humans fundamentally good or evil?

no_statement

"humans" are "fundamentally" "evil".. the nature of "humans" is "fundamentally" "evil".

https://www.shortform.com/blog/what-is-human-nature-philosophy/

What Is Human Nature? Philosophy of Rutger Bregman | Shortform ...

What is human nature in philosophy? Are humans benevolent or evil by their nature? In philosophy, human nature has been debated extensively. Some philosophers argue that humans are naturally deceitful and cruel, seemingly with a lot of evidence to back us up: Throughout history, groups of humans have gone to war, committed genocide, and owned slaves. But despite our history of evil, humans are fundamentally good. Here’s why the basic nature of humankind is inherently good, according to historian Rutger Bregman. Modern Evidence: Evil Doesn’t Come Naturally to Us What is human nature in philosophy—are we inherently good or inherently bad? In his book Humankind, historian Rutger Bregman claims that humans have evolved to be compassionate and cooperative. We survived by learning from each other and working together. We began to engage in war and violence not because it’s in our nature, but because the invention of settlements and civilization created more violent conditions. But what does more recent evidence tell us about our true nature? Bregman suggests that modern scientific evidence offers a similar conclusion: that humans are fundamentally good and want to do the right thing. He discusses two modern scenarios that many people assume to bring out the cruelest, most selfish impulses in human nature: the prisoner-guard relationship and war. Bregman argues that while these situations can be brutal, humanity’s fundamental goodness shows through in each of them. Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Experiment According to Bregman, proponents of Hobbes’s point of view—that humans are inherently selfish and cruel—often use the prisoner-guard relationship as proof that humans are naturally evil. This is largely due to a 1971 study known as the Stanford Prison Experiment. Bregman describes the experiment: A team of psychologists led by Stanford professor Philip Zimbardo turned the basement of the Stanford psychology department into a “jail.” Zimbardo recruited 24 male college students, half of whom would play the role of guards and the other half the role of prisoners. After several days, the guards began to treat the prisoners with brutality—they subjected them to strip searches, emotionally and verbally tormented them, and even physically abused them. Bregman notes that in interviews and articles after the experiment, Zimbardo repeatedly claimed that this cruel behavior was entirely unscripted. He said that merely telling participants to be a guard had brought out their sadistic tendencies—the evil that supposedly hides in all of us. However, when Zimbardo released the archive of the experiment, it became clear that he’d influenced the guards’ actions. According to Bregman, Zimbardo met with the guards before the experiment began and told them to treat the prisoners with brutality. Due to Zimbardo’s interference, Bregman maintains that the experiment tells us very little about human nature. However, Bregman notes that a similar study conducted more recently, without unethical interference from the researchers, had the opposite result of the Stanford prison experiment. This was a 2002 reality TV show on the BBC called The Experiment, run by psychologists Alexander Haslam and Steven Reicher. Like Zimbardo, Haslam and Reicher divided participants into guards and prisoners. However, they didn’t give the guards any directives. By the end of the series, the prisoners and guards were sharing their food and playing games together, and they’d voted to create a commune. Bregman concludes that being a guard doesn’t automatically bring out our evil nature. War: Soldiers Don’t Enjoy Killing Another scenario that people often hold up as an example of humans’ inherent cruelty is war. Bregman suggests that traditionally, we think that soldiers enjoy killing because it allows them to engage in the type of primal violence that humans have supposedly committed throughout history. However, Bregman argues that most soldiers actively avoid killing, and that it takes considerable training to make soldiers kill. Evidence from around the world suggests that historically, few soldiers fired their weapons in times of war. These numbers have only increased in recent years due to the military’s increased emphasis on conditioning soldiers to kill through combat simulations and exposure to violent images. Darya Sinusoid Darya’s love for reading started with fantasy novels (The LOTR trilogy is still her all-time-favorite). Growing up, however, she found herself transitioning to non-fiction, psychological, and self-help books. She has a degree in Psychology and a deep passion for the subject. She likes reading research-informed books that distill the workings of the human brain/mind/consciousness and thinking of ways to apply the insights to her own life. Some of her favorites include Thinking, Fast and Slow, How We Decide, and The Wisdom of the Enneagram.

What is human nature in philosophy? Are humans benevolent or evil by their nature? In philosophy, human nature has been debated extensively. Some philosophers argue that humans are naturally deceitful and cruel, seemingly with a lot of evidence to back us up: Throughout history, groups of humans have gone to war, committed genocide, and owned slaves. But despite our history of evil, humans are fundamentally good. Here’s why the basic nature of humankind is inherently good, according to historian Rutger Bregman. Modern Evidence: Evil Doesn’t Come Naturally to Us What is human nature in philosophy—are we inherently good or inherently bad? In his book Humankind, historian Rutger Bregman claims that humans have evolved to be compassionate and cooperative. We survived by learning from each other and working together. We began to engage in war and violence not because it’s in our nature, but because the invention of settlements and civilization created more violent conditions. But what does more recent evidence tell us about our true nature? Bregman suggests that modern scientific evidence offers a similar conclusion: that humans are fundamentally good and want to do the right thing. He discusses two modern scenarios that many people assume to bring out the cruelest, most selfish impulses in human nature: the prisoner-guard relationship and war. Bregman argues that while these situations can be brutal, humanity’s fundamental goodness shows through in each of them. Zimbardo’s Stanford Prison Experiment According to Bregman, proponents of Hobbes’s point of view—that humans are inherently selfish and cruel—often use the prisoner-guard relationship as proof that humans are naturally evil. This is largely due to a 1971 study known as the Stanford Prison Experiment. Bregman describes the experiment: A team of psychologists led by Stanford professor Philip Zimbardo turned the basement of the Stanford psychology department into a “jail.” Zimbardo recruited 24 male college students, half of whom would play the role of guards and the other half the role of prisoners.

yes

Philosophy

Are humans fundamentally good or evil?

no_statement

"humans" are "fundamentally" "evil".. the nature of "humans" is "fundamentally" "evil".

https://jonpenland.com/books/humankind-rutger-bregman/

Book Review: Humankind by Rutger Bregman – Jon Penland

Book Review: Humankind by Rutger Bregman Deprecated: Function wp_get_loading_attr_default is deprecated since version 6.3.0! Use wp_get_loading_optimization_attributes() instead. in /www/jonpenland_707/public/wp-includes/functions.php on line 5453 Everything you think you know about human nature is wrong. Many people believe that humans are intrinsically selfish anarchists bent on satisfying their base desires at any expense, and it’s only the pressure of social norms, the need to survive, and the threat of violence wielded by authority that compel us to behave ourselves. But, what if that sort of thinking is wrong? A rebuttal of the idea that humans are primarily selfish is the central premise of Humankind: A Hopeful History by Rutger Bregman. Instead, Bregman claims that humans are actually kind and generous by nature, and this idea, if it could be internalized by every human, could have the power to fix much of what ails modern civilization. Our Fallen Nature Most of us are raised with the idea that we’re broken or sinful by nature. We get this idea from different places: our parents, religion, society at large. The idea many of us are raised with is that humans are fundamentally selfish and that it’s only the imposition of rules, laws, religion, norms, social expectations, and civilization that have the potential to corral our destructive nature. This idea goes by the name veneer theory in Bregman’s book, a term he borrows from Frans de Waal. In a nutshell, veneer theory says that civilization, with it’s laws, rules, and norms, is a thin veneer that hides humanity’s natural inclination towards anarchy, selfishness, and impulsivity. However, Bregman believes that most people are fundamentally good and in Humankind he spends 400 pages putting forth evidence that supports his idea. One Bite (or Study) at a Time There’s an old saying that goes like this: “How do you eat an elephant? One bite at a time.” Big things are not done all at once. You have to take things one small step at a time. In the same vein, how do you rebuff centuries of psychology, biology, history, and philosophy? One story and one study at a time. In Humankind, Bregman recognizes that he’s sailing in choppy waters under heavy headwinds. The idea that humans are fundamentally good is tough idea to sell when faced with so much apparent and obvious contradictory evidence. Have you read the news lately? So Bregman doesn’t take the whole idea on at once. Instead, Bregman walks through the most well-known studies, ideas, and stories of our time that are often cited as demonstrations of humanities worst qualities and unveils how these stories and studies are flawed or outright fabrications. Among many other stories, studies, and ideas, Bregman goes after the Stanford Prison Experiments, the supposed savage history of Easter Island, and the Lord of the Flies. In each case, Bregman demonstrates how the study was flawed or the story misreported, and how reality was considerably different than the fiction put forward. Did the Stanford Prison Experiment demonstrate that power and social structures produce abusive behaviors? Hardly, what the experiment demonstrated was the willingness of the scientists to manipulate participants to get certain results, and the desire of participants to please the scientists. Is the Lord of the Flies a realistic depiction of what happens when school-age kids are left to their own devices? Absolutely not, and we know this because a group of Tongan school-age boys were marooned on the island of ‘Ata for 15 months, and their real life Lord of the Flies story inspires hope, not despair. Over the course of 18 chapters, Bregman deconstructs the idea that people are fundamentally selfish and replaces that tired trope with a more realistic assessment of human nature. It’s Not All Roses and Rainbows At this point you might think that Bregman has his head stuck in the sand, but that isn’t the case. Bregman isn’t confused about the horror of the holocaust or the reality of violent crime. Bregman isn’t suggesting that humans are completely good and without fault. Instead, the picture that emerges is one where people sometimes do terrible things. However, more often than not, these terrible things are rooted in honorable motivations. Consider the soldier who fights for a country and a cause you find abhorrent. Why does that soldier fight? Is it because they are fundamentally evil? Or do they fight because they love their family and country? Well, if you talk to the average soldier you’ll find that they fight because they love their family, their country, and consider their fellow soldiers to be their brothers and sisters. They fight because they are motivated by love and loyalty. Let’s look at a more recent event: the January 6, 2021 siege of the US Capitol by supporters of President Trump. Did those who marched do so because of their hate for the United States and democracy? Absolutely not! They marched for precisely the opposite reason: they believe in freedom and democracy, they love their country, they’re convinced that democracy has been stolen from them, and they’ve been encouraged by leaders they trust to take violent action to protect their values. In short, they’ve been lied to and mislead, but have done a terrible thing while motivated by a love of country and belief that they were fighting to protect democracy. These are terrible things done for honorable reasons. It is also the case that what is true of most people is not true of all people. Consider the Christmas truce of 1914, in which World War I soldiers on both sides of the conflict spontaneously laid down their weapons and celebrated Christmas across enemy lines. While fighting stopped in most places during Christmas of 1914, not everyone was pleased, such as the young soldier by the name Adolf Hitler who pronounced that “Such things should not happen in wartime.”1 Most soldiers were fundamentally good and driven by honorable motivations, but not all. Humans are complex. Fundamentally good? Yes, for the most part. However, there are some bad apples in the barrel, and even good people are capable of doing terrible things for honorable reasons when they’ve been carried away by groupthink, misinformation, poisonous beliefs, or allegiance to authority. The Takeaway Humans are good, for the most part, but we do harmful things because the world is complex and because our sociability overrides our better natures. How should that affect how we live, think, and behave? In the epilogue to Humankind, Bergman makes ten suggestions that are based on the ideas in the book. I can’t do justice to these ideas in this short review so I’ll summarize what I took away from the book in one paragraph: Those who you perceive to be different from you are not evil and are a lot more like you than you may think. If you can step across the aisle and physically engage your adversary in one-on-one real life conversations, assume the best about them, and get to know them as individuals, far more often than not you will find a friend where you previously found a foe. What About the Book Something I haven’t done in this review is talk about the merits of the book itself. So let me do that briefly. The book is fantastic. It’s well-written, easy to read, interesting, never boring, and a high-quality printing and binding. The book was originally written in Dutch and has been translated to English, but it’s a fantastic translation and if I didn’t know it was originally written in a different language I wouldn’t have been able to guess based on the text. Save my name, email, and website in this browser for the next time I comment. Notify me of follow-up comments by email. Notify me of new posts by email. Δ Affiliate Disclaimer If you click on a link on my site and make a purchase I may receive a commission for that purchase. I you want to learn more about my participation in affiliate programs please review my affiliate disclosure page.

In short, they’ve been lied to and mislead, but have done a terrible thing while motivated by a love of country and belief that they were fighting to protect democracy. These are terrible things done for honorable reasons. It is also the case that what is true of most people is not true of all people. Consider the Christmas truce of 1914, in which World War I soldiers on both sides of the conflict spontaneously laid down their weapons and celebrated Christmas across enemy lines. While fighting stopped in most places during Christmas of 1914, not everyone was pleased, such as the young soldier by the name Adolf Hitler who pronounced that “Such things should not happen in wartime.”1 Most soldiers were fundamentally good and driven by honorable motivations, but not all. Humans are complex. Fundamentally good? Yes, for the most part. However, there are some bad apples in the barrel, and even good people are capable of doing terrible things for honorable reasons when they’ve been carried away by groupthink, misinformation, poisonous beliefs, or allegiance to authority. The Takeaway Humans are good, for the most part, but we do harmful things because the world is complex and because our sociability overrides our better natures. How should that affect how we live, think, and behave? In the epilogue to Humankind, Bergman makes ten suggestions that are based on the ideas in the book. I can’t do justice to these ideas in this short review so I’ll summarize what I took away from the book in one paragraph: Those who you perceive to be different from you are not evil and are a lot more like you than you may think. If you can step across the aisle and physically engage your adversary in one-on-one real life conversations, assume the best about them, and get to know them as individuals, far more often than not you will find a friend where you previously found a foe. What About the Book Something I haven’t done in this review is talk about the merits of the book itself. So let me do that briefly. The book is fantastic. It’s well-written, easy to read, interesting,

yes

Karyology

Are identical twins genetically identical?

yes_statement

"identical" "twins" are "genetically" "identical".. genetic makeup of "identical" "twins" is the same.

https://www.betterhealth.vic.gov.au/health/conditionsandtreatments/twins-identical-and-fraternal

Twins - identical and fraternal - Better Health Channel

About twins and multiple births Multiple births are more common than they were in the past, due to the advancing average age of mothers and the associated rise in assisted reproductive techniques, in particular the use of fertility drugs. There are two types of twins – identical (monozygotic) and fraternal (dizygotic). To form identical twins, one fertilised egg (ovum) splits and develops two babies with exactly the same genetic information. This differs from fraternal twins, where two eggs (ova) are fertilised by two sperm and produce two genetically unique children, who are no more alike than individual siblings born at different times. Twins are more or less equally likely to be female or male. Contrary to popular belief, the incidence of twins doesn’t skip generations. Factors that increase the odds of having twins Some women are more likely than others to give birth to twins. The factors that increase the odds include: Age of the mother – women in their 30s and 40s have higher levels of the sex hormone oestrogen than younger women, which means that their ovaries are stimulated to produce more than one egg at a time. Number of previous pregnancies – the greater the number of pregnancies a woman has already had, the higher her odds of conceiving twins. Heredity – a woman is more likely to conceive fraternal twins if she is a fraternal twin, has already had fraternal twins, or has siblings who are fraternal twins. These women are hyper-ovulators and are able to produce more than one egg at a time. Race – African women have the highest incidence of twins, while Asian women have the lowest. Assisted reproductive techniques – many procedures rely on stimulating the ovaries with fertility drugs to produce eggs and, often, several eggs are released per ovulation. IVF – multiple embryos are often transferred to the woman’s uterus to increase the chance of success. Weight – women who are overweight have a higher chance of conceiving twins. Fertilisation Hormones secreted by the ovaries, and a small gland in the brain called the pituitary, control the menstrual cycle. The average cycle is around 28 days. After a menstrual period, rising levels of the hormone oestrogen help to thicken the lining of the womb (the endometrium) and release an egg from one of the ovaries (ovulation). If the egg is fertilised on its journey down the fallopian tube, it lodges in the thickened womb lining, starts dividing and evolves into an embryo. Identical or ‘monozygotic’ twins Around one in three sets of twins is identical. This occurs because the fertilised egg divides in two while it is still a tiny collection of cells. The self-contained halves then develop into two babies, with exactly the same genetic information. Twins conceived from one egg and one sperm are called identical or ‘monozygotic’ (one-cell) twins. The biological mechanisms that prompt the single fertilised egg to split in two remain a mystery. Approximately one quarter of identical twins are mirror images of each other, which means the right side of one child matches the left side of their twin. Fraternal or ‘dizygotic’ twins Around two in three sets of twins are fraternal. Two separate eggs (ova) are fertilised by two separate sperm, resulting in fraternal or ‘dizygotic’ (two-cell) twins. These babies will be no more alike than siblings born at separate times. The babies can be either the same sex or different sexes. The proposed ‘third-twin type’ Some researchers believe there may be a third type of twin, although medical opinion is still divided. It is proposed that the egg splits in two, and each half is then fertilised by a different sperm. This theory is an attempt to explain why some fraternal twins look identical. Gestation for twins The normal length of gestation for a single baby is around 40 weeks. However, gestation for twins, either identical or fraternal, is usually around 38 weeks or earlier, with 68 per cent of multiple births being born prematurely and admitted to Special Care Nursery or Neonatal Intensive Care Unit. This shorter time is due to the increased demands on the mother’s body, and the inability of the babies to receive all the nutrients they need in utero. Since twins are usually premature, they are more likely to have lower birth weights. Prematurity is associated with increased risk of a number of disorders, including jaundice. Antenatal care for women carrying twins When you are identified as having a multiple pregnancy, it is likely that more frequent check-ups with your care team will be scheduled due to the higher risks associated with multiple pregnancies. It is recommended to speak to your GP if you notice the stress of a multiple birth pregnancy impacting your mental health. Pregnant women with multiples are more prone to pregnancy complications, including: It is also important to know whether your twins are sharing a placenta, as sharing a placenta also means sharing the blood supply from the mother. If the sharing of the blood supply is unequal, this can lead to complications. For this reason, women carrying twins sharing a placenta will need to have more frequent antenatal check-ups. Twins sharing an inner membrane (which means they share the amniotic sac) carry an even higher risk of complications, as there is the potential for their umbilical cords to become tangled and to cut off their blood supply. In this case the pregnancy is monitored even more closely, and it may be recommended that your twins be delivered earlier. Giving birth to multiple babies It is advised that women carrying twins give birth in hospital, rather than at home. The babies can be delivered vaginally, but caesarean section delivery may be considered a better alternative in some circumstances. For the babies, increased risks include being born prematurely, and birth complications due to a shared placenta or blood vessels, and uterine restriction. Zygosity testing It is difficult to tell if twins are identical or fraternal at birth. Some identical twins may be born with individual sets of membranes, which may lead to the mistaken assumption that the babies are fraternal. One way to tell the difference is to have the twins DNA-tested. Identical twins share the same genetic information, while fraternal twins share around half. The test can be done with a sample of cheek cells (collected painlessly) or blood group examinations. While the distinction may not seem important if you have two (or more) healthy babies, it can be useful to know for health reasons because identical twins have a high likelihood of experiencing the same illnesses or having the same health condition. Identical twins are also compatible for organ transplantation, should it be required. Content disclaimer Content on this website is provided for information purposes only. Information about a therapy, service, product or treatment does not in any way endorse or support such therapy, service, product or treatment and is not intended to replace advice from your doctor or other registered health professional. The information and materials contained on this website are not intended to constitute a comprehensive guide concerning all aspects of the therapy, product or treatment described on the website. All users are urged to always seek advice from a registered health care professional for diagnosis and answers to their medical questions and to ascertain whether the particular therapy, service, product or treatment described on the website is suitable in their circumstances. The State of Victoria and the Department of Health shall not bear any liability for reliance by any user on the materials contained on this website.

Twins sharing an inner membrane (which means they share the amniotic sac) carry an even higher risk of complications, as there is the potential for their umbilical cords to become tangled and to cut off their blood supply. In this case the pregnancy is monitored even more closely, and it may be recommended that your twins be delivered earlier. Giving birth to multiple babies It is advised that women carrying twins give birth in hospital, rather than at home. The babies can be delivered vaginally, but caesarean section delivery may be considered a better alternative in some circumstances. For the babies, increased risks include being born prematurely, and birth complications due to a shared placenta or blood vessels, and uterine restriction. Zygosity testing It is difficult to tell if twins are identical or fraternal at birth. Some identical twins may be born with individual sets of membranes, which may lead to the mistaken assumption that the babies are fraternal. One way to tell the difference is to have the twins DNA-tested. Identical twins share the same genetic information, while fraternal twins share around half. The test can be done with a sample of cheek cells (collected painlessly) or blood group examinations. While the distinction may not seem important if you have two (or more) healthy babies, it can be useful to know for health reasons because identical twins have a high likelihood of experiencing the same illnesses or having the same health condition. Identical twins are also compatible for organ transplantation, should it be required. Content disclaimer Content on this website is provided for information purposes only. Information about a therapy, service, product or treatment does not in any way endorse or support such therapy, service, product or treatment and is not intended to replace advice from your doctor or other registered health professional. The information and materials contained on this website are not intended to constitute a comprehensive guide concerning all aspects of the therapy, product or treatment described on the website.

yes

Karyology

Are identical twins genetically identical?

yes_statement

"identical" "twins" are "genetically" "identical".. genetic makeup of "identical" "twins" is the same.

https://genome.cshlp.org/site/press/gr100289.xhtml

Genomes of identical twins reveal epigenetic changes that may play ...

Genomes of identical twins reveal epigenetic changes that may play role in lupus December 22, 2009 – Identical twins look the same and are nearly genetically identical, but environmental factors and the resulting cellular changes could cause disease in one sibling and not the other. In a study published online in Genome Research (www.genome.org), scientists have studied twins discordant for the autoimmune disease lupus, mapping DNA modifications across the genome and shedding light on epigenetic changes that may play a role in the disease. Because the genetic makeup of monozygotic twins (commonly known as identical twins) is nearly identical, phenotypic traits and heritable diseases are often concordant, manifesting in both siblings. However, some phenotypes and diseases such as autoimmune disease can arise in only one sibling, suggesting other factors such as environment likely play a role in determining phenotypic differences. Epigenetic modifications, cellular changes that can influence expression of genes, are now widely recognized to influence phenotype and frequently occur in disease. Furthermore, environmental factors such as diet and chemical exposure can change the epigenetic status of genes. Recent research has identified epigenetic modifications at several aberrantly regulated genes in autoimmune diseases such as systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), and other studies have suggested that epigenetic differences are associated with phenotypic discordance between identical twins. In this work, researchers from Spain and the United States performed the first genome-wide high-throughput analysis of a specific epigenetic modification, DNA methylation, in the context of autoimmune disease. Taking advantage of the identical genetic background in monozygotic twins, the group directly compared DNA methylation in healthy twins and twins discordant for autoimmune diseases, including SLE, looking for changes that could be related to pathogenesis in one sibling and not the other. In the case of SLE, the group found widespread changes in DNA methylation status at a significant number of genes. Dr. Esteban Ballestar, senior author of the study, noted that this is the largest number of genes exhibiting DNA methylation changes observed in an autoimmune disease to date, and includes genes previously implicated in SLE pathogenesis. Importantly, Ballestar’s team found that a significant number of the novel differentially methylated genes are related to multiple immune system functions and are potentially linked to SLE. “Our study suggests that the effect of the environment or differences in lifestyle may leave a molecular mark in key genes for immune function that contributes to the differential onset of the disease in twins,” Ballestar said. Most studies of DNA methylation and human disease have been in the context of cancer research, Ballestar noted, and he hopes that this work will attract more researchers to also investigate DNA methylation alterations in autoimmune disease and other disorders for the development of therapies.Scientists from Bellvitge Biomedical Research Institute (Barcelona, Spain), Christian-Albrechts-University Kiel (Kiel, Germany), Centro de Investigacion Principe Felipe (Valencia, Spain), the Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard (Cambridge, MA), Brigham and Women’s Hospital (Brookline, MA), the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences (Bethesda, MD), Gregorio Marañon Hospital (Madrid, Spain), ISCIII Center for Biomedical Research on Rare Diseases (Valencia, Spain), Institut de Medicina Predictiva i Personalitzada del Càncer (Badalona, Spain), and the University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center (Oklahoma City, OK) contributed to this study. This work was supported by the Spanish Ministry of Science and Innovation, the National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, the National Institutes of Health, the Alliance for Lupus Research, the US Department of Veterans Affairs, and a BEFI Predoctoral Fellowship from the Carlos III Health Institute, Spain. About Genome Research: Launched in 1995, Genome Research (www.genome.org) is an international, continuously published, peer-reviewed journal that focuses on research that provides novel insights into the genome biology of all organisms, including advances in genomic medicine. Among the topics considered by the journal are genome structure and function, comparative genomics, molecular evolution, genome-scale quantitative and population genetics, proteomics, epigenomics, and systems biology. The journal also features exciting gene discoveries and reports of cutting-edge computational biology and high-throughput methodologies. About Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory is a private, nonprofit institution in New York that conducts research in cancer and other life sciences and has a variety of educational programs. Its Press, originating in 1933, is the largest of the Laboratory's five education divisions and is a publisher of books, journals, and electronic media for scientists, students, and the general public. Genome Research issues press releases to highlight significant research studies that are published in the journal.

Genomes of identical twins reveal epigenetic changes that may play role in lupus December 22, 2009 – Identical twins look the same and are nearly genetically identical, but environmental factors and the resulting cellular changes could cause disease in one sibling and not the other. In a study published online in Genome Research (www.genome.org), scientists have studied twins discordant for the autoimmune disease lupus, mapping DNA modifications across the genome and shedding light on epigenetic changes that may play a role in the disease. Because the genetic makeup of monozygotic twins (commonly known as identical twins) is nearly identical, phenotypic traits and heritable diseases are often concordant, manifesting in both siblings. However, some phenotypes and diseases such as autoimmune disease can arise in only one sibling, suggesting other factors such as environment likely play a role in determining phenotypic differences. Epigenetic modifications, cellular changes that can influence expression of genes, are now widely recognized to influence phenotype and frequently occur in disease. Furthermore, environmental factors such as diet and chemical exposure can change the epigenetic status of genes. Recent research has identified epigenetic modifications at several aberrantly regulated genes in autoimmune diseases such as systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE), and other studies have suggested that epigenetic differences are associated with phenotypic discordance between identical twins. In this work, researchers from Spain and the United States performed the first genome-wide high-throughput analysis of a specific epigenetic modification, DNA methylation, in the context of autoimmune disease. Taking advantage of the identical genetic background in monozygotic twins, the group directly compared DNA methylation in healthy twins and twins discordant for autoimmune diseases, including SLE, looking for changes that could be related to pathogenesis in one sibling and not the other.

no

Karyology

Are identical twins genetically identical?

yes_statement

"identical" "twins" are "genetically" "identical".. genetic makeup of "identical" "twins" is the same.

https://www.sciencenews.org/article/some-identical-twins-dont-have-identical-dna-genetics

Some identical twins don't have identical DNA

Share this: On average, identical twins differ by 5.2 genetic changes, researchers report January 7 in Nature Genetics. The finding is important because identical twins — also called monozygotic twins because they come from a single fertilized egg — are often studied to determine whether particular traits, diseases or conditions result from genetics or from environmental influences. Identical twins were thought to be genetically the same, so differences in their health were considered to be the product of their environment. The new finding suggests that some genetic changes could also account for differences between twins. Researchers in Iceland deciphered the complete genetic makeup, or genome, of 381 pairs of identical twins. Of those, 38 pairs were genetic duplicates of each other, but most had some differences in DNA that probably arose very early in development, either just before one embryo split to form two or shortly after the split. Some of the twins had many genetic differences, including 39 pairs who had more than 100 changes between the twins. Patterns of mutations among twins suggest that embryos don’t split neatly when twins form, the findings suggest. Some twins may arise when a single cell or a small group of cells splits off from the embryo. The number of cells that a twin originates from may determine how genetically different they are from their twin, with more uneven splits of the embryo leading to a greater number of differences between the twins. Citations Tina Hesman Saey is the senior staff writer and reports on molecular biology. She has a Ph.D. in molecular genetics from Washington University in St. Louis and a master’s degree in science journalism from Boston University. This article was supported by readers like you. Our mission is to provide accurate, engaging news of science to the public. That mission has never been more important than it is today. As a nonprofit news organization, we cannot do it without you. Your support enables us to keep our content free and accessible to the next generation of scientists and engineers. Invest in quality science journalism by donating today. From the Nature Index Science News was founded in 1921 as an independent, nonprofit source of accurate information on the latest news of science, medicine and technology. Today, our mission remains the same: to empower people to evaluate the news and the world around them. It is published by the Society for Science, a nonprofit 501(c)(3) membership organization dedicated to public engagement in scientific research and education (EIN 53-0196483).

Share this: On average, identical twins differ by 5.2 genetic changes, researchers report January 7 in Nature Genetics. The finding is important because identical twins — also called monozygotic twins because they come from a single fertilized egg — are often studied to determine whether particular traits, diseases or conditions result from genetics or from environmental influences. Identical twins were thought to be genetically the same, so differences in their health were considered to be the product of their environment. The new finding suggests that some genetic changes could also account for differences between twins. Researchers in Iceland deciphered the complete genetic makeup, or genome, of 381 pairs of identical twins. Of those, 38 pairs were genetic duplicates of each other, but most had some differences in DNA that probably arose very early in development, either just before one embryo split to form two or shortly after the split. Some of the twins had many genetic differences, including 39 pairs who had more than 100 changes between the twins. Patterns of mutations among twins suggest that embryos don’t split neatly when twins form, the findings suggest. Some twins may arise when a single cell or a small group of cells splits off from the embryo. The number of cells that a twin originates from may determine how genetically different they are from their twin, with more uneven splits of the embryo leading to a greater number of differences between the twins. Citations Tina Hesman Saey is the senior staff writer and reports on molecular biology. She has a Ph.D. in molecular genetics from Washington University in St. Louis and a master’s degree in science journalism from Boston University. This article was supported by readers like you. Our mission is to provide accurate, engaging news of science to the public. That mission has never been more important than it is today. As a nonprofit news organization, we cannot do it without you. Your support enables us to keep our content free and accessible to the next generation of scientists and engineers. Invest in quality science journalism by donating today.

no

Karyology

Are identical twins genetically identical?

yes_statement

"identical" "twins" are "genetically" "identical".. genetic makeup of "identical" "twins" is the same.

https://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/03/110328151740.htm

No two of us are alike -- even identical twins: Pinpointing genetic ...

No two of us are alike -- even identical twins: Pinpointing genetic determinants of schizophrenia Date: March 28, 2011 Source: University of Western Ontario Summary: Just like snowflakes, no two people are alike, even if they're identical twins according to new genetic research. Scientists have been working to determine the genetic sequencing of schizophrenia using identical or monozygotic twins. Just like snowflakes, no two people are alike, even if they're identical twins according to new genetic research from The University of Western Ontario. Molecular geneticist Shiva Singh has been working with psychiatrist Dr. Richard O'Reilly to determine the genetic sequencing of schizophrenia using identical or monozygotic twins. The study is published in this month's PLoS ONE. Singh looked at about one million markers of identical twins (and their two parents) where only one twin had schizophrenia. "The most informative feature of schizophrenia is that it sometimes runs in the family. So, for example, the risk of developing schizophrenia is much higher if your brother, sister, mother or father have the disease," says Singh, noting in the general population about one percent have schizophrenia. "We started with the belief that monozygotic twins are genetically identical, so if one member of identical twins has schizophrenia, then the risk for the other twin should be 100 percent, if it's all due to genes. However, studies over the years have shown that the risk of the disease in both twins is only 50 percent." That means either the twins are genetically not identical or the familial disease involves non-genetic (random) effects. Singh and his team have now demonstrated that the monozygotic twins are not genetically identical. "So if schizophrenia is in the genes, then the difference in the genetic makeup of monozygotic twins, with only one disease twin, must have something to do with the disease." Singh found about 12 per cent of DNA can vary across individuals, "Cells are dividing as we develop and differentiate. More importantly, these cells may lose or acquire additional DNA. The genome is not static." Dr. O'Reilly hopes this research will lead to better understanding and improved treatments for schizophrenia. "If we had a genetic test for schizophrenia, it could be applied early in the disease when it's hard to make that diagnosis," says Dr. O'Reilly. The research was funded through the Canadian Institutes of Health Research, the Ontario Mental Health Foundation and the Schizophrenia Society of Ontario. University of Western Ontario. "No two of us are alike -- even identical twins: Pinpointing genetic determinants of schizophrenia." ScienceDaily. ScienceDaily, 28 March 2011. <www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/03/110328151740.htm>. University of Western Ontario. (2011, March 28). No two of us are alike -- even identical twins: Pinpointing genetic determinants of schizophrenia. ScienceDaily. Retrieved August 16, 2023 from www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/03/110328151740.htm University of Western Ontario. "No two of us are alike -- even identical twins: Pinpointing genetic determinants of schizophrenia." ScienceDaily. www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2011/03/110328151740.htm (accessed August 16, 2023). Apr. 1, 2022 — Scientists have long queried the causes of immune disorders in only one of two identical twins with identical genes. New research has found the answer lies in both alterations in immune cell-cell ... Nov. 22, 2021 — Identical twins share the same DNA, but one twin can suffer from type 2 diabetes while the other twin does not develop the disease. Researchers have now discovered that there are differences in gene ... Aug. 8, 2019 — Differences in how our brains respond when we're anticipating a financial reward are due, in part, to genetic differences, according to research with identical and fraternal twins. The findings ... Feb. 27, 2019 — Boy and girl twins in Brisbane, Australia, have been identified as only the second set of semi-identical, or sesquizygotic, twins in the world -- and the first to be identified by doctors during ...

No two of us are alike -- even identical twins: Pinpointing genetic determinants of schizophrenia Date: March 28, 2011 Source: University of Western Ontario Summary: Just like snowflakes, no two people are alike, even if they're identical twins according to new genetic research. Scientists have been working to determine the genetic sequencing of schizophrenia using identical or monozygotic twins. Just like snowflakes, no two people are alike, even if they're identical twins according to new genetic research from The University of Western Ontario. Molecular geneticist Shiva Singh has been working with psychiatrist Dr. Richard O'Reilly to determine the genetic sequencing of schizophrenia using identical or monozygotic twins. The study is published in this month's PLoS ONE. Singh looked at about one million markers of identical twins (and their two parents) where only one twin had schizophrenia. "The most informative feature of schizophrenia is that it sometimes runs in the family. So, for example, the risk of developing schizophrenia is much higher if your brother, sister, mother or father have the disease," says Singh, noting in the general population about one percent have schizophrenia. "We started with the belief that monozygotic twins are genetically identical, so if one member of identical twins has schizophrenia, then the risk for the other twin should be 100 percent, if it's all due to genes. However, studies over the years have shown that the risk of the disease in both twins is only 50 percent." That means either the twins are genetically not identical or the familial disease involves non-genetic (random) effects. Singh and his team have now demonstrated that the monozygotic twins are not genetically identical. "So if schizophrenia is in the genes, then the difference in the genetic makeup of monozygotic twins, with only one disease twin, must have something to do with the disease."

no

Karyology

Are identical twins genetically identical?

yes_statement

"identical" "twins" are "genetically" "identical".. genetic makeup of "identical" "twins" is the same.

https://raisingchildren.net.au/pregnancy/health-wellbeing/twin-pregnancy/twins

Fraternal twins & identical twins | Raising Children Network

About twins Most twins are born healthy, but a twin pregnancy can mean a higher chance of health complications for you and your babies. If you're pregnant with twins, you and your babies will need extra check-ups. Fraternal twins All pregnancies start when a sperm fertilises an egg. This fertilised egg is called a zygote. Sometimes a woman’s ovaries release 2 eggs, and a separate sperm fertilises each egg. This forms twins. These twins are called fraternal twins, dizygotic twins (meaning two zygotes) or non-identical twins. During pregnancy, the developing babies get oxygen and food from their mother through the placentas and umbilical cords. Fraternal twins have separate placentas and umbilical cords. The technical name for this is dichorionic. Fraternal twins can be the same or opposite sex and their genes are as different as any other brother and sister. Often, same-sex fraternal twins look different. For example, they might have different hair or eye colour. Occasionally they look quite similar. Fraternal twins happen in about 70% of twin births in Australia. Very rarely, fraternal twins share a placenta. These types of twins are called chimaeric twins. Identical twins Sometimes a fertilised egg splits within a few days of conception to produce genetically identical twins. Because these twins come from one zygote, they’re also known as monozygotic. Identical twins are the same sex. There are 3 types of identical twins. About one-third of identical twins split soon after fertilisation and form completely separate twins. Like fraternal twins, these twins have separate placentas. The other two-thirds split after they attach to the wall of the womb. As a result, they share a placenta. The technical name for this is monochorionic. In a very small number of identical twins, splitting might happen even later. In this case, both twins share an inner sac, called the amnion, in addition to sharing a placenta. The technical name for this is monoamniotic twins. They’re often called MoMo twins. Identical twins happen in around 1 in 250 pregnancies in Australia. Although identical twins have the same genes, they don’t always look the same. This is because children’s health and development are shaped not only by genes but also by experiences in the womb and after birth. For example, a twin who gets less blood from a shared placenta might weigh less at birth. Sharing a placenta or inner sac: why it’s important to know Sharing a placenta means that twins share a blood supply during pregnancy. Sometimes the blood supply is shared unequally, which can cause health problems for both twins. Women who are pregnant with twins sharing a placenta need to be checked more often than women who are pregnant with twins with separate placentas. Frequent checks help to pick up any complications early. Twins sharing an inner sac (monoamniotic) are also at a higher risk of complications during pregnancy because of the chance that their umbilical cords might tangle and cut off their blood supply. These twins are checked even more closely. Medical professionals often recommend that these twins are born at 32-34 weeks. This is earlier than other types of twins, who are generally born at 37-38 weeks. Medical professionals use ultrasound to work out how many placentas twins have. The earlier the ultrasound, the more accurately it can say how many placentas there are. It gets harder to work out later in pregnancy. After the birth, medical staff will look at the placentas to check what type of twins they are. Fraternal or identical: why it’s important to know Same-sex twins with separate placentas can be fraternal or identical. For health reasons, it’s good to know whether your twins are fraternal or identical. To find out whether twins are identical or fraternal, you can ask for a genetic test after your babies are born. This is called a zygosity test. The test doesn’t hurt and involves collecting a sample of cheek cells by rubbing the inside of your babies’ cheeks with a soft applicator (like a cotton bud). The cost of this test starts at $199 (for both twins) in Australia. Identical twins are more likely than fraternal twins to get the same illness. If one of a pair of identical twins is diagnosed with a particular disease or health condition, like high blood pressure, the other twin should be checked often for early symptoms. Because of their genetic make-up, identical twins will always be compatible for organ transplantation, if they ever need it. Fraternal twins are compatible only sometimes. trying to work out the chance of having more twins in future pregnancies (only fraternal twins run in families) making sure they have the right information about their genetic make-up being able to answer questions from family, friends and others being involved in twin research just being curious! Some identical twins are mirror twins – for example, their hair parts on opposite sides, they are oppositely handed, or they have birthmarks on opposite sides of their body. In some rare cases, their internal organs can be mirror images of each other. It’s not known why some twins are like this. In very rare cases, twins can be born physically joined together in different ways. These twins, called conjoined twins (previously called Siamese twins), can happen if the fertilised egg splits quite late after fertilisation. Triplets (1 in 5000 births) and quadruplets (less than 1 in 100 000 births) can develop as a result of combinations of fraternal and identical twinning. There are no reliable figures for quintuplets (5 babies) and sextuplets (6 babies). More about twins In Australia, twins happen in 1 in every 80 births. This means that 1 in 40 Australians is a twin. The birth rate of identical twins is the same around the world and doesn’t vary with the mother’s age. In contrast, the birth rate of fraternal twins varies widely across countries and can be influenced by the mother’s age. Women aged over 35 years are the most likely to have fraternal twins, because their ovaries are more likely to release more than one egg at a time. More twins were born from the 1990s to the mid-2000s. This is because it was common to transfer more than one embryo during in-vitro fertilisation (IVF) treatments. The rate of twins from IVF is now lower, because it’s now usual practice to transfer only a single embryo. Supported By Raising Children Network is supported by the Australian Government. Member organisations are the Parenting Research Centre and the Murdoch Childrens Research Institute with The Royal Children’s Hospital Centre for Community Child Health. Member Organisations At raisingchildren.net.au we acknowledge the traditional custodians of the land on which we live, gather and work. We recognise their continuing connection to land, water and community. We pay respect to Elders past, present and emerging.

For example, they might have different hair or eye colour. Occasionally they look quite similar. Fraternal twins happen in about 70% of twin births in Australia. Very rarely, fraternal twins share a placenta. These types of twins are called chimaeric twins. Identical twins Sometimes a fertilised egg splits within a few days of conception to produce genetically identical twins. Because these twins come from one zygote, they’re also known as monozygotic. Identical twins are the same sex. There are 3 types of identical twins. About one-third of identical twins split soon after fertilisation and form completely separate twins. Like fraternal twins, these twins have separate placentas. The other two-thirds split after they attach to the wall of the womb. As a result, they share a placenta. The technical name for this is monochorionic. In a very small number of identical twins, splitting might happen even later. In this case, both twins share an inner sac, called the amnion, in addition to sharing a placenta. The technical name for this is monoamniotic twins. They’re often called MoMo twins. Identical twins happen in around 1 in 250 pregnancies in Australia. Although identical twins have the same genes, they don’t always look the same. This is because children’s health and development are shaped not only by genes but also by experiences in the womb and after birth. For example, a twin who gets less blood from a shared placenta might weigh less at birth. Sharing a placenta or inner sac: why it’s important to know Sharing a placenta means that twins share a blood supply during pregnancy. Sometimes the blood supply is shared unequally, which can cause health problems for both twins. Women who are pregnant with twins sharing a placenta need to be checked more often than women who are pregnant with twins with separate placentas. Frequent checks help to pick up any complications early. Twins sharing an inner sac (monoamniotic)

yes

Karyology

Are identical twins genetically identical?

yes_statement

"identical" "twins" are "genetically" "identical".. genetic makeup of "identical" "twins" is the same.

https://www.dna-worldwide.com/blog/194/new-discovery-identical-twins-dont-have-identical-dna

Identical Twins Don't Have Identical DNA | DNA Worldwide

New Discovery - Identical Twins Don't Have Identical DNA DNA Worldwide Group and their laboratory partners Eurofins Forensic are the first in the world to discover and prove that identical twins have differences in their genetic makeup. This not only changes the teaching that identical twins have the same DNA but it also means for the first time forensic and paternity testing can identify which identical twin was involved. This has all been possible thanks to a dedicated team that have successfully completed a research project to genetically discriminate “identical” monozygotic twins. Until this point it has been only theory that monozygotic twins are 100% genetically identical. On a statistical level about 6 in 1,000 males are identical twins. However, until now DNA testing could not be used in criminal or paternity cases involving identical twins as you could not tell them apart. With cases involving identical twins hitting the world press on a regular basis covering cases from murder, child custody or inheritance it is a pressing issue. Even the best Forensic labs around the world accepted that analytical restrictions meant nothing further could be done, however, the team at the DNA Worldwide partner lab pushed the limit of DNA testing to great success. To do this they took Forensic DNA profiling and Genomic Sequencing and combined them together. Technically, the scientists applied ultra-deep next generation sequencing and combined this with bioinformatics. Sequencing of DNA from sperm samples of two twins and from the blood sample of the child of one twin was conducted. The Bioinformatic analysis identified five differences (mutations), called Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs) present in the twin father and the child, but not in the twin uncle. These SNPs differences were confirmed by what is known as Sanger sequencing. Combining these results give experimental evidence for the hypothesis that rare mutations in the genes will occur early after or before the human blastocyst has split into two, at the origin of twins, and that such mutations will be carried on and are taken into life. The DNA differences and methods that the DNA Worldwide laboratory used provide a solution to the complex paternity and forensic cases involving identical twins. DNA Worldwide Group and its partner are the first company to offer this testing. The peer-reviewed study “Finding the needle in the haystack: Differentiating “identical” twins in paternity testing and forensics by ultra-deep next generation sequencing” is available here. David Nicholson, Managing Director, comments: “It is a great achievement for Scientists at our lab to establish and prove that monozygotic (identical) twins are genetically not 100% identical. With our laboratory we are now the only company worldwide that can offer testing to courts, solicitors and authorities to identify the difference between identical twins” Disclaimer. The content of this website is for information purposes only. It is not indented for any other use. The authors of the website disclaim and any and all liability, loss, injury or damage incurred as a consequence, directly or indirectly, of the use or application of any content of this web site. The information should not been used as medical advice. You should always contact a doctor to discuss any and all medical issues in combination with your medical and family record. Do not take any medical decisions without first fully discussing with your doctor.

New Discovery - Identical Twins Don't Have Identical DNA DNA Worldwide Group and their laboratory partners Eurofins Forensic are the first in the world to discover and prove that identical twins have differences in their genetic makeup. This not only changes the teaching that identical twins have the same DNA but it also means for the first time forensic and paternity testing can identify which identical twin was involved. This has all been possible thanks to a dedicated team that have successfully completed a research project to genetically discriminate “identical” monozygotic twins. Until this point it has been only theory that monozygotic twins are 100% genetically identical. On a statistical level about 6 in 1,000 males are identical twins. However, until now DNA testing could not be used in criminal or paternity cases involving identical twins as you could not tell them apart. With cases involving identical twins hitting the world press on a regular basis covering cases from murder, child custody or inheritance it is a pressing issue. Even the best Forensic labs around the world accepted that analytical restrictions meant nothing further could be done, however, the team at the DNA Worldwide partner lab pushed the limit of DNA testing to great success. To do this they took Forensic DNA profiling and Genomic Sequencing and combined them together. Technically, the scientists applied ultra-deep next generation sequencing and combined this with bioinformatics. Sequencing of DNA from sperm samples of two twins and from the blood sample of the child of one twin was conducted. The Bioinformatic analysis identified five differences (mutations), called Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms (SNPs) present in the twin father and the child, but not in the twin uncle. These SNPs differences were confirmed by what is known as Sanger sequencing. Combining these results give experimental evidence for the hypothesis that rare mutations in the genes will occur early after or before the human blastocyst has split into two, at the origin of twins, and that such mutations will be carried on and are taken into life.

no

Karyology

Are identical twins genetically identical?

yes_statement

"identical" "twins" are "genetically" "identical".. genetic makeup of "identical" "twins" is the same.

https://www.healthline.com/health/do-identical-twins-have-the-same-dna

Do Identical Twins Have the Same DNA? Research Says Not Quite

If you’re a parent of twins, one of the first questions you’ll probably get asked is if your children are identical or fraternal twins. If your twins are identical, the excitement is often palpable once people find out. The idea of dressing children in the same clothes and struggling to tell them apart is such a fun concept in pop culture. Yet after centuries of societal assumptions that identical twins were well, identical — right down to genetic composition in recent times — the reality might be somewhat different than we thought. Unless you’re well versed in biology and conception, many people are confused about the distinguishing difference between fraternal and identical twins. It’s about more than just two people looking like each other — or not. Fraternal twins (dizygotic) are conceived when two eggs are fertilized in the same ovulation window. Identical twins (monozygotic), on the other hand, are conceived from a single egg that splits into two distinctive embryos. To break it down even further, identical twins are created from the combination of a single egg and sperm. In contrast, fraternal twins are the product of two separate eggs being fertilized by different sperm. So, whereas identical twins come from the same genetic material, fraternal twins do not. (Fraternal twins will have genes in common the way any siblings from the same biological parents do.) Of the two twin scenarios, identical twins are more likely to occur by chance. Although giving birth to fraternal twins can also happen naturally, this type of twin birth is more commonly seen in people who undergo fertility treatments. That’s because fertility drugs can increase the number of eggs released in a cycle — or, with in vitro fertilization, multiple embryos can be reinserted into the uterus. According to a 2021 study, an estimated 15 percent of identical twin pairs may have one member that exhibits significant genetic variation from their twin. In the lab study, researchers tried to figure out how many genetic mutations that cause monozygotic twins to have different DNA typically occur. In the 381 twin pairs analyzed, they found a median of 14 post-zygotic mutations differing between a pair of twins. Yet there was variation: 39 twin pairs differed by more than 100 mutations, while 38 pairs didn’t differ at al. Though the average number of genetic mutations leading to differences in DNA between identical twins may be small, it’s still a major revelation given the common assumption that identical twins are genetically indistinguishable. Even though identical twins do share a significant amount of similar DNA, there are clear genetic mutations between each member, proving that they’re not carbon copies of each other. So, why do some twin pairs have more genetic variation than others? There’s a link between when twinning occurs and the increased potential for genetic mutations. Earlier twinning splits mean that each zygote has more time to form DNA independently as it continues to grow, leading to a higher chance of mutations. A common question is when does the embryonic split — or twinning — actually happen in identical twins. It turns out that there are a few stages where an embryo can split into two distinctive zygotes. This can happen anywhere from day 3 through day 13 following conception. 3-day separation As the term “identical twins” implies, some are created when an embryo transitions from simply being a single fertilized cell into a zygote. In a singleton (one baby) pregnancy, the zygote splits into two cells — usually around day 3 — but the cells remain connected to each other. But in twinning, rather than staying connected, those two cells fully separate into two distinct entities. Twins formed during a two-cell split are more likely to have the highest genetic mutations — or diversity — between them. The earlier the split is, the more mutations can occur. 5-day separation In some scenarios, the zygote continues to multiply well beyond the two-cell stage. And it may take until day 5 for twinning to occur. These types of twins are known as mirror image twins that each have a separate placental sac. Understandably, twins from this type of split will have lower variation between their DNA than those from a two-cell split. Note that most twins are produced between days 3 and 7 post-conception. 9-day separation and later The latest phases for twinning can occur around day 9 and beyond. In a 9-day split, these twins are still considered mirror image babies. Compared with 3- and 5-day twin splits, this group is most likely to have the least genetic mutations. But the risk increases that they may share a placental sac, which can be dangerous. The most common concern is that the umbilical cords can get tangled, leading to complications. And splits that occur after day 10 have a higher risk of resulting in conjoined twins. While most identical twins do share almost completely identical DNA, some do not. Again, because the embryos develop independently after the zygotes split, identical twins can have different health conditions, physical differences, and other small changes that make each member of the pair distinguishable from the other. Some genes or traits may get suppressed during pregnancy, which can result in one twin being slightly taller or thinner or having a hair color that’s not quite like the other. Or one twin might receive more nutrition in the womb than the other, resulting in a slightly different physical appearance than their sibling. No matter how much your two bundles of joy might look identical, at a genetic level, they’re not quite the same! But you can still have fun dressing them up in the same outfits — until they’re old enough to protest, that is. Know that while your twins might look physically indistinguishable, small genetic mutations that are usually harmless make them each genetically unique. And in some cases, these mutations may mean that one child is taller, has slightly different features, or might even experience different health concerns than their twin. How we reviewed this article: Healthline has strict sourcing guidelines and relies on peer-reviewed studies, academic research institutions, and medical associations. We avoid using tertiary references. You can learn more about how we ensure our content is accurate and current by reading our editorial policy.

If you’re a parent of twins, one of the first questions you’ll probably get asked is if your children are identical or fraternal twins. If your twins are identical, the excitement is often palpable once people find out. The idea of dressing children in the same clothes and struggling to tell them apart is such a fun concept in pop culture. Yet after centuries of societal assumptions that identical twins were well, identical — right down to genetic composition in recent times — the reality might be somewhat different than we thought. Unless you’re well versed in biology and conception, many people are confused about the distinguishing difference between fraternal and identical twins. It’s about more than just two people looking like each other — or not. Fraternal twins (dizygotic) are conceived when two eggs are fertilized in the same ovulation window. Identical twins (monozygotic), on the other hand, are conceived from a single egg that splits into two distinctive embryos. To break it down even further, identical twins are created from the combination of a single egg and sperm. In contrast, fraternal twins are the product of two separate eggs being fertilized by different sperm. So, whereas identical twins come from the same genetic material, fraternal twins do not. (Fraternal twins will have genes in common the way any siblings from the same biological parents do.) Of the two twin scenarios, identical twins are more likely to occur by chance. Although giving birth to fraternal twins can also happen naturally, this type of twin birth is more commonly seen in people who undergo fertility treatments. That’s because fertility drugs can increase the number of eggs released in a cycle — or, with in vitro fertilization, multiple embryos can be reinserted into the uterus. According to a 2021 study, an estimated 15 percent of identical twin pairs may have one member that exhibits significant genetic variation from their twin. In the lab study, researchers tried to figure out how many genetic mutations that cause monozygotic twins to have different DNA typically occur.

no

Karyology

Are identical twins genetically identical?

yes_statement

"identical" "twins" are "genetically" "identical".. genetic makeup of "identical" "twins" is the same.

https://learn.genetics.utah.edu/content/epigenetics/twins

Insights From Identical Twins

Insights From Identical Twins Because identical twins develop from a single fertilized egg, they have the same genome. So any differences between twins are due to their environments, not genetics. Recent studies have shown that many environmentally induced differences are reflected in the epigenome. Nature AND Nurture Chromosome 3 pairs in each set of twins are digitally superimposed. One twin's epigenetic tags are dyed red and the other twin's tags are dyed green. When red and green overlap, that region shows up as yellow. The 50-year old twins have more epigenetic tags in different places than do 3-year-old twins. The insight we gain from studying twins helps us to better understand how nature and nurture work together. For well over a century, researchers have compared characteristics in twins in an effort to determine the extent to which certain traits are inherited, like eye color, and which traits are learned from the environment, such as language. Typically taking place in the field of Behavioral Genetics, classical twin studies have identified a number of behavioral traits and diseases that are likely to have a genetic component, and others that are more strongly influenced by the environment. Depending on the study and the particular trait of interest, data is collected and compared from identical or fraternal twins who have been raised together or apart. Finding similarities and differences between these sets of twins is the start to determining the degree to which nature and environment play a role in the trait of interest. Twin studies have identified some traits that have a strong genetic component, including reading disabilities like dyslexia. Other traits, like arthritis, are more likely influenced by the environment. Twin studies uncover genetic and environmental contributions Twins share the same genes but their environments become more different as they age. This unique aspect of twins makes them an excellent model for understanding how genes and the environment contribute to certain traits, especially complex behaviors and diseases. For example, when just one twin gets a disease, researchers can look for elements in the twins' environments that are different. Or when both twins get a disease, researchers can look for genetic elements shared among similar twin pairs. These types of data are especially powerful when collected from large numbers of twins. Such studies can help pinpoint the molecular mechanism of a disease and determine the extent of environmental influence, potentially leading to the prevention and treatment of complex diseases. To illustrate, for twins with schizophrenia, 50% identical twins share the disease, while only about 10-15% of fraternal twins do. This difference is evidence for a strong genetic component in susceptibility to schizophrenia. However, the fact that both identical twins in a pair don't develop the disease 100% of the time indicates that other factors are involved. Identical twins (left) share all their genes and their home environment. Fraternal twins (right) also share their home environment, but only half of their genes. So a greater similarity between identical twins for a particular trait compared to fraternal twins provides evidence that genetic factors play a role. Comparing Identical and Fraternal Twins: A higher percentage of disease incidence in both identical twins is the first indication of a genetic component. Percentages lower than 100% in identical twins indicates that DNA alone does not determine susceptibility to disease.

Insights From Identical Twins Because identical twins develop from a single fertilized egg, they have the same genome. So any differences between twins are due to their environments, not genetics. Recent studies have shown that many environmentally induced differences are reflected in the epigenome. Nature AND Nurture Chromosome 3 pairs in each set of twins are digitally superimposed. One twin's epigenetic tags are dyed red and the other twin's tags are dyed green. When red and green overlap, that region shows up as yellow. The 50-year old twins have more epigenetic tags in different places than do 3-year-old twins. The insight we gain from studying twins helps us to better understand how nature and nurture work together. For well over a century, researchers have compared characteristics in twins in an effort to determine the extent to which certain traits are inherited, like eye color, and which traits are learned from the environment, such as language. Typically taking place in the field of Behavioral Genetics, classical twin studies have identified a number of behavioral traits and diseases that are likely to have a genetic component, and others that are more strongly influenced by the environment. Depending on the study and the particular trait of interest, data is collected and compared from identical or fraternal twins who have been raised together or apart. Finding similarities and differences between these sets of twins is the start to determining the degree to which nature and environment play a role in the trait of interest. Twin studies have identified some traits that have a strong genetic component, including reading disabilities like dyslexia. Other traits, like arthritis, are more likely influenced by the environment. Twin studies uncover genetic and environmental contributions Twins share the same genes but their environments become more different as they age. This unique aspect of twins makes them an excellent model for understanding how genes and the environment contribute to certain traits, especially complex behaviors and diseases. For example, when just one twin gets a disease, researchers can look for elements in the twins' environments that are different.

yes

Karyology

Are identical twins genetically identical?

yes_statement

"identical" "twins" are "genetically" "identical".. genetic makeup of "identical" "twins" is the same.

https://www.the-scientist.com/news-opinion/identical-twins-accumulate-genetic-differences-in-the-womb-68324

Identical Twins Accumulate Genetic Differences in the Womb | The ...

Identical twins are not as identical as previously assumed, according to a study published today (January 7) in Nature Genetics. Rather than having exactly the same DNA sequences, twins start accumulating genetic variation from the earliest stages of development, researchers at Iceland-based company deCODE genetics found, meaning that one twin harbors variants that aren’t present in the other. Also known as monozygotic twins because they develop from a single fertilized egg, identical twins have long been central to research on the relative effects of genes and environment—aka “nature versus nurture.” Although everyone accumulates some genetic mutations during their lifetime, the differences in identical twins were assumed to be minimal, particularly when twins are young, allowing researchers to study how different environments influence the development of people with the same genotype. The new study focuses specifically on mutations that occur as or before embryos form from the mass of cells inside the blastocyst, a structure that implants in the uterine wall. During this stage of development, this inner cell mass can split to form two separately developing embryos. Drawing on deCODE’s genetic databases to analyze variation in multiple cells sampled from 381 monozygotic twin pairs and their immediate family members, the researchers pinpointed a number of mutations that arose during this stage of development in just one member of each pair, meaning that at birth, so-called identical twins may already differ genetically from each other. Kári Stefánsson, CEO and founder of deCODE and a coauthor on the new study, spoke to The Scientist about how he and his team managed to identify these mutations, and about what the findings mean for research in genetics and developmental biology. The Scientist: How were you and your colleagues able to identify mutations that had arisen specifically during development? Kári Stefánsson MAGNUS ANDERSEN Kári Stefánsson: To be able to do this study, we had to sequence the genomes of identical twins, their parents, their children, and their spouses. So it becomes a fairly extensive study and a lot of sequencing you have to do to be able to determine the timing and the nature of the mutations. We [looked] at early mutations that are specific to one of the twins—and by early mutations, I mean mutations that happened sufficiently early that they are found in at least some of the somatic cells of the individual, and are also found in the children of that individual, meaning that they get into the germ cells. If you find them both in the somatic cells and in the germ cells of the individual, you know that the mutation took place before it was decided that the cell should become a germ cell. We call it . . . ‘before the primordial germ cell specification.’ That is the most important determination of showing that this is an early mutation. TS: How different were identical twins from each other? KS: They differed by 5.2 early developmental mutations, on average. But there is 15 percent of them that have a substantial number of these early mutations. We have found a twin pair where one of the twins has mutations in all cells of his body, and they are not found in any cell in the body of the other twin. That means basically that one of the twins is formed solely from the descendant of the cell where the mutation took place. . . . Then we have found twins when the mutation is found in all cells in the body of one of the twins, and in 20 percent of the cells in the body of the other twin. So one of the twins has just formed from the descendant of this one cell where the mutation happened, and the other is formed in part by descendants of that cells and in part by something else. . . . This is the first time that this is demonstrated. What’s interesting about it is that when you look at all the combinations that we have found . . . it looks like coincidence is an extraordinarily important factor in which cells in the inner cell mass go into making a person. TS: Were you able to establish what caused these mutations? KS: Most of those mutations, like most mutations in general, happen during the replication of cells—they’re replication errors. One of the things we did is to look at the kind of mutations that happen during development, and we were able to show that the type of mutations that happen early on differ from the mutations that happen later—which is not a surprise to anyone, really. This certainly places a new kind of burden on those who use identical twins to establish the separation between nature and nurture. There’s one, for example, specific type of mutation that is dependent on methylation. That is the CpG to TpG mutation that is considered to be dependent on demethylation of methylated CpGs. [Editor’s note: CpG is a cytosine followed by a guanine, while TpG is a thymine followed by a guanine.] We can show that the number of those mutations increases with development. So they are rare [among] these very early mutations, because methylation hasn’t taken place, or a very small amount of the methylation has taken place. TS: Twin studies have played an important role in a lot of genetics research. How do your findings affect that kind of research? KS: It [relates to] the assumption that the differences between identical twins is always due to the environment. Take, for example, studies looking at autism in identical twins who are reared separately or apart. The classic interpretation of whatever differences [found] would be that the difference between them would be due to different environments. But before you can make that interpretation, you’d better make sure that one of them does not have a de novo mutation in an important gene that the other one does not. So this certainly places a new kind of burden on those who use identical twins to establish the separation between nature and nurture. This is not just a study that has relevance when it comes to understanding of the genetics, but also human development: How do we probe early human development in an ethical manner, a non-interventional manner? This is one way of doing that. We can begin to use the mutations to develop [an] understanding of how cells are allocated from the early embryo to develop the various organs in the body. TS: So should we stop referring to monozygotic twins as “identical”? KS: [Laughs] I think that identical twins, all of them, are always going to be sufficiently similar to each other that it shouldn’t offend anyone to call them identical. But I think that . . . when you’re trying to understand whatever differences there may be between monozygotic twins, you should take a step or two away from the term ‘identical.’

Identical twins are not as identical as previously assumed, according to a study published today (January 7) in Nature Genetics. Rather than having exactly the same DNA sequences, twins start accumulating genetic variation from the earliest stages of development, researchers at Iceland-based company deCODE genetics found, meaning that one twin harbors variants that aren’t present in the other. Also known as monozygotic twins because they develop from a single fertilized egg, identical twins have long been central to research on the relative effects of genes and environment—aka “nature versus nurture.” Although everyone accumulates some genetic mutations during their lifetime, the differences in identical twins were assumed to be minimal, particularly when twins are young, allowing researchers to study how different environments influence the development of people with the same genotype. The new study focuses specifically on mutations that occur as or before embryos form from the mass of cells inside the blastocyst, a structure that implants in the uterine wall. During this stage of development, this inner cell mass can split to form two separately developing embryos. Drawing on deCODE’s genetic databases to analyze variation in multiple cells sampled from 381 monozygotic twin pairs and their immediate family members, the researchers pinpointed a number of mutations that arose during this stage of development in just one member of each pair, meaning that at birth, so-called identical twins may already differ genetically from each other. Kári Stefánsson, CEO and founder of deCODE and a coauthor on the new study, spoke to The Scientist about how he and his team managed to identify these mutations, and about what the findings mean for research in genetics and developmental biology. The Scientist: How were you and your colleagues able to identify mutations that had arisen specifically during development? Kári Stefánsson MAGNUS ANDERSEN Kári Stefánsson: To be able to do this study, we had to sequence the genomes of identical twins, their parents, their children, and their spouses.

no

Karyology

Are identical twins genetically identical?

yes_statement

"identical" "twins" are "genetically" "identical".. genetic makeup of "identical" "twins" is the same.

https://sequencing.com/blog/post/are-twins-genetically-identical

Are Twins Genetically Identical? | Sequencing.com

Are Twins Genetically Identical? We may be wrong about identical twins. They may not be as identical as we think, which is why they may look different and suffer from different diseases. Learn more here. One of the most common questions ask online is, “Are twins genetically identical?” Most people would think twins are genetically identical, but that may not be true according to a recent study. How Are Identical Twins Formed Twinning refers to the formation of twins during conception. There are two types of twins: fraternal twins and identical twins. Fraternal twins form when one sperm cell fertilizes an egg and, at the same time, another sperm cell fertilizes a different egg cell. This creates two different fertilized eggs during the same pregnancy. Identical or monozygotic twins occur when there’s one egg that is fertilized by one sperm, and this single fertilized egg splits into two eggs. Since identical twins arise from the same fertilized egg, it makes sense that the twins would have identical DNA. Over the years, twin studies have tried to come up with a reason many twins end up having differences. Up until recently, environmental factors were the answer to the difference between them, but that may not be the only factor. Genetic Differences Among Twins ⁠Many studies as far back as 2008 have been performed that have found genetic differences between identical twins, but there’s hasn’t been a study that has shown significant differences. Geneticist Carl Bruder of the University of Alabama at Birmingham and colleagues compared the genomes of 19 sets of adult identical twins. One of the twin’s DNA differed from the others on some points of the genome, specifically one had a different number of copies of the same gene, which is called copy number variants. Usually, people have two copies of every gene. Some parts of a human genome called copy number variations (CNVs) may have more than two copies, though. CNVs may have over 14 copies! Can One Identical Twin Have a Genetic Disorder? In Bruder’s study, one twin had missing genes on a chromosome that usually leads to an ⁠increased risk of leukemia. That twin did in fact end up suffering leukemia while the other did not. From his study, Bruder believed studying the genome of twins could shed more light on human genetics and diseases. When a twin suffers from a particular condition and the other doesn’t, analyzing genetic differences may provide insight into what part of the genome could point to an increased risk for that condition. Charles Lee, a geneticist at Brigham and Women’s Hospital in Boston ⁠refutes that genetic differences are found at birth. Environmental factors such as radiation or other carcinogens can break double-strand DNA leading to genetic variations. As people age, more genetic differences happen, including twins. Lee believes that’s what makes them different - not during development in the womb. Can Identical Twins Be Genetically Different? ⁠New research published in Nature Genetics has found that genetic differences are to blame for the differences in pairs of identical twins. Genomic research has studied identical and fraternal twins who were raised in two separate environments. They sought to prove that environment plays a role in the development of certain diseases, such as autism. If one twin develops autism and the other doesn’t, researchers concluded it was the environment that played a role in its development. The above would make sense if the twins had identical genetic makeup. However, if identical twins do not have identical DNA, environmental influences can’t be coined as the cause of autism or any other disease. The new study by Kari Stefansson, head of Iceland’s deCODE genetics sequenced the genomes of 387 pairs of identical twins and their parents, spouses, and children. By tracking mutations in the first few weeks of embryonic development, the researchers found that 5.2 early developmental mutations occurred and 15% of identical twins had 100 genetic differences. Genetic mutations are changes in DNA sequences. The changes aren’t inherently good or bad, but they can influence many parts of a person - appearance, susceptibility to diseases, etc. Usually, gene mutations happen during cell division. An error occurs when DNA replicates. In one of the pairs of twins, there was a mutation in all of the cells of the sibling’s body. This happened during the early stages of development for that twin, but not the other one. This significantly affects the twin’s genetic code, which is why one twin may look different from the other one and why one could suffer from a genetic condition while the other does not. The breakthrough study will lead to other twin studies that help explain how twinning happens. It may also begin to change what we call “identical” twins since they may only be semi-identical. Nature vs. Nurture For many years, researchers have blamed the environment for differences between identical twins. Only a select few scientists have believed that identical twins are genetically different and have been able to show this in their study results. The debate of nature vs. nurture can be a heated one as can be seen in Lee’s repute to Bruder’s findings. The only solution is to continue studying the DNA of identical twins to identify differences in the genome and then monitor what happens to them in life. These longitudinal studies may take many years to produce results, but those results will be used for decades afterward especially as people learn more about ⁠genetic testing for diseases and other health-related conditions.

Are Twins Genetically Identical? We may be wrong about identical twins. They may not be as identical as we think, which is why they may look different and suffer from different diseases. Learn more here. One of the most common questions ask online is, “Are twins genetically identical?” Most people would think twins are genetically identical, but that may not be true according to a recent study. How Are Identical Twins Formed Twinning refers to the formation of twins during conception. There are two types of twins: fraternal twins and identical twins. Fraternal twins form when one sperm cell fertilizes an egg and, at the same time, another sperm cell fertilizes a different egg cell. This creates two different fertilized eggs during the same pregnancy. Identical or monozygotic twins occur when there’s one egg that is fertilized by one sperm, and this single fertilized egg splits into two eggs. Since identical twins arise from the same fertilized egg, it makes sense that the twins would have identical DNA. Over the years, twin studies have tried to come up with a reason many twins end up having differences. Up until recently, environmental factors were the answer to the difference between them, but that may not be the only factor. Genetic Differences Among Twins ⁠Many studies as far back as 2008 have been performed that have found genetic differences between identical twins, but there’s hasn’t been a study that has shown significant differences. Geneticist Carl Bruder of the University of Alabama at Birmingham and colleagues compared the genomes of 19 sets of adult identical twins. One of the twin’s DNA differed from the others on some points of the genome, specifically one had a different number of copies of the same gene, which is called copy number variants. Usually, people have two copies of every gene. Some parts of a human genome called copy number variations (CNVs) may have more than two copies, though. CNVs may have over 14 copies! Can One Identical Twin Have a Genetic Disorder?

no

Karyology

Are identical twins genetically identical?

yes_statement

"identical" "twins" are "genetically" "identical".. genetic makeup of "identical" "twins" is the same.

https://www.livescience.com/identical-twins-dont-share-all-dna.html

Identical twins don't share 100% of their DNA | Live Science

Identical twins don't share 100% of their DNA Identical twins form from the same egg and get the same genetic material from their parents — but that doesn't mean they're genetically identical by the time they're born. That's because so-called identical twins pick up genetic mutations in the womb, as their cells weave new strands of DNA and then split into more and more cells. On average, pairs of twins have genomes that differ by an average of 5.2 mutations that occur early in development, according to a new study. "One particularly surprising observation is that in many twin pairs, some mutations are carried by nearly all cells in one twin but completely absent in the other," Ziyue Gao, an assistant professor of genetics at the University of Pennsylvania, who was not involved in the research, said in an email. The study authors estimate that, in about 15% of identical twin pairs, one twin carries a "substantial" number of mutations that the other does not share. "That can be up to about 10 to 15 mutations," said senior author Kari Stefansson, CEO of deCODE genetics, a subsidiary of the biopharmaceutical company Amgen that studies the human genome. The study did not specify where in the genome these mutations occur, or if they mostly crop up in genes that code for specific kinds of proteins; this could be an area of future research, Stefansson said. Twinning occurs when a single fertilized egg, called a zygote, splits and gives rise to two separate embryos; this typically occurs between one and seven days after fertilization, Stefansson said, although in rarer cases, twinning can occur between Day 8 and 13. The later the split occurs, the more cells will have accumulated when the twins separate. So when one twin has many mutations that the other doesn't, it's possible that the siblings may have split from each other extremely early in development, soon after their shared egg first divided into two separate cells, Gao said. Alternatively, the egg may have split after a dozen or so cells accumulated, but that cluster of cells didn't divide evenly between them. Instead, one twin (i.e. one half of the zygote) may have snagged a clump of cells that mostly stemmed from one parent cell and therefore carried common mutations, while the other twin got a clump of cells lacking those mutations, she said. "Some of them are probably inconsequential … and some of them may lead to diseases," Stefansson said. In twin studies, which scientists use to explore whether genetics or the environmental factors hold more influence over a given trait, "we will have to account for the influence of these mutations," he said. The new study, published Jan. 7 in the journal Nature Genetics, offered this unique snapshot into early development because the authors did some clever detective work using DNA from three generations of people. These individuals included 387 pairs of identical twins and two sets of triplets, as well as their parents, spouses and children. (The triplets were also monozygotic, meaning split from the same egg.) By sequencing whole genomes from all these family members, the team could track which mutations appeared in which twins, and which of those mutations were then passed down to the twins' offspring. If a mutation gets passed down through multiple generations, that indicates that it's a germline mutation — one that appears in the eggs, sperm and their precursors. If that same mutation also appears in the somatic (non-reproductive) cells of the parent, that mutation likely appeared during their early development, the authors note. That's because in the first few weeks after fertilization, no cells have been slated to become germ cells yet, so all cells can inherit the same mutations. After cells differentiate into germ and somatic cells, new mutations that appear in the somatic cells won't get passed to the person's children, while new mutations in the germ cells would, according to the National Cancer Institute. So "if such a mutation is found in both a twin’s blood and transmitted to their offspring, this mutation occurred during their early development," when all cells were closely related, Gao said. In addition to tracking mutations between generations, the authors looked for mutations that were shared within a set of twins but not present uniformly in all their cells. This phenomenon, known as mosaicism, indicates that the mutation occurred after fertilization of the egg but before the egg split apart, since both siblings carry the quirk, Gao said. Using both these methods, the team was able to pinpoint which mutations cropped up in this narrow window of early development, and how often one twin had a mutation that the other didn't. In short, one can't assume that identical twins share identical DNA, they found. One limitation of the study is that the authors collected DNA from cheek swabs and blood samples, but they gathered no DNA from, say, sperm or eggs, Gao said. If more tissues are sequenced, the authors will likely identify more embryonic mutations and be better able to pinpoint those mutations to a certain developmental stage based on their frequencies in different tissues, she noted. Additionally, the authors noted that they didn't know which twins shared a amniotic sac, placenta or chorion — the membrane that gives rise to the fetal part of the placenta. With that information, they could determine whether sharing these structures is at all related to the number or timing of genetic mutations in early development. For now, the takeaway from the current study is that scientists should not assume that identical twins share 100% identical DNA; such assumptions could lead them to overestimate the influence of the environment, when in reality, a genetic mutation may be the source of a given disease or trait, Stefansson said. However, "such genomic differences between identical twins are still very rare, on the order of a few differences in 6 billion base pairs," with base pairs being the building blocks of DNA, Gao said. It's unclear how many of these small mutations would result in a functional change that alters how the cell works, and in general, "I doubt these differences will have appreciable contribution to phenotypic [or observable] differences in twin studies," she added. Originally published on Live Science. Live Science newsletter Stay up to date on the latest science news by signing up for our Essentials newsletter. Contact me with news and offers from other Future brandsReceive email from us on behalf of our trusted partners or sponsorsBy submitting your information you agree to the Terms & Conditions and Privacy Policy and are aged 16 or over. Nicoletta Lanese is the health channel editor at Live Science and was previously a news editor and staff writer at the site. She holds a graduate certificate in science communication from UC Santa Cruz and degrees in neuroscience and dance from the University of Florida. Her work has appeared in The Scientist, Science News, the Mercury News, Mongabay and Stanford Medicine Magazine, among other outlets. Based in NYC, she also remains heavily involved in dance and performs in local choreographers' work.

Identical twins don't share 100% of their DNA Identical twins form from the same egg and get the same genetic material from their parents — but that doesn't mean they're genetically identical by the time they're born. That's because so-called identical twins pick up genetic mutations in the womb, as their cells weave new strands of DNA and then split into more and more cells. On average, pairs of twins have genomes that differ by an average of 5.2 mutations that occur early in development, according to a new study. "One particularly surprising observation is that in many twin pairs, some mutations are carried by nearly all cells in one twin but completely absent in the other," Ziyue Gao, an assistant professor of genetics at the University of Pennsylvania, who was not involved in the research, said in an email. The study authors estimate that, in about 15% of identical twin pairs, one twin carries a "substantial" number of mutations that the other does not share. "That can be up to about 10 to 15 mutations," said senior author Kari Stefansson, CEO of deCODE genetics, a subsidiary of the biopharmaceutical company Amgen that studies the human genome. The study did not specify where in the genome these mutations occur, or if they mostly crop up in genes that code for specific kinds of proteins; this could be an area of future research, Stefansson said. Twinning occurs when a single fertilized egg, called a zygote, splits and gives rise to two separate embryos; this typically occurs between one and seven days after fertilization, Stefansson said, although in rarer cases, twinning can occur between Day 8 and 13. The later the split occurs, the more cells will have accumulated when the twins separate. So when one twin has many mutations that the other doesn't, it's possible that the siblings may have split from each other extremely early in development, soon after their shared egg first divided into two separate cells, Gao said.

no

Karyology

Are identical twins genetically identical?

yes_statement

"identical" "twins" are "genetically" "identical".. genetic makeup of "identical" "twins" is the same.

https://www.britannica.com/science/identical-twin

Identical twin | Britannica

Learn about this topic in these articles: major reference …major types of twins are identical twins and fraternal twins. Identical twins are two individuals that have developed from a single egg fertilized by a single sperm. This fertilized egg is called a zygote. At a relatively early stage in its growth, the zygote splits into two separate cell masses… animal social behaviour and heredity Identical twins come from a single egg and are genetically identical, whereas fraternal twins develop from separate eggs and share only half their genes by common inheritance. When raised in separate homes, identical twins are far more similar to each other than are fraternal twins,… genetic factors …of nature that results in identical (monozygotic, MZ) twins or fraternal (dizygotic, DZ) twins. MZ twins are like clones, genetically identical to each other because they came from the same fertilized egg. DZ twins, on the other hand, developed from two eggs that happened to be fertilized at the same… …of twins, both monozygotic (identical) and dizygotic (fraternal). Cognitive or behavioral characteristics that are entirely under genetic control would be predicted to be the same, or concordant, in monozygotic twins, who share identical genes regardless of their upbringing. These same characteristics would be predicted to be less concordant in… …genetically identical—with the exception of identical twins, which develop from a single fertilized ovum. The same conclusion applies to all organisms that reproduce sexually; every individual represents a unique genetic configuration that will likely never be repeated again. This enormous reservoir of genetic variation in natural populations provides virtually unlimited… In a major nonfraternal type of twinning, only one egg is fertilized, but during the cleavage of this single zygote into two cells, the resulting pair somehow become separated. Each of the two cells may implant in the uterus separately and grow into… heritability of intelligence studies …intelligence is the study of identical twins who were separated at an early age and reared apart. If the twins were raised in separate environments, and if it is assumed that when twins are separated they are randomly distributed across environments (often a dubious assumption), then the twins would have… mental disorders …both members of pairs of identical (monozygous) twins is compared with its frequency in both members of a pair of fraternal (dizygous) twins. A higher concordance for disease among the identical than the fraternal twins suggests a genetic component. Further information on the relative importance of genetic and environmental factors… twin types …kinds: the one-egg (monozygotic), or identical, type and the two-egg (dizygotic), or fraternal, type. The latter type is more usual and can be thought of simply as a litter of two. In humans, psychological studies of sets of identical twins, since they are genetically identical, have provided much otherwise unobtainable… zygotes In humans, identical twins develop from a zygote that splits into two separate cell masses at a relatively early stage in its growth. These two masses, which are genetically identical to each other, go on to become embryos. Fraternal twins, by contrast, develop from two separate zygotes…

Cognitive or behavioral characteristics that are entirely under genetic control would be predicted to be the same, or concordant, in monozygotic twins, who share identical genes regardless of their upbringing. These same characteristics would be predicted to be less concordant in… …genetically identical—with the exception of identical twins, which develop from a single fertilized ovum. The same conclusion applies to all organisms that reproduce sexually; every individual represents a unique genetic configuration that will likely never be repeated again. This enormous reservoir of genetic variation in natural populations provides virtually unlimited… In a major nonfraternal type of twinning, only one egg is fertilized, but during the cleavage of this single zygote into two cells, the resulting pair somehow become separated. Each of the two cells may implant in the uterus separately and grow into… heritability of intelligence studies …intelligence is the study of identical twins who were separated at an early age and reared apart. If the twins were raised in separate environments, and if it is assumed that when twins are separated they are randomly distributed across environments (often a dubious assumption), then the twins would have… mental disorders …both members of pairs of identical (monozygous) twins is compared with its frequency in both members of a pair of fraternal (dizygous) twins. A higher concordance for disease among the identical than the fraternal twins suggests a genetic component. Further information on the relative importance of genetic and environmental factors… twin types …kinds: the one-egg (monozygotic), or identical, type and the two-egg (dizygotic), or fraternal, type. The latter type is more usual and can be thought of simply as a litter of two. In humans, psychological studies of sets of identical twins, since they are genetically identical, have provided much otherwise unobtainable… zygotes In humans, identical twins develop from a zygote that splits into two separate cell masses at a relatively early stage in its growth.

yes

Karyology

Are identical twins genetically identical?

yes_statement

"identical" "twins" are "genetically" "identical".. genetic makeup of "identical" "twins" is the same.

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/35022652/

Genetically identical twins show comparable tau PET load and ...

Abstract Tau accumulation starts during the preclinical phase of Alzheimer's disease and is closely associated with cognitive decline. For preventive purposes, it is important to identify factors associated with tau accumulation and spread. Studying genetically identical twin-pairs may give insight into genetic and environmental contributions to tau pathology, as similarities in identical twin-pairs largely result from genetic factors, while differences in identical twin-pairs can largely be attributed to non-shared, environmental factors. This study aimed to examine similarities and dissimilarities in a cohort of genetically identical older twin-pairs in (i) tau load; and (ii) spatial distribution of tau, measured with 18F-flortaucipir PET. We selected 78 genetically identical twins (39 pairs; average age 73 ± 6 years), enriched for amyloid-β pathology and APOE ε4 carriership, who underwent dynamic 18F-flortaucipir PET. We extracted binding potentials (BPND) in entorhinal, temporal, widespread neocortical and global regions, and examined within-pair similarities in BPND using age and sex corrected intra-class correlations. Furthermore, we tested whether twin-pairs showed a more similar spatial 18F-flortaucipir distribution compared to non-twin pairs, and whether the participant's co-twin could be identified solely based on the spatial 18F-flortaucipir distribution. Last, we explored whether environmental (e.g. physical activity, obesity) factors could explain observed differences in twins of a pair in 18F-flortaucipir BPND. On visual inspection, Alzheimer's disease-like 18F-flortaucipir PET patterns were observed, and although we mainly identified similarities in twin-pairs, some pairs showed strong dissimilarities. 18F-flortaucipir BPND was correlated in twins in the entorhinal (r = 0.40; P = 0.01), neocortical (r = 0.59; P < 0.01) and global (r = 0.56; P < 0.01) regions, but not in the temporal region (r = 0.20; P = 0.10). The 18F-flortaucipir distribution pattern was significantly more similar between twins of the same pair [mean r = 0.27; standard deviation (SD) = 0.09] than between non-twin pairings of participants (mean r = 0.01; SD = 0.10) (P < 0.01), also after correcting for proxies of off-target binding. Based on the spatial 18F-flortaucipir distribution, we could identify with an accuracy of 86% which twins belonged to the same pair. Finally, within-pair differences in 18F-flortaucipir BPND were associated with within-pair differences in depressive symptoms (0.37 < β < 0.56), physical activity (-0.41 < β < -0.42) and social activity (-0.32 < β < -0.36) (all P < 0.05). Overall, identical twin-pairs were comparable in tau load and spatial distribution, highlighting the important role of genetic factors in the accumulation and spreading of tau pathology. Considering also the presence of dissimilarities in tau pathology in identical twin-pairs, our results additionally support a role for (potentially modifiable) environmental factors in the onset of Alzheimer's disease pathological processes, which may be of interest for future prevention strategies. Figures Identical twin pair correlations for global and regional 18F-flortaucipir BPND. (A) For each region of interest, we performed age- and sex-adjusted one-way single-measure intra-class correlations across twin pairs (i.e. a correlation between Twin 1 and Twin 2 across the group) to examine within-pair similarities in 18F-flortaucipir BPND (tau load). (B) Scatterplots illustrating twin-pair correlations in 18F-flortaucipir BPND for each region of interest. Each dot represents a twin-pair. The values presented in the plots are the residuals of 18F-flortaucipir BPND in Twin 1 (y-axis) and Twin 2 (x-axis) after regressing out the effects of age and sex. (C) The correlation coefficient observed for twin pairs (see B) is plotted against the distribution of correlation coefficients observed for random pairs. *P < 0.05; **P < 0.01. Figure 2 Spatial correlations for 18 F-flortaucipir… Figure 2 Spatial correlations for 18 F-flortaucipir PET between each participant and every other participant… Figure 2 Spatial correlations for 18F-flortaucipir PET between each participant and every other participant. (A) We correlated each participant’s voxel-by-voxel 18F-flortaucipir spatial distribution to that of every other participant using Spearman correlation models. (B) The distribution of spatial correlations (spearman’s rho coefficient, corrected for age and sex) observed for twin pairs is compared against the distribution of spatial correlations observed for non-twin pairs. Examples of 18F-flortaucipir PET scans from six genetically identical twin pairs. Shown are the 18F-flortaucipir PET scans from six genetically identical twin pairs. For illustration purposes, we selected pairs that show within-pair similarities in 18F-flortaucipir BPND and distribution (top and middle row), as well as within-pair dissimilarities (bottom row). Identical twin pair correlations for hemispheric lateralization in global and regional18F-flortaucipir BPND. Shown are the scatterplots illustrating the twin-pair associations in regional laterality quotients for 18F-flortaucipir BPND. Each dot represents a twin-pair. The values presented in the plots are the residuals of the laterality quotient in regional and global 18F-flortaucipir BPND for Twin 1 (y-axis) and Twin 2 (x-axis) after regressing out the effects of age and sex. *P < 0.05; **P < 0.01. Within twin-pair differences regression models between within-pair differences in 18F-flortaucipir BPND and within-pair differences in Geriatric Depression Scale total score, social activity and Physical Activity Scale for the Elderly total score. Each dot represents a twin-pair. Values presented in the plots represent the raw difference in temporal 18F-flortaucipir BPND between Twin 1 and Twin 2 for each pair (y-axis), and the raw differences in GDS total score, social activity and PASE total score between Twin 1 and Twin 2 for each pair (x-axis). Reported β and P-values are from age and sex-corrected regression models. *P < 0.05.

Abstract Tau accumulation starts during the preclinical phase of Alzheimer's disease and is closely associated with cognitive decline. For preventive purposes, it is important to identify factors associated with tau accumulation and spread. Studying genetically identical twin-pairs may give insight into genetic and environmental contributions to tau pathology, as similarities in identical twin-pairs largely result from genetic factors, while differences in identical twin-pairs can largely be attributed to non-shared, environmental factors. This study aimed to examine similarities and dissimilarities in a cohort of genetically identical older twin-pairs in (i) tau load; and (ii) spatial distribution of tau, measured with 18F-flortaucipir PET. We selected 78 genetically identical twins (39 pairs; average age 73 ± 6 years), enriched for amyloid-β pathology and APOE ε4 carriership, who underwent dynamic 18F-flortaucipir PET. We extracted binding potentials (BPND) in entorhinal, temporal, widespread neocortical and global regions, and examined within-pair similarities in BPND using age and sex corrected intra-class correlations. Furthermore, we tested whether twin-pairs showed a more similar spatial 18F-flortaucipir distribution compared to non-twin pairs, and whether the participant's co-twin could be identified solely based on the spatial 18F-flortaucipir distribution. Last, we explored whether environmental (e.g. physical activity, obesity) factors could explain observed differences in twins of a pair in 18F-flortaucipir BPND. On visual inspection, Alzheimer's disease-like 18F-flortaucipir PET patterns were observed, and although we mainly identified similarities in twin-pairs, some pairs showed strong dissimilarities. 18F-flortaucipir BPND was correlated in twins in the entorhinal (r = 0.40; P = 0.01), neocortical (r =

yes

Karyology

Are identical twins genetically identical?

no_statement

"identical" "twins" are not "genetically" "identical".. genetic makeup of "identical" "twins" can vary.

https://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/teachers/viewing/3411_02_nsn.html

NOVA Online | Teachers | Viewing Ideas | NOVA scienceNOW ...

Review DNA and chromosomes. As a class, review the following definitions: DNA: a double-stranded molecule that carries a cell's genetic information and is found in the cells of all living organisms. Chromosome: A tightly coiled macromolecule of DNA and its associated proteins. Chromosomes contain many genes. Sexually reproducing organisms have two of each chromosome, one from each parent. Organisms vary in the number of chromosomes they have. For example, humans have 46, dogs have 78, mosquitoes have 6, a potato has 48, and a pea plant has 14. Genome: The entire set of hereditary factors in a haploid set of chromosomes. Show the class a three-dimensional DNA model. Have students identify the two strands that make up DNA, the sugar-phosphate backbone, the individual nucleotide bases, and the nucleotide base pairs. To help students better understand the way DNA affects a person's traits, have students look at sets of paired chromosome from individuals with genetically caused conditions, such as Down syndrome, Huntington's disease, Klinefelter's syndrome, Tay-Sachs disease, and Jacobs Syndrome. Compare these to a set of paired chromosomes from an unaffected individual. (Suggested resource: pathology.washington.edu/galleries/Cytogallery/ main.php?file=human%20karyotypes) Play a word game exploring the meaning of "epi." Have students use a standard or medical dictionary to identify words beginning with the prefix epi, which means "above," "in addition to," or "outside." Give student pairs vocabulary terms and definitions (all mixed up). Have pairs work together and match each word to its correct definition. Review the terms as a class, and then have students brainstorm the meaning of epigenome and epigenetics. Epigenome: Above or outside the genome. In a sense, the epigenome is like clothing around the DNA. For example, chemical groups alter the expression of the DNA by binding to the DNA as well as to the histones around the DNA. Epigenetics: The study of changes in gene expression that do not involve changes in the genetic code (i.e., the DNA sequence) because they lie outside of the genome (i.e., the DNA). In a sense, epigenetics is the study of the genome's "clothing". Write similes and analogies that compare the genome to the epigenome. Brainstorm similes that show the relationship of the genome to the epigenome. For example, scientists in the program refer to the genome (i.e., DNA) as being "like the hardware of a computer" and the epigenome as being "like computer software." The DNA needs the epigenome to function properly, just as the computer needs the software to function properly. Divide the class into teams, and write on the board, "______is/are to the genome (i.e., DNA) as ______ is/are to the epigenome." As a class, brainstorm analogy examples such as: Keysof a piano are to the genome as fingers are to the epigenome. Wires in an electric circuit are to the genome as switches are to the epigenome. Then ask teams to generate other ways of showing the relationship of the genome to the epigenome. Have teams share their work. Discuss "nature versus nurture" questions about identical and fraternal twins. On the board, diagram how identical and fraternal twins compare genetically. Explain that with identical twins, a single fertilized egg splits into two genetically identical parts, each having the same DNA. With fraternal twins, two separate eggs are fertilized. Point out that identical twins are genetically identical, while fraternal twins are only as genetically similar as typical siblings are. Divide the class into groups and have groups discuss, research, and prepare responses to the following nature/nurture-related questions: Which type of twins, identical or fraternal, always shares the same blood type? (Identical) Should blood type be used to determine whether a set of twins is identical or fraternal? Why or why not? (No, fraternal twins may have the same blood type.) Do identical twins always have the same handedness? Why or Why not? (Not always, right or left handedness isn't entirely determined by genetics.) Do identical twins always have the same eye color? (Almost always, though some diseases can change eye color.) Hair color? Explain your answer. (Natural hair color is almost always the same, but hair can be dyed.) Do identical twins always have the same fingerprints? Why or why not? (Not necessarily, some identical twins have mirror-image prints.) Would identical or fraternal twins prefer the same type of music? Explain your answer. (Not necessarily. Answers will vary.) With which type of twins will both individuals always be born as the same sex? (Identical) Would twins always weigh the same at birth? Why or why not? (No, they may have received differing amounts of nutrients.) Is it best for scientists to study identical or fraternal twins to learn about the impact of the environment on genes? (Identical, because they have the same genome.) After Watching Analyze models for epigenetic factors. The segment displays an animation of the relationship between DNA and the epigenome, such as the histone proteins and methyl groups. Replay the animation for students and discuss how DNA's structure can be altered by epigenomic factors that expose (often by acetylation) or hide (often by methylation) different areas of the genome. Use a skein of yarn to model coiled DNA, and attach a washer to the loose end. Hold the skein so that the washer pulls the loose end down. Have students identify the epigenetic factor. (The washer—it's not part of the "DNA") Which part of the DNA was hidden and unavailable for transcription but is now available? (The length pulled from the skein by the washer—the exposed part) Brainstorm models for stem cells, the genome, the epigenome, and cancer. In the program, one explanation for how some types of cancer arise is through errors when stem cells overwork to replace tissue. Discuss with students that a stem cell can develop into any of the body's cell types. One function of stem cells is regeneration and repair of damaged tissue. Stem cells that keep dividing because they can't shut down their own growth may be one way cancer develops. Discuss stem cells with students, using a well-stocked kitchen could be used as a metaphor for stem cells. The genome would be all the ingredients; the epigenome would be opening a cabinet door to retrieve a particular ingredient; and cancer would be adding too much of one or more ingredients in a recipe. Other metaphor examples include a cookbook, telephone, CD player, or computer. As a class, brainstorm similar metaphor models. Then have student teams correlate each metaphor to stem cells, the genome, the epigenome, and cancer. Have teams share their metaphors and analysis. Draw a cartoon or write a poem or song. Over centuries, many scientists have contributed to our understanding of heredity and DNA. Have student teams research one of the scientists listed below and, using a cartoon, poem, or song, present that scientist's contribution. Have teams include when the scientist lived, where he or she worked, and at least one significant contribution he or she made to advance our understanding of heredity, DNA, and/or genetics. Charles Darwin (1809–1882): Wrote On the Origin of Species in 1859. He proposed the theory of natural selection and suggested that adaptive traits were inherited. Gregor Mendel (1822–1884): Studied peas and other plants. Found that traits are carried by discrete units (later, these were termed "genes") and that there are rules of inheritance. Alfred Hersey (1908–1997) and his assistant Martha Chase: Showed in 1952 that DNA, rather than proteins, carries genetic information. He won a Nobel Prize for this work. Rosalind Franklin (1920–1958): Isolated and took X-ray crystallography images of DNA, setting the stage for Watson and Crick to make their breakthrough insight into the structure of DNA. James Watson and Francis Crick (Watson 1928–, Crick 1916–2004): In 1953, determined the structure of DNA. Both scientists won a Nobel Prize for this work. The Human Genome Project (Developed in the late 1980s/early 1990s): Many scientists continue to work on this project, sequencing the human genome to better understand such diseases as Alzheimer's. Early results include the discovery that each of the body's cells contains more than three billion nucleotide units. About one percent of the genome (clustered in as few as 30,000 genes) seems to be used for transcription. Write a twin-study proposal. Review with students why scientists use identical twins to study the effect of the environment on the epigenome (and ultimately on health). (Because identical twins have the same genetic makeup, scientists can study how differences in lifestyle influence twins' epigenomes and their health.) In a way, the environment "talks" to us through the epigenome. Lifestyle differences can be reflected in the epigenome. Have students brainstorm lifestyle differences that identical twins may have that could influence their epigenome, and, by extension, their health. On the board, record students' ideas. Possible ways identical twins' epigenomes could be different include: Twins live in different geographic locations. One twin lives close to where there is heavy use of pesticides and one does not. Scientists could study the impact of pesticides on health (kidney disease) and on the epigenome. One twin smokes and one doesn't. Scientists could study the impact of smoking on health (lung disease) and on the epigenome. One twin eats a vegetarian diet and one doesn't. Scientists could study the impact of a particular diet on health and the epigenome. One twin has a particular kind of cancer. Scientists could study the role of the environment in that type of cancer by carefully looking at differences in where and how each twin lives. One twin works as a police officer and one as a yoga instructor. Scientists could study the impact of stress on health conditions such as heart attacks or ulcers; they could also study changes in the epigenome. As a class, review the core elements of a scientific proposal. For example: Have students carefully define a question. Isolate one variable. Identify the twin who is the focus of the experiment and the one who is the control. Have students consider other factors that could influence data or results. Make sure students consider the ethics involved in doing their study. Have students review the list of ways identical twins could have different epigenomes, and choose a health-related question that could be addressed in a twin study. Divide the class into teams, and have each one choose a question from this list to further address in a proposal (each team takes a different question). Have teams write a proposal for studying their question to learn more about whether the environment could have influenced the epigenome and could have been the main contributor to a particular health factor. Then have teams share their completed proposals with the class. Web Sites NOVA scienceNOW www.pbs.org/nova/sciencenow/3411/02.html Offers epigenetics-related resources, including a streamed version of the show, an audio slide show about how the epigenome produces differences, and an Ask the Expert area where site visitors can ask researcher Randy Jirtle questions about epigenetics. Epigenome Network of Excellence epigenome.eu/en/1,1,0 Presents a brief, clear overview of epigenetics, with quotes from various researchers, followed by a series of accessible descriptions of different topics in epigenetics. "Nurture Takes the Spotlight: Decoding the environment's role in development and disease" by Christen Brownlee. Science News, 169 (25), June 2006. www.sciencenews.org/articles/20060624/bob8ref.asp Reviews current research and gives an accessible overview of epigenetics.

As a class, brainstorm analogy examples such as: Keysof a piano are to the genome as fingers are to the epigenome. Wires in an electric circuit are to the genome as switches are to the epigenome. Then ask teams to generate other ways of showing the relationship of the genome to the epigenome. Have teams share their work. Discuss "nature versus nurture" questions about identical and fraternal twins. On the board, diagram how identical and fraternal twins compare genetically. Explain that with identical twins, a single fertilized egg splits into two genetically identical parts, each having the same DNA. With fraternal twins, two separate eggs are fertilized. Point out that identical twins are genetically identical, while fraternal twins are only as genetically similar as typical siblings are. Divide the class into groups and have groups discuss, research, and prepare responses to the following nature/nurture-related questions: Which type of twins, identical or fraternal, always shares the same blood type? (Identical) Should blood type be used to determine whether a set of twins is identical or fraternal? Why or why not? (No, fraternal twins may have the same blood type.) Do identical twins always have the same handedness? Why or Why not? (Not always, right or left handedness isn't entirely determined by genetics.) Do identical twins always have the same eye color? (Almost always, though some diseases can change eye color.) Hair color? Explain your answer. (Natural hair color is almost always the same, but hair can be dyed.) Do identical twins always have the same fingerprints? Why or why not? (Not necessarily, some identical twins have mirror-image prints.) Would identical or fraternal twins prefer the same type of music? Explain your answer. (Not necessarily. Answers will vary.)

yes

Karyology

Are identical twins genetically identical?

no_statement

"identical" "twins" are not "genetically" "identical".. genetic makeup of "identical" "twins" can vary.

https://academic.oup.com/hmg/article/14/suppl_1/R11/560905

Phenotypic differences in genetically identical organisms: the ...

Abstract Human monozygotic twins and other genetically identical organisms are almost always strikingly similar in appearance, yet they are often discordant for important phenotypes including complex diseases. Such variation among organisms with virtually identical chromosomal DNA sequences has largely been attributed to the effects of environment. Environmental factors can have a strong effect on some phenotypes, but evidence from both animal and human experiments suggests that the impact of environment has been overstated and that our views on the causes of phenotypic differences in genetically identical organisms require revision. New theoretical and experimental opportunities arise if epigenetic factors are considered as part of the molecular control of phenotype. Epigenetic mechanisms may explain paradoxical findings in twin and inbred animal studies when phenotypic differences occur in the absence of observable environmental differences and also when environmental differences do not significantly increase the degree of phenotypic variation. INTRODUCTION Identical human twins have been a source of superstition and fascination throughout human history, from Romulus and Remus, the mythical founders of Rome, to movies such as Cronenberg's ‘Dead Ringers’, to the twin paradox in the theory of special relativity (1). For biologists and psychologists, twins have been an important resource for exploring the etiology of disease and for understanding the role of genetic and environmental factors in determining phenotype, and this fundamental question was first enunciated in its alliterated form by Galton in the 19th century (2). The relative contribution of nature versus nurture can be estimated by comparing the degree of phenotypic similarities in monozygotic (MZ) versus dizygotic (DZ) twins. MZ twins arise from the same zygote, whereas dizygotic twins arise from a pair of separate eggs, fertilized by two different sperm. As a result, MZ twins have the same chromosomal DNA sequence, except for very small errors of DNA replication after the four to eight cell zygote stage. MZ twins share all of their nuclear DNA, whereas DZ twins share only 50% of DNA sequence variation, on average. Therefore, the degree of genetic contribution to a given phenotype can be estimated from the comparison of MZ to DZ concordance rates or intra-class correlation coefficients. Traits that show higher MZ versus DZ similarity are assumed to have a genetic component because the degree of genetic sharing and the degree of phenotypic similarity are correlated. The amount of genetic contribution can be expressed as the ‘heritability’ (h2), which is calculated in various ways (e.g. as twice the difference between the MZ and DZ concordance rates) (3,4). Most (if not all) common human diseases show a significant heritability by this definition; however, while MZ twins appear virtually identical, they are often discordant for disease. For example, the heritability of schizophrenia is variously reported to be in the range of 0.70–0.84, on the basis of an MZ twin concordance of ∼50% and a DZ twin concordance of 10–15% (5–7). A heritability figure of 0.8 (or 80%) seems to imply that the genetic contribution to disease susceptibility is the main component of risk. Yet, half of MZ twin pairs, in the case of schizophrenia, do not share the disease. The situation is similar for virtually all complex non-Mendelian diseases in which there is clearly some appreciable degree of heritable risk, yet a significant proportion of MZ twin pairs is discordant for the disease. Figure 1 shows the MZ and DZ concordance rates for some common behavioral and medical disorders. Although heredity clearly influences disease risk, the substantial discordance between MZ twins indicates that chromosomal DNA sequence alone cannot completely determine susceptibility (8). The imperfect disease concordance in MZ twins is an example of a more general phenomenon: (i.e. phenotypic differences between or among genetically identical organisms). These differences have usually been attributed to the effects of environment (the ‘non-shared environment’ in the case of MZ twins) (9), as a default explanation for variation that remains after genetic effects are accounted for. It is not easy to measure empirically the amount of non-genetic variation that is due to environmental factors. There are examples of significant environmental effects on disease risk, such as smoking and lung cancer (10), but direct evidence of other measured environmental effects on phenotype is rare. In addition, there is an increasing body of experimental evidence suggesting that the generally accepted assumption—variation not attributable to genetic factors must therefore be environmental—may require revision. This article will review human twin and animal data that highlight paradoxical findings regarding the contribution of heredity and environment to phenotype, followed by a reinterpretation of these experiments that incorporates epigenetic factors. STUDIES OF MZ TWINS RAISED APART OR TOGETHER: THE EPHEMERAL ROLE OF ENVIRONMENT One of the landmark studies in human twin research that challenges the received importance of environment is the Minnesota Study of Twins Reared Apart, in which detailed physical and psychological assessments were conducted longitudinally in over 100 MZ and DZ pairs of twins who had been reared apart since early childhood (11,12). In a variation of the traditional twin study comparing MZ twins reared together (MZT) with DZ twins reared together, the Minnesota study compares MZT with MZ twins raised apart (MZA). This study design allows comparisons between genetically identical MZ twin pairs who have been raised in a shared environment, at least as similar as for any two siblings, and those who have been raised in different homes, cities and states. Thus, the degree of dissimilarity between the MZT and the MZA pairs can be assumed to be the result of different environments (13). A series of tests were administered simultaneously to each pair of MZA and MZT twins, and the correlations of their scores on each scale were calculated and compared with test–retest correlations as a measure of the reliability of each scale. The intra-class correlation (R) within pairs of MZA (RMZA) and MZT (RMZT) was then expressed as a ratio (RMZA/RMZT). Surprisingly, the correlations within MZT and MZA twin pairs on personality measurements were almost identical (e.g. RMZA=0.50 and RMZT=0.49 on the Multidimensional Personality Questionnaire—MPQ). The RMZA/RMZT ratio for the MPQ was 1.02, compared with 1.01 for fingerprint ridge counts. Out of 22 measurements for which the RMZA/RMZT ratio was reported, 15 had a value over 0.9. In addition to the traits mentioned previously, these included: electroencephalographic patterns; systolic blood pressure; heart rate; electrodermal response (EDR) amplitude in males and number of EDR trials to reach habituation; the performance scale on the WAIS-IQ; the Raven Mill-Hill IQ test; the California Psychological Inventory; social attitudes on religious and non-religious scales and various scales of MPQ (11,12). The findings of the Minnesota study are generally consistent with other studies of MZA twins. For example, a recent effort to look at the etiology of migraine headaches gathered data from the Swedish Twin Registry and found that susceptibility to migraine was mostly inherited and that the twins separated earlier had even greater similarity in migraine status. For women in particular, migraine profiles were very similar in MZA compared to the MZT group, RMZA=0.58 and RMZT=0.46 (RMZA/RMZT=1.26), whereas for men, the migraine incidence was too low and the confidence intervals for correlations were too wide to be able to draw firm conclusions (14). The Swedish Twin sample was also utilized to explore the factors affecting regular tobacco smoking, and again the results were similar for the two groups of MZ male twins, RMZA=0.84 and RMZT=0.83 (RMZA/RMZT=1.01). For women, the data were more difficult to interpret, RMZA=0.44 and RMZT=0.68 (RMZA/RMZT=0.65), but when more recent cohorts were examined, the rates of smoking in women were similar to men and the heritability was much the same as for men. Smoking rates in women in the early 1900s (the oldest cohort in this sample) were very low and social factors inhibiting smoking in women could result in there being strong local environmental effects, whereas more modern cohorts, with less restrictions on acceptable female behavior, were free to smoke for the same reasons (genetic) as men (15). Peptic ulcer, a disease that contains an evident environmental component (i.e. exposure to Helicobacter pylori), has also been subjected to an MZT/MZA study design. The results are another example of paradoxical findings in which the contribution of environmental and genetic factors is unclear. Again, using the Swedish Twin Registry, MZ and DZ concordance rates in twins raised together for peptic ulcer were reported to be 0.65 and 0.35, respectively, suggesting that genetic factors are indeed important in vulnerability (heritability 0.62). However, comparisons between MZA or MZT showed RMZA=0.67 and RMZT=0.65 (RMZA/RMZT=1.03), suggesting that the common home environment has little effect on susceptibility to peptic ulcer (16). So, the question that remains after analyzing these data is: what can account for the discordance in MZ twin pairs? If environment were a significant factor, then why is the RMZA/RMZT almost 1 (1.03)? All the aforementioned examples of the MZT/MZA comparisons, from anthropometric data to psychological traits to pathogen susceptibility, lead to a paradoxical conclusion regarding the role of environmental factors. The fact that the MZ twin concordance (correlation) is well below 100% argues that environment is important. However, different environments in MZA do not result in a higher degree of phenotypic discordance when compared with MZT. These MZT/MZA studies clearly illustrate the core problem that we wish to explore in this paper; though some studies implicate non-genetic factors in susceptibility to disease or other phenotypes, the available data do not support the interpretation that the remaining variation in phenotype is due to environmental factors. Similar inconsistencies regarding the impact of environmental effects have also been detected in the studies of experimental animals. Some of the questions raised by human twin studies can be re-examined by experimental manipulations of laboratory animals. Animal strains that have been inbred for many generations have almost identical genomes, that is, they are virtually isogenic. True MZ twins can also be generated through in vitro embryo manipulations that provide an opportunity to directly separate the effects of genes from pre-natal environment. Although environmental ‘twins’ do not exist in humans, a close approximation can be created by strictly controlling the environment of laboratory animals in a way that is impossible with humans. At the very least, the effects of constrained versus diverse environments can be quantified to determine the relative contribution of specific environmental factors to phenotypic variation. In an elegant series of experiments designed to explore the relative contributions of genes, environment and other factors to laboratory animal phenotype, Gartner (17) was able to demonstrate that the majority of random non-genetic variability was not due to the environment. Genetic sources of variation were minimized by using inbred animals, but reduction of genetic variation did not substantially reduce the amount of observed variation in phenotypes such as body weight or kidney size. Strict standardization of the environment within a laboratory did not have a major effect on inter-individual variability when compared with tremendous environmental variability in a natural setting. Only 20–30% of the variability could be attributed to environmental factors, with the remaining 70–80% of non-genetic variation due to a ‘third component…effective at or before fertilization’ (17). To directly segregate genetic from pre- and post-natal effects, in vitro embryo manipulations in isogenic animals can be performed. In two mouse strains and in Friesian cattle, Gartner artificially created MZ and DZ twins by transplanting divided and non-divided eight-cell embryos into pseudopregnant surrogates. The effect of different uterine environments was tested by transplanting pairs of MZ or DZ embryos into the same or into two different surrogate dams. Pre-natal and post-natal environments were tightly controlled and, most importantly, were equally variable between the isogenic DZ and MZ twin pairs. The variance (s2) of mean body weights and time to reach certain developmental milestones like eye opening, between twin pairs (sb2) and within twin pairs (sw2) was calculated for both MZ and DZ groups. The F-test comparisons for variation between the MZ and DZ groups overall were not significantly different. However, variance within twin pairs (sw2) was significantly much greater for DZ twins than for MZ twins (ranging from P<0.01 to P<0.001 for individual weight measurements). Therefore, despite the fact that all mice were isogenic, and developed in identical pre- and post-natal environments, the MZ twin pairs showed a greater degree of phenotypic similarity among co-twins than did the DZ twin pairs, thus implicating non-DNA sequence—and non-environment—based influences on the zygote at or before the eight-cell stage as the main source of phenotypic variation. Gartner and Baunack (18) referred to this non-genetic influence as the ‘third component’, after genes and environment, the molecular basis of which remains unknown. The cloning of mammals has recently been accomplished in a variety of species, and these experiments, technical feats in themselves, also present an opportunity to differentiate the effects of chromosomal DNA sequence from other factors that can influence phenotype. Although the offspring of these cloning experiments have the same genome as the donor animals, they exhibit a variety of phenotypic abnormalities that obviously cannot be attributed to genetic causes (19). In some cases, the phenotypes are pathological and represent disease states, whereas other abnormalities are more subtle, suggesting that these observations are relevant to understanding both susceptibility to human complex diseases and variation within a normal functional spectrum (20). The most famous of these cloning experiments was performed with sheep, but along with seemingly healthy lambs, many clone siblings died perinatally as a result of overgrowth, pulmonary hypertension and renal, hepatobiliary and body-wall defects (21). Some cloned mice are susceptible to obesity (22). In addition to higher overall weight, the cloned mice have the same inter-individual variability in weight as non-cloned control mice of the same genetic background (23). Clones in other species also show considerable variation in lifespan and disease phenotypes between genetically identical clones and non-cloned members of that species. This has been reported in pigs (24) and in cattle, where the main post-natal abnormality is musculoskeletal in origin (25). This list is far from comprehensive and is meant to illustrate our point that significant phenotypic variation, including crossing a threshold to fatal disease, can emerge from animals that have an identical, cloned genetic background, and frequently-occurring differences in mitochondrial DNA cannot be a universal mechanism for a wide spectrum of phenotypic differences. These early examples of cloned animals were subjected to intense scrutiny in highly supervised and controlled environments, yet they still exhibit disease in an inconsistent fashion. If environment were the source of this phenotypic variation, then one would expect the same emergence of disease among non-cloned members of this species, in an even greater extent, because their environment is not usually so tightly constrained. More likely, there are other potential explanations for this variation. The general conclusion drawn from the previously described experiments is that substantial phenotypic variation may occur in the absence of either genetic background differences or identifiable environmental variation. When genetic sources of variation are excluded, environmental factors are usually considered to be the source of the remaining variation. However, the previously described data do not support this hypothesis. It is easy to see how the environment is often blamed for this non-genetic variation in phenotype. It is difficult to prove that environmental factors are not affecting phenotype. Environmental sources of phenotypic variation can only be excluded by showing that variation persists in a zero-variation environment. Obviously it is difficult to design such an experiment in which environmental variation can be shown to be near-zero, but the studies described previously circumvent this problem. They did so by either directly controlling the degree of environmental variation (as in Gartner's experiments) or by using naturally occurring (human twins) or artificially induced (through in vitro embryo manipulations) controls as comparison groups. In all of these examples, there exists a component of phenotypic variation whose source remains unexplained. THE EPIGENETIC PERSPECTIVE Epigenetics refers to DNA and chromatin modifications that play a critical role in regulation of various genomic functions. Although the genotype of most cells of a given organism is the same (with the exception of gametes and the cells of the immune system), cellular phenotypes and functions differ radically, and this can be (at least to some extent) controlled by differential epigenetic regulation that is set up during cell differentiation and embryonic morphogenesis (26–28). Once the cellular phenotype is established, genomes of somatic cells are ‘locked’ in tissue-specific patterns of gene expression, generation after generation. This heritability of epigenetic information in somatic cells has been called an ‘epigenetic inheritance system’ (29). Even after the epigenomic profiles are established, a substantial degree of epigenetic variation can be generated during the mitotic divisions of a cell in the absence of any specific environmental factors. Such variation is most likely to be the outcome of stochastic events in the somatic inheritance of epigenetic profiles. One example of stochastic epigenetic event is a failure of DNA methyltransferase to identify a post-replicative hemimethylated DNA sequence, which would result in loss of methylation signal in the next round of DNA replication (reviewed in 30). In tissue culture experiments, the fidelity of maintenance DNA methylation in mammalian cells was detected to be between 97 and 99.9% (31). In addition, there was also de novo methylation activity, which reached 3–5% per mitosis (31). Thus, the epigenetic status of genes and genomes varies quite dynamically when compared with the relatively static DNA sequence. This partial epigenetic stability and the role of epigenetic regulation in orchestrating various genomic activities make epigenetics an attractive candidate molecular mechanism for phenotypic variation in genetically identical organisms. From the epigenetic point of view, phenotypic differences in MZ twins could result, in part, from their epigenetic differences. Because of the partial stability of epigenetic regulation, a substantial degree of epigenetic dissimilarity can be accumulated over millions of mitotic divisions of cells in genetically identical organisms. This is consistent with experimental findings in MZ twins discordant for Beckwith–Wiedemann syndrome (BWS) (32). In skin fibroblasts from five MZ twin pairs discordant for BWS, the affected co-twins had an imprinting defect at the KCNQ1OT1 gene. The epigenetic defect is thought to arise from the unequal splitting of the inner cell mass (containing the DNA methylation enzymes) during twinning, which results in differential maintenance of imprinting at KCNQ1OT1. In another twin study, the bisulfite DNA modification-based mapping of methylated cytosines revealed numerous subtle inter-individual epigenetic differences, which are likely to be a genome-wide phenomenon (33). The finding that differences in MZT are similar to MZA, for a large number of traits, suggests that in such twins stochastic events may be a more important cause of phenotypic differences than specific environmental effects. If the emphasis is shifted from environment to stochasticity, it may become clear why MZ twins reared apart are not more different from each other than MZ twins reared together. It is possible that MZ twins are different for some traits, not because they are exposed to different environments but because those traits are determined by meta-stable epigenetic regulation on which environmental factors have only a modest impact. It is not our intention to argue that environment has no effect in generating phenotypic differences in genetically identical organisms. Rather, we are suggesting that epigenetic studies of disease may help to understand the pathophysiology of, and susceptibility to, etiologically complex, common illnesses. The current method of studying most diseases includes molecular genetic approaches to identify gene-sequence variants that affect susceptibility and epidemiological efforts to identify environmental factors affecting either susceptibility or outcomes. However, epidemiological studies in humans are limited by a number of methodological issues. Obviously, it is unethical to deliberately expose people to putative disease-causing agents in a prospective randomized controlled trial and it is impossible to control human environments in a way that eliminates most sources of bias in epidemiological studies (34). Such designs may be possible in animal studies, but adequate animal models are available for only a small proportion of human conditions. In this situation, epigenetic studies may help identification of the molecular effects of the environmental factors. There is an increasing list of environmental events that result in epigenetic changes (35–41), including the recent finding of maternal behavior-induced epigenetic modification at the gene for the glucocorticoid receptor in animals (42). The advantage of the epigenetic perspective is that, especially in humans, identification of molecular epigenetic effects of environmental factors might be easier and more efficient than direct (but methodologically limited) epidemiological studies. Epigenetic mechanisms can easily be integrated into a model of phenotypic variation in multicellular organisms, which can explain some of the phenotypic differences among genetically identical organisms. MZ twin discordance for complex, chronic, non-Mendelian disorders such as schizophrenia, multiple sclerosis or asthma could arise as a result of a chain of unfavorable epigenetic events in the affected twin. During embryogenesis, childhood and adolescence there is ample opportunity for multidirectional effects of tissue differentiation, stochastic factors, hormones and probably some external environmental factors (nutrition, medications, addictions, etc.) (39,43) to accumulate in only one of the two identical twins (Fig. 2) (30,33). Variation in phenotype among isogenic animals can also be attributed to meta-stable epigenetic regulation. Gartner's experiments with controlled versus chaotic environmental conditions showed that non-environmental factors were responsible for the majority of phenotypic variation among inbred animals. Similar observations among cloned animals can be accounted for by epigenetic differences among these animals. The role of dysregulated epigenetic mechanisms in disease is also consistent with the experimental observations in cloned animals. The derivation of embryos from somatic cells, which contain quite different epigenetic profiles when compared with the germline, generates abnormalities of development that can arise from inadequate or inappropriate nuclear programming (22,44,45). Evidence of epigenetic, non-environmentally mediated sources of variation in genetically identical organisms can be found in the examples of the mouse agouti and AxinFu loci (46,47). The agouti gene (A) is responsible for the coat color of wild-type mice and isogenic heterozygous c57BL/6 Avy/a mice have a range of coat colors from yellow to black (pseudoagouti). The darkness of the Avy/a mice was proportional to the amount of DNA methylation in the agouti locus, with complete methylation in black psuedoagouti mice and reduced methylation in yellow ones (46). Transplantation experiments of fertilized oocytes to surrogate dams demonstrated that color was influenced by the phenotype of the genetic dam, not the foster dam (46). Thus, an obvious phenotype of this isogenic mouse strain is controlled by epigenetic factors that are partially heritable. Another example of the role of epigenetic mechanisms on phenotype is the murine axin-fused (AxinFu) allele, which in some cases produces a characteristically kinked tail. Like the agouti gene locus, the Axin gene contains an intracisternal-A particle (IAP) retrotransposon that is subjected to epigenetic modification. The methylation status of the long terminal repeat of the IAP in the AxinFu allele correlates with the degree of tail deformity. Furthermore, the presence of the deformity and associated methylation pattern in either sires or dams increases the probability of the same deformity in the offspring (47). These experiments demonstrate both stochastic and heritable features of epigenetic mechanisms on variability in isogenic animals. The two epigenetic mouse studies described previously as well as experimental data from other species (48) suggest epigenetic signals can exhibit meiotic stability, i.e. epigenetic information can be transmitted from one generation to another. Traditionally, it has been thought that during the maturation of the germline, gametes re-program their epigenetic status by erasing the old and re-establishing a new epigenetic profile. Although the extent of meiotic epigenetic stability remains unknown, the implications are potentially dramatic, blurring the distinction between epigenetic and DNA sequence-based inheritance. The inheritance of epigenetic information and the potential for this to affect disease susceptibility also challenge the dominant paradigm of human morbid genetics, which is almost exclusively concentrated on DNA sequence variation (49). This partial heritability of epigenetic status of the germline may explain the molecular origin of Gartner's ‘third component’ (Fig. 3). The variance within twin pairs (sw2) was significantly lower for isogenic MZ twins than for isogenic DZ twins because MZ twins derived from the same zygote shared the same epigenomic background. DZ animals, however, originated from different zygotes that had different epigenetic backgrounds. This interpretation suggests that epigenetic meta-stability is not only limited to somatic cells but also applies to the germline and that germ cells of the same individuals may be carriers of different epigenomes despite their DNA sequence identity. Additionally, the inherited epigenetic signals have a significant impact on the phenotype despite numerous epigenetic changes that take place during embryogenesis (27,50). Until recently, it has not been feasible to test these epigenetic interpretations of phenotypic differences directly among genetically identical organisms. Technologies for high-throughput, large scale epigenomic profiling have been developed (51–55), which along with more well-established techniques, such as focused fine-mapping of methylated cytosines using bisulfite modification or identification of histone modification status using chromatin immunoprecipitation, can evaluate epigenetic profiles in a target tissue and permit comparisons of epigenetic profile among different phenotypes. Methods such as these could be applied to genetically identical organisms to determine whether phenotypic differences are indeed correlated with differences in epigenetic profiles and where in the genome the crucial epigenetic signals may be located. The classical genetic phenomena of incomplete penetrance and variable expressivity may in part be explained by differences in epigenetic regulation of certain genes and their expression levels. We now have the experimental tools to test these hypotheses directly and characterize the extent to which epigenetic factors may influence the traditional dyad of genes and environment. Vogel and Motulsky (56) wisely said that ‘human genetics is by no way a completed and closed complex of theory… [with] results that only need to be supplemented in a straightforward way and without major changes in conceptualization…anomalies and discrepancies may exist, but we often do not identify them because we share the ‘blind spots’ with other members of our paradigm group’ (56, p. 195). The source of phenotypic differences in genetically identical organisms may be one such blind spot among geneticists. Apart from human diseases, various concerns have been raised regarding the limitations of the DNA sequence-based paradigm, and the importance of epigenetic factors has been emphasized. Strohman (57) concluded that the Watson–Crick genetic code ‘which began as a narrowly defined and proper theory and paradigm of the gene, has mistakenly evolved into a theory and a paradigm of life’. In a similar way, Fedoroff et al. (58) stated that ‘our traditional genetic picture…which is concerned almost exclusively with the effect of nucleotide sequence changes on gene expression and function is substantially incomplete’, and that ‘epigenetic factors are significantly more important than it is generally thought’ (58). As seen in other fields of science (59), identification of the areas where inconsistencies or controversies lie may provide new opportunities for re-thinking fundamental laws, lead to new experimental designs, and may even result in major paradigmatic shifts. ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS We thank Dr Axel Schumacher for his help with drawing figures for this article. This research has been supported by the Special Initiative grant from the Ontario Mental Health Foundation and also by NARSAD, the Canadian Psychiatric Research Foundation, the Stanley Foundation, the Juvenile Diabetes Foundation International and the Crohn's and Colitis Foundation of Canada to A.P. Figure 2. Epigenetic model of MZ twin discordance in complex disease, e.g. schizophrenia. Red circles represent methylated cytosines. From the epigenetic point of view, phenotypic disease differences in MZ twins result from their epigenetic differences. Due to the partial stability of epigenetic signals, a substantial degree of epigenetic dissimilarity can be accumulated over millions of mitotic divisions of cells of MZ co-twins. Although the figure shows that disease is caused by gene hypomethylation, scenarios where pathological condition is associated with gene hypermethylation are equally possible.

Abstract Human monozygotic twins and other genetically identical organisms are almost always strikingly similar in appearance, yet they are often discordant for important phenotypes including complex diseases. Such variation among organisms with virtually identical chromosomal DNA sequences has largely been attributed to the effects of environment. Environmental factors can have a strong effect on some phenotypes, but evidence from both animal and human experiments suggests that the impact of environment has been overstated and that our views on the causes of phenotypic differences in genetically identical organisms require revision. New theoretical and experimental opportunities arise if epigenetic factors are considered as part of the molecular control of phenotype. Epigenetic mechanisms may explain paradoxical findings in twin and inbred animal studies when phenotypic differences occur in the absence of observable environmental differences and also when environmental differences do not significantly increase the degree of phenotypic variation. INTRODUCTION Identical human twins have been a source of superstition and fascination throughout human history, from Romulus and Remus, the mythical founders of Rome, to movies such as Cronenberg's ‘Dead Ringers’, to the twin paradox in the theory of special relativity (1). For biologists and psychologists, twins have been an important resource for exploring the etiology of disease and for understanding the role of genetic and environmental factors in determining phenotype, and this fundamental question was first enunciated in its alliterated form by Galton in the 19th century (2). The relative contribution of nature versus nurture can be estimated by comparing the degree of phenotypic similarities in monozygotic (MZ) versus dizygotic (DZ) twins. MZ twins arise from the same zygote, whereas dizygotic twins arise from a pair of separate eggs, fertilized by two different sperm. As a result, MZ twins have the same chromosomal DNA sequence, except for very small errors of DNA replication after the four to eight cell zygote stage. MZ twins share all of their nuclear DNA, whereas DZ twins share only 50% of DNA sequence variation, on average.

yes

Biomechanics

Are knee braces effective in preventing knee injuries?

yes_statement

"knee" "braces" are "effective" in "preventing" "knee" "injuries".. wearing "knee" "braces" can "prevent" "knee" "injuries".

https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3445064/

The Effectiveness of Prophylactic Knee Bracing in American Football ...

Share RESOURCES As a library, NLM provides access to scientific literature. Inclusion in an NLM database does not imply endorsement of, or agreement with, the contents by NLM or the National Institutes of Health. Learn more: PMC Disclaimer | PMC Copyright Notice Abstract Context: Knee injuries, particularly of the medial collateral ligament (MCL), are the most common injury sustained in American football. In 1979, Anderson et al described a knee brace that could protect uninjured knees from MCL injuries resulting from lateral impact. Since then, a number of light and free-moving bracing devices have been developed. However, the efficacy of prophylactic knee bracing remains in question. Objective: A systematic review of the efficacy of prophylactic knee bracing in preventing MCL injuries in football players. Data Sources: Based on MedSearch and PubMed, articles from 1985 to November 2009 were identified with the following keywords and their combinations: prophylactic, prevent injury, knee brace, prevention, medial collateral ligament, MCL, football, and bracing. Study Selection: Results: The results of the studies were inconsistent; only 1 study showed that prophylactic knee bracing significantly reduced MCL injuries (P < .05). In contrast, 2 studies found that knee bracing was associated with an increase in knee injuries. Conclusions: Prophylactic bracing in American football has not consistently reduced MCL injuries. There remains a lack of evidence to support the routine use of prophylactic knee bracing in uninjured knees. There is limited high-level evidence, bias in the available literature, and confounding variables that limit the current literature. Knee injuries in general and medial collateral ligament (MCL) injuries in particular are common in American football.5,6,9,11,19 The cost of these injuries in terms of time lost from sports, academics, and quality of life can be substantial.12,17 This issue does not discriminate on the basis of age or level of play: from the high school ranks to the professional level.7 The cost of bracing is far from negligible.12,16 There are the obvious financial implications, but player comfort, performance, and safety must also be considered. This controversy is reflected in the position statement of the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons (AAOS) on prophylactic bracing: “Prophylactic knee braces may provide limited protection against injuries to the MCL in football players.4 Scientific studies have not demonstrated similar protection to other knee ligaments, menisci, or articular cartilage.” The AAOS concluded that there is insufficient scientific evidence to recommend the use of prophylactic knee braces in all football players.4 Many obstacles have led to a dearth of level 1 evidence to support bracing. Albright et al outlined the ongoing controversy stating that the confusion is “a reflection of the degree of difficulty inherent in doing epidemiological studies of sport-related injury patterns in general, and of team sports—where the interplay of all the influential factors make the understanding of injury patterns most demanding.”1 In 1979, Anderson et al described a knee brace named the Stabler, which was designed to protect athletes who had previously sustained a MCL injury.5 The MCL is the primary restraint to a valgus force, and it has been shown in cadaveric studies to be the first ligament to ruptured, followed by the anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) and the posterior cruciate ligament (PCL).3,10,13,14 In Anderson’s series, there were no further injuries reported with brace use.5 Excitement generated by this study in professional athletes spawned the interest by parents, coaches, and physicians at all levels of the game.7 This brace and the litany of others that followed were designed with a laterally based reinforcement that attempts to prevent injury, specifically to the MCL, during lateral impact.5 Subsequent studies have shown that currently available off-the-shelf braces can provide at least 20% to 30% greater resistance to lateral impacts of the magnitude that would cause MCL injury.3 Methods The articles reviewed were systematically selected from a search of MedSearch and PubMed with the following keywords and their combinations: prophylactic, prevent injury, knee brace, prevention, medial collateral ligament, MCL, football, and bracing. To be included, the articles had to be either a level 1 randomized controlled trial (n, 1) or a well-done prospective cohort study (n, 5). Prospective cohort studies were selected because they represent the next-highest level of evidence and have been used in other disciplines, including public health, to study disease incidence and the effectiveness of interventions. The initial search produced 22 articles; 10 of these were excluded: 5 that dealt with ACL injuries and 5 that were biomechanical studies in cadavers. Of the 12 remaining articles, 6 were either a randomized controlled trial or a prospective cohort study and were thus included in this review. The selection of articles was further limited to English and human participants. The sole randomized controlled trial was performed at the United States Military Academy among full-contact players in an 8-man intramural football program who were assigned to participate with or without a knee brace.18 All other studies were prospective cohorts: 2 assessed high school populations8,11; the other 3 involved National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I football players.2,12,17 Individual Study Design Sitler et al assessed the efficacy of a prophylactic knee brace to reduce the frequency and severity of acute knee injuries in intramural tackle football at the United States Military Academy.18 Given the unique nature of this study population, Sitler was able to control confounding variables not standardized in the other studies,1,2,8,11,12 such as the cadets’ brand of athletic shoes, the playing surface, athlete exposure, knee injury history, type of brace (Donjoy Ortho Protector knee guard—a double-hinged single upright brace), and brace assignment. Brace wear was mandatory and supervised. If the cadets failed or refused to wear the braces, they were prohibited from competing. The study of 1396 cadets, followed for over 2 seasons of intramural tackle football, included games and practices. The braces were assigned to the players based on a random table of numbers. There were 236 cadets with a previously injured knee: collateral ligament, meniscal, and prior partial ACL tears. Cadets with more than mild residual instability were excluded. The study population closely resembled high school football players given the cadets’ demographics of age, height, weight, and playing experience. The incidence and severity of MCL injuries and other knee injuries were recorded on the basis of athlete exposures (a practice or game), with a total of 21 570 exposures recorded. Injury was defined as an acute trauma to the knee (ligament or meniscus) resulting in loss of at least 1 day of participation.18 Albright et al evaluated prophylactic knee bracing in National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I football players prospectively over a 3-year period2 in the largest and most quoted study on prophylactic bracing. The study included 987 Big Ten Conference football players with stable knees who were not previously injured. Players made the brace decision. A brace in this study was “any device designed to provide protection from a lateral blow to the knee that may result in an MCL sprain.”2 Fifty percent of the 155 772 knee exposures over the study period were in the braced condition. Braced players were not compared to nonbraced controls. Player exposures with the brace were compared to similar exposures without the brace. The study determined MCL injury rates and severity in the braced-versus-nonbraced condition. A limitation of this study is that there was no standardization of bracing and no attempt to determine which braces the players used. The study did stratify the players on the basis of many factors: frequency of participation (role on the team), position, type of session (contact practice and games included), and pattern of brace wear. Rovere et al correlated the use of prophylactic braces with injuries sustained by a major college football team.17 The prospective cohort covered a 4-year period, which included 2 years without bracing, followed by 2 years of bracing. The study was not randomized. The cohort for both periods was the entire team, regardless of position, who were required to wear prophylactic knee braces during all practices and games on both knees. The study used the Anderson Knee Stabler: a double-hinged, single-sided brace. Players with preexisting knee injuries were included. Incidence of injury per 100 players, in addition to severity and mechanism of injury, was recorded, with the following risk factors also being assessed: position, session, and type of playing surface. Collateral ligament injuries (grades I-III) were evaluated with varus or valgus stress testing in 30° of flexion.17 Hewson et al evaluated the effectiveness of prophylactic knee bracing (Anderson Knee Stabler) to reduce the number and severity of knee injuries in football players.12 Division I players from a 4-year nonbraced period were matched by position with players from the following 4-year braced period. Offensive and defensive lineman, linebackers, and tight ends were required to wear braces for all practices and games during the braced period. Players with previous knee injuries were included. There were 28 191 braced and 29 293 nonbraced exposures. The Anderson Knee Stabler was used. The type and severity of injury, the position, the number of days lost from participation, and the rate of knee injury were recorded per 100 players.12 Grace et al prospectively evaluated 580 high school varsity and junior varsity football players for 2 seasons.11 The players were matched by height, weight, and position. Bracing was based on parental decision, not assignment, and both single- and double-hinged braces were used (n, 247 and 83, respectively). The players were from various teams; field condition, shoe wear, coaching styles, and brace brand were not controlled. Incidence and severity of knee, ipsilateral ankle, and foot injuries were recorded.11 Deppen et al investigated prophylactic knee braces in a prospective cohort of 524 starting football players from 8 high schools over 4 seasons. Contact exposures and types of injury were recorded.8 No player had a prior knee injury, and no attempt was made to stratify players by position, height, or weight. Three schools required braces for all players, whereas 5 schools did not. Brace use was not randomized. There were 41 124 contact exposures (a full-contact practice counted as 1 exposure; games were up to 8 exposures). A knee injury was defined as any knee trauma that resulted in the athlete’s missing at least 1 practice or game. The number, type, and mechanism of injury were compared.8 Results Sitler et al (level 1 randomized controlled trial) found that bracing significantly reduced MCL and overall knee injuries (P < .05), with 25 injuries in the nonbraced group and 12 in the braced group.18 The reduction of injury was based on position, with braced defensive players having significantly fewer injuries than those of controls (P < .005); no significant difference was found in offensive players. There was also a nonsignificant reduction in the number of ACL injuries in the braced group (12 nonbraced versus 4 braced). The severity of the MCL and ACL injuries was not reduced by knee bracing. Direct lateral knee contact was the most common mechanism of injury (47% of all knee injuries and 68% of MCL injuries). When stratified solely on mechanism of injury, braced players were found to have fewer MCL injuries owing to lateral knee contact, but the difference was not significant (P > .05).18 Albright et al (level 2 prospective cohort study) found a nonsignificant trend toward a lower injury rate for braced players when considering risk factors: position, string, and session (P > .05).2 Players were more likely to wear braces during perceived danger and practices rather than in games. If another player injured his knee, players perceived it as a time of danger and were more likely to wear their braces. Players thought that bracing limited their performance. Players who started or saw significant playing time were more likely to be injured in games, and they had a higher number of exposures before injury as compared with the nonplayers, who were more likely to be injured in practice.2 In the Hewson et al study (level 2 prospective cohort study), offensive and defensive linemen, linebackers, and tight ends showed no significant difference (P value not available) in the incidence of knee injuries between braced and nonbraced players.12 The type and severity of knee injuries were similar regardless of brace use. There was no significant difference in practice time in high-risk positions or in the incidence of season-ending injuries between the braced and nonbraced period (P values not available).12 Deppen and Landfried (level 2 prospective cohort study) also found no significant differences in incidence, severity, or mechanism of knee injuries between braced and nonbraced players (P > .05).8 In stark contrast to the West Point study by Sitler, the study conducted by Rovere et al (level 2 prospective cohort) revealed that the rate of all ligament injuries actually increased during the braced period.17 During the nonbraced period, there were 6.1 knee injuries per 100 players, compared with 7.5 in the braced period. Unfortunately, there was no mention of the statistical analysis performed, and no P value was given for these findings. Grade I MCL sprains predominated: 67% of all injuries in the nonbraced period and 62% in the braced period. During both periods, offensive linemen sustained the majority of knee injuries, with defensive backs the least susceptible. Most injuries were the result of body contact (76% braced versus 88% nonbraced). There were more ACL injuries with bracing than without (4 versus 2), although this was not significant (P value not available).17 Grace et al (level 2 prospective cohort study) found more knee injuries (P < .001) in players using single-hinged braces as compared to the matched nonbraced group.11 More knee injuries also occurred in the double-hinged braces than in the controls (P value not available), although this was not significant. There was also a dramatic increase (P < .01) in ipsilateral ankle and foot injuries in braced players.11 Discussion Prophylactic knee bracing continues in football players on the high school, collegiate, and professional levels. The evidence on bracing is unclear, as reflected in the AAOS position statement.4 In the only randomized controlled trial, Sitler et al found that prophylactic knee bracing significantly reduced MCL injuries.18 The limitations of this study include the unique population of military cadets in an intramural setting, which may not be generalizable to other at-risk populations, as well as the limited height and weight of the players. A strength of this study is that many confounding variables were controlled, including shoe wear, compliance, and field surface.18 Albright et al found a trend toward reduced MCL injury with prophylactic knee bracing.2 Although the findings were not significant (P value not available), the Big Ten study did help elucidate important points. More experienced players tended to have a greater number of exposures before injury and were more likely to be injured in games,2 representing the effect of competition. Interestingly, these same players were less likely to wear their braces in games because of their perceived effect on performance. There were many limitations of this study, including the lack of a control group, the voluntary design, the nonrandomized participation, the standardization of field conditions, shoe wear, coaching styles, practice, and brace type.2 The Deppen and Landfried study found no significant difference in injury rates based on bracing, but they did not stratify risk by position, nor did they match players on the basis of weight or size, thereby limiting its generalizability.8 Hewson et al concluded that prophylactic knee bracing could not be recommended.12 The players along the offensive line had the same number of injuries to the MCL regardless of brace use. Grade III MCL injuries in offensive linemen did decrease from 8 to 2 in the braced period, with the total number of grade III MCL injuries decreasing from 15 in the nonbraced group to 8 in the braced group. The difference was not significant. For the defensive line, MCL injuries decreased from 13 to 6, and the total number of MCL injuries in players at risk decreased from 41 in the nonbraced group to 33 in the braced group. These trends, though not statistically significant (P value not available), raise questions about the power of the study.12 Grace et al found high school players to be at additional risk for ankle and knee joint injuries in the braced limbs while also suggesting that the braced players had a greater risk of MCL injuries.11 This study was not based on exposures; rather, it reported only the number of injuries, thus making it difficult to determine if the players had similar exposure to injury conditions. The finding of increased ipsilateral ankle and foot injuries does raise the question regarding the efficacy of the braces studied, and it calls attention to the potentially adverse effect of the braces on adjacent joints in the braced limb.11 Rovere et al reported that collegiate athletes who were braced had an increased risk of injury.17 There was no risk reduction during the bracing period, but confounding variables were not controlled (coaching styles and injury treatment protocol).17 Pietrosimone et al calculated the relative risk of all knee ligament injuries in collegiate football players with bracing.15 The authors found a relative risk reduction in 3 studies for knee injuries in general and an increased risk of knee injuries in 4 studies based on their formula. No attempt was made in this review to delineate the effect of bracing on specific knee injuries (eg, MCL versus ACL) or severity of these injuries. Based on the studies available for review, it is difficult to make an evidence-based recommendation about brace wear. The associated risk factors (shoe type, field surface, and position) present an inherent difficulty in studying this subject. Players that have been injured are more likely to wear braces, and teammates of injured players playing the same position are also more likely to wear braces, which introduces selection bias into these studies.1 Conclusion Consistent level 1 evidence is lacking to suggest that bracing prevents injury or decreases injury severity. A single randomized controlled study supported bracing.18 The other studies1-3,8,11,12,17 were lower levels of evidence and had biases that influenced their conclusions and generalizability. Data do suggest that in the high-risk positions of offensive and defensive line, linebacker, and tight end, bracing may be effective in both preventing and decreasing severity of MCL injuries in the college athlete. Medical evidence does not support the routine use of bracing in high school football players. Some data suggest that when confounders are controlled, players with body sizes similar to those of high school athletes have fewer and less severe MCL injuries with bracing. Footnotes NATA Members:Receive3 free CEUseach year when you subscribe to Sports Health and take and pass the related online quizzes! Not a subscriber? Not a member? The Sports Health–related CEU quizzes are also available for purchase. For more information and to take the quiz for this article, visitwww.nata.org/sportshealthquizzes.

Study Selection: Results: The results of the studies were inconsistent; only 1 study showed that prophylactic knee bracing significantly reduced MCL injuries (P < .05). In contrast, 2 studies found that knee bracing was associated with an increase in knee injuries. Conclusions: Prophylactic bracing in American football has not consistently reduced MCL injuries. There remains a lack of evidence to support the routine use of prophylactic knee bracing in uninjured knees. There is limited high-level evidence, bias in the available literature, and confounding variables that limit the current literature. Knee injuries in general and medial collateral ligament (MCL) injuries in particular are common in American football.5,6,9,11,19 The cost of these injuries in terms of time lost from sports, academics, and quality of life can be substantial.12,17 This issue does not discriminate on the basis of age or level of play: from the high school ranks to the professional level.7 The cost of bracing is far from negligible.12,16 There are the obvious financial implications, but player comfort, performance, and safety must also be considered. This controversy is reflected in the position statement of the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons (AAOS) on prophylactic bracing: “Prophylactic knee braces may provide limited protection against injuries to the MCL in football players.4 Scientific studies have not demonstrated similar protection to other knee ligaments, menisci, or articular cartilage.” The AAOS concluded that there is insufficient scientific evidence to recommend the use of prophylactic knee braces in all football players.4 Many obstacles have led to a dearth of level 1 evidence to support bracing.

no

Biomechanics

Are knee braces effective in preventing knee injuries?

yes_statement

"knee" "braces" are "effective" in "preventing" "knee" "injuries".. wearing "knee" "braces" can "prevent" "knee" "injuries".

https://us.humankinetics.com/blogs/excerpt/can-functional-bracing-reduce-the-risk-of-acl-injury

Can functional bracing reduce the risk of ACL injury? – Human ...

Purchase Digital Products If you are looking to purchase an eBook, online video, or online courses please press continue Purchase Print Products Human Kinetics print books are now distributed by Booktopia Publisher Services throughout Australia/NZ, delivered to you from their NSW warehouse. Please visit Booktopia to order your Human Kinetics print books. Purchase Courses or Access Digital Products If you are looking to purchase online videos, online courses or to access previously purchased digital products please press continue. Purchase Print Products or eBooks Human Kinetics print books and eBooks are now distributed by Mare Nostrum, throughout the UK, Europe, Africa and Middle East, delivered to you from their warehouse. Please visit our new UK website to purchase Human Kinetics printed or eBooks. Can functional bracing reduce the risk of ACL injury? By Bruce D. Beynnon, PhD, and James R. Slauterbeck, MD This chapter reviews what is currently known about the effectiveness of knee bracing in preventing injury to the ACL and reinjury of ACL grafts. We present the relevant literature on the mechanisms whereby braces influence ACL biomechanics. In addition, we review clinical studies focusing on the efficacy of prophylactic and functional knee braces in preventing ACL injuries, specifically those that provide the highest level of evidence: randomized, controlled trials. Our review revealed that very little is known about the effectiveness of prophylactic braces in preventing ACL injuries. As well, very little is known about the effectiveness of functional knee braces in preventing injury of healing ligaments and ACL grafts. The Biomechanics of Knee Bracing Knee braces have been used by the sports medicine community to treat instability of the knee due to an ACL disruption, to protect an ACL graft, and to prevent knee ligament injuries during sport. Both functional and prophylactic braces are designed with the objective of allowing normal joint kinematics while limiting unwanted displacements and rotations between the tibia and femur that might detrimentally strain a healing ligament or graft or produce intra-articular injury. Subjective studies have shown that braces help most subjects with knee ligament injuries feel better and can even improve athletic performance in those with torn knee ligaments; however, many athletes report that knee bracing hinders their performance and that braces migrate and slide out of position on the leg during activity (Greene et al. 2000). The Effect of Knee Braces on ACL Biomechanics Indirect and direct techniques have been used to measure brace performance on knee and ligament biomechanics. Indirect measurement techniques (i.e., kinematic studies of the position of the tibia in relation to the femur) have shown that functional braces increase knee stiffness and reduce anterior-posterior displacement of the tibia relative to the femur, but only for low intersegmental shear loads. Direct measurement techniques have been performed by our group through instrumentation of the ACL of cadavers (Arms et al. 1987). This study showed that application of a functional brace resulted in an increase in ACL strain values with passive flexion-extension of the knee joint (i.e., the braces had a detrimental prestraining effect on the ACL), and suggested that bracing may be harmful for an injured ACL or a healing ACL graft. This study motivated us to perform measurements of ACL strain in human subjects to determine if braces were harmful to the ACL, and that investigation revealed that bracing did not prestrain or harm the ACL (Beynnon et al. 1992). This finding was in direct contrast to those of our earlier cadaveric study and raised the question whether it is valid to use cadavers to study the effect of braces on ACL biomechanics. Further, we found that both custom and off-the-shelf brace designs significantly reduced ACL strain values for anterior-directed loads applied to the tibia (relative to the femur) up to the maximum anterior load of 140 N. Similarly, bracing significantly reduced ACL strain values in response to internal and external torques applied about the long axis of the tibia up to the maximum torque of 6 Nm. This is important because torque applied about the long axis of the tibia produces a substantial load on the ACL at the extremes of knee flexion and extension (Markolf et al. 1995) and can injure the ACL (Ryder et al. 1997). For both anterior loading and internal-external torques of the tibia, we determined that the protective strain-shielding effect of a functional brace on the ACL was dependent on the magnitude of applied load and torque. The protective effect of the brace on the ACL decreased as the magnitude of applied anterior load and internal-external torques increased. From this investigation, we concluded that knee brace performance was determined by at least four different characteristics. The first is the brace design, composed of parameters such as the hinges, the uprights, and the strap versus shell attachment technique. The second is the brace-limb interface. This was thought to be of importance because the magnitude and sequence of contraction of the leg musculature alters the compliance of the soft tissue at the brace-leg interface, and therefore the capability of the brace to mechanically control the skeletal system, protect the ligaments, and prevent intra-articular injury. Third, we determined that it was important to monitor the forces produced on the leg by the brace strap tensions. Fourth, we found that the magnitude of contraction of the leg musculature, as well as the compressive joint load produced by body weight, affected ACL strain values and therefore were important to include. We then progressed to an investigation in which we controlled the brace design and brace-limb interface variables by studying a single brace (the DonJoy Four Point Brace) while systematically examining the effect of the extrinsic forces produced by different brace strap tensions on ACL strain biomechanics. This was done in the presence of the intrinsic forces produced by leg musculature and body weight (Beynnon et al. 1997b). Bracing significantly reduced ACL strain values for anterior-directed shear loading of the tibia (to the limit of 140 N) with the subject in nonweight-bearing and weight-bearing postures. Similarly, functional bracing significantly reduced ACL strain values with internal-external torque applied to the tibia up to the limit of 6 Nm with the subject nonweight bearing. The posterior-directed load applied by the brace strap to the proximal tibia was adjusted between a low (22 N) and a high (45 N) setting (loading that we hypothesized would protect the ACL), but this did not modulate the effect of the brace on ACL strain values for the nonweight-bearing and weight-bearing conditions. Our most recent investigation of the same brace design confirmed that it can protect the ACL in response to anterior-posterior-directed shear loading with the knee nonweight bearing and weight bearing, as well as in response to internal torque applied to the nonweight-bearing knee (Fleming et al. 2000). The Effect of Knee Braces on the Biomechanics of the ACL-Deficient Knee Functional knee braces can reduce the abnormal anterior-posterior laxity of the ACL-deficient knee to within the limits of the normal knee during nonweight-bearing and weight-bearing activities (Beynnon et al. 2003). However, in the ACL-deficient knee, braces do not reduce the abnormal increased anterior displacement of the tibia relative to the femur that occurs as the knee transitions from nonweight-bearing to weight-bearing conditions (Beynnon et al. 2003, 2002). The Effectiveness of Braces in Preventing ACL, ACL Graft, and ACL-Deficient Knee Injuries In an effort to determine if bracing is effective in preventing ACL injury, ACL graft injury, or injury to the ACL-deficient knee, we considered the highest level of scientific evidence available in the literature. Anterior cruciate ligament injury or injury to the ACL-deficient knee is a relatively rare event, and therefore researchers focusing on the effectiveness of bracing in reducing these injuries must carefully study a large sample of athletes over a long time interval. Consequently, it is not surprising that only a few studies based on prospective, randomized, controlled study designs have been reported. A majority of the research has focused on the sport of American football, in which the injury mechanisms involve both direct and indirect contact. The Effectiveness of Prophylactic Knee Braces in Preventing ACL Injuries The use of prophylactic knee braces to prevent knee injuries has long been a contentious area of research. The best study to date of prophylactic knee braces and ACL injury remains a prospective, randomized study of 1396 cadets playing intramural tackle football at the U.S. Military Academy (Sitler et al. 1990). This study showed that prophylactic knee brace use did not significantly decrease the severity of ACL and MCL injuries. There was, however, a trend toward a reduced rate of less severe ACL and MCL injuries in athletes who used braces (Sitler et al. 1990). On the basis of the data published in that paper, we compute that the rate of ACL injury in the nonbraced cadets was 3.0 times higher (95%CI: 1.0-9.2) than in braced cadets. It should be noted that the number of ACL injuries was small. Only 16 ACL injuries occurred: four in the braced and 12 in the nonbraced condition. Other large epidemiologic studies conducted to date have focused on the effectiveness of prophylactic braces in reducing MCL injuries in the sport of football; however, these investigations have not dealt with the effect of bracing on the reduction of ACL injuries (Albright et al. 1994a, 1994b; Hewson, Mendini, and Wang 1986; Teitz et al. 1987). The efficacy of prophylactic knee braces in preventing ACL disruptions remains an unanswered question (Najibi and Albright 2005). The Effectiveness of Functional Knee Braces in Preventing Injury to an ACL Graft A prospective, randomized, multicenter study examined 100 cadets at the three largest U.S. military academies who underwent ACL reconstruction and were randomized to either functional brace use or no brace use (McDevitt et al. 2004). At one year postsurgery, the use of a functional brace appeared to have no effect on the incidence of graft injury; however, there were only five reinjuries (two in the braced and three in the nonbraced group). The Effectiveness of Functional Knee Braces in Preventing Injury to an ACL-Deficient Knee A prospective study of 180 ACL-deficient skiers, identified from screening of 9410 professional skiers, showed a higher risk of knee injury in skiers who did not wear a functional knee brace compared to those who wore functional knee braces (risk ratio of 6.4, based on a total of 12 injuries) (Kocher et al. 2003). Physical Literacy on the Move was written to help educators of children and youths from grades K through 12 teach high-quality and fun games and activities that support the unique needs of their learners as they develop physical literacy. "I don’t know, Mom, I just feel burned out." As a parent, what would you do if you heard this? We all have a vague understanding of burnout, but should we advise our kids to drop out, take a break, make some changes, or suck it up? Most coaching books start with a discussion of the importance of creating a coaching philosophy and follow up with a section on creating goals. But to define a coaching philosophy and set goals, you must first understand and express why you coach and what principles will guide how you coach.

However, in the ACL-deficient knee, braces do not reduce the abnormal increased anterior displacement of the tibia relative to the femur that occurs as the knee transitions from nonweight-bearing to weight-bearing conditions (Beynnon et al. 2003, 2002). The Effectiveness of Braces in Preventing ACL, ACL Graft, and ACL-Deficient Knee Injuries In an effort to determine if bracing is effective in preventing ACL injury, ACL graft injury, or injury to the ACL-deficient knee, we considered the highest level of scientific evidence available in the literature. Anterior cruciate ligament injury or injury to the ACL-deficient knee is a relatively rare event, and therefore researchers focusing on the effectiveness of bracing in reducing these injuries must carefully study a large sample of athletes over a long time interval. Consequently, it is not surprising that only a few studies based on prospective, randomized, controlled study designs have been reported. A majority of the research has focused on the sport of American football, in which the injury mechanisms involve both direct and indirect contact. The Effectiveness of Prophylactic Knee Braces in Preventing ACL Injuries The use of prophylactic knee braces to prevent knee injuries has long been a contentious area of research. The best study to date of prophylactic knee braces and ACL injury remains a prospective, randomized study of 1396 cadets playing intramural tackle football at the U.S. Military Academy (Sitler et al. 1990). This study showed that prophylactic knee brace use did not significantly decrease the severity of ACL and MCL injuries. There was, however, a trend toward a reduced rate of less severe ACL and MCL injuries in athletes who used braces (Sitler et al. 1990).

no

Biomechanics

Are knee braces effective in preventing knee injuries?

yes_statement

"knee" "braces" are "effective" in "preventing" "knee" "injuries".. wearing "knee" "braces" can "prevent" "knee" "injuries".

https://www.silverorthopedics.com/blog/Growth-Plate-Knee-Ligament-Injuries-Encino-SFV.html

Growth Plate Knee Injuries - Knee Ligament Treatment Encino

Now that it is football and hockey season I can't help but think about knee injuries. There are all degrees of knee injuries that occur - from the very minor tweaks to major ligament (ACL, MCL, etc.,) damage and fractures. These injuries caused by sports affect young people (such as professional athletes) in a very different way than they affect older adults. Let's talk about the young athlete's injuries first. In football, a common knee injury occurs because one player's foot is planted firmly on the ground, when another player's body falls onto the leg. All the stress of this impact usually goes to the knee. In athletes under age 17 or 18, the growth plates of the tibia and femur are still quite weak. Because they are weaker than the knee ligaments, it is the growth plates that are most affected by the force (the hit from the other player). If the force is great enough, a complete separation (fracture) of the growth plate occurs in the knee. There are various types of growth plate injuries (fractures) and almost all of them require a form of knee surgery to repair. Common knee surgeries to repair growth plate injuries include open reduction (putting the bones back in proper place), and internal fixation, with threaded large pins. Even though the ligaments surrounding the knee are stronger than the growth plates, young athletes can still suffer injuries to the knee ligaments. Older teenagers tend to have more ligament injuries than growth plate fractures due to the increased strength of the bone and growth plate, which occurs with age. When a non-growth plate knee injury occurs, most of the time the knee ligaments (ACL or MCL) are sprained or partially torn. These ligament injuries can be treated conservatively with a brace, medicine, and physical therapy. It is only in cases of a complete tear of the ligaments, that knee surgery followed by bracing and physical therapy will be necessary. Because knees are at great risk in football, knee braces are increasingly being worn to prevent injuries. I happen to think this a great idea. Even though knee braces are not 100% effective at preventing knee injuries in young SoCal athletes, they do help. I recommend wearing them. In ice hockey (my favorite sport) the skates usually glide smoothly on the ice, so it takes a very unusual hit from a very bad angle to tear the ligaments in the knee. A fracture of a bone near the knee is even more unusual. All the same, shin guards worn by hockey players provide valuable, additional protection of the knee. Unfortunately, the players most susceptible to knee injuries in hockey tend to be the goalies. This is due to the very heavy pads they wear and the continuous up and down motion they must do. In both football and hockey, there is risk of contact with other players moving at high velocities. Knee injuries, along with many other orthopedic injuries, can occur and the risk for injuries is inherent in these sports. To best prevent sports injuries in the San Fernando Valley, superior physical conditioning resulting in strong muscles and quick reflexes will help mitigate these common knee injuries. Running, weight work, stretching, power skating, and practicing the specific sport are my recommendations for success and to lower the risks of growth plate injury or ligament injury to the knee. For an Appointment or Consultation with Dr. Silver, please call 818-784-9593

Common knee surgeries to repair growth plate injuries include open reduction (putting the bones back in proper place), and internal fixation, with threaded large pins. Even though the ligaments surrounding the knee are stronger than the growth plates, young athletes can still suffer injuries to the knee ligaments. Older teenagers tend to have more ligament injuries than growth plate fractures due to the increased strength of the bone and growth plate, which occurs with age. When a non-growth plate knee injury occurs, most of the time the knee ligaments (ACL or MCL) are sprained or partially torn. These ligament injuries can be treated conservatively with a brace, medicine, and physical therapy. It is only in cases of a complete tear of the ligaments, that knee surgery followed by bracing and physical therapy will be necessary. Because knees are at great risk in football, knee braces are increasingly being worn to prevent injuries. I happen to think this a great idea. Even though knee braces are not 100% effective at preventing knee injuries in young SoCal athletes, they do help. I recommend wearing them. In ice hockey (my favorite sport) the skates usually glide smoothly on the ice, so it takes a very unusual hit from a very bad angle to tear the ligaments in the knee. A fracture of a bone near the knee is even more unusual. All the same, shin guards worn by hockey players provide valuable, additional protection of the knee. Unfortunately, the players most susceptible to knee injuries in hockey tend to be the goalies. This is due to the very heavy pads they wear and the continuous up and down motion they must do. In both football and hockey, there is risk of contact with other players moving at high velocities. Knee injuries, along with many other orthopedic injuries, can occur and the risk for injuries is inherent in these sports. To best prevent sports injuries in the San Fernando Valley, superior physical conditioning resulting in strong muscles and quick reflexes will help mitigate these common knee injuries. Running, weight work,

yes

Biomechanics

Are knee braces effective in preventing knee injuries?

yes_statement

"knee" "braces" are "effective" in "preventing" "knee" "injuries".. wearing "knee" "braces" can "prevent" "knee" "injuries".

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/11686985/

Interventions for preventing lower limb soft-tissue injuries in runners

Abstract Background: Overuse musculoskeletal injuries occur frequently in runners. Suggestions for prevention have focused on stretching exercises, modifying training schedules and the use of protective devices such as braces and insoles. To date, no systematic analysis of the literature on the effectiveness of these strategies in the prevention of overuse injuries has been published. Objectives: The objective of the review was to evaluate the evidence from randomised controlled trials on the prevention of lower limb soft-tissue running injuries. Data collection and analysis: All trials fulfilling the selection criteria were assessed by two reviewers independently. Data were also extracted independently by the two reviewers using a pre-derived data extraction form. Exploratory analyses, including pooling of results from groups of trials of similar designs were undertaken, using a fixed effects model. Results were reported as relative risks (RR) with 95 per cent confidence intervals (95% CI). Main results: Twelve trials with 8,806 participants were included. In one trial, a single control group was matched to three different included intervention groups. The effectiveness of stretching exercises (5 trials, 1944 participants in the intervention groups, 3159 controls), and of insoles and footwear modification (5 trials, 903 participants in the intervention groups, 3006 controls) in the prevention of lower extremity soft tissue injuries associated with running is unknown. Reducing the distance, frequency and duration of running may be effective in the prevention of lower extremity soft tissue injuries associated with running (3 trials, 514 participants in intervention groups, 1663 controls). Wearing a knee brace with a patellar support ring may be effective in the prevention of running-associated anterior knee pain (1 trial, 27 participants in the intervention group, 33 controls). Reviewer's conclusions: This review provides some evidence for the effectiveness of the modification of training schedules, but there is insufficient evidence to determine the effectiveness of stretching exercises for major lower limb muscle groups in reducing lower limb soft-tissue running injuries. More studies are required to confirm that knee braces may prevent knee pain, to clarify the role of stretching, and to quantify optimal training loads. Generalisability of the results may be limited by the intensive nature of military training (the context for most of the studies) and the inclusion of only small numbers of women.

Abstract Background: Overuse musculoskeletal injuries occur frequently in runners. Suggestions for prevention have focused on stretching exercises, modifying training schedules and the use of protective devices such as braces and insoles. To date, no systematic analysis of the literature on the effectiveness of these strategies in the prevention of overuse injuries has been published. Objectives: The objective of the review was to evaluate the evidence from randomised controlled trials on the prevention of lower limb soft-tissue running injuries. Data collection and analysis: All trials fulfilling the selection criteria were assessed by two reviewers independently. Data were also extracted independently by the two reviewers using a pre-derived data extraction form. Exploratory analyses, including pooling of results from groups of trials of similar designs were undertaken, using a fixed effects model. Results were reported as relative risks (RR) with 95 per cent confidence intervals (95% CI). Main results: Twelve trials with 8,806 participants were included. In one trial, a single control group was matched to three different included intervention groups. The effectiveness of stretching exercises (5 trials, 1944 participants in the intervention groups, 3159 controls), and of insoles and footwear modification (5 trials, 903 participants in the intervention groups, 3006 controls) in the prevention of lower extremity soft tissue injuries associated with running is unknown. Reducing the distance, frequency and duration of running may be effective in the prevention of lower extremity soft tissue injuries associated with running (3 trials, 514 participants in intervention groups, 1663 controls). Wearing a knee brace with a patellar support ring may be effective in the prevention of running-associated anterior knee pain (1 trial, 27 participants in the intervention group, 33 controls).

yes

Biomechanics

Are knee braces effective in preventing knee injuries?

yes_statement

"knee" "braces" are "effective" in "preventing" "knee" "injuries".. wearing "knee" "braces" can "prevent" "knee" "injuries".

https://springloadedtechnology.com/2021/03/the-best-knee-brace-for-pain/

The Best Knee Brace for Pain - Spring Loaded Technology

The Best Knee Brace for Pain Knee pain can be caused by all sorts of injuries and conditions. Regardless, pain often limits your ability to do the activities you love. There are lots of knee braces out there that can help relieve pain and provide support for your knee. With so many options, it can be hard to know which is right for your situation. In this post, we’ll cover everything you need to know to help you find the best knee brace for pain relief. This information is not intended to replace the guidance of your doctor or other healthcare professional. What You Need to Know When Choosing a Knee Brace for Pain Cause, Location, and Severity of Pain Different types of knee braces can help to treat different causes of knee pain. Therefore, it’s important to understand the nature and severity of your knee problem before choosing a brace. A good first step is to have a healthcare professional diagnose your knee if you’re experiencing pain from injury, or unusual soreness or stiffness for a few weeks or longer. If you haven’t had your knee pain diagnosed yet, in the meantime it might be helpful to read our Complete Guide to Knee Pain. It covers various knee pain causes and symptoms, common injuries, and possible treatment options. If you know the cause of your knee pain and are exploring treatment options, read on to learn how a knee brace can help. Why and How Knee Braces Relieve Pain In general, knee braces provide support and stability to weakened or damaged structures in the knee. This reduces stress on the structures and the joint as a whole, which can help alleviate pain, promote healing, and prevent further damage or reinjury. As a result, you can be more physically active and work on increasing your knee strength and mobility, which may also help with pain relief. Knee braces typically work to relieve pain in the following ways: Controlling movement and range of motion Enhancing knee stability Maintaining joint alignment Decreasing inflammation Redistributing force away from certain areas of the joint Reducing pressure or absorbing body weight Assisting knee extension Depending on your knee problem, you’ll need a specific type of brace that assists you in one or more of the ways listed above. Types of Knee Brace for Pain Relief Listed below are the most common types of knee braces and how they work to relieve pain. Non-Hinged Knee Braces Knee Straps Patellar knee straps help to reduce strain in the patellar tendon (located at the front of the knee below the knee cap). The strap applies pressure to the patellar tendon when tightened. This changes the angle at which the tendon inserts into the patella and decreases the tendon’s length, which decreases strain on the tendon1 to alleviate pain. Compression Sleeves Knee compression sleeves are usually made of elastic cotton or neoprene. The compression and warmth the garment provides can help decrease inflammation and keep your knee from feeling stiff and painful. Hinged Knee Braces Hinged knee braces offer more support than knee straps and compression sleeves. As a result, they are usually worn when the knee is unstable or vulnerable to more damage. This is often the case with ligament or meniscus injuries or during surgery recovery. Certain types of hinged brace can also help manage pain caused by knee osteoarthritis. Hinged braces can help relieve pain by stabilizing the knee, limiting its range of motion, controlling the speed of leg movements, or promoting a certain alignment of the joint. They utilize different designs and materials to offer varying levels of support. Soft hinged braces offer less support while rigid hinged braces offer more support. Outlined below are the different types of hinged braces based on their function. Prophylactic Knee Braces The purpose of a prophylactic brace is not to relieve pain. They are usually worn by athletes in contact sports to prevent or reduce the severity of knee injuries.4 Functional Knee Braces Functional braces are designed to reduce knee instability and protect and support the knee joint while recovering from injury.4 In these situations, the knee is in a vulnerable state. The brace helps to stabilize the joint and prevent movements that will cause further damage and pain. Some types of functional knee braces are useful immediately following reconstructive knee surgery. They provide a lot of support and stability to the joint while allowing for protected motion. For example, ACL rehabilitative braces will often limit the degree to which you can straighten your knee. This helps prevent accidental damage to the surgically repaired ligament. Offloader Knee Braces Offloader knee bracesare designed to address osteoarthritis specifically, but can also be used to help treat meniscus tears. These braces take pressure away from damaged areas of the knee. In turn, this helps reduce pain and preserve the integrity of the joint. Osteoarthritis (OA) can affect the cartilage in any of the three knee compartments where bones meet – the medial (inside) tibiofemoral compartment, the lateral (outside) tibiofemoral compartment, or the patellofemoral compartment (under the kneecap). If you’re unfamiliar with the different types of OA, check out our Guide to Severe Knee Arthritis. Most offloader braces apply a force to one side of the knee. This shifts pressure away from the damaged compartment that is causing your pain. These braces are known as uni-compartment offloaders because they can only offload one tibiofemoral compartment at a time. Tri-compartment offloaders are a new type of offloader brace. They reduce joint forces in all three knee compartments at once, alleviating pain across the entire joint. This type of brace can improve pain and function during the treatment of various knee injuries and chronic conditions. Choosing a Knee Brace for Pain Relief Below is a general guide on which type of knee brace is best in different situations. It all depends on your injury or condition and what stage of rehabilitation you’re in. Patellar Knee Pain Pain in the front of the knee is often caused by overuse injuries involving the patellar tendon and/or kneecap, such as patellar tendinopathy (jumper’s knee), patellar tendonitis, or patellofemoral pain syndrome (runner’s knee). Patellar Tendinopathy and Tendonitis If patellar tendinopathy or tendonitis is causing you pain and limiting your physical activity, then a patellar knee strap is probably your best bracing option. Research shows that they can significantly reduce pain during exercise and sporting activities.9 Patellar straps are usually very light and small, so once you put it on and start moving you’ll probably forget it’s even there. Patellofemoral Pain Syndrome The underlying cause of patellofemoral pain syndrome is thought to be abnormal movement of the patella (knee cap), also known as patellar maltracking.18 A patellar stabilizer brace (or patellar realignment brace) is a type of functional brace counters patellar maltracking. The brace stabilizes and controls the position of the knee cap to make sure that it is aligned properly throughout your range of motion. By correcting patellar alignment, the brace can help to relieve the symptoms of PFPS. Patellar stabilizers tend to work best when combined with a physical therapy program that includes muscle strengthening and stretching.19,20 Alternatively, similar improvements in pain can be achieved by wearing a knee compression sleeve in combination with strengthening exercises.10 Mild Knee Pain, Inflammation, or Bursitis If you have knee pain associated with a mild ligament sprain, muscle strain, meniscus tear, or mild arthritis, then you may just need a little extra support from a compression sleeve to help reduce pain and swelling during and after exercise. Compression sleeves can also work well to manage pain and inflammation caused by bursitis. Ligament Injuries Compression Sleeves Knee compression sleeves may be able to help manage pain and inflammation in less severe ligament injuries or the final stages of rehabilitation as you become more active. However, compression sleeves do not provide enough support to protect the knee after severe ligament tears. Functional Knee Braces If you have a severely torn or ruptured ligament, a functional knee brace that provides more support and stability may be the best option for you. While research on functional braces has produced mixed results, many users report subjective improvements in knee pain and increased confidence during exercise.8 During surgery rehabilitation, functional braces are not absolutely necessary but may help to reduce pain and avoid complications during the early post-operative period.7 There are all sorts of functional knee braces out there for different ligament injuries: LCL or MCL braces help protect the medial and/or lateral collateral ligaments by preventing the knee from buckling inward or outward. ACL braces help protect the anterior cruciate ligament by preventing twisting and hyperextension. PCL braces help to reduce unwanted forces on the posterior cruciate ligament. Ligament injuries can cause chronic instability and joint degeneration if they are not treated properly. Modern-day functional braces can help provide protection and improve rehabilitation outcomes,4 helping you avoid chronic knee pain down the road. However, you can also regain full knee function without the use of a functional brace,7 so it is not a requirement for a proper recovery. Tri-compartment Offloader Knee Brace An alternative to conventional functional braces for ligament injuries is a tri-compartment offloader brace. It absorbs body weight when the knee bends and assists knee extension when you straighten your leg. This type of brace acts as a shock absorption system for your knee, reducing pressure and pain across the entire joint and increasing stability so you can safely return to weight-bearing activities following a ligament injury. Since the brace also assists the quadricep muscles as you straighten your leg, it can help you to regain muscle strength during rehabilitation exercises while limiting strain on ligaments. As you regain stability and strength, the assistance can be gradually reduced and then turned off. This leaves you with a functional knee brace that can still stabilize the knee and protect you from re-injury. Meniscus Injuries Offloader knee braces can reduce meniscal strain5 and help to relieve pain from meniscus tears. Each knee has a medial and lateral meniscus. If only one meniscus is torn, then a uni-compartment offloader brace may help by shifting pressure away from the injured side. However, if both menisci are torn, then a tri-compartment offloader brace is likely a better choice because it is designed to reduce pressure and friction across the entire joint. This helps reduce pain and avoid further cartilage damage while you build and regain your strength. Mild Knee Osteoarthritis There is evidence to suggest that compression sleeves may relieve pain and improve function in those with knee osteoarthritis.2 If you have mild knee pain from OA, wearing a sleeve can be a good choice. It may help you stay active while avoiding the worst of the pain, inflammation, and stiffness. While a sleeve may not be as effective as an offloader knee brace at improving pain and function in those with OA, it is likely better than wearing no brace at all.3 It may help your knee feel better during activities of daily living or when exercising. Osteoarthritis in One Knee Compartment For those with moderate to severe OA in one tibiofemoral compartment of the knee, a uni-compartment offloader brace is a cost-effective and minimally invasive treatment that can reduce pain, improve function, and potentially delay the progression of the disease.6 Keep in mind that wearing this type of brace may increase stress on other areas of your knee joint. Over time, this could cause pain, damage, and the progression of OA in those compartments. Osteoarthritis in Multiple Compartments Over half of patients have OA in the patellofemoral compartment or multiple knee compartments.11-14 In these cases, a uni-compartment offloader will likely not relieve pain. Those with patellofemoral or multi-compartmental OA may benefit more from a tri-compartment offloader, because it is the only bracing solution that can offload all three knee compartments to relieve pain across the entire joint. If you’re curious to learn more about the differences between uni-compartment and tri-compartment offloaders, check out these detailed comparisons of some of the best offloader braces on the market: Tri-compartment Offloader – A New Solution for Knee Pain You may have noticed that tri-compartment offloader (TCO) knee braces were mentioned several times in the section above as a solution for various causes of knee pain. TCOs are a relatively recent breakthrough in bracing technology. They are designed to reduce forces in all three knee compartments to improve pain, mobility, and function in a way that no other functional brace can. Levitation 2 – Quite Possibly the Best Knee Brace for Pain Spring Loaded Technology’s Levitation 2 is the world’s first tri-compartment offloader. Levitation’s defining feature is its patented spring loaded hinge. The liquid spring absorbs bodyweight when you bend your knee, then returns that energy to assist with leg extension. This allows the brace to reduce pressure and pain throughout the entire knee while powering your leg muscles to help restore strength. Research has shown that Levitation can reduce joint contact forces in all three knee compartments by over 40% during a deep knee bend,15 which is equivalent to a level that would be achieved by losing 45 pounds of body weight.16 While still useful for pain relief in certain situations, conventional knee braces cannot provide the same degree of offloading. This is because they lack a knee extension assist mechanism. As a result, Levitation can be better suited to help relieve pain, increase stability and mobility, and enhance leg strength for those with knee osteoarthritis, ligament injuries, meniscus damage, or recovering from knee surgery. Clinical Benefits of Levitation Preliminary evidence shows that Levitation is very effective at reducing knee pain in those with osteoarthritis.17 In a systematic survey of Levitation brace users with knee OA, 95% reported significantly reduced pain since using the brace. Of those who were regularly using pain medications before Levitation, 47% were able to reduce or eliminate their use of the medications. Additionally, 85% experience mobility improvements and 86% reported an improvement in their quality of life. Another significant finding was that 70% of Levitation users were able to increase their physical activity levels by an average of 8 hours per week. This is important since exercise and weight loss are considered excellent non-surgical treatments for reducing OA symptoms. Learn More Tri-compartment offloading is becoming recognized as a proven treatment option for knee pain from injury or osteoarthritis. Ask your doctor about tri-compartment offloader knee braces and whether they may be right for you. To learn more about how the Levitation knee brace works, check out the video below. If you think Levitation may be the best solution for your knee pain, please feel free to contact a bracing specialist by clicking the button below. For more details on Levitation and to see what customers have to say about the brace, click here. We hope this information helped narrow down your search for the best knee brace for pain relief. If you have more questions, our complete guide to choosing a knee brace might be helpful. Before making a final decision, we recommend you have a conversation with your doctor or other healthcare professional to get their advice on which knee brace is right for you. By Ben Herringer Ben Herringer is part of the marketing team at Spring Loaded Technology. He studied kinesiology at StFX University and as a former student-athlete, has firsthand experience with knee pain and injury. Ben draws on this experience to write informative, evidence-based content that helps people optimize their knee health.

As a result, they are usually worn when the knee is unstable or vulnerable to more damage. This is often the case with ligament or meniscus injuries or during surgery recovery. Certain types of hinged brace can also help manage pain caused by knee osteoarthritis. Hinged braces can help relieve pain by stabilizing the knee, limiting its range of motion, controlling the speed of leg movements, or promoting a certain alignment of the joint. They utilize different designs and materials to offer varying levels of support. Soft hinged braces offer less support while rigid hinged braces offer more support. Outlined below are the different types of hinged braces based on their function. Prophylactic Knee Braces The purpose of a prophylactic brace is not to relieve pain. They are usually worn by athletes in contact sports to prevent or reduce the severity of knee injuries.4 Functional Knee Braces Functional braces are designed to reduce knee instability and protect and support the knee joint while recovering from injury.4 In these situations, the knee is in a vulnerable state. The brace helps to stabilize the joint and prevent movements that will cause further damage and pain. Some types of functional knee braces are useful immediately following reconstructive knee surgery. They provide a lot of support and stability to the joint while allowing for protected motion. For example, ACL rehabilitative braces will often limit the degree to which you can straighten your knee. This helps prevent accidental damage to the surgically repaired ligament. Offloader Knee Braces Offloader knee bracesare designed to address osteoarthritis specifically, but can also be used to help treat meniscus tears. These braces take pressure away from damaged areas of the knee. In turn, this helps reduce pain and preserve the integrity of the joint.

yes

Biomechanics

Are knee braces effective in preventing knee injuries?

yes_statement

"knee" "braces" are "effective" in "preventing" "knee" "injuries".. wearing "knee" "braces" can "prevent" "knee" "injuries".

https://www.medicalnewstoday.com/articles/knee-brace-for-arthritis

Types of Knee Braces for Arthritis

A knee brace for arthritis provides support that may reduce kneecap pain and improve a person’s mobility and confidence. A brace may also keep joints in alignment and allow ligaments to heal after surgery. Knee damage can occur with osteoarthritis because the condition may result in erosion of the cartilage cushioning the ends of the bones. It can also occur with rheumatoid arthritis, which affects the lining of the joints. Both conditions can cause pain, weakness, and impaired function. Patellofemoral: To keep the kneecap in correct alignment and reduce knee pain. Prophylactic: To reduce or prevent knee injuries in some sports However, not all types of braces may be effective or suitable for a person with knee osteoarthritis. New technologies According to a 2019 study, new technologies may help with knee joint rehabilitation during therapy. These include a new type of functional knee brace, which may help strengthen muscles, improve a person’s mobility, and reduce pain. Another option is ambulating extension deficit/flexion contracture rehabilitative functional bracing. A person can use this new type of brace in place of a brace typically used during the night. The study concluded that the new braces could be used in combination with physical therapy for a person who had knee surgery for osteoarthritis and could help with the outcome of the treatment and the person’s recovery. This knee support may provide strong support due to the heavy-duty bilateral hinges and premium stitching to provide patella support and maintain a range of motion. It also provides aluminum stability to prevent slipping. The material is vented N-tex neoprene to promote airflow and wick away moisture. The positive reviews about this product mentionED good support and comfort. However, some negative reviews reported difficulty fastening the velcro and that the sizing was inaccurate. According to Bauerfeind, this knee support provides gentle compression to support the knee during sports and exercise. The company says this reduces overuse from high impact and limits knee strain. The company also says the anatomically contoured pad surrounding the kneecap disperses pressure to reduce the risk of injury. There are three colors to choose from and six sizes. Positive reviews reported that the product offers good support and is worth the price. However, some more negative reviews mentioned the sleeve falling down the leg and not fitting individuals with larger thighs. This hinged knee brace has Food and Drug Administration (FDA) approval and is suitable for use after operations on the knee. The company states that it has 13 adjustable dials to limit a person’s range of motion, which can help support recovery after injury. This brace is one size fits most, with people able to adjust the straps to fit thighs up to 32 inches in circumference. This product is eligible for FSA and HSA payments. Some reviewers stated that it is beneficial for osteoporosis and anterior cruciate ligament (ACL) tears. However, others say it is difficult to put the brace on correctly. Sizing: The knee brace must stay in place during use. People need to always check the manufacturer’s sizing guide to ensure they purchase the right size. Type: Some may prefer an open patella sleeve to relieve knee pressure and allow for more flexibility. However, others may require a closed compression sleeve, which will compress the knee cap and add extra support in this area. Material: A person may wish to consider looking for a product with a lightweight and breathable material. People need to remember they may wear this for some time, so comfort is important. Additionally, some products may include latex that some individuals may be allergic to or sensitive to. Support level: Knee braces offer differing support levels. For example, those offering the most support may limit movement more than those allowing more flexibility. A person needs to consider how much support they require. Price: Individuals need to consider their budget when purchasing a knee brace. A knee brace is an orthosis, which is a device that fits a person’s body with the aim of helping to do one of several things, depending on a person’s condition: correct a deformity control alignment protect an injury from further damage A knee brace may be helpful for arthritis, although there are no extensive studies on this topic. Those that exist found the benefits of a knee brace may be limited. Several of the studies are below. Low-grade evidence of benefits A 2019 study set out to review recent research to try to determine more clearly the role of orthoses in arthritis treatment. It found low-grade evidence that knee braces can reduce the pain and stiffness associated with knee osteoarthritis. It found knee braces may also increase function and quality of life for people. However, the authors noted that there is no determination yet of the ideal type of brace for knee osteoarthritis. Unproven benefit of functional braces after knee surgery In a 2022 review, researchers evaluated the effectiveness of the use of functional braces following ACL reconstruction surgery. The researchers conclude that evidence is lacking to suggest that functional braces improve clinical outcomes, reduce tearing of grafts, or improve return-to-sport rates. Possible benefits of sleeve braces The goal of a 2019 study was to determine if knee sleeve braces can help alleviate pain and other knee problems related to early knee osteoarthritis. The results suggest that simple knee sleeves can provide significant pain reduction and increased walking speed after six months of knee sleeve treatment. This treatment may also slow down disease progression. Study advised more professional oversight of knee braces An old study from 2016 reviewed studies published up to 2015 that explored the benefits of braces in individuals with osteoarthritis. It found weak evidence of effectiveness for unloader braces, sleeve knee braces, and taping. The authors recommended that before a person uses a brace, a healthcare professional should check it for suitability. They also mentioned the need to educate people on the use of braces and encourage them to contact a physical therapist if their brace needs an adjustment. The Arthritis Foundation (AF) notes that common knee braces include the unloader, hinged, neoprene with a cutout for the knee cap, and neoprene sleeve. Here is more detail on each: Unloader brace A doctor may recommend an unloader brace for a person with arthritis that affects the part of the knee closest to the body’s midline. The brace pushes the knee into the correct position, which takes pressure off the inside of the joint and puts more pressure on the outside of the joint. The unloader has two benefits: relieving pain and preventing the knee from giving out. Hinged knee brace A doctor may advise using a hinged knee brace for individuals who have either of two types of ligament injuries. One is an injury to the medial collateral ligament. This is the ligament on the side of the knee closest to the body’s midline. A hinged knee brace gives support, which permits the joint to heal. The other is an injury to the interior collateral ligament. This is the ligament on the front of the knee. When the ligament tears, a doctor surgically repairs it. Afterward, a drop lock hinged brace immobilizes the knee in the locked position. It also supports the knee during bending when in the unlocked position. Neoprene brace with a cutout for the knee cap Doctors recommend this type of brace for a person with soft or weak cartilage under the knee that causes pain. It relieves discomfort and helps keep the knee in the typical position. In addition, it can enable someone to perform exercises that strengthen the quadriceps, the muscles on the front of the thigh. Strengthening the muscles surrounding the knee helps prevent injuries. Individuals may purchase these braces from sporting goods stores, pharmacies, or online. Neoprene sleeve This type of brace provides compression and warmth, which helps reduce swelling. It gives a person confidence and a feeling of support when doing activities that involve the knee joint. The brace may also serve as a reminder to be careful with the knee during physical activity. It is available from sporting goods stores, pharmacies, or online. When should you not wear a knee brace? Research on the effectiveness of knee braces for people with arthritis is inconclusive, although the AF suggests the devices can be beneficial. If people wish to use a knee brace for arthritis, it is best to ask their doctor for a specific recommendation. A brace may reduce pain and provide support in walking and exercising, but there is not a one-size-fits-all type that helps everyone. How we reviewed this article: Medical News Today has strict sourcing guidelines and draws only from peer-reviewed studies, academic research institutions, and medical journals and associations. We avoid using tertiary references. We link primary sources — including studies, scientific references, and statistics — within each article and also list them in the resources section at the bottom of our articles. You can learn more about how we ensure our content is accurate and current by reading our editorial policy.

A knee brace for arthritis provides support that may reduce kneecap pain and improve a person’s mobility and confidence. A brace may also keep joints in alignment and allow ligaments to heal after surgery. Knee damage can occur with osteoarthritis because the condition may result in erosion of the cartilage cushioning the ends of the bones. It can also occur with rheumatoid arthritis, which affects the lining of the joints. Both conditions can cause pain, weakness, and impaired function. Patellofemoral: To keep the kneecap in correct alignment and reduce knee pain. Prophylactic: To reduce or prevent knee injuries in some sports However, not all types of braces may be effective or suitable for a person with knee osteoarthritis. New technologies According to a 2019 study, new technologies may help with knee joint rehabilitation during therapy. These include a new type of functional knee brace, which may help strengthen muscles, improve a person’s mobility, and reduce pain. Another option is ambulating extension deficit/flexion contracture rehabilitative functional bracing. A person can use this new type of brace in place of a brace typically used during the night. The study concluded that the new braces could be used in combination with physical therapy for a person who had knee surgery for osteoarthritis and could help with the outcome of the treatment and the person’s recovery. This knee support may provide strong support due to the heavy-duty bilateral hinges and premium stitching to provide patella support and maintain a range of motion. It also provides aluminum stability to prevent slipping. The material is vented N-tex neoprene to promote airflow and wick away moisture. The positive reviews about this product mentionED good support and comfort. However, some negative reviews reported difficulty fastening the velcro and that the sizing was inaccurate. According to Bauerfeind, this knee support provides gentle compression to support the knee during sports and exercise.

yes

Biomechanics

Are knee braces effective in preventing knee injuries?

yes_statement

"knee" "braces" are "effective" in "preventing" "knee" "injuries".. wearing "knee" "braces" can "prevent" "knee" "injuries".

https://www.bauerfeind.com.au/pages/best-knee-braces-for-basketball

Best Knee Braces & Supports For Basketball

"This GenuTrain Knee Brace is a great product. Superior in both style and comfort to any other knee brace-based product I have ever owned, I would recommend it to anyone with bad knees who wants them to be better". - Mitch GenuTrain P3 Knee brace An advanced knee brace for pain and misalignment of the kneecap, often caused by injury related to sports Sports Knee Support Get effective protection against excessive strain during sporting activity with the Bauerfeind Sports Knee Support. The controlled compression improves the knee’s ability to maintain maximum movement stability during sporting activities. Light and airy knitted fabric makes it extremely comfortable to wear Innovative pad for absorbing pressure peaks Durable and easy to clean Anatomically shaped for a secure fit and freedom of movement "Perfect size for me and it indeed designed very well and ergonomic. The best part is It is comfortable, not like most knee support which can only provide strong pressure to your knee". - Shihui, Verified Buyer GENUPOINT KNEE STRAP Bauerfeind’s GenuPoint relieves the excess strain on the patellar tendon below the kneecap, helps to ease pain in the front knee, and counteracts the noticeable effects of restricted mobility. Velcro strap and be tightened for adjustable compression Anatomically shaped for a secure fit and freedom of movement 3D airknit technology provides breathable, moisture-wicking comfort SHOULD I WEAR A KNEE BRACE FOR BASKETBALL? Your knees help propel and absorb shock during high impact sports like basketball, as well as assisting as you make sudden, high speed direction changes. Injury can be prevented with knee braces, which stabilise your knee joints and activate and massage the surrounding muscles. HOW TO TREAT A BASKETBALL KNEE INJURY? We recommend visiting a physiotherapist for treatment and advice on treating common basketball injuries. They may recommend the following treatments. Strains or Sprains. Many sprains and strains can be treated with the RICE method: Rest, Ice, Compression and Elevation. A good physiotherapist can assist with the recovery however prevention is always better than cure. Jumper’s Knee. This is the common name for Patellar tendonitis. Rarely does this condition require surgery. It can generally be treated using a combination of anti-inflammatory medications (such as ibuprofen) and exercise. Corticosteroid injections may also be used. Meniscal Tearing. Simple meniscal tears may be treated with the RICE method and anti-inflammatory medications. Advanced tears may require surgery. Surgery for meniscal tears are minimally invasive and allow for quicker recovery time. Play it safe: Consult a doctor if you experience unusually intense and persistent knee pain. Get 5% off - NewsLetter Sign Up 5% discount on your first purchase for signing up, plus get on-going discounts and latest news.

"This GenuTrain Knee Brace is a great product. Superior in both style and comfort to any other knee brace-based product I have ever owned, I would recommend it to anyone with bad knees who wants them to be better". - Mitch GenuTrain P3 Knee brace An advanced knee brace for pain and misalignment of the kneecap, often caused by injury related to sports Sports Knee Support Get effective protection against excessive strain during sporting activity with the Bauerfeind Sports Knee Support. The controlled compression improves the knee’s ability to maintain maximum movement stability during sporting activities. Light and airy knitted fabric makes it extremely comfortable to wear Innovative pad for absorbing pressure peaks Durable and easy to clean Anatomically shaped for a secure fit and freedom of movement "Perfect size for me and it indeed designed very well and ergonomic. The best part is It is comfortable, not like most knee support which can only provide strong pressure to your knee". - Shihui, Verified Buyer GENUPOINT KNEE STRAP Bauerfeind’s GenuPoint relieves the excess strain on the patellar tendon below the kneecap, helps to ease pain in the front knee, and counteracts the noticeable effects of restricted mobility. Velcro strap and be tightened for adjustable compression Anatomically shaped for a secure fit and freedom of movement 3D airknit technology provides breathable, moisture-wicking comfort SHOULD I WEAR A KNEE BRACE FOR BASKETBALL? Your knees help propel and absorb shock during high impact sports like basketball, as well as assisting as you make sudden, high speed direction changes. Injury can be prevented with knee braces, which stabilise your knee joints and activate and massage the surrounding muscles. HOW TO TREAT A BASKETBALL KNEE INJURY? We recommend visiting a physiotherapist for treatment and advice on treating common basketball injuries. They may recommend the following treatments. Strains or Sprains.

yes

Biomechanics

Are knee braces effective in preventing knee injuries?

no_statement

"knee" "braces" are not "effective" in "preventing" "knee" "injuries".. wearing "knee" "braces" does not "prevent" "knee" "injuries".

https://www.donjoystore.com/prevent-football-injuries-in-offensive-linemen

Preventing Knee Injuries with Protective Braces for Offensive Linemen

Back to School Sale - Save up to 50% + Free Shipping. Offer ends 08/21/23. Limit 1 coupon per offer. Exclusions apply. Cannot be combined with other coupons or discounts. Not applicable to previous orders. Free ground shipping on all orders in the 48 contiguous states. In-stock, non-custom-non made-to-order products ship in 3-5 business days. If you would like to purchase both products eligible for coupon code and products excluded from the promotion, please make two separate transactions. If you have questions, please contact customer service for assistance Preventing Knee Injuries with Protective Braces for Offensive Linemen Knee injuries, and more commonly, ACL, LCL and PCL injuries, are common for athletes of many sports, especially those where making sudden changes in direction and speed is required. This is why offensive linemen tend to fall prey to knee injuries, which are not only painful, but also costly, and often lead to time off the field. Luckily there are a number of preventive measures, including proper training, better conditioning and knee bracing. Take a look at the data for using these two common brace types for reducing knee injuries in college football players. While not the single and absolute solution, braces can provide protection in football players when worn regularly. Prophylactic Knee Braces These particular knee braces are worn to prevent the severity of knee injuries, according to the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons (AAOS). These braces have been shown to decrease valgus force—any force that pushes the knee inward, toward the other knee—on the knee joint. Valgus force injuries are common among these athletes, and researchers have seen a reduction in knee injury with players who consistently wear prophylactic braces. Functional Knee Braces Functional knee braces perform a similar role for the football players, helping to keep the previously injured knee joint safe while also stabilizing it, according to AAOS. Comparing the Two During the 1997-1998 football seasons, these two braces were tested against each other in two large studies. In 1997, 20 offensive linemen from a Division 1 team wore prophylactic braces, and were monitored closely by athletic trainers for injury. In 1998, 18 offensive linemen were fitted with custom knee braces, rather than prophylactic, and also closely monitored. “The actual costs of the 1997 season include two surgical reconstructions of anterior cruciate ligaments totaling $45,795. The cost of care for knee injuries in 1998 fell to $1,630 due primarily to the lack of surgical cases,” according to Prophylactic Bracing of the Collegiate Football Knee. Not only was the use of these braces more cost-effective than surgery, but they also lead to less time off the field for rehabilitation. Looking for the best fit, a custom brace is well suited whether you are looking for prevention or protection. You can customize to protect the various ligaments in your knee. Wear the DonJoy Defiance for impact protection that lineman sustain on every play. This site collects information about you. To learn more about what we collect and how we use that information, see our Privacy Policy. If you do not wish donjoystore to share your information with our partners, please make adjustments in our Privacy Policy section.

Back to School Sale - Save up to 50% + Free Shipping. Offer ends 08/21/23. Limit 1 coupon per offer. Exclusions apply. Cannot be combined with other coupons or discounts. Not applicable to previous orders. Free ground shipping on all orders in the 48 contiguous states. In-stock, non-custom-non made-to-order products ship in 3-5 business days. If you would like to purchase both products eligible for coupon code and products excluded from the promotion, please make two separate transactions. If you have questions, please contact customer service for assistance Preventing Knee Injuries with Protective Braces for Offensive Linemen Knee injuries, and more commonly, ACL, LCL and PCL injuries, are common for athletes of many sports, especially those where making sudden changes in direction and speed is required. This is why offensive linemen tend to fall prey to knee injuries, which are not only painful, but also costly, and often lead to time off the field. Luckily there are a number of preventive measures, including proper training, better conditioning and knee bracing. Take a look at the data for using these two common brace types for reducing knee injuries in college football players. While not the single and absolute solution, braces can provide protection in football players when worn regularly. Prophylactic Knee Braces These particular knee braces are worn to prevent the severity of knee injuries, according to the American Academy of Orthopaedic Surgeons (AAOS). These braces have been shown to decrease valgus force—any force that pushes the knee inward, toward the other knee—on the knee joint. Valgus force injuries are common among these athletes, and researchers have seen a reduction in knee injury with players who consistently wear prophylactic braces. Functional Knee Braces Functional knee braces perform a similar role for the football players, helping to keep the previously injured knee joint safe while also stabilizing it, according to AAOS.

yes

Telecommunications

Are landlines more secure than mobile phones?

yes_statement

"landlines" are more "secure" than "mobile" "phones".. "mobile" "phones" are less "secure" than "landlines".

https://www.dataprivacyandsecurityinsider.com/2016/04/landlines-still-a-safe-way-to-communicate-but-telephone-companies-want-to-drop-them/

Privacy Tip #31 - Landlines still a safe way to communicate but ...

Privacy Tip #31 – Landlines still a safe way to communicate but telephone companies want to drop them I am pretty up-to-date on data privacy and security and technology, but the 60 Minutes episode this past Sunday night floored even me. If you didn’t see it, it is worth streaming. Basically, 60 Minutes showed Karsten Nohl, a German computer scientist, remotely attacking U.S. Congressman Ted Lieu’s cell phone and listening to his cell phone calls. I mean, listening to every conversation clear as day. The spying was allowed by security bugs in the global telecommunications network known as Signaling System No. 7 (a/k/a SS7), which allows carriers to connect so they can offer roaming and texting. According to Nohl, SS7 will be used for the next 10 to 15 years until its replacement (Diameter) is implemented, and Diameter is also vulnerable. Representative Lieu admitted during the show that he has spoken with President Obama on that phone. After hearing the conversation, which was taped, he said, “First, it’s really creepy. And second, it makes me angry.” Following the revelation, Lieu asked the House Oversight Committee to investigate the vulnerability. Well it is a matter of national security, isn’t it? The Federal Communications Commission announced on Wednesday that it too will begin a study of mobile carriers’ use of SS7, which has been used for decades and has reached its end of life. Nohl has publicized the vulnerability since 2014, and the telecom carriers responded by providing alerts regarding the vulnerabilities and ways to fix them. But the message from the program is that all cell phones are vulnerable, and we can all be the victim of spying and someone listening to all of our telephone calls. I still have a landline and I use it. Although only marketers tend to call me on my landline, I am becoming more and more a believer of using landlines again in homes and offices. A couple of weeks ago, when alerting everyone to sophisticated phishing schemes, I advised to pick up the phone and call the boss to see if s/he really wants you to email those W-2s. The phone on your desk still works. And it is secure—probably more secure than a cell phone. So instead of relying on email or a cell phone, verify strange requests with your landline—the old way. So why are landline telephones almost extinct, particularly when it appears they may be the answer to many security issues? The telephone companies want to limit or remove them because the lines are so expensive to maintain. Thirteen states in the past three years, including Maine, have allowed telephone companies to stop providing traditional basic telephone services to consumers (i.e.landlines).. Ever try to get cell service in Maine or New Hampshire? Oftentimes in remote areas the message is “no service.” So if you don’t have the ability to get a landline, and you don’t have cell phone service, how can you call an ambulance, the police, or the fire department in an emergency? That is the concern of the AARP and other consumer groups, as many elderly individuals do not have cell phones, do not get cell phone service, and will have no way to communicate in rural areas if they are unable to keep their landline. So the conundrum is that landlines are arguably more secure than cell phones, and picking up the telephone is an important security risk management tool, but landlines are becoming extinct. The Privacy Tip? Use your landline. It’s probably a more secure way to communicate these days because hackers aren’t concentrating on them at the moment. And hopefully the telephone companies and state regulators can figure out a way to keep landlines in existence for consumers in a manner that is reasonable to the telephone companies. It may be a matter of national security. Linn Freedman practices in data privacy and security law, cybersecurity, and complex litigation. She is a member of the Business Litigation Group and the Financial Services Cyber-Compliance Team, and chair’s the firm’s Data Privacy and Security Team. Linn focuses her practice on… Linn Freedman practices in data privacy and security law, cybersecurity, and complex litigation. She is a member of the Business Litigation Group and the Financial Services Cyber-Compliance Team, and chair’s the firm’s Data Privacy and Security Team. Linn focuses her practice on compliance with all state and federal privacy and security laws and regulations. She counsels a range of public and private clients from industries such as construction, education, health care, insurance, manufacturing, real estate, utilities and critical infrastructure, marine and charitable organizations, on state and federal data privacy and security investigations, as well as emergency data breach response and mitigation. Linn is an Adjunct Professor of the Practice of Cybersecurity at Brown University and an Adjunct Professor of Law at Roger Williams University School of Law. Prior to joining the firm, Linn served as assistant attorney general and deputy chief of the Civil Division of the Attorney General’s Office for the State of Rhode Island. She earned her J.D. from Loyola University School of Law and her B.A., with honors, in American Studies from Newcomb College of Tulane University. She is admitted to practice law in Massachusetts and Rhode Island. Read her full rc.com bio here. Robinson+Cole is a law firm serving regional, national and global clients from nine offices throughout the Northeast. Our Data Privacy + Security Team brings together lawyers from the firm’s Intellectual Property and Technology, Commercial Litigation, and E-Commerce Groups.

The phone on your desk still works. And it is secure—probably more secure than a cell phone. So instead of relying on email or a cell phone, verify strange requests with your landline—the old way. So why are landline telephones almost extinct, particularly when it appears they may be the answer to many security issues? The telephone companies want to limit or remove them because the lines are so expensive to maintain. Thirteen states in the past three years, including Maine, have allowed telephone companies to stop providing traditional basic telephone services to consumers (i.e.landlines).. Ever try to get cell service in Maine or New Hampshire? Oftentimes in remote areas the message is “no service.” So if you don’t have the ability to get a landline, and you don’t have cell phone service, how can you call an ambulance, the police, or the fire department in an emergency? That is the concern of the AARP and other consumer groups, as many elderly individuals do not have cell phones, do not get cell phone service, and will have no way to communicate in rural areas if they are unable to keep their landline. So the conundrum is that landlines are arguably more secure than cell phones, and picking up the telephone is an important security risk management tool, but landlines are becoming extinct. The Privacy Tip? Use your landline. It’s probably a more secure way to communicate these days because hackers aren’t concentrating on them at the moment. And hopefully the telephone companies and state regulators can figure out a way to keep landlines in existence for consumers in a manner that is reasonable to the telephone companies. It may be a matter of national security. Linn Freedman practices in data privacy and security law, cybersecurity, and complex litigation. She is a member of the Business Litigation Group and the Financial Services Cyber-Compliance Team, and chair’s the firm’s Data Privacy and Security Team. Linn focuses her practice on… Linn Freedman practices in data privacy and security law, cybersecurity, and complex litigation.

yes

Telecommunications

Are landlines more secure than mobile phones?

yes_statement

"landlines" are more "secure" than "mobile" "phones".. "mobile" "phones" are less "secure" than "landlines".

https://security.stackexchange.com/questions/154677/do-ss7-based-attacks-affect-landlines

phone - Do SS7-based attacks affect landlines? - Information ...

I am aware of the risks of SS7 for mobile users. Attackers can get location information, send spoofed texts, cause DoS and intercept phone calls/texts. Do those risks still apply for landlines? There is no roaming support, so I would assume call interception would be harder as the attacker wouldn't be able to say "this SIM is roaming on my network, send me all the calls!" to the home network's HLR. @XiongChiamiov It is not almost impossible but it is somewhat difficult like you point out. If you are not careful you can certainly get duped by the phone company into getting fake landline service. On AT&T's website you have to dig real hard to find their traditional landline service page. Nevertheless, if you really want it, you can get it. 1 Answer 1 In search of an answer to this question, I decided to do some research and see if I could find out myself. Your thinking seems to be on the right track: 60 Minutes showed Karsten Nohl, a German computer scientist, remotely attacking U.S. Congressman Ted Lieu’s cell phone and listening to his cell phone calls... The spying was allowed by security bugs in the global telecommunications network known as Signaling System No. 7 (a/k/a SS7), which allows carriers to connect so they can offer roaming and texting. According to Nohl, SS7 will be used for the next 10 to 15 years until its replacement (Diameter) is implemented, and Diameter is also vulnerable. — Landlines still a safe way to communicate but telephone companies want to drop them Most of what I could find does not mention anything about landlines being affected. I can only find mentions of mobile phones being affected: Who is affected by the vulnerability? Should a hacker gain entry to the SS7 system on any number of networks, or if they are used by a law enforcement agency as part of its surveillance, anyone with a mobile phone could be vulnerable. — SS7 hack explained: what can you do about it? President Trump recently made headlines as well because of the SS7 vulnerabilities. Trump has been asked to give up his third iPhone but wants to keep it as “unlike his other two phones, he can store his contacts in it.” And while he’s encouraged to use the White House’s secure landline for conversations, he reportedly doesn’t want the calls going through the switchboard and logged for senior aides to see. US intelligence agencies believe spies from China and Russia are eavesdropping on Trump’s calls—even those using the secure iPhones—by intercepting them as they travel through national and international cellphone networks. — China and Russia are reportedly eavesdropping on Trump's phone calls: He's been advised to use the White House's secure landline Note the mention of secure landline. The government uses encrypted landlines that ordinary consumers do not. It's possible ordinary landlines may also be somehow vulnerable. The article does not say whether an ordinary landline would be more vulnerable. Secure landlines have been mentioned in more than one article: Mr. Trump’s aides have repeatedly warned him that his cellphone calls are not secure, and they have told him that Russian spies are routinely eavesdropping on the calls, as well. But aides say the voluble president, who has been pressured into using his secure White House landline more often these days, has still refused to give up his iPhones. — When Trump Phones Friends, the Chinese and the Russians Listen and Learn The government currently uses Secure Terminal Equipment for its secure landline communications. This replaced STU-III, which was used from 1987 until 2008. To be clear, this is not technology that ordinary civilians would normally be using. I do find this all a little ironic considering that Signaling System 7 was intended to replace in-band signaling, which allowed anyone with a tone generator to reroute calls on Ma Bell's analog long distance network. SS7 is still more phreak-proof in the sense that end-customers can no longer do that. The SS7 system CCS-7, which dates to the 1970’s, is riddled with security vulnerabilities like the absence of encryption or service message validation. For a long time, it didn’t pose any risk to subscribers or operators, as the SS7 network was a closed system available only to landline operators — Primary Security Threats for SS7 Cellular Networks Given that mobile phones were barely in use when Signaling System 7 replaced the multi-frequency based signaling system that had been in place since the 1940s, I don't think it's exactly fair either to say that SS7 was designed with vulnerabilities, because they weren't vulnerabilities at the time we transitioned to it. To answer the question, the security risks seem to be mostly surrounding location and access to content on the device, and since none of that applies to landlines and I found references recommending using landlines to circumvent SS7 security issues (despite the fact they rely on SS7 for long-distance as well), I can say that landlines are certainly a much more secure choice and are likely not affected by it. If anyone else finds something, though, I'd like to hear it; there's very little circulating online about how landlines are affected. The U.S. National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) announced in July 2016 that organizations should no longer send one time passwords to mobile phones. The reasoning? This approach is simply not secure. NIST—which both corporations and U.S. regulatory agencies look to for cybersecurity compliance—determined that thieves can too easily steal one time passwords sent to phones via SMS text message. (The same applies to voice codes sent over landlines, according to the agency.)

But aides say the voluble president, who has been pressured into using his secure White House landline more often these days, has still refused to give up his iPhones. — When Trump Phones Friends, the Chinese and the Russians Listen and Learn The government currently uses Secure Terminal Equipment for its secure landline communications. This replaced STU-III, which was used from 1987 until 2008. To be clear, this is not technology that ordinary civilians would normally be using. I do find this all a little ironic considering that Signaling System 7 was intended to replace in-band signaling, which allowed anyone with a tone generator to reroute calls on Ma Bell's analog long distance network. SS7 is still more phreak-proof in the sense that end-customers can no longer do that. The SS7 system CCS-7, which dates to the 1970’s, is riddled with security vulnerabilities like the absence of encryption or service message validation. For a long time, it didn’t pose any risk to subscribers or operators, as the SS7 network was a closed system available only to landline operators — Primary Security Threats for SS7 Cellular Networks Given that mobile phones were barely in use when Signaling System 7 replaced the multi-frequency based signaling system that had been in place since the 1940s, I don't think it's exactly fair either to say that SS7 was designed with vulnerabilities, because they weren't vulnerabilities at the time we transitioned to it. To answer the question, the security risks seem to be mostly surrounding location and access to content on the device, and since none of that applies to landlines and I found references recommending using landlines to circumvent SS7 security issues (despite the fact they rely on SS7 for long-distance as well), I can say that landlines are certainly a much more secure choice and are likely not affected by it. If anyone else finds something, though, I'd like to hear it; there's very little circulating online about how landlines are affected.

yes

Telecommunications

Are landlines more secure than mobile phones?

yes_statement

"landlines" are more "secure" than "mobile" "phones".. "mobile" "phones" are less "secure" than "landlines".

https://www.ipetitions.com/petition/save-our-landlines-help-us-maintain-full-access

Petition SAVE OUR LANDLINES: Help us maintain full access to our ...

British Telecom companies are planning to pull the plug on essential landlines in favour of less-regulated, less reliable,less secure and more expensive wireless phones or Voice-Over-Internet-Protocol (VOIP). They lack a sensible plan to keep people safely and reliably connected. British Telecom (BT), for example, have already been moving customers from landlines to internet connections, although they have temporarily postponed the roll-out after escalating complaints from concerned customers. Dismantling landlines will cost us safety, health as well as jobs and cut off critical emergency communications access to millions of people. We must defend our landlines from unscrupulous telecom companies and governments. If you want to keep your choice to have a reliable landline in your home or business, you need to act now. Please sign this Call to Action, contact your MP and spread the word across the UK. Re-investing in our copper telephone landline network will be beneficial for Public Health, Security and Ecology. Copper landlines serve as a necessary, reliable and safe alternative to power-grid dependent, energy-hungry communications systems like VOIP. Landlines are also far more benign than mobile phone services as wireless connections are less secure and harmful to our health. There is no longer any question whether wireless Radio Frequency (RF) radiation – used in mobile phone communications and wireless devices – is harmful to humans and wildlife. Commonly identified health consequences of short and longer term exposures include insomnia, headaches and fatigue, as well as other serious and life changing ailments.Tens of thousands of scientific papers (linked herein) have cited connections to the role of EMFs in a multitude of adverse health effects, including depression, infertility, cancer, damage to DNA/gene expression, oxidative stress, pregnancy complications, Melatonin production, neurological disorders, immune dysfunction, Alzheimers/dementia, leukaemia, and many, many more.

British Telecom companies are planning to pull the plug on essential landlines in favour of less-regulated, less reliable,less secure and more expensive wireless phones or Voice-Over-Internet-Protocol (VOIP). They lack a sensible plan to keep people safely and reliably connected. British Telecom (BT), for example, have already been moving customers from landlines to internet connections, although they have temporarily postponed the roll-out after escalating complaints from concerned customers. Dismantling landlines will cost us safety, health as well as jobs and cut off critical emergency communications access to millions of people. We must defend our landlines from unscrupulous telecom companies and governments. If you want to keep your choice to have a reliable landline in your home or business, you need to act now. Please sign this Call to Action, contact your MP and spread the word across the UK. Re-investing in our copper telephone landline network will be beneficial for Public Health, Security and Ecology. Copper landlines serve as a necessary, reliable and safe alternative to power-grid dependent, energy-hungry communications systems like VOIP. Landlines are also far more benign than mobile phone services as wireless connections are less secure and harmful to our health. There is no longer any question whether wireless Radio Frequency (RF) radiation – used in mobile phone communications and wireless devices – is harmful to humans and wildlife. Commonly identified health consequences of short and longer term exposures include insomnia, headaches and fatigue, as well as other serious and life changing ailments. Tens of thousands of scientific papers (linked herein) have cited connections to the role of EMFs in a multitude of adverse health effects, including depression, infertility, cancer, damage to DNA/gene expression, oxidative stress, pregnancy complications, Melatonin production, neurological disorders, immune dysfunction, Alzheimers/dementia, leukaemia, and many, many more.

yes

Telecommunications

Are landlines more secure than mobile phones?

yes_statement

"landlines" are more "secure" than "mobile" "phones".. "mobile" "phones" are less "secure" than "landlines".

https://www.vegas4locals.com/resources/las-vegas-telephone-companies/

Safe, Secure and Connected Landline Phone Services in Las Vegas

Safe, Secure and Connected Landline Phone Services in Las Vegas Landline Telephone Service in Las Vegas In today’s fast-paced digital world, landline telephone service seems like a thing of the past. However, there are still numerous reasons to consider getting landline telephone service in Las Vegas. Despite the increasing popularity of mobile phones, landlines offer certain advantages that make them a valuable addition to any household or business and are still relevant in the modern era. These are some companies in Las Vegas that provide landline telephone service: The How’s and Why’s about getting landline telephone service in Las Vegas Las Vegas is a vibrant city known for its bustling entertainment industry, thriving businesses, and constant influx of tourists. In such a dynamic environment, having a reliable means of communication is crucial. Here are some compelling reasons why you should consider getting landline telephone service in Las Vegas: 1. Enhanced Call Quality and Reliability When it comes to call quality and reliability, landline phones still reign supreme. Unlike mobile phones that rely on wireless signals, landlines use a dedicated physical connection, ensuring crystal-clear voice transmission without any dropouts or interference. In an emergency or during important business calls, having a landline guarantees you won’t experience any sudden call drops or poor audio quality. 2. Improved Emergency Preparedness Las Vegas is prone to various natural disasters, including earthquakes and flash floods. During such emergencies, communication becomes vital for ensuring the safety and well-being of your loved ones or employees. Landline phones have their power source, meaning they will continue to work even if there is a power outage. This can be a lifeline in critical situations when you need to reach out for help or stay connected with emergency services. 3. Cost-Effective Communication Contrary to popular belief, landline telephone service can be a cost-effective option, especially for those who make frequent long-distance or international calls. Many landline service providers offer competitive packages that include unlimited calling to particular destinations, making it a cost-efficient choice for businesses with international clients or individuals with friends and family living abroad. Additionally, landline service often comes bundled with internet and television services, providing a comprehensive and cost-effective package for your communication needs. 4. Better Call Privacy and Security In an era where privacy breaches and data hacks are becoming more common, protecting your personal and business conversations is paramount. This is where landline telephone service shines, offering superior privacy advantages over mobile phones. Unlike mobile calls that are transmitted through wireless signals, landline calls operate through a dedicated physical connection. This means that the risk of interception or hacking is significantly reduced. Landlines provide a more secure means of communication, ensuring that your conversations remain confidential and protected from prying eyes. Mobile phones, on the other hand, can be vulnerable to various security threats. Hackers can exploit wireless networks and intercept calls or access sensitive information. Additionally, mobile phones can be more susceptible to malware and malicious apps that compromise privacy. By choosing a landline telephone service in Las Vegas, you can have peace of mind knowing that your calls are not easily intercepted or compromised. Whether you’re discussing confidential business matters, sharing personal information, or simply having a private conversation, a landline offers a heightened level of security. Furthermore, landline phones are not subject to the same location tracking as mobile phones. Mobile devices have GPS capabilities, allowing service providers and third parties to track your whereabouts. Landlines, however, do not have this tracking capability, offering additional privacy protection. If privacy is a top concern for you, opting for a landline telephone service in Las Vegas is wise. Enjoy the peace of mind that comes with knowing your conversations are secure and your privacy is protected. 5. Business Advantages For businesses in Las Vegas, landline telephone service offers several advantages. It presents a more professional image to customers and clients, giving the impression of stability and reliability. Moreover, landlines often come with additional features such as call forwarding, voicemail, and conferencing capabilities, essential for businesses to operate smoothly. Having a dedicated landline can help separate personal and professional calls, ensuring that you never miss an important business opportunity. 6. Compatibility with Alarm Systems and Medical Devices Many alarm systems and medical devices rely on landline connections for their operation. If you have a security system or medical equipment requiring a landline connection, getting landline telephone service in Las Vegas is necessary. It ensures that your alarm system or medical device functions properly and can communicate with the required monitoring services without disruptions. Frequently Asked Questions (FAQs) FAQ 1: Is landline telephone service still necessary in the era of mobile phones? Yes, landline telephone service is still necessary in many situations. It offers enhanced call quality, reliability, and security compared to mobile phones. Moreover, landlines are compatible with alarm systems and medical devices that require a dedicated connection. FAQ 2: Can I save money with landline telephone service? Absolutely! Landline service providers often offer cost-effective packages, including unlimited calling to specific destinations. If you frequently make long-distance or international calls, a landline can significantly reduce your communication expenses. FAQ 3: Are landlines more secure than mobile phones? Yes, landlines provide better call privacy and security compared to mobile phones. Mobile calls can be intercepted or hacked, whereas landline calls are less susceptible to such threats. If you prioritize privacy and security, a landline is a reliable choice. FAQ 4: What are the benefits of landline telephone service for businesses? Landline telephone service offers several benefits for businesses. It presents a more professional image, includes additional features like call forwarding and conferencing, and ensures separation between personal and professional calls. FAQ 5: Can landline phones work during a power outage? Yes, landline phones can still work during a power outage as they have their power source. This makes them a reliable means of communication during emergencies when your home’s electricity may be unavailable. FAQ 6: How can landline telephone service benefit emergency preparedness? Having a landline telephone service in Las Vegas is essential for emergency preparedness. Landlines continue to function even during power outages, ensuring that you can communicate with emergency services and stay connected with your loved ones in critical situations. Despite the advancements in mobile technology, landline telephone service in Las Vegas still holds significant advantages. From enhanced call quality and reliability to improved privacy and security, landlines offer a reliable and secure means of communication. Whether you’re a business owner looking for a professional image or an individual concerned about privacy, getting a landline telephone service in Las Vegas is a wise decision. ----- Sponsor Ad ----- Sign Up for our Email Newsletter to Receive Las Vegas Coupons and Special Deals!

Additionally, landline service often comes bundled with internet and television services, providing a comprehensive and cost-effective package for your communication needs. 4. Better Call Privacy and Security In an era where privacy breaches and data hacks are becoming more common, protecting your personal and business conversations is paramount. This is where landline telephone service shines, offering superior privacy advantages over mobile phones. Unlike mobile calls that are transmitted through wireless signals, landline calls operate through a dedicated physical connection. This means that the risk of interception or hacking is significantly reduced. Landlines provide a more secure means of communication, ensuring that your conversations remain confidential and protected from prying eyes. Mobile phones, on the other hand, can be vulnerable to various security threats. Hackers can exploit wireless networks and intercept calls or access sensitive information. Additionally, mobile phones can be more susceptible to malware and malicious apps that compromise privacy. By choosing a landline telephone service in Las Vegas, you can have peace of mind knowing that your calls are not easily intercepted or compromised. Whether you’re discussing confidential business matters, sharing personal information, or simply having a private conversation, a landline offers a heightened level of security. Furthermore, landline phones are not subject to the same location tracking as mobile phones. Mobile devices have GPS capabilities, allowing service providers and third parties to track your whereabouts. Landlines, however, do not have this tracking capability, offering additional privacy protection. If privacy is a top concern for you, opting for a landline telephone service in Las Vegas is wise. Enjoy the peace of mind that comes with knowing your conversations are secure and your privacy is protected. 5. Business Advantages For businesses in Las Vegas, landline telephone service offers several advantages. It presents a more professional image to customers and clients, giving the impression of stability and reliability. Moreover, landlines often come with additional features such as call forwarding, voicemail, and conferencing capabilities, essential for businesses to operate smoothly. Having a dedicated landline can help separate personal and professional calls, ensuring that you never miss an important business opportunity. 6.

yes

Telecommunications

Are landlines more secure than mobile phones?

yes_statement

"landlines" are more "secure" than "mobile" "phones".. "mobile" "phones" are less "secure" than "landlines".

https://thecontentauthority.com/blog/wireless-vs-landline

Wireless vs Landline: Differences And Uses For Each One

Wireless vs Landline: Differences And Uses For Each One Are you tired of being tethered to a landline phone? Or do you prefer the reliability of a traditional phone system? The debate between wireless and landline phones has been ongoing for years, and each has its own set of advantages and disadvantages. In this article, we will explore the differences between wireless and landline phones to help you determine which one is right for you. Let’s define the terms. Wireless phones, also known as cellular phones or mobile phones, use radio waves to communicate with cell towers. Landline phones, on the other hand, use physical wires to connect to a network of telephone lines. While both types of phones can be used to make calls, they differ in terms of their functionality, cost, and reliability. So, which one is the proper word to use? The answer is both. When referring to a phone that uses radio waves to communicate, wireless is the correct term. When referring to a phone that is connected to a network of telephone lines, landline is the correct term. Wireless phones have become increasingly popular in recent years, thanks to their convenience and portability. With a wireless phone, you can make calls from almost anywhere, as long as you have a signal. This is especially useful for people who are always on the go, or who travel frequently. Wireless phones also offer a range of features, such as text messaging, internet access, and GPS navigation. On the other hand, landline phones are known for their reliability. Since they are connected to a physical network of telephone lines, they are less likely to experience dropped calls or poor signal quality. Landline phones are also more secure than wireless phones, as they are less susceptible to hacking or eavesdropping. Additionally, landline phones do not require batteries, which means they will continue to work even during a power outage. Now that we’ve covered the basics, let’s dive deeper into the differences between wireless and landline phones. In the next section, we will explore the pros and cons of each type of phone, so you can make an informed decision about which one is right for you. Wireless Wireless refers to the transmission of data or communication signals without the use of physical cables or wires. It is a technology that allows devices to communicate with each other using radio waves, infrared signals, or satellite transmissions. Wireless communication can take place over short distances, such as within a room, or over long distances, such as between continents. Wireless technology has revolutionized the way we communicate and access information. It has made it possible to connect to the internet, make phone calls, and send text messages from virtually anywhere in the world. Wireless networks are now a common feature in homes, offices, and public places, providing fast and reliable connectivity to a variety of devices. Landline A landline is a traditional telephone system that uses physical wires or cables to transmit voice and data signals over a network. It is a system that has been in use for over a century and is still widely used today, although it is gradually being replaced by wireless technology. Landlines are typically connected to a wall jack or socket in a building, which is then connected to a network of cables that run underground or overhead. This network is maintained and operated by a telephone company, which charges a monthly fee for the service. Landlines are known for their reliability and sound quality, as they are not affected by interference from other electronic devices. They are also a popular choice for businesses and organizations that require a dedicated phone line for their operations. How To Properly Use The Words In A Sentence When discussing the topic of communication, it’s important to understand the proper usage of common terminology. In particular, the terms “wireless” and “landline” are often used interchangeably, but they have distinct meanings and should be used appropriately in a sentence. Here’s a guide on how to use these words correctly: How To Use “Wireless” In A Sentence “Wireless” refers to any type of communication that does not require physical wires or cables. This can include cell phones, Wi-Fi networks, and Bluetooth devices. When using “wireless” in a sentence, it’s important to be specific about what type of wireless communication you’re referring to. For example: “I prefer to use a wireless headset when I’m on a conference call.” “My home internet is provided by a wireless router.” “I’m having trouble connecting to the wireless network at the coffee shop.” Notice how each of these sentences specifies what type of wireless communication is being discussed. This clarity helps to avoid confusion and ensures that the reader or listener understands the context. How To Use “Landline” In A Sentence “Landline” refers to a traditional telephone service that uses physical wires or cables to transmit calls. This type of communication is becoming less common as more people switch to wireless options, but it is still used in some homes and businesses. When using “landline” in a sentence, it’s important to specify that you’re referring to a physical phone line. For example: “I need to call my parents on their landline because they don’t have a cell phone.” “The office phone system includes both landline and wireless options.” “I’m having trouble with my landline connection and need to call the phone company.” Again, notice how each of these sentences specifies that the communication is being transmitted through a physical phone line. This specificity helps to avoid confusion and ensures that the reader or listener understands the context. More Examples Of Wireless & Landline Used In Sentences In order to better understand the differences between wireless and landline communication, it can be helpful to examine some examples of how these terms are used in everyday language. Below are several examples of using “wireless” and “landline” in a sentence. Examples Of Using Wireless In A Sentence She prefers to use wireless headphones when she exercises. The hotel offers free wireless internet for guests. He uses a wireless mouse with his laptop computer. The new printer has wireless capabilities, allowing users to print from anywhere in the room. She listens to music on her wireless speaker while she cooks. The wireless network at the office was down for several hours yesterday. He bought a wireless charger for his phone so he wouldn’t have to deal with cords. The wireless security system sends alerts to the homeowner’s phone if there is any unusual activity. She streams movies on her wireless smart TV. The wireless earbuds have a long battery life and good sound quality. Examples Of Using Landline In A Sentence She still has a landline phone in her house, even though most people use cell phones now. He called his mother on the landline to wish her a happy birthday. The landline phone at the front desk rang incessantly. She had to wait on hold for 20 minutes to speak to someone on the landline. The landline connection was lost during the storm, so they had to use their cell phones to communicate. He keeps a landline phone in his office in case of emergencies. She forgot her cell phone at home, so she had to call her friend from the landline at the library. The landline company offers a variety of plans to fit different needs and budgets. He prefers to use a landline when he has important conversations because he feels it is more secure. The landline phone has a cord that is long enough to reach all corners of the room. Common Mistakes To Avoid When it comes to communication, people often use the terms wireless and landline interchangeably. However, this can lead to confusion and mistakes. Here are some common mistakes to avoid: Mistake #1: Assuming Wireless Is Always More Convenient While wireless devices like smartphones offer convenience and portability, they are not always the best option. For example, in areas with poor reception, calls can drop or become garbled. Additionally, wireless devices require regular charging, which can be inconvenient if you forget to charge them or if you are in an area without access to a charging port. Mistake #2: Assuming Landlines Are Outdated While it’s true that many people have switched to wireless devices, landlines still have their advantages. For example, landlines are more reliable during power outages and natural disasters because they do not rely on electricity. Additionally, landlines often have better sound quality and do not suffer from the same issues with dropped calls or poor reception as wireless devices. Mistake #3: Not Understanding The Differences In Cost While wireless devices can be more expensive upfront, they often have lower monthly costs because they do not require a separate phone line. However, if you make a lot of long-distance calls or use your phone for business purposes, a landline may be more cost-effective in the long run. How To Avoid These Mistakes Consider your specific communication needs and choose the device that best meets them Understand the advantages and disadvantages of both wireless and landline devices Be aware of the costs associated with each option and choose the one that is most cost-effective for you Always have a backup plan in case of power outages or other emergencies Context Matters When deciding between a wireless or landline phone, it’s important to consider the context in which they will be used. The choice between the two can depend on a variety of factors, including convenience, reliability, and cost. Convenience Wireless phones are often more convenient than landlines because they allow for greater mobility. With a wireless phone, you can make calls from anywhere within range of a cell tower, which means you can take your phone with you wherever you go. This can be especially useful for people who are frequently on the move, such as salespeople or business travelers. On the other hand, landline phones are typically less convenient because they are tethered to a specific location. You can only make calls from the phone’s physical location, which can be limiting if you need to make calls from different parts of your home or office. Reliability When it comes to reliability, landline phones are often considered the better choice. Because they are connected to a physical line, they are less likely to experience dropped calls or poor reception. This can be especially important in emergency situations, where you need to be able to make a call quickly and reliably. Wireless phones, on the other hand, can be more prone to dropped calls or poor reception, especially in areas with weak cell signal. This can be frustrating for users who rely on their phone for business or personal communication. Cost Cost is another factor to consider when deciding between a wireless or landline phone. Wireless plans can be more expensive than landline plans, especially if you use your phone frequently or require a large amount of data. However, wireless plans often come with more features and flexibility, such as the ability to make international calls or access the internet on your phone. Landline plans, on the other hand, are typically less expensive and can be a good choice for people who don’t need all the bells and whistles of a wireless plan. Additionally, landline plans often come with unlimited local calling, which can be a cost-effective option for people who make a lot of calls within their local area. Examples Of Different Contexts Context Best Choice Home use Landline Business use Wireless Emergency situations Landline Travel Wireless As the table above illustrates, the best choice between wireless and landline can vary depending on the context in which they are used. For example, a landline might be the best choice for home use, while a wireless phone might be better for business use or travel. Exceptions To The Rules While wireless and landline each have their own set of advantages and disadvantages, there are certain exceptions where the rules for using them may not apply. Here are some cases where the usual guidelines may not hold true: Remote Locations In remote areas where landlines are not available, wireless communication is the only option. This is particularly relevant for people living in rural areas or those who frequently travel to remote locations. In such cases, wireless communication is not just the most practical option, but also the only one available. Emergency Situations In emergency situations, every second counts. Landlines may not always be available or accessible during such times, making wireless communication the only viable option. For instance, if someone is injured or in danger and needs immediate medical attention, a wireless phone can be used to call for help. Similarly, during natural disasters such as earthquakes or floods, wireless communication may be the only way to reach out for assistance. Cost Considerations While landlines are generally considered to be more cost-effective than wireless communication, there are exceptions to this rule as well. For instance, if you need to make international calls frequently, using a landline may not be the most cost-effective option. In such cases, using a wireless phone or an internet-based communication service may be a more affordable option. Security Concerns While landlines are generally considered to be more secure than wireless communication, there are exceptions to this rule as well. For instance, if you are concerned about wiretapping or eavesdropping, using a landline may not be the safest option. In such cases, using a wireless phone or an encrypted communication service may be a more secure option. While the rules for using wireless and landline communication are generally well-established, there are certain exceptions where these rules may not apply. By identifying these exceptions and understanding the reasons behind them, you can make informed decisions about which type of communication is best suited for your needs. Practice Exercises Now that you have a better understanding of the differences between wireless and landline communication, it’s time to put your knowledge to the test. Here are some practice exercises to help you improve your understanding and use of these terms in sentences: Exercise 1: Fill In The Blank Choose the correct word (wireless or landline) to complete each sentence below: I prefer using a __________ phone because it’s more reliable. My grandparents still use a __________ phone because they don’t like change. When I travel, I always make sure to bring my __________ charger. My office uses a __________ phone system for all of our business calls. These exercises should help you solidify your understanding of the differences between wireless and landline communication. By using these terms correctly, you’ll be able to communicate more effectively and avoid any confusion or misunderstandings. Conclusion After exploring the differences between wireless and landline communication, it is clear that both have their advantages and disadvantages. While wireless communication offers convenience and flexibility, landline communication provides more reliable and secure connections. It is important for individuals and businesses to carefully consider their communication needs and choose the option that best suits them. Key Takeaways Wireless communication offers convenience and flexibility, but may be less reliable and secure than landline communication. Landline communication provides more reliable and secure connections, but may be less convenient and flexible than wireless communication. Both wireless and landline communication have their advantages and disadvantages, and it is important to choose the option that best suits your needs. Overall, the choice between wireless and landline communication depends on a variety of factors, including location, cost, and personal preferences. As you continue to explore the world of grammar and language use, remember to keep an open mind and stay curious. There is always more to learn and discover. Shawn Manaher is the founder and CEO of The Content Authority. He’s one part content manager, one part writing ninja organizer, and two parts leader of top content creators. You don’t even want to know what he calls pancakes. About Us The Content Authority is where you will find great content, written by amazing writers, around topics like grammar, writing, publishing, and marketing.

Wireless vs Landline: Differences And Uses For Each One Are you tired of being tethered to a landline phone? Or do you prefer the reliability of a traditional phone system? The debate between wireless and landline phones has been ongoing for years, and each has its own set of advantages and disadvantages. In this article, we will explore the differences between wireless and landline phones to help you determine which one is right for you. Let’s define the terms. Wireless phones, also known as cellular phones or mobile phones, use radio waves to communicate with cell towers. Landline phones, on the other hand, use physical wires to connect to a network of telephone lines. While both types of phones can be used to make calls, they differ in terms of their functionality, cost, and reliability. So, which one is the proper word to use? The answer is both. When referring to a phone that uses radio waves to communicate, wireless is the correct term. When referring to a phone that is connected to a network of telephone lines, landline is the correct term. Wireless phones have become increasingly popular in recent years, thanks to their convenience and portability. With a wireless phone, you can make calls from almost anywhere, as long as you have a signal. This is especially useful for people who are always on the go, or who travel frequently. Wireless phones also offer a range of features, such as text messaging, internet access, and GPS navigation. On the other hand, landline phones are known for their reliability. Since they are connected to a physical network of telephone lines, they are less likely to experience dropped calls or poor signal quality. Landline phones are also more secure than wireless phones, as they are less susceptible to hacking or eavesdropping. Additionally, landline phones do not require batteries, which means they will continue to work even during a power outage. Now that we’ve covered the basics, let’s dive deeper into the differences between wireless and landline phones. In the next section, we will explore the pros and cons of each type of phone, so you can make an informed decision about which one is right for you.

yes

Selenology

Are lunar cycles linked to human behavior and health?

yes_statement

"lunar" "cycles" have an impact on "human" "behavior" and "health".. "human" "behavior" and "health" are influenced by "lunar" "cycles".

https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18786384/

Human responses to the geophysical daily, annual and lunar cycles

Abstract Collectively the daily, seasonal, lunar and tidal geophysical cycles regulate much of the temporal biology of life on Earth. The increasing isolation of human societies from these geophysical cycles, as a result of improved living conditions, high-quality nutrition and 24/7 working practices, have led many to believe that human biology functions independently of them. Yet recent studies have highlighted the dominant role that our circadian clock plays in the organisation of 24 hour patterns of behaviour and physiology. Preferred wake and sleep times are to a large extent driven by an endogenous temporal program that uses sunlight as an entraining cue. The alarm clock can drive human activity rhythms but has little direct effect on our endogenous 24 hour physiology. In many situations, our biology and our society appear to be in serious opposition, and the damaging consequences to our health under these circumstances are increasingly recognised. The seasons dominate the lives of non-equatorial species, and until recently, they also had a marked influence on much of human biology. Despite human isolation from seasonal changes in temperature, food and photoperiod in the industrialised nations, the seasons still appear to have a small, but significant, impact upon when individuals are born and many aspects of health. The seasonal changes that modulate our biology, and how these factors might interact with the social and metabolic status of the individual to drive seasonal effects, are still poorly understood. Lunar cycles had, and continue to have, an influence upon human culture, though despite a persistent belief that our mental health and other behaviours are modulated by the phase of the moon, there is no solid evidence that human biology is in any way regulated by the lunar cycle.

Abstract Collectively the daily, seasonal, lunar and tidal geophysical cycles regulate much of the temporal biology of life on Earth. The increasing isolation of human societies from these geophysical cycles, as a result of improved living conditions, high-quality nutrition and 24/7 working practices, have led many to believe that human biology functions independently of them. Yet recent studies have highlighted the dominant role that our circadian clock plays in the organisation of 24 hour patterns of behaviour and physiology. Preferred wake and sleep times are to a large extent driven by an endogenous temporal program that uses sunlight as an entraining cue. The alarm clock can drive human activity rhythms but has little direct effect on our endogenous 24 hour physiology. In many situations, our biology and our society appear to be in serious opposition, and the damaging consequences to our health under these circumstances are increasingly recognised. The seasons dominate the lives of non-equatorial species, and until recently, they also had a marked influence on much of human biology. Despite human isolation from seasonal changes in temperature, food and photoperiod in the industrialised nations, the seasons still appear to have a small, but significant, impact upon when individuals are born and many aspects of health. The seasonal changes that modulate our biology, and how these factors might interact with the social and metabolic status of the individual to drive seasonal effects, are still poorly understood. Lunar cycles had, and continue to have, an influence upon human culture, though despite a persistent belief that our mental health and other behaviours are modulated by the phase of the moon, there is no solid evidence that human biology is in any way regulated by the lunar cycle.

no

Selenology

Are lunar cycles linked to human behavior and health?

yes_statement

"lunar" "cycles" have an impact on "human" "behavior" and "health".. "human" "behavior" and "health" are influenced by "lunar" "cycles".

https://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0960982208008658

Human Responses to the Geophysical Daily, Annual and Lunar ...

Human Responses to the Geophysical Daily, Annual and Lunar Cycles Collectively the daily, seasonal, lunar and tidal geophysical cycles regulate much of the temporal biology of life on Earth. The increasing isolation of human societies from these geophysical cycles, as a result of improved living conditions, high-quality nutrition and 24/7 working practices, have led many to believe that human biology functions independently of them. Yet recent studies have highlighted the dominant role that our circadian clock plays in the organisation of 24 hour patterns of behaviour and physiology. Preferred wake and sleep times are to a large extent driven by an endogenous temporal program that uses sunlight as an entraining cue. The alarm clock can drive human activity rhythms but has little direct effect on our endogenous 24 hour physiology. In many situations, our biology and our society appear to be in serious opposition, and the damaging consequences to our health under these circumstances are increasingly recognised. The seasons dominate the lives of non-equatorial species, and until recently, they also had a marked influence on much of human biology. Despite human isolation from seasonal changes in temperature, food and photoperiod in the industrialised nations, the seasons still appear to have a small, but significant, impact upon when individuals are born and many aspects of health. The seasonal changes that modulate our biology, and how these factors might interact with the social and metabolic status of the individual to drive seasonal effects, are still poorly understood. Lunar cycles had, and continue to have, an influence upon human culture, though despite a persistent belief that our mental health and other behaviours are modulated by the phase of the moon, there is no solid evidence that human biology is in any way regulated by the lunar cycle.

Human Responses to the Geophysical Daily, Annual and Lunar Cycles Collectively the daily, seasonal, lunar and tidal geophysical cycles regulate much of the temporal biology of life on Earth. The increasing isolation of human societies from these geophysical cycles, as a result of improved living conditions, high-quality nutrition and 24/7 working practices, have led many to believe that human biology functions independently of them. Yet recent studies have highlighted the dominant role that our circadian clock plays in the organisation of 24 hour patterns of behaviour and physiology. Preferred wake and sleep times are to a large extent driven by an endogenous temporal program that uses sunlight as an entraining cue. The alarm clock can drive human activity rhythms but has little direct effect on our endogenous 24 hour physiology. In many situations, our biology and our society appear to be in serious opposition, and the damaging consequences to our health under these circumstances are increasingly recognised. The seasons dominate the lives of non-equatorial species, and until recently, they also had a marked influence on much of human biology. Despite human isolation from seasonal changes in temperature, food and photoperiod in the industrialised nations, the seasons still appear to have a small, but significant, impact upon when individuals are born and many aspects of health. The seasonal changes that modulate our biology, and how these factors might interact with the social and metabolic status of the individual to drive seasonal effects, are still poorly understood. Lunar cycles had, and continue to have, an influence upon human culture, though despite a persistent belief that our mental health and other behaviours are modulated by the phase of the moon, there is no solid evidence that human biology is in any way regulated by the lunar cycle.

no

Selenology

Are lunar cycles linked to human behavior and health?

yes_statement

"lunar" "cycles" have an impact on "human" "behavior" and "health".. "human" "behavior" and "health" are influenced by "lunar" "cycles".

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Lunar_effect

Lunar effect - Wikipedia

Unproven proposal of influence of lunar cycle on terrestrial creatures Biologists as well as artists and poets have long thought about the Moon's influence on living creatures. The lunar effect is a purported correlation between specific stages of the roughly 29.5-day lunar cycle and behavior and physiological changes in living beings on Earth, including humans. A considerable number of studies have examined the effect on humans. By the late 1980s, there were at least 40 published studies on the purported lunar-lunacy connection,[1] and at least 20 published studies on the purported lunar-birthrate connection.[2] Literature reviews and metanalyses have found no correlation between the lunar cycle and human biology or behavior.[1][2][3][4] In cases such as the approximately monthly cycle of menstruation in humans (but not other mammals), the coincidence in timing reflects no known lunar influence. The widespread and persistent beliefs about the influence of the Moon may depend on illusory correlation – the perception of an association that does not in fact exist.[5] In a number of marine animals, there is stronger evidence for the effects of lunar cycles. Observed effects relating to reproductive synchrony may depend on external cues relating to the presence or amount of moonlight. Corals contain light-sensitive cryptochromes, proteins that are sensitive to different levels of light. Coral species such as Dipsastraea speciosa tend to synchronize spawning in the evening or night, around the last quarter moon of the lunar cycle. In Dipsastraea speciosa, a period of darkness between sunset and moonrise appears to be a trigger for synchronized spawning. Another marine animal, the bristle worm Platynereis dumerilii, spawns a few days after a full moon. It contains a protein with light-absorbing flavin structures that differentially detect moonlight and sunlight. It is used as a model for studying the biological mechanisms of marine lunar cycles.[6][7][8] It is widely believed that the Moon has a relationship with fertility due to the corresponding human menstrual cycle, which averages 28 days.[9][10][11] However, no connection between lunar rhythms and menstrual onset has been conclusively shown to exist, and the similarity in length between the two cycles is most likely coincidental.[12][13] Multiple studies have found no connection between birth rate and lunar phases. A 1957 analysis of 9,551 births in Danville, Pennsylvania, found no correlation between birth rate and the phase of the Moon.[14] Records of 11,961 live births and 8,142 natural births (not induced by drugs or cesarean section) over a 4-year period (1974–1978) at the UCLA hospital did not correlate in any way with the cycle of lunar phases.[15] Analysis of 3,706 spontaneous births (excluding births resulting from induced labor) in 1994 showed no correlation with lunar phase.[16] The distribution of 167,956 spontaneous vaginal deliveries, at 37 to 40 weeks gestation, in Phoenix, Arizona, between 1995 and 2000, showed no relationship with lunar phase.[17] Analysis of 564,039 births (1997 to 2001) in North Carolina showed no predictable influence of the lunar cycle on deliveries or complications.[18] Analysis of 6,725 deliveries (2000 to 2006) in Hannover revealed no significant correlation of birth rate to lunar phases.[19] A 2001 analysis of 70,000,000 birth records from the National Center for Health Statistics revealed no correlation between birth rate and lunar phase.[20] An extensive review of 21 studies from seven different countries showed that the majority of studies reported no relationship to lunar phase, and that the positive studies were inconsistent with each other.[2] A review of six additional studies from five different countries similarly showed no evidence of relationship between birth rate and lunar phase.[21] In 2021, an analysis of 38.7 million births in France over 50 years, with a detailed correction for birth variations linked to holidays, and robust statistical methods to avoid false detections linked to multiple tests, found a very small (+0.4%) but statistically significant surplus of births on the full moon day, and to a lesser extent the following day. The probability of this excess being due to chance is very low, of the order of one chance in 100,000 (p-value = 1.5 x 10-5). The belief that there is a large surplus of births on full moon days is incorrect, and it is completely impossible for an observer to detect the small increase of +0.4% in a maternity hospital, even on a long time scale.[22] It is sometimes claimed that surgeons used to refuse to operate during the full Moon because of the increased risk of death of the patient through blood loss.[23] One team, in Barcelona, Spain, reported a weak correlation between lunar phase and hospital admissions due to gastrointestinal bleeding, but only when comparing full Moon days to all non-full Moon days lumped together.[24] This methodology has been criticized, and the statistical significance of the results disappears if one compares day 29 of the lunar cycle (full Moon) to days 9, 12, 13, or 27 of the lunar cycle, which all have an almost equal number of hospital admissions.[25] The Spanish team acknowledged that the wide variation in the number of admissions throughout the lunar cycle limited the interpretation of the results.[24] In October 2009, British politician David Tredinnick asserted that during a full Moon "[s]urgeons will not operate because blood clotting is not effective and the police have to put more people on the street.".[26] A spokesman for the Royal College of Surgeons said they would "laugh their heads off" at the suggestion they could not operate on the full Moon.[27] A study into epilepsy found a significant negative correlation between the mean number of epileptic seizures per day and the fraction of the Moon that is illuminated, but the effect resulted from the overall brightness of the night, rather than from the moon phase per se.[28] Senior police officers in Brighton, UK, announced in June 2007 that they were planning to deploy more officers over the summer to counter trouble they believe is linked to the lunar cycle.[29] This followed research by the Sussex Police force that concluded there was a rise in violent crime when the Moon was full. A spokeswoman for the police force said "research carried out by us has shown a correlation between violent incidents and full moons". A police officer responsible for the research told the BBC that "From my experience of 19 years of being a police officer, undoubtedly on full moons we do seem to get people with sort of strange behavior – more fractious, argumentative."[30] In January 2008, New Zealand's Justice Minister Annette King suggested that a spate of stabbings in the country could have been caused by the lunar cycle.[34] A reported correlation between Moon phase and the number of homicides in Miami-Dade County was found, through later analysis, not to be supported by the data and to have been the result of inappropriate and misleading statistical procedures.[3] A study of 13,029 motorcyclists killed in nighttime crashes found that there were 5.3% more fatalities on nights with a full moon compared to other nights.[35] The authors speculate that the increase might be due to visual distractions created by the moon, especially when it is near the horizon and appears abruptly between trees, around turns, etc. Several studies have argued that the stock market's average returns are much higher during the half of the month closest to the new moon than the half closest to the full moon. The reasons for this have not been studied, but the authors suggest this may be due to lunar influences on mood.[36][37][38] Another study has found contradictory results and questioned these claims.[39] A meta-analysis of thirty-seven studies that examined relationships between the Moon's four phases and human behavior revealed no significant correlation. The authors found that, of twenty-three studies that had claimed to show correlation, nearly half contained at least one statistical error.[1][3] Similarly, in a review of twenty studies examining correlations between Moon phase and suicides, most of the twenty studies found no correlation, and the ones that did report positive results were inconsistent with each other.[3] A 1978 review of the literature also found that lunar phases and human behavior are not related.[40] A 2013 study by Christian Cajochen and collaborators at the University of Basel suggested a correlation between the full Moon and human sleep quality.[41] However, the validity of these results may be limited because of a relatively small (n=33) sample size and inappropriate controls for age and sex.[42] A 2014 study with larger sample sizes (n1=366, n2=29, n3=870) and better experimental controls found no effect of the lunar phase on sleep quality metrics.[42] A 2015 study of 795 children found a three-minute increase in sleep duration near the full moon,[43] but a 2016 study of 5,812 children found a five-minute decrease in sleep duration near the full moon.[44] No other modification in activity behaviors were reported,[44] and the lead scientist concluded: "Our study provides compelling evidence that the moon does not seem to influence people's behavior."[45] A study published in 2021 by researchers from the University of Washington, Yale University, and the National University of Quilmes showed a correlation between lunar cycles and sleep cycles. During the days preceding a full moon, people went to bed later and slept for shorter periods (in some cases with differences of up to 90 minutes), even in locations with full access to electric light.[46] Finally, a Swedish study including one-night at-home sleep recordings from 492 women and 360 men found that men whose sleep was recorded during nights in the waxing period of the lunar cycle exhibited lower sleep efficiency and increased time awake after sleep onset compared to men whose sleep was measured during nights in the waning period. In contrast, the sleep of women remained largely unaffected by the lunar cycle. These results were robust to adjustment for chronic sleep problems and obstructive sleep apnea severity.[47] As for how the belief started in the first place, a 1999 study conjectures that the alleged connection of moon to lunacy might be a ‘cultural fossil’ from a time before the advent of outdoor lighting, when the bright light of the full moon might have induced sleep deprivation in people living outside, thereby triggering erratic behaviour in predisposed people with mental conditions such as bipolar disorder.[48] Corals contain light-sensitive cryptochromes, proteins that are sensitive to different levels of light.[6] Spawning of coral Platygyra lamellina occurs at night during the summer on a date determined by the phase of the Moon; in the Red Sea, this is the three- to five-day period around the new Moon in July and the similar period in August.[49]Acropora coral time their simultaneous release of sperm and eggs to just one or two days a year, after sundown with a full moon.[50]Dipsastraea speciosa tends to synchronize spawning in the evening or night, around the last quarter moon of the lunar cycle.[6][7][51] The emergence of complex rhythms from solar and lunar cycles in marine ecosystems.[7] Another marine animal, the bristle worm Platynereis dumerilii, also spawns a few days after a full moon. It is used as a model for studying cryptochromes and photoreduction in proteins. The L-Cry protein can distinguish between sunlight and moonlight through the differential activity of two protein strands that contain light-absorbing structures called flavins. Another molecule, called r-Opsin, may act as a moonrise sensor. Exactly how different biological signals are transmitted within the worm is not yet known.[6][7][8] California grunion fish have an unusual mating and spawning ritual during the spring and summer months. The egg laying takes place on four consecutive nights, beginning on the nights of the full and new Moons, when tides are highest. This well understood reproductive strategy is related to tides, which are highest when the Sun, Earth, and Moon are aligned, i.e., at new Moon or full Moon.[53] Evidence for lunar effect in reptiles, birds and mammals is scant,[52] but among reptiles marine iguanas (which live in the Galápagos Islands) time their trips to the sea in order to arrive at low tide.[55] A relationship between the moon and the birth rate of cows was reported in a 2016 study.[56] In 2000, a retrospective study in the United Kingdom reported an association between the full moon and significant increases in animal bites to humans. The study reported that patients presenting to the A&E with injuries stemming from bites from an animal rose significantly at the time of a full moon in the period 1997–1999. The study concluded that animals have an increased inclination to bite a human during a full moon period. It did not address the question of how humans came into contact with the animals, and whether this was more likely to happen during the full moon.[57] Serious doubts have been raised[58] about the claim that a species of Ephedra synchronizes its pollination peak to the full moon in July.[59] Reviewers conclude that more research is needed to answer this question.[60] ^ abcdKelly, Ivan; Rotton, James; Culver, Roger (1986), "The Moon Was Full and Nothing Happened: A Review of Studies on the Moon and Human Behavior", Skeptical Inquirer, 10 (2): 129–43. Reprinted in The Hundredth Monkey – and other paradigms of the paranormal, edited by Kendrick Frazier, Prometheus Books. Revised and updated in The Outer Edge: Classic Investigations of the Paranormal, edited by Joe Nickell, Barry Karr, and Tom Genoni, 1996, CSICOP. Zimecki, Michał (2006). "The lunar cycle: effects on human and animal behavior and physiology". Postepy Higieny I Medycyny Doswiadczalnej. 60: 1–7. PMID16407788. Archived from the original on 26 June 2017. Retrieved 25 July 2015. In fish the lunar clock influences reproduction and involves the hypothalamus-pituitary-gonadal axis. In birds, the daily variations in melatonin and corticosterone disappear during full-moon days. The lunar cycle also exerts effects on laboratory rats with regard to taste sensitivity and the ultrastructure of pineal gland cells. Cyclic variations related to the moon's phases in the magnitude of the humoral immune response of mice to polivinylpyrrolidone and sheep erythrocytes were also described. It is suggested that melatonin and endogenous steroids may mediate the described cyclic alterations of physiological processes. The release of neurohormones may be triggered by the electromagnetic radiation and/or the gravitational pull of the moon

Unproven proposal of influence of lunar cycle on terrestrial creatures Biologists as well as artists and poets have long thought about the Moon's influence on living creatures. The lunar effect is a purported correlation between specific stages of the roughly 29.5-day lunar cycle and behavior and physiological changes in living beings on Earth, including humans. A considerable number of studies have examined the effect on humans. By the late 1980s, there were at least 40 published studies on the purported lunar-lunacy connection,[1] and at least 20 published studies on the purported lunar-birthrate connection.[2] Literature reviews and metanalyses have found no correlation between the lunar cycle and human biology or behavior.[1][2][3][4] In cases such as the approximately monthly cycle of menstruation in humans (but not other mammals), the coincidence in timing reflects no known lunar influence. The widespread and persistent beliefs about the influence of the Moon may depend on illusory correlation – the perception of an association that does not in fact exist.[5] In a number of marine animals, there is stronger evidence for the effects of lunar cycles. Observed effects relating to reproductive synchrony may depend on external cues relating to the presence or amount of moonlight. Corals contain light-sensitive cryptochromes, proteins that are sensitive to different levels of light. Coral species such as Dipsastraea speciosa tend to synchronize spawning in the evening or night, around the last quarter moon of the lunar cycle. In Dipsastraea speciosa, a period of darkness between sunset and moonrise appears to be a trigger for synchronized spawning. Another marine animal, the bristle worm Platynereis dumerilii, spawns a few days after a full moon. It contains a protein with light-absorbing flavin structures that differentially detect moonlight and sunlight. It is used as a model for studying the biological mechanisms of marine lunar cycles.[6][7][8]

no

Selenology

Are lunar cycles linked to human behavior and health?

yes_statement

"lunar" "cycles" have an impact on "human" "behavior" and "health".. "human" "behavior" and "health" are influenced by "lunar" "cycles".

https://www.aaas.org/news/moon-cycles-exert-influence-menstruation-and-sleep-patterns

Moon Cycles Exert an Influence on Menstruation and Sleep Patterns ...

External Links You are here Moon Cycles Exert an Influence on Menstruation and Sleep Patterns The moon may not drive people mad or trigger werewolf transformations, but lunar cycles do, in fact, appear to affect human biology by influencing menstrual and sleep cycles, according to two studies published in the January 29 issue of Science Advances. An analysis of sleep cycles in rural and urban indigenous Argentinians as well as urban U.S. university students found that people fall asleep later and sleep less on the nights leading up to a full moon, when moonlight fills the night sky after dusk. The findings suggest that human sleep is synchronized with the moon's phases regardless of ethnic or cultural differences — and even in locations where light pollution outshines moonlight. In a related study, an investigation of long-term menstrual cycle records maintained by 22 women shows that women with cycles lasting longer than 27 days intermittently synchronized with moon phase cycles and the moon's gravitational pull. This synchrony was lost as women aged and when they were exposed to artificial light at night. The researchers hypothesized that human reproductive behavior may have been synchronous with the moon during ancient times, but that this changed as modern lifestyles emerged and humans increasingly gained exposure to artificial light at night. "I was surprised and fascinated at the same time, although our study is not at all the first report of an influence of the lunar cycle on humans and in many marine animals reproduction is strongly coupled to the moon cycles," said Charlotte Helfrich-Förster, a professor of neurobiology and genetics at the University of Würzburg in Germany. "Nevertheless, most researchers are skeptical about an influence of the moon on human life." That Time of the (Lunar) Month While some older research suggests that women with menstrual cycles that most closely match lunar cycles may have the highest likelihood of becoming pregnant, lunar influence on human reproduction remains a controversial subject. Helfrich-Förster admitted she was skeptical when she first noticed women saying that their periods coincided with the full moon — but her skepticism wavered as she received records of menstrual cycle onsets from different women over the course of several years. When she plotted these records in relation to the full moon, Helfrich-Förster found, to her amazement, that the women's periods did actually occur during the full moon for certain time intervals — but never indefinitely. "I started to ask more and more women about such recordings," said Helfrich-Förster. The scientist and her colleagues gathered menstrual cycle data kept by 22 women spanning an average of 15 years, including records from 15 women ages 35 or younger and 17 women over 35. To uncover any times during which the women's menstrual cycles occurred in sync with lunar cycles, the researchers displayed the data as graphs that show time-based relations along with fluctuations in the moon's cycles. Unlike previous studies of this phenomenon, which tended to investigate large numbers of women over short periods of time, Helfrich-Förster and colleagues analyzed records from a small number of women over long periods of time. "I think that many of these studies missed a synchronization to the lunar cycle, because there is a high variability between individual women and because all women respond to the lunar cycle only during a relative short time interval in their life, ranging from few months to several years," said Helfrich-Förster. The researchers found that most women's menstrual cycles aligned with the synodic month (the time it takes for the moon to cycle through all its phases) at certain intervals, with the periods of women age 35 or younger synchronizing with the full or new moon for 23.6% of the recorded time, on average. Women over 35 only showed this synchrony about 9.5% of the time. Menstrual cycles also aligned with the tropical month (the 27.32 days it takes the moon to pass twice through the same point in its orbit) 13.1% of the time in women 35 years and younger and 17.7% of the time in women over 35, suggesting that menstruation is also affected by shifts in the moon's gravitational pull. Furthermore, the researchers observed greater synchronization between lunar and menstrual cycles during long winter nights, when women experienced prolonged exposure to moonlight. "It is hard to say what [these findings] mean for our lives, but in the worst case fertility is to some degree dependent of the moon cycle and suffers from our modern lifestyles in large cities," said Helfrich-Förster. By The Light of the Moon To investigate how the moon influences sleep, another team of researchers broke away from their own big-city lives and spent several years studying Toba/Qom indigenous communities in Argentina. When community members told stories revealing that social activities ballooned on moonlit nights, the researchers decided to investigate whether the moonlight disrupted their sleep. "Our hypothesis that during moonlit nights sleep would be inhibited also predicted that the effect would be stronger in communities that had no access to electricity, who would rely more on the moon for a nocturnal source of light than communities that have free access to electricity," said Horacio de la Iglesia, a professor of biology at the University of Washington and an author of the study. "In this sense, these Toba/Qom communities were ideal to test the hypotheses of this study." While moonlight has been previously shown to affect nocturnal activity in many organisms, the question of whether the moon's cycles affect human sleep and nighttime wakefulness has, as with the question of moon cycles and human reproduction, remained controversial. "[Previous] studies were mainly based on sleep recordings from laboratory studies that were not designed to longitudinally detect changes in sleep in each study subject," said de la Iglesia. "Instead, they compared sleep parameters from several subjects retrospectively, and detected moon phase differences. Other studies that had been done in the field longitudinally used sleep diaries." A new study suggests human sleep is synchronized with the moon’s phases even in locations where light pollution outshines moonlight. | Kiyomi Taguchi / University of Washington Sleep may be synchronized with moon phases even in places with light pollution. | Kiyomi Taguchi / University of Washington To address this research gap, de la Iglesia and colleagues asked 98 people within three indigenous Argentinian Toba/Qom communities to wear wrist sensors — a more accurate and objective strategy than sleep diaries — to measure their wake/sleep cycles over one to two months. The individuals each lived in an urban community with full access to electricity, a rural community with limited electric light access, or a rural community without electricity. "We assessed sleep quantitatively and longitudinally within the same participants for a full lunar cycle, sometimes even two full lunar cycles in the same participant," said de la Iglesia. "This strategy allowed us to quantitatively and objectively determine sleep timing throughout lunar phases individually. Because of the inherent variability of sleep studies — every person sleeps slightly more or less, or goes to bed earlier or later than others — this strategy was critical to detect the synchronization between sleep parameters and the moon phases." Goodnight Moon Across all communities, sleep patterns were clearly modulated by the moon's cycle, with each person's sleep duration varying by 20 to 90 minutes throughout the cycle. Participants went to sleep the latest and slept the least three to five days before the night of a full moon. The researchers also observed that groups with less access to electric light were more affected by shifts in moonlight, with people in communities without any electricity sleeping 25 minutes longer on dark nights than on fully moonlit nights. In comparison, people with limited electric light access slept 19 minutes longer, and those with full electricity access slept 11 minutes longer. Additionally, de la Iglesia and colleagues analyzed sleep recordings from 464 University of Washington undergraduate students, which led to a surprise — the urban students displayed moon-dependent sleep patterns similar to those of the Toba/Qom communities. "We were extremely surprised to find that the effect, although smaller, was present regardless of the access to electricity, and in fact, even in university students living in Seattle," said de la Iglesia. "We believe that the gravitational pull cycles associated with the lunar month may predispose humans to be particularly sensitive to the effects of light — moonlight or artificial — on the nights close to the full moon light." "Our future plans are to determine how specific moon phases make humans prone to shorter or delayed sleep," he added. "We have found a very robust phenomenon — that human sleep timing is synchronized with moon phases. Now we want to know how this happens."

External Links You are here Moon Cycles Exert an Influence on Menstruation and Sleep Patterns The moon may not drive people mad or trigger werewolf transformations, but lunar cycles do, in fact, appear to affect human biology by influencing menstrual and sleep cycles, according to two studies published in the January 29 issue of Science Advances. An analysis of sleep cycles in rural and urban indigenous Argentinians as well as urban U.S. university students found that people fall asleep later and sleep less on the nights leading up to a full moon, when moonlight fills the night sky after dusk. The findings suggest that human sleep is synchronized with the moon's phases regardless of ethnic or cultural differences — and even in locations where light pollution outshines moonlight. In a related study, an investigation of long-term menstrual cycle records maintained by 22 women shows that women with cycles lasting longer than 27 days intermittently synchronized with moon phase cycles and the moon's gravitational pull. This synchrony was lost as women aged and when they were exposed to artificial light at night. The researchers hypothesized that human reproductive behavior may have been synchronous with the moon during ancient times, but that this changed as modern lifestyles emerged and humans increasingly gained exposure to artificial light at night. "I was surprised and fascinated at the same time, although our study is not at all the first report of an influence of the lunar cycle on humans and in many marine animals reproduction is strongly coupled to the moon cycles," said Charlotte Helfrich-Förster, a professor of neurobiology and genetics at the University of Würzburg in Germany. "Nevertheless, most researchers are skeptical about an influence of the moon on human life. " That Time of the (Lunar) Month While some older research suggests that women with menstrual cycles that most closely match lunar cycles may have the highest likelihood of becoming pregnant, lunar influence on human reproduction remains a controversial subject.

yes