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anarchism originated as a term of abuse first used against early working class radicals including the diggers of the english revolution and the sans culottes of the french revolution whilst the term is still used in a pejorative way to describe any act that used violent means to destroy the organization of society it has also been taken up as a positive label by self defined anarchists the word anarchism is derived from the greek without archons ruler chief king anarchism as a political philosophy is the belief that rulers are unnecessary and should be abolished although there are differing interpretations of what this means anarchism also refers to related social movements that advocate the elimination of authoritarian institutions particularly the state the word anarchy as most anarchists use it does not imply chaos nihilism or anomie but rather a harmonious anti authoritarian society in place of what are regarded as authoritarian political structures and coercive economic institutions anarchists advocate

social relations based upon voluntary association of autonomous individuals mutual aid and self governance while anarchism is most easily defined by what it is against anarchists also offer positive visions of what they believe to be a truly free society however ideas about how an anarchist society might work vary considerably especially with respect to economics there is also disagreement about how a free society might be brought about origins and predecessors kropotkin and others argue that before recorded history human society was organized on anarchist principles most anthropologists follow kropotkin and engels in believing that hunter gatherer bands were egalitarian and lacked division of labour accumulated wealth or decreed law and had equal access to resources william godwin anarchists including the the anarchy organisation and rothbard find anarchist attitudes in taoism from ancient china kropotkin found similar ideas in stoic zeno of citium according to kropotkin zeno repudiated the omnipotence of th

e state its intervention and regimentation and proclaimed the sovereignty of the moral law of the individual the anabaptists of one six th century europe are sometimes considered to be religious forerunners of modern anarchism bertrand russell in his history of western philosophy writes that the anabaptists repudiated all law since they held that the good man will be guided at every moment by the holy spirit from this premise they arrive at communism the diggers or true levellers were an early communistic movement during the time of the english civil war and are considered by some as forerunners of modern anarchism in the modern era the first to use the term to mean something other than chaos was louis armand baron de lahontan in his nouveaux voyages dans l am rique septentrionale one seven zero three where he described the indigenous american society which had no state laws prisons priests or private property as being in anarchy russell means a libertarian and leader in the american indian movement has repea

tedly stated that he is an anarchist and so are all his ancestors in one seven nine three in the thick of the french revolution william godwin published an enquiry concerning political justice although godwin did not use the word anarchism many later anarchists have regarded this book as the first major anarchist text and godwin as the founder of philosophical anarchism but at this point no anarchist movement yet existed and the term anarchiste was known mainly as an insult hurled by the bourgeois girondins at more radical elements in the french revolution the first self labelled anarchist pierre joseph proudhon it is commonly held that it wasn t until pierre joseph proudhon published what is property in one eight four zero that the term anarchist was adopted as a self description it is for this reason that some claim proudhon as the founder of modern anarchist theory in what is property proudhon answers with the famous accusation property is theft in this work he opposed the institution of decreed property p

ropri t where owners have complete rights to use and abuse their property as they wish such as exploiting workers for profit in its place proudhon supported what he called possession individuals can have limited rights to use resources capital and goods in accordance with principles of equality and justice proudhon s vision of anarchy which he called mutualism mutuellisme involved an exchange economy where individuals and groups could trade the products of their labor using labor notes which represented the amount of working time involved in production this would ensure that no one would profit from the labor of others workers could freely join together in co operative workshops an interest free bank would be set up to provide everyone with access to the means of production proudhon s ideas were influential within french working class movements and his followers were active in the revolution of one eight four eight in france proudhon s philosophy of property is complex it was developed in a number of works ov

er his lifetime and there are differing interpretations of some of his ideas for more detailed discussion see here max stirner s egoism in his the ego and its own stirner argued that most commonly accepted social institutions including the notion of state property as a right natural rights in general and the very notion of society were mere illusions or ghosts in the mind saying of society that the individuals are its reality he advocated egoism and a form of amoralism in which individuals would unite in associations of egoists only when it was in their self interest to do so for him property simply comes about through might whoever knows how to take to defend the thing to him belongs property and what i have in my power that is my own so long as i assert myself as holder i am the proprietor of the thing stirner never called himself an anarchist he accepted only the label egoist nevertheless his ideas were influential on many individualistically inclined anarchists although interpretations of his thought are

diverse american individualist anarchism benjamin tucker in one eight two five josiah warren had participated in a communitarian experiment headed by robert owen called new harmony which failed in a few years amidst much internal conflict warren blamed the community s failure on a lack of individual sovereignty and a lack of private property warren proceeded to organise experimenal anarchist communities which respected what he called the sovereignty of the individual at utopia and modern times in one eight three three warren wrote and published the peaceful revolutionist which some have noted to be the first anarchist periodical ever published benjamin tucker says that warren was the first man to expound and formulate the doctrine now known as anarchism liberty xiv december one nine zero zero one benjamin tucker became interested in anarchism through meeting josiah warren and william b greene he edited and published liberty from august one eight eight one to april one nine zero eight it is widely considered t

o be the finest individualist anarchist periodical ever issued in the english language tucker s conception of individualist anarchism incorporated the ideas of a variety of theorists greene s ideas on mutual banking warren s ideas on cost as the limit of price a heterodox variety of labour theory of value proudhon s market anarchism max stirner s egoism and herbert spencer s law of equal freedom tucker strongly supported the individual s right to own the product of his or her labour as private property and believed in a market economy for trading this property he argued that in a truly free market system without the state the abundance of competition would eliminate profits and ensure that all workers received the full value of their labor other one nine th century individualists included lysander spooner stephen pearl andrews and victor yarros the first international mikhail bakunin one eight one four one eight seven six in europe harsh reaction followed the revolutions of one eight four eight twenty years l

ater in one eight six four the international workingmen s association sometimes called the first international united some diverse european revolutionary currents including anarchism due to its genuine links to active workers movements the international became signficiant from the start karl marx was a leading figure in the international he was elected to every succeeding general council of the association the first objections to marx came from the mutualists who opposed communism and statism shortly after mikhail bakunin and his followers joined in one eight six eight the first international became polarised into two camps with marx and bakunin as their respective figureheads the clearest difference between the camps was over strategy the anarchists around bakunin favoured in kropotkin s words direct economical struggle against capitalism without interfering in the political parliamentary agitation at that time marx and his followers focused on parliamentary activity bakunin characterised marx s ideas as aut

horitarian and predicted that if a marxist party gained to power its leaders would end up as bad as the ruling class they had fought against in one eight seven two the conflict climaxed with a final split between the two groups at the hague congress this is often cited as the origin of the conflict between anarchists and marxists from this moment the social democratic and libertarian currents of socialism had distinct organisations including rival internationals anarchist communism peter kropotkin proudhon and bakunin both opposed communism associating it with statism however in the one eight seven zero s many anarchists moved away from bakunin s economic thinking called collectivism and embraced communist concepts communists believed the means of production should be owned collectively and that goods be distributed by need not labor an early anarchist communist was joseph d jacque the first person to describe himself as libertarian unlike proudhon he argued that it is not the product of his or her labor that

the worker has a right to but to the satisfaction of his or her needs whatever may be their nature he announced his ideas in his us published journal le libertaire one eight five eight one eight six one peter kropotkin often seen as the most important theorist outlined his economic ideas in the conquest of bread and fields factories and workshops he felt co operation is more beneficial than competition illustrated in nature in mutual aid a factor of evolution one eight nine seven subsequent anarchist communists include emma goldman and alexander berkman many in the anarcho syndicalist movements see below saw anarchist communism as their objective isaac puente s one nine three two comunismo libertario was adopted by the spanish cnt as its manifesto for a post revolutionary society some anarchists disliked merging communism with anarchism several individualist anarchists maintained that abolition of private property was not consistent with liberty for example benjamin tucker whilst professing respect for kropo

tkin and publishing his work described communist anarchism as pseudo anarchism propaganda of the deed johann most was an outspoken advocate of violence anarchists have often been portrayed as dangerous and violent due mainly to a number of high profile violent acts including riots assassinations insurrections and terrorism by some anarchists some revolutionaries of the late one nine th century encouraged acts of political violence such as bombings and the assassinations of heads of state to further anarchism such actions have sometimes been called propaganda by the deed one of the more outspoken advocates of this strategy was johann most who said the existing system will be quickest and most radically overthrown by the annihilation of its exponents therefore massacres of the enemies of the people must be set in motion most s preferred method of terrorism dynamite earned him the moniker dynamost however there is no consensus on the legitimacy or utility of violence in general mikhail bakunin and errico malates

ta for example wrote of violence as a necessary and sometimes desirable force in revolutionary settings but at the same time they denounced acts of individual terrorism malatesta in on violence and bakunin when he refuted nechaev other anarchists sometimes identified as pacifist anarchists advocated complete nonviolence leo tolstoy whose philosophy is often viewed as a form of christian anarchism see below was a notable exponent of nonviolent resistance anarchism in the labour movement the red and black flag coming from the experience of anarchists in the labour movement is particularly associated with anarcho syndicalism anarcho syndicalism was an early two zero th century working class movement seeking to overthrow capitalism and the state to institute a worker controlled society the movement pursued industrial actions such as general strike as a primary strategy many anarcho syndicalists believed in anarchist communism though not all communists believed in syndicalism after the one eight seven one repressi

on french anarchism reemerged influencing the bourses de travails of autonomous workers groups and trade unions from this movement the conf d ration g n rale du travail general confederation of work cgt was formed in one eight nine five as the first major anarcho syndicalist movement emile pataud and emile pouget s writing for the cgt saw libertarian communism developing from a general strike after one nine one four the cgt moved away from anarcho syndicalism due to the appeal of bolshevism french style syndicalism was a significant movement in europe prior to one nine two one and remained a significant movement in spain until the mid one nine four zero s the industrial workers of the world iww founded in one nine zero five in the us espoused unionism and sought a general strike to usher in a stateless society in one nine two three one zero zero zero zero zero members existed with the support of up to three zero zero zero zero zero though not explicitly anarchist they organized by rank and file democracy embo

dying a spirit of resistance that has inspired many anglophone syndicalists cnt propaganda from april two zero zero four reads don t let the politicians rule our lives you vote and they decide don t allow it unity action self management spanish anarchist trade union federations were formed in the one eight seven zero s one nine zero zero and one nine one zero the most successful was the confederaci n nacional del trabajo national confederation of labour cnt founded in one nine one zero prior to the one nine four zero s the cnt was the major force in spanish working class politics with a membership of one five eight million in one nine three four the cnt played a major role in the spanish civil war see also anarchism in spain syndicalists like ricardo flores mag n were key figures in the mexican revolution latin american anarchism was strongly influenced extending to the zapatista rebellion and the factory occupation movements in argentina in berlin in one nine two two the cnt was joined with the international

workers association an anarcho syndicalist successor to the first international contemporary anarcho syndicalism continues as a minor force in many socities much smaller than in the one nine one zero s two zero s and three zero s the largest organised anarchist movement today is in spain in the form of the confederaci n general del trabajo and the cnt the cgt claims a paid up membership of six zero zero zero zero and received over a million votes in spanish syndical elections other active syndicalist movements include the us workers solidarity alliance and the uk solidarity federation the revolutionary industrial unionist industrial workers of the world also exists claiming two zero zero zero paid members contemporary critics of anarcho syndicalism and revolutionary industrial unionism claim that they are workerist and fail to deal with economic life outside work post leftist critics such as bob black claim anarcho syndicalism advocates oppressive social structures such as work and the workplace anarcho synd

icalists in general uphold principles of workers solidarity direct action and self management the russian revolution the russian revolution of one nine one seven was a seismic event in the development of anarchism as a movement and as a philosophy anarchists participated alongside the bolsheviks in both february and october revolutions many anarchists initially supporting the bolshevik coup however the bolsheviks soon turned against the anarchists and other left wing opposition a conflict which culminated in the one nine one eight kronstadt rebellion anarchists in central russia were imprisoned or driven underground or joined the victorious bolsheviks in ukraine anarchists fought in the civil war against both whites and bolsheviks within the makhnovshchina peasant army led by nestor makhno expelled american anarchists emma goldman and alexander berkman before leaving russia were amongst those agitating in response to bolshevik policy and the suppression of the kronstadt uprising both wrote classic accounts of

their experiences in russia aiming to expose the reality of bolshevik control for them bakunin s predictions about the consequences of marxist rule had proved all too true the victory of the bolsheviks in the october revolution and the resulting russian civil war did serious damage to anarchist movements internationally many workers and activists saw bolshevik success as setting an example communist parties grew at the expense of anarchism and other socialist movements in france and the us for example the major syndicalist movements of the cgt and iww began to realign themselves away from anarchism and towards the communist international in paris the dielo truda group of russian anarchist exiles which included nestor makhno concluded that anarchists needed to develop new forms of organisation in response to the structures of bolshevism their one nine two six manifesto known as the organisational platform of the libertarian communists was supported by some communist anarchists though opposed by many others th

e platform continues to inspire some contemporary anarchist groups who believe in an anarchist movement organised around its principles of theoretical unity tactical unity collective responsibility and federalism platformist groups today include the workers solidarity movement in ireland the uk s anarchist federation and the late north eastern federation of anarchist communists in the northeastern united states and bordering canada the fight against fascism spain one nine three six members of the cnt construct armoured cars to fight against the fascists in one of the collectivised factories in the one nine two zero s and one nine three zero s the familiar dynamics of anarchism s conflict with the state were transformed by the rise of fascism in europe in many cases european anarchists faced difficult choices should they join in popular fronts with reformist democrats and soviet led communists against a common fascist enemy luigi fabbri an exile from italian fascism was amongst those arguing that fascism was s

omething different fascism is not just another form of government which like all others uses violence it is the most authoritarian and the most violent form of government imaginable it represents the utmost glorification of the theory and practice of the principle of authority in france where the fascists came close to insurrection in the february one nine three four riots anarchists divided over a united front policy in spain the cnt initially refused to join a popular front electoral alliance and abstention by cnt supporters led to a right wing election victory but in one nine three six the cnt changed its policy and anarchist votes helped bring the popular front back to power months later the ruling class responded with an attempted coup and the spanish civil war one nine three six three nine was underway in reponse to the army rebellion an anarchist inspired movement of peasants and workers supported by armed militias took control of the major city of barcelona and of large areas of rural spain where they

collectivized the land but even before the eventual fascist victory in one nine three nine the anarchists were losing ground in a bitter struggle with the stalinists the cnt leadership often appeared confused and divided with some members controversially entering the government stalinist led troops suppressed the collectives and persecuted both dissident marxists and anarchists since the late one nine seven zero s anarchists have been involved in fighting the rise of neo fascist groups in germany and the united kingdom some anarchists worked within militant anti fascist groups alongside members of the marxist left they advocated directly combating fascists with physical force rather than relying on the state since the late one nine nine zero s a similar tendency has developed within us anarchism see also anti racist action us anti fascist action uk antifa religious anarchism leo tolstoy one eight two eight one nine one zero most anarchist culture tends to be secular if not outright anti religious however the

combination of religious social conscience historical religiousity amongst oppressed social classes and the compatibility of some interpretations of religious traditions with anarchism has resulted in religious anarchism christian anarchists believe that there is no higher authority than god and oppose earthly authority such as government and established churches they believe that jesus teachings were clearly anarchistic but were corrupted when christianity was declared the official religion of rome christian anarchists who follow jesus directive to turn the other cheek are strict pacifists the most famous advocate of christian anarchism was leo tolstoy author of the kingdom of god is within you who called for a society based on compassion nonviolent principles and freedom christian anarchists tend to form experimental communities they also occasionally resist taxation many christian anarchists are vegetarian or vegan christian anarchy can be said to have roots as old as the religion s birth as the early chu

rch exhibits many anarchistic tendencies such as communal goods and wealth by aiming to obey utterly certain of the bible s teachings certain anabaptist groups of sixteenth century europe attempted to emulate the early church s social economic organisation and philosophy by regarding it as the only social structure capable of true obediance to jesus teachings and utterly rejected in theory all earthly hierarchies and authority and indeed non anabaptists in general and violence as ungodly such groups for example the hutterites typically went from initially anarchistic beginnings to as their movements stabalised more authoritarian social models chinese anarchism was most influential in the one nine two zero s strands of chinese anarchism included tai xu s buddhist anarchism which was influenced by tolstoy and the well field system neopaganism with its focus on the environment and equality along with its often decentralized nature has lead to a number of neopagan anarchists one of the most prominent is starhawk

who writes extensively about both spirituality and activism anarchism and feminism emma goldman early french feminists such as jenny d h ricourt and juliette adam criticised the mysogyny in the anarchism of proudhon during the one eight five zero s anarcha feminism is a kind of radical feminism that espouses the belief that patriarchy is a fundamental problem in society while anarchist feminism has existed for more than a hundred years its explicit formulation as anarcha feminism dates back to the early seven zero s during the second wave feminist movement anarcha feminism views patriarchy as the first manifestation of hierarchy in human history thus the first form of oppression occurred in the dominance of male over female anarcha feminists then conclude that if feminists are against patriarchy they must also be against all forms of hierarchy and therefore must reject the authoritarian nature of the state and capitalism anarcho primitivists see the creation of gender roles and patriarchy a creation of the st

art of civilization and therefore consider primitivism to also be an anarchist school of thought that addresses feminist concerns eco feminism is often considered a feminist variant of green anarchist feminist thought anarcha feminism is most often associated with early two zero th century authors and theorists such as emma goldman and voltairine de cleyre although even early first wave feminist mary wollstonecraft held proto anarchist views and william godwin is often considered a feminist anarchist precursor it should be noted that goldman and de cleyre though they both opposed the state had opposing philosophies as de cleyre explains miss goldman is a communist i am an individualist she wishes to destroy the right of property i wish to assert it i make my war upon privilege and authority whereby the right of property the true right in that which is proper to the individual is annihilated she believes that co operation would entirely supplant competition i hold that competition in one form or another will a

lways exist and that it is highly desirable it should in the spanish civil war an anarcha feminist group free women organized to defend both anarchist and feminist ideas in the modern day anarchist movement many anarchists male or female consider themselves feminists and anarcha feminist ideas are growing the publishing of quiet rumors an anarcha feminist reader has helped to spread various kinds of anti authoritarian and anarchist feminist ideas to the broader movement wendy mcelroy has popularized an individualist anarchism take on feminism in her books articles and individualist feminist website anarcho capitalism murray rothbard one nine two six one nine nine five anarcho capitalism is a predominantly united states based theoretical tradition that desires a stateless society with the economic system of free market capitalism unlike other branches of anarchism it does not oppose profit or capitalism consequently most anarchists do not recognise anarcho capitalism as a form of anarchism murray rothbard s sy

nthesis of classical liberalism and austrian economics was germinal for the development of contemporary anarcho capitalist theory he defines anarcho capitalism in terms of the non aggression principle based on the concept of natural law competiting theorists use egoism utilitarianism used by david friedman or contractarianism used by jan narveson some minarchists such as ayn rand robert nozick and robert a heinlein have influenced anarcho capitalism some anarcho capitalists along with some right wing libertarian historians such as david hart and ralph raico considered similar philosophies existing prior to rothbard to be anarcho capitalist such as those of gustave de molinari and auberon herbert opponents of anarcho capitalists dispute these claims the place of anarcho capitalism within anarchism and indeed whether it is a form of anarchism at all is highly controversial for more on this debate see anarchism and anarcho capitalism anarchism and the environment since the late one nine seven zero s anarchists i

n anglophone and european countries have been taking action for the natural environment eco anarchists or green anarchists believe in deep ecology this is a worldview that embraces biodiversity and sustainability eco anarchists often use direct action against what they see as earth destroying institutions of particular importance is the earth first movement that takes action such as tree sitting another important component is ecofeminism which sees the domination of nature as a metaphor for the domination of women green anarchism also involves a critique of industrial capitalism and for some green anarchists civilization itself primitivism is a predominantly western philosophy that advocates a return to a pre industrial and usually pre agricultural society it develops a critique of industrial civilization in this critique technology and development have alienated people from the natural world this philosophy develops themes present in the political action of the luddites and the writings of jean jacques rouss

eau primitivism developed in the context of the reclaim the streets earth first and the earth liberation front movements john zerzan wrote that civilization not just the state would need to fall for anarchy to be achieved anarcho primitivists point to the anti authoritarian nature of many primitive or hunter gatherer societies throughout the world s history as examples of anarchist societies other branches and offshoots anarchism generates many eclectic and syncretic philosophies and movements since the western social formet in the one nine six zero s and one nine seven zero s a number new of movements and schools have appeared most of these stances are limited to even smaller numbers than the schools and movements listed above hakim bey post left anarchy post left anarchy also called egoist anarchism seeks to distance itself from the traditional left communists liberals social democrats etc and to escape the confines of ideology in general post leftists argue that anarchism has been weakened by its long atta

chment to contrary leftist movements and single issue causes anti war anti nuclear etc it calls for a synthesis of anarchist thought and a specifically anti authoritarian revolutionary movement outside of the leftist milieu it often focuses on the individual rather than speaking in terms of class or other broad generalizations and shuns organizational tendencies in favor of the complete absence of explicit hierarchy important groups and individuals associated with post left anarchy include crimethinc the magazine anarchy a journal of desire armed and its editor jason mcquinn bob black hakim bey and others for more information see infoshop org s anarchy after leftism section and the post left section on anarchism ws see also post left anarchy post structuralism the term postanarchism was originated by saul newman first receiving popular attention in his book from bakunin to lacan to refer to a theoretical move towards a synthesis of classical anarchist theory and poststructuralist thought subsequent to newman

s use of the term however it has taken on a life of its own and a wide range of ideas including autonomism post left anarchy situationism post colonialism and zapatismo by its very nature post anarchism rejects the idea that it should be a coherent set of doctrines and beliefs as such it is difficult if not impossible to state with any degree of certainty who should or shouldn t be grouped under the rubric nonetheless key thinkers associated with post anarchism include saul newman todd may gilles deleuze and f lix guattari external reference postanarchism clearinghouse see also post anarchism insurrectionary anarchism insurrectionary anarchism is a form of revolutionary anarchism critical of formal anarchist labor unions and federations insurrectionary anarchists advocate informal organization including small affinity groups carrying out acts of resistance in various struggles and mass organizations called base structures which can include exploited individuals who are not anarchists proponents include wolfi

landstreicher and alfredo m bonanno author of works including armed joy and the anarchist tension this tendency is represented in the us in magazines such as willful disobedience and killing king abacus see also insurrectionary anarchism small a anarchism small a anarchism is a term used in two different but not unconnected contexts dave neal posited the term in opposition to big a anarchism in the article anarchism ideology or methodology while big a anarchism referred to ideological anarchists small a anarchism was applied to their methodological counterparts those who viewed anarchism as a way of acting or a historical tendency against illegitimate authority as an anti ideological position small a anarchism shares some similarities with post left anarchy david graeber and andrej grubacic offer an alternative use of the term applying it to groups and movements organising according to or acting in a manner consistent with anarchist principles of decentralisation voluntary association mutual aid the network m

odel and crucially the rejection of any idea that the end justifies the means let alone that the business of a revolutionary is to seize state power and then begin imposing one s vision at the point of a gun other issues conceptions of an anarchist society many political philosophers justify support of the state as a means of regulating violence so that the destruction caused by human conflict is minimized and fair relationships are established anarchists argue that pursuit of these ends does not justify the establishment of a state many argue that the state is incompatible with those goals and the cause of chaos violence and war anarchists argue that the state helps to create a monopoly on violence and uses violence to advance elite interests much effort has been dedicated to explaining how anarchist societies would handle criminality see also anarchism and society civil rights and cultural sovereignty black anarchism opposes the existence of a state capitalism and subjugation and domination of people of col

or and favors a non hierarchical organization of society theorists include ashanti alston lorenzo komboa ervin and sam mbah anarchist people of color was created as a forum for non caucasian anarchists to express their thoughts about racial issues within the anarchist movement particularly within the united states national anarchism is a political view which seeks to unite cultural or ethnic preservation with anarchist views its adherents propose that those preventing ethnic groups or races from living in separate autonomous groupings should be resisted anti racist action is not an anarchist group but many anarchists are involved it focuses on publicly confronting racist agitators the zapatista movement of chiapas mexico is a cultural sovereignty group with some anarchist proclivities neocolonialism and globalization nearly all anarchists oppose neocolonialism as an attempt to use economic coercion on a global scale carried out through state institutions such as the world bank world trade organization group o

f eight and the world economic forum globalization is an ambiguous term that has different meanings to different anarchist factions most anarchists use the term to mean neocolonialism and or cultural imperialism which they may see as related many are active in the anti globalization movement others particularly anarcho capitalists use globalization to mean the worldwide expansion of the division of labor and trade which they see as beneficial so long as governments do not intervene parallel structures many anarchists try to set up alternatives to state supported institutions and outposts such as food not bombs infoshops educational systems such as home schooling neighborhood mediation arbitration groups and so on the idea is to create the structures for a new anti authoritarian society in the shell of the old authoritarian one technology recent technological developments have made the anarchist cause both easier to advance and more conceivable to people many people use the internet to form on line communities

intellectual property is undermined and a gift culture supported by sharing music files open source programming and the free software movement these cyber communities include the gnu linux indymedia and wiki some anarchists see information technology as the best weapon to defeat authoritarianism some even think the information age makes eventual anarchy inevitable see also crypto anarchism and cypherpunk pacifism some anarchists consider pacifism opposition to war to be inherent in their philosophy anarcho pacifists take it further and follow leo tolstoy s belief in non violence anarchists see war as an activity in which the state seeks to gain and consolidate power both domestically and in foreign lands and subscribe to randolph bourne s view that war is the health of the state a lot of anarchist activity has been anti war based parliamentarianism in general terms the anarchist ethos opposes voting in elections because voting amounts to condoning the state voluntaryism is an anarchist school of thought whic

h emphasizes tending your own garden and neither ballots nor bullets the anarchist case against voting is explained in the ethics of voting by george h smith also see voting anarchists an oxymoron or what by joe peacott and writings by fred woodworth sectarianism most anarchist schools of thought are to some degree sectarian there is often a difference of opinion within each school about how to react to or interact with other schools some such as panarchists believe that it is possible for a variety of modes of social life to coexist and compete some anarchists view opposing schools as a social impossibility and resist interaction others see opportunities for coalition building or at least temporary alliances for specific purposes see anarchism without adjectives criticisms of anarchism main article criticisms of anarchism violence since anarchism has often been associated with violence and destruction some people have seen it as being too violent on the other hand hand frederick engels criticsed anarchists f

or not being violent enough a revolution is certainly the most authoritarian thing there is it is the act whereby one part of the population imposes its will upon the other part by means of rifles bayonets and cannon authoritarian means if such there be at all and if the victorious party does not want to have fought in vain it must maintain this rule by means of the terror which its arms inspire in the reactionists would the paris commune have lasted a single day if it had not made use of this authority of the armed people against the bourgeois utopianism anarchism is often criticised as unfeasible or plain utopian even by many who agree that it s a nice idea in principle for example carl landauer in his book european socialism criticizes anarchism as being unrealistically utopian and holds that government is a lesser evil than a society without repressive force he holds that the belief that ill intentions will cease if repressive force disappears is an absurdity however it must be noted that not all anarchis

ts have such a utopian view of anarchism for example some such as benjamin tucker advocate privately funded institutions that defend individual liberty and property however other anarchists such as sir herbert read proudly accept the characterization utopian class character marxists have characterised anarchism as an expression of the class interests of the petite bourgeoisie or perhaps the lumpenproletariat see e g plekhanov for a marxist critique of one eight nine five anarchists have also been characterised as spoilt middle class dilettantes most recently in relation to anti capitalist protesters tacit authoritarianism in recent decades anarchism has been criticised by situationists post anarchists and others of preserving tacitly statist authoritarian or bureaucratic tendencies behind a dogmatic facade hypocrisy some critics point to the sexist and racist views of some prominent anarchists notably proudhon and bakunin as examples of hypocrisy inherent within anarchism while many anarchists however dismiss

that the personal prejudices of one nine th century theorists influence the beliefs of present day anarchists others criticise modern anarchism for continuing to be eurocentric and reference the impact of anarchist thinkers like proudhon on fascism through groups like cercle proudhon anarcho capitalist bryan caplan argues that the treatment of fascists and suspected fascist sympathizers by spanish anarchists in the spanish civil war was a form of illegitimate coercion making the proffessed anarchists ultimately just a third faction of totalitarians alongside the communists and fascists he also criticizes the willingness of the cnt to join the statist republican government during the civil war and references stanley g payne s book on the franco regime which claims that the cnt entered negotiations with the fascist government six years after the war cultural phenomena noam chomsky one nine two eight the kind of anarchism that is most easily encountered in popular culture is represented by celebrities who publi

cly identify themselves as anarchists although some anarchists reject any focus on such famous living individuals as inherently litist the following figures are examples of prominent publicly self avowed anarchists the mit professor of linguistics noam chomsky the science fiction author ursula k le guin the social historian howard zinn entertainer and author hans alfredsson the avant garde artist nicol s rossell in denmark the freetown christiania was created in downtown copenhagen the housing and employment crisis in most of western europe led to the formation of communes and squatter movements like the one still thriving in barcelona in catalonia militant resistance to neo nazi groups in places like germany and the uprisings of autonomous marxism situationist and autonomist groups in france and italy also helped to give popularity to anti authoritarian non capitalist ideas in various musical styles anarchism rose in popularity most famous for the linking of anarchist ideas and music has been punk rock altho

ugh in the modern age hip hop and folk music are also becoming important mediums for the spreading of the anarchist message in the uk this was associated with the punk rock movement the band crass is celebrated for its anarchist and pacifist ideas the dutch punk band the ex further exemplifies this expression for further details see anarcho punk see also there are many concepts relevant to the topic of anarchism this is a brief summary there is also a more extensive list of anarchist concepts individualist anarchism anarcho communism anarcho syndicalism anarcho capitalism mutualism christian anarchism anarcha feminism green anarchism nihilist anarchism anarcho nationalism black anarchism national anarchism post anarchism post left anarchism libertarian socialism anarchist symbolism list of anarchism links list of anarchists list of anarchist organizations major conflicts within anarchist thought past and present anarchist communities historical events paris commune one eight seven one haymarket riot one eight

eight six the makhnovschina one nine one seven one nine two one kronstadt rebellion one nine two one spanish revolution one nine three six see anarchism in spain and spanish revolution may one nine six eight france one nine six eight wto meeting in seattle one nine nine nine books the following is a sample of books that have been referenced in this page a more complete list can be found at the list of anarchist books mikhail bakunin god and the state emma goldman anarchism other essays peter kropotkin mutual aid pierre joseph proudhon what is property rudolf rocker anarcho syndicalism murray rothbard the ethics of liberty max stirner the ego and its own leo tolstoy the kingdom of god is within you anarchism by region culture african anarchism anarchism in spain anarchism in the english tradition chinese anarchism references these notes have no corresponding reference in the article they might be re used against politics appleton boston anarchists yarros victor liberty vii january two one eight nine two noam

chomsky on anarchism by noam chomsky external links the overwhelming diversity and number of links relating to anarchism is extensively covered on the links subpage anarchoblogs blogs by anarchists anarchy archives extensively archives information relating to famous anarchists this includes many of their books and other publications hundreds of anarchists are listed with short bios links dedicated pages at the daily bleed s anarchist encyclopedia infoshop org wikipedia page industrial workers of the world anarchism forms of government political ideology entry points political theories social philosophy autism is classified as a neurodevelopmental disorder that manifests itself in markedly abnormal social interaction communication ability patterns of interests and patterns of behavior although the specific etiology of autism is unknown many researchers suspect that autism results from genetically mediated vulnerabilities to environmental triggers and while there is disagreement about the magnitude nature and m

echanisms for such environmental factors researchers have found at least seven major genes prevalent among individuals diagnosed as autistic some estimate that autism occurs in as many as one united states child in one six six however the national institute of mental health gives a more conservative estimate of one in one zero zero zero for families that already have one autistic child the odds of a second autistic child may be as high as one in twenty diagnosis is based on a list of psychiatric criteria and a series of standardized clinical tests may also be used autism may not be physiologically obvious a complete physical and neurological evaluation will typically be part of diagnosing autism some now speculate that autism is not a single condition but a group of several distinct conditions that manifest in similar ways by definition autism must manifest delays in social interaction language as used in social communication or symbolic or imaginative play with onset prior to age three years according to the

diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders the icd one zero also says that symptoms must manifest before the age of three years there have been large increases in the reported incidence of autism for reasons that are heavily debated by researchers in psychology and related fields within the scientific community some children with autism have improved their social and other skills to the point where they can fully participate in mainstream education and social events but there are lingering concerns that an absolute cure from autism is impossible with current technology however many autistic children and adults who are able to communicate at least in writing are opposed to attempts to cure their conditions and see such conditions as part of who they are history dr hans asperger described a form of autism in the one nine four zero s that later became known as asperger s syndrome the word autism was first used in the english language by swiss psychiatrist eugene bleuler in a one nine one two number o

f the american journal of insanity it comes from the greek word for self however the classification of autism did not occur until the middle of the twentieth century when in one nine four three psychiatrist dr leo kanner of the johns hopkins hospital in baltimore reported on one one child patients with striking behavioral similarities and introduced the label early infantile autism he suggested autism from the greek autos meaning self to describe the fact that the children seemed to lack interest in other people although kanner s first paper on the subject was published in a now defunct journal the nervous child almost every characteristic he originally described is still regarded as typical of the autistic spectrum of disorders at the same time an austrian scientist dr hans asperger described a different form of autism that became known as asperger s syndrome but the widespread recognition of asperger s work was delayed by world war ii in germany and by the fact that his seminal paper wasn t translated into

english for almost five zero years the majority of his work wasn t widely read until one nine nine seven thus these two conditions were described and are today listed in the diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders dsm iv tr fourth edition text revision one as two of the five pervasive developmental disorders pdd more often referred to today as autism spectrum disorders asd all of these conditions are characterized by varying degrees of difference in communication skills social interactions and restricted repetitive and stereotyped patterns of behavior few clinicians today solely use the dsm iv criteria for determining a diagnosis of autism which are based on the absence or delay of certain developmental milestones many clinicians instead use an alternate means or a combination thereof to more accurately determine a diagnosis terminology when referring to someone diagnosed with autism the term autistic is often used however the term person with autism can be used instead this is referred to as pe

rson first terminology the autistic community generally prefers the term autistic for reasons that are fairly controversial this article uses the term autistic see talk page characteristics dr leo kanner introduced the label early infantile autism in one nine four three there is a great diversity in the skills and behaviors of individuals diagnosed as autistic and physicians will often arrive at different conclusions about the appropriate diagnosis much of this is due to the sensory system of an autistic which is quite different from the sensory system of other people since certain stimulations can affect an autistic differently than a non autistic and the degree to which the sensory system is affected varies wildly from one autistic person to another nevertheless professionals within pediatric care and development often look for early indicators of autism in order to initiate treatment as early as possible however some people do not believe in treatment for autism either because they do not believe autism is

a disorder or because they believe treatment can do more harm than good social development typically developing infants are social beings early in life they do such things as gaze at people turn toward voices grasp a finger and even smile in contrast most autistic children prefer objects to faces and seem to have tremendous difficulty learning to engage in the give and take of everyday human interaction even in the first few months of life many seem indifferent to other people because they avoid eye contact and do not interact with them as often as non autistic children children with autism often appear to prefer being alone to the company of others and may passively accept such things as hugs and cuddling without reciprocating or resist attention altogether later they seldom seek comfort from others or respond to parents displays of anger or affection in a typical way research has suggested that although autistic children are attached to their parents their expression of this attachment is unusual and diffi

cult to interpret parents who looked forward to the joys of cuddling teaching and playing with their child may feel crushed by this lack of expected attachment behavior children with autism appear to lack theory of mind the ability to see things from another person s perspective a behavior cited as exclusive to human beings above the age of five and possibly other higher primates such as adult gorillas chimpanzees and bonobos typical five year olds can develop insights into other people s different knowledge feelings and intentions interpretations based upon social cues e g gestures facial expressions an individual with autism seems to lack these interpretation skills an inability that leaves them unable to predict or understand other people s actions the social alienation of autistic and asperger s people is so intense from childhood that many of them have imaginary friends as companionship however having an imaginary friend is not necessarily a sign of autism and also occurs in non autistic children althoug

h not universal it is common for autistic people to not regulate their behavior this can take the form of crying or verbal outbursts that may seem out of proportion to the situation individuals with autism generally prefer consistent routines and environments they may react negatively to changes in them it is not uncommon for these individuals to exhibit aggression increased levels of self stimulatory behavior self injury or extensive withdrawal in overwhelming situations sensory system a key indicator to clinicians making a proper assessment for autism would include looking for symptoms much like those found in sensory integration dysfunction children will exhibit problems coping with the normal sensory input indicators of this disorder include oversensitivity or underreactivity to touch movement sights or sounds physical clumsiness or carelessness poor body awareness a tendency to be easily distracted impulsive physical or verbal behavior an activity level that is unusually high or low not unwinding or calm

ing oneself difficulty learning new movements difficulty in making transitions from one situation to another social and or emotional problems delays in speech language or motor skills specific learning difficulties delays in academic achievement one common example is an individual with autism hearing a person with autism may have trouble hearing certain people while other people are louder than usual or the person with autism may be unable to filter out sounds in certain situations such as in a large crowd of people see cocktail party effect however this is perhaps the part of the autism that tends to vary the most from person to person so these examples may not apply to every autistic it should be noted that sensory difficulties although reportedly common in autistics are not part of the dsm iv diagnostic criteria for autistic disorder communication difficulties by age three typical children have passed predictable language learning milestones one of the earliest is babbling by the first birthday a typical t

oddler says words turns when he or she hears his or her name points when he or she wants a toy and when offered something distasteful makes it clear that the answer is no speech development in people with autism takes different paths some remain mute throughout their lives while being fully literate and able to communicate in other ways images sign language and typing are far more natural to them some infants who later show signs of autism coo and babble during the first few months of life but stop soon afterwards others may be delayed developing language as late as the teenage years still inability to speak does not mean that people with autism are unintelligent or unaware once given appropriate accommodations many will happily converse for hours and can often be found in online chat rooms discussion boards or websites and even using communication devices at autism community social events such as autreat those who do speak often use language in unusual ways retaining features of earlier stages of language de

velopment for long periods or throughout their lives some speak only single words while others repeat the same phrase over and over some repeat what they hear a condition called echolalia sing song repetitions in particular are a calming joyous activity that many autistic adults engage in many people with autism have a strong tonal sense and can often understand spoken language some children may exhibit only slight delays in language or even seem to have precocious language and unusually large vocabularies but have great difficulty in sustaining typical conversations the give and take of non autistic conversation is hard for them although they often carry on a monologue on a favorite subject giving no one else an opportunity to comment when given the chance to converse with other autistics they comfortably do so in parallel monologue taking turns expressing views and information just as neurotypicals people without autism have trouble understanding autistic body languages vocal tones or phraseology people wit

h autism similarly have trouble with such things in people without autism in particular autistic language abilities tend to be highly literal people without autism often inappropriately attribute hidden meaning to what people with autism say or expect the person with autism to sense such unstated meaning in their own words the body language of people with autism can be difficult for other people to understand facial expressions movements and gestures may be easily understood by some other people with autism but do not match those used by other people also their tone of voice has a much more subtle inflection in reflecting their feelings and the auditory system of a person without autism often cannot sense the fluctuations what seems to non autistic people like a high pitched sing song or flat robot like voice is common in autistic children some autistic children with relatively good language skills speak like little adults rather than communicating at their current age level which is one of the things that ca

n lead to problems since non autistic people are often unfamiliar with the autistic body language and since autistic natural language may not tend towards speech autistic people often struggle to let other people know what they need as anybody might do in such a situation they may scream in frustration or resort to grabbing what they want while waiting for non autistic people to learn to communicate with them people with autism do whatever they can to get through to them communication difficulties may contribute to autistic people becoming socially anxious or depressed repetitive behaviors although people with autism usually appear physically normal and have good muscle control unusual repetitive motions known as self stimulation or stimming may set them apart these behaviors might be extreme and highly apparent or more subtle some children and older individuals spend a lot of time repeatedly flapping their arms or wiggling their toes others suddenly freeze in position as children they might spend hours linin

g up their cars and trains in a certain way not using them for pretend play if someone accidentally moves one of these toys the child may be tremendously upset autistic children often need and demand absolute consistency in their environment a slight change in any routine in mealtimes dressing taking a bath or going to school at a certain time and by the same route can be extremely disturbing people with autism sometimes have a persistent intense preoccupation for example the child might be obsessed with learning all about vacuum cleaners train schedules or lighthouses often they show great interest in different languages numbers symbols or science topics repetitive behaviors can also extend into the spoken word as well perseveration of a single word or phrase even for a specific number of times can also become a part of the child s daily routine effects in education children with autism are affected with these symptoms every day these unusual characteristics set them apart from the everyday normal student be

cause they have trouble understanding people s thoughts and feelings they have trouble understanding what their teacher may be telling them they do not understand that facial expressions and vocal variations hold meanings and may misinterpret what emotion their instructor is displaying this inability to fully decipher the world around them makes education stressful teachers need to be aware of a student s disorder so that they are able to help the student get the best out of the lessons being taught some students learn better with visual aids as they are better able to understand material presented this way because of this many teachers create visual schedules for their autistic students this allows the student to know what is going on throughout the day so they know what to prepare for and what activity they will be doing next some autistic children have trouble going from one activity to the next so this visual schedule can help to reduce stress research has shown that working in pairs may be beneficial to

autistic children autistic students have problems in schools not only with language and communication but with socialization as well they feel self conscious about themselves and many feel that they will always be outcasts by allowing them to work with peers they can make friends which in turn can help them cope with the problems that arise by doing so they can become more integrated into the mainstream environment of the classroom a teacher s aide can also be useful to the student the aide is able to give more elaborate directions that the teacher may not have time to explain to the autistic child the aide can also facilitate the autistic child in such a way as to allow them to stay at a similar level to the rest of the class this allows a partially one on one lesson structure so that the child is still able to stay in a normal classroom but be given the extra help that they need there are many different techniques that teachers can use to assist their students a teacher needs to become familiar with the chi

ld s disorder to know what will work best with that particular child every child is going to be different and teachers have to be able to adjust with every one of them students with autism spectrum disorders typically have high levels of anxiety and stress particularly in social environments like school if a student exhibits aggressive or explosive behavior it is important for educational teams to recognize the impact of stress and anxiety preparing students for new situations by writing social stories can lower anxiety teaching social and emotional concepts using systematic teaching approaches such as the incredible five point scale or other cognitive behavioral strategies can increase a student s ability to control excessive behavioral reactions dsm definition autism is defined in section two nine nine zero zero of the diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders dsm iv as a total of six or more items from one two and three with at least two from one and one each from two and three qualitative impa

irment in social interaction as manifested by at least two of the following marked impairment in the use of multiple nonverbal behaviors such as eye to eye gaze facial expression body postures and gestures to regulate social interaction failure to develop peer relationships appropriate to developmental level a lack of spontaneous seeking to share enjoyment interests or achievements with other people e g by a lack of showing bringing or pointing out objects of interest lack of social or emotional reciprocity qualitative impairments in communication as manifested by at least one of the following delay in or total lack of the development of spoken language not accompanied by an attempt to compensate through alternative modes of communication such as gesture or mime in individuals with adequate speech marked impairment in the ability to initiate or sustain a conversation with others stereotyped and repetitive use of language or idiosyncratic language lack of varied spontaneous make believe play or social imitativ

e play appropriate to developmental level restricted repetitive and stereotyped patterns of behavior interests and activities as manifested by at least one of the following encompassing preoccupation with one or more stereotyped and restricted patterns of interest that is abnormal either in intensity or focus apparently inflexible adherence to specific nonfunctional routines or rituals stereotyped and repetitive motor mannerisms e g hand or finger flapping or twisting or complex whole body movements persistent preoccupation with parts of objects delays or abnormal functioning in at least one of the following areas with onset prior to age three years one social interaction two language as used in social communication or three symbolic or imaginative play the disturbance is not better accounted for by rett s disorder or childhood disintegrative disorder the diagnostic and statistical manual s diagnostic criteria in general is controversial for being vague and subjective see the dsm cautionary statement the crit

eria for autism is much more controversial and some clinicians today may ignore it completely instead solely relying on other methods for determining the diagnosis types of autism autism presents in a wide degree from those who are nearly dysfunctional and apparently mentally handicapped to those whose symptoms are mild or remedied enough to appear unexceptional normal to the general public in terms of both classification and therapy autistic individuals are often divided into those with an iq eight zero are referred to as having high functioning autism hfa low and high functioning are more generally applied to how well an individual can accomplish activities of daily living rather than to iq the terms low and high functioning are controversial and not all autistics accept these labels further these two labels are not currently used or accepted in autism literature this discrepancy can lead to confusion among service providers who equate iq with functioning and may refuse to serve high iq autistic people who

are severely compromised in their ability to perform daily living tasks or may fail to recognize the intellectual potential of many autistic people who are considered lfa for example some professionals refuse to recognize autistics who can speak or write as being autistic at all because they still think of autism as a communication disorder so severe that no speech or writing is possible as a consequence many high functioning autistic persons and autistic people with a relatively high iq are underdiagnosed thus making the claim that autism implies retardation self fulfilling the number of people diagnosed with lfa is not rising quite as sharply as hfa indicating that at least part of the explanation for the apparent rise is probably better diagnostics asperger s and kanner s syndrome asperger described his patients as little professors in the current diagnostic and statistical manual of mental disorders dsm iv tr the most significant difference between autistic disorder kanner s and asperger s syndrome is tha

t a diagnosis of the former includes the observation of delays or abnormal functioning in at least one of the following areas with onset prior to age three years one social interaction two language as used in social communication or three symbolic or imaginative play while a diagnosis of asperger s syndrome observes no clinically significant delay in these areas the dsm makes no mention of level of intellectual functioning but the fact that asperger s autistics as a group tend to perform better than those with kanner s autism has produced a popular conception that asperger s syndrome is synonymous with higher functioning autism or that it is a lesser disorder than autism there is also a popular but not necessarily true conception that all autistic individuals with a high level of intellectual functioning have asperger s autism or that both types are merely geeks with a medical label attached also autism has evolved in the public understanding but the popular identification of autism with relatively severe cas

es as accurately depicted in rain man has encouraged relatives of family members diagnosed in the autistic spectrum to speak of their loved ones as having asperger s syndrome rather than autism autism as a spectrum disorder another view of these disorders is that they are on a continuum known as autistic spectrum disorders a related continuum is sensory integration dysfunction which is about how well we integrate the information we receive from our senses autism asperger s syndrome and sensory integration dysfunction are all closely related and overlap there are two main manifestations of classical autism regressive autism and early infantile autism early infantile autism is present at birth while regressive autism begins before the age of three and often around one eight months although this causes some controversy over when the neurological differences involved in autism truly begin some believe that it is only a matter of when an environmental toxin triggers the disorder this triggering could occur during

gestation due to a toxin that enters the mother s body and is transfered to the fetus the triggering could also occur after birth during the crucial early nervous system development of the child due to a toxin directly entering the child s body increase in diagnoses of autism the number of reported cases of autism has increased dramatically over the past decade statistics in graph from the national center for health statistics there has been an explosion worldwide in reported cases of autism over the last ten years which is largely reminiscent of increases in the diagnosis of schizophrenia and multiple personality disorder in the twentieth century this has brought rise to a number of different theories as to the nature of the sudden increase epidemiologists argue that the rise in diagnoses in the united states is partly or entirely attributable to changes in diagnostic criteria reclassifications public awareness and the incentive to receive federally mandated services a widely cited study from the m i n d ins

titute in california one seven october two zero zero two claimed that the increase in autism is real even after those complicating factors are accounted for see reference in this section below other researchers remain unconvinced see references below including dr chris johnson a professor of pediatrics at the university of texas health sciences center at san antonio and cochair of the american academy of pediatrics autism expert panel who says there is a chance we re seeing a true rise but right now i don t think anybody can answer that question for sure newsweek reference below the answer to this question has significant ramifications on the direction of research since a real increase would focus more attention and research funding on the search for environmental factors while little or no real increase would focus more attention to genetics on the other hand it is conceivable that certain environmental factors vaccination diet societal changes may have a particular impact on people with a specific genetic c

onstitution there is little public research on the effects of in vitro fertilization on the number of incidences of autism one of the more popular theories is that there is a connection between geekdom and autism this is hinted for instance by a wired magazine article in two zero zero one entitled the geek syndrome which is a point argued by many in the autism rights movement this article many professionals assert is just one example of the media s application of mental disease labels to what is actually variant normal behavior they argue that shyness lack of athletic ability or social skills and intellectual interests even when they seem unusual to others are not in themselves signs of autism or asperger s syndrome others assert that it is actually the medical profession which is applying mental disease labels to children who in the past would have simply been accepted as a little different or even labeled gifted see clinomorphism for further discussion of this issue due to the recent publicity surrounding a

utism and autistic spectrum disorders an increasing number of adults are choosing to seek diagnoses of high functioning autism or asperger s syndrome in light of symptoms they currently experience or experienced during childhood since the cause of autism is thought to be at least partly genetic a proportion of these adults seek their own diagnosis specifically as follow up to their children s diagnoses because autism falls into the pervasive developmental disorder category strictly speaking symptoms must have been present in a given patient before age seven in order to make a differential diagnosis therapies sociology due to the complexity of autism there are many facets of sociology that need to be considered when discussing it such as the culture which has evolved from autistic persons connecting and communicating with one another in addition there are several subgroups forming within the autistic community sometimes in strong opposition to one another community and politics much like many other controversi

es in the world the autistic community itself has splintered off into several groups essentially these groups are those who seek a cure for autism dubbed pro cure those who do not desire a cure for autism and as such resist it dubbed anti cure and the many people caught in the middle of the two in recent history with scientists learning more about autism and possibly coming closer to a cure some members of the anti cure movement sent a letter to the united nations demanding to be treated as a minority group rather than a group with a mental disability or disease websites such as autistics org present the view of the anti cure group there are numerous resources available for autistics from many groups due to the fact that many autistics find it easier to communicate online than in person many of these resources are available online in addition sometimes successful autistic adults in a local community will help out children with autism much in the way a master would help out an apprentice for example two zero z

ero two was declared autism awareness year in the united kingdom this idea was initiated by ivan and charika corea parents of an autistic child charin autism awareness year was led by the british institute of brain injured children disabilities trust national autistic society autism london and eight zero zero organizations in the united kingdom it had the personal backing of british prime minister tony blair and parliamentarians of all parties in the palace of westminster culture with the recent increases in autism recognition and new approaches to educating and socializing autistics an autistic culture has begun to develop similar to deaf culture autistic culture is based in a belief that autism is a unique way of being and not a disorder to be cured there are some commonalities which are specific to autism in general as a culture not just autistic culture it is a common misperception that people with autism do not marry many do get married often they marry another person with autism although this is not alw

ays the case many times autistics are attracted to other autistics due to shared interests or obsessions but more often than not the attraction is due to simple compatibility with personality types the same as is true for non autistics autistics who communicate have explained that companionship is as important to autistics as it is to anyone else multigenerational autistic families have also recently become a bit more common the interests of autistic people and so called geeks or nerds can often overlap as autistic people can sometimes become preoccupied with certain subjects much like the variant normal behavior geeks experience however in practice many autistic people have difficulty with working in groups which impairs them even in the most technical of situations autistic adults temple grandin one of the more successful adults with autism photograph courtesy joshua nathaniel pritikin and william lawrence jarrold some autistic adults are able to work successfully in mainstream jobs usually those with high

functioning autism or asperger s syndrome nevertheless communication and social problems often cause difficulties in many areas of the autistic s life other autistics are capable of employment in sheltered workshops under the supervision of managers trained in working with persons with disabilities a nurturing environment at home at school and later in job training and at work helps autistic people continue to learn and to develop throughout their lives some argue that the internet allows autistic individuals to communicate and form online communities in addition to being able to find occupations such as independent consulting which does generally not require much human interaction offline in the united states the public schools responsibility for providing services ends when the autistic person is in their two zero s depending on each state the family is then faced with the challenge of finding living arrangements and employment to match the particular needs of their adult child as well as the programs and f

acilities that can provide support services to achieve these goals autistic savants the autistic savant phenomenon is sometimes seen in autistic people the term is used to describe a person who is autistic and has extreme talent in a certain area of study although there is a common association between savants and autism an association created by the one nine eight eight film rain man most autistic people are not savants mental calculators and fast programming skills are the most common form the famous example is daniel tammet the subject of the documentary film the brain man kim peek one of the inspirations for dustin hoffman s character in the film rain man is not autistic bright splinters of the mind is a book that explores this issue further other pervasive developmental disorders autism and asperger s syndrome are just two of the five pervasive developmental disorders pdds the three other pervasive developmental disorders are rett syndrome childhood disintegrative disorder and pervasive developmental diso

rder not otherwise specified some of these are related to autism while some of them are entirely separate conditions rett syndrome rett syndrome is relatively rare affecting almost exclusively females one out of one zero zero zero zero to one five zero zero zero after a period of normal development sometime between six and one eight months autism like symptoms begin to appear the little girl s mental and social development regresses she no longer responds to her parents and pulls away from any social contact if she has been talking she stops she cannot control her feet she wrings her hands some of these early symptoms may be confused for autism some of the problems associated with rett syndrome can be treated physical occupational and speech therapy can help with problems of coordination movement and speech scientists sponsored by the national institute of child health and human development have discovered that a mutation in the sequence of a single gene causes rett syndrome and can physically test for it wit

h a eight zero accuracy rate rett syndrome in the past was sometimes classified as an autistic spectrum disorder however most scientists agree that rett syndrome is a separate developmental disorder and not part of the autistic spectrum childhood disintegrative disorder childhood disintegrative disorder cdd and sometimes abbreviated as chdd also is a condition appearing in three or four year old children who have developed normally until age two over several months the child will deteriorate in intellectual social and language functioning from previously normal behaviour this long period of normal development before regression helps differentiate cdd from rett syndrome and in fact it must be differentiated from autism in testing the cause for cdd is unknown thus it may be a spectrum disorder but current evidence suggests it has something to do with the central nervous system pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified pervasive developmental disorder not otherwise specified or pdd nos is referred

to as a subthreshold condition because it is a classification which is given to someone who suffers from impairments in social interaction communication and or stereotyped behaviour but does not meet the criteria for one of the other four pervasive developmental disorders unlike the other four pervasive developmental disorders pdd nos has no specific guidelines for diagnosis so the person may have a lot of characteristics of an autistic person or few to none at all note that pervasive developmental disorder is not a diagnosis just a term to refer to the five mentioned conditions while pdd nos is an official diagnosis see also general autism therapies causes of autism conditions comorbid to autism spectrum disorders early childhood autism heritability of autism groups aspies for freedom national alliance for autism research controversy controversies about functioning labels in the autism spectrum controversies in autism ethical challenges to autism treatment lists list of autism related topics list of fiction

al characters on the autistic spectrum list of autistic people references abstract abstract manev r manev h aminoglycoside antibiotics and autism a speculative hypothesis bmc psychiatry two zero zero one one five epub two zero zero one one zero october strock margaret two zero zero four autism spectrum disorders pervasive developmental disorders nih publication no nih zero four five five one one national institute of mental health national institutes of health u s department of health and human services bethesda md four zero pp http www nimh nih gov publicat autism cfm footnotes external links general wrongplanet net the community and resource for autism autism spectrum disorder com autism spectrum disorder colour se seven en a website created to bring awareness of spectrum related disorders and forums for nt and asd interaction ericdigests org teaching students with autism glen dunlap lise fox eric digest october one nine nine nine autistic and proud describes new discoveries about autism autistics speaking

for themselves weird not stupid a website created from the perspective of a person who has two siblings who are on the autism spectrum with the goal of giving information to anybody who is seeking it blogs autism pervasive developmental disorders by adelle jameson tilton about com autism news and more adventures in autism by a health professional who is the mother of an autistic boy autism symptoms getting the truth out by argues that there are common misconceptions about autism reality aba an autism diary by katherine lee mother of an autistic son organizations on the spectrum a web community for those on the autism spectrum with an emphasis on support and advocacy autismwebsite com autism research institute clearinghouse for information relating to autism particularly the biomedical treatment approach autism society org autism society of america autistics org clearinghouse for information related to autism from a non cure standpoint many articles by autistics center for the study of autism autism research i

nstitute founded by bernard rimland resources a way of life resources and information for parents autism treatment info treatment tips for children with autism pdd asperger s syndrome aba resources for recovery from autism information about and resource guide for behavioral intervention for autism autism resources com offering information and links regarding the developmental disabilities autism and asperger s syndrome autism talk parents educators discuss all views autismtoday com everything you need to know about autism autism today focus on autism selection of documentaries interviews etc autism org uk paris public autism resource information service directory of uk autism services autism spectrum quotient measure your autism spectrum quotient aspie quiz quiz that measures autistic traits autism childhood psychiatric disorders disability communication disorders mental illness diagnosis by dsm and iscdrhp neurological disorders albedo is the measure of reflectivity of a surface or body it is the ratio of el

ectromagnetic radiation em radiation reflected to the amount incident upon it the fraction usually expressed as a percentage from zero to one zero zero is an important concept in climatology and astronomy this ratio depends on the frequency of the radiation considered unqualified it refers to an average across the spectrum of visible light it also depends on the angle of incidence of the radiation unqualified normal incidence fresh snow albedos are high up to nine zero the ocean surface has a low albedo the average albedo of earth is about three zero whereas the albedo of the moon is about seven in astronomy the albedo of satellites and asteroids can be used to infer surface composition most notably ice content enceladus a moon of saturn has the highest known albedo of any body in the solar system with nine nine of em radiation reflected human activities have changed the albedo via forest clearance and farming for example of various areas around the globe however quantification of this effect is difficult on

the global scale it is not clear whether the changes have tended to increase or decrease global warming the classical example of albedo effect is the snow temperature feedback if a snow covered area warms and the snow melts the albedo decreases more sunlight is absorbed and the temperature tends to increase the converse is true if snow forms a cooling cycle happens the intensity of the albedo effect depends on the size of the change in albedo and the amount of insolation for this reason it can be potentially very large in the tropics some examples of albedo effects fairbanks alaska according to the national climatic data center s ghcn two data which is composed of three zero year smoothed climatic means for thousands of weather stations across the world the college weather station at fairbanks alaska is about three c five f warmer than the airport at fairbanks partly because of drainage patterns but also largely because of the lower albedo at the college resulting from a higher concentration of pine trees and

therefore less open snowy ground to reflect the heat back into space neunke and kukla have shown that this difference is especially marked during the late winter months when solar radiation is greater the tropics although the albedo temperature effect is most famous in colder regions of earth because more snow falls there it is actually much stronger in tropical regions because in the tropics there is consistently more sunlight when brazilian ranchers cut down dark tropical rainforest trees to replace them with even darker soil in order to grow crops the average temperature of the area appears to increase by an average of about three c five f year round which is a significant amount small scale effects albedo works on a smaller scale too people who wear dark clothes in the summertime put themselves at a greater risk of heatstroke than those who wear white clothes pine forests the albedo of a pine forest at four five n in the winter in which the trees cover the land surface completely is only about nine among

the lowest of any naturally occurring land environment this is partly due to the color of the pines and partly due to multiple scattering of sunlight within the trees which lowers the overall reflected light level due to light penetration the ocean s albedo is even lower at about three five though this depends strongly on the angle of the incident radiation dense swampland averages between nine and one four deciduous trees average about one three a grassy field usually comes in at about two zero a barren field will depend on the color of the soil and can be as low as five or as high as four zero with one five being about the average for farmland a desert or large beach usually averages around two five but varies depending on the color of the sand reference edward walker s study in the great plains in the winter around four five n urban areas urban areas in particular have very unnatural values for albedo because of the many human built structures which absorb light before the light can reach the surface in t

he northern part of the world cities are relatively dark and walker has shown that their average albedo is about seven with only a slight increase during the summer in most tropical countries cities average around one two this is similar to the values found in northern suburban transitional zones part of the reason for this is the different natural environment of cities in tropical regions e g there are more very dark trees around another reason is that portions of the tropics are very poor and city buildings must be built with different materials warmer regions may also choose lighter colored building materials so the structures will remain cooler trees because trees tend to have a low albedo removing forests would tend to increase albedo and thereby cool the planet cloud feedbacks further complicate the issue in seasonally snow covered zones winter albedos of treeless areas are one zero to five zero higher than nearby forested areas because snow does not cover the trees as readily studies by the hadley cent

re have investigated the relative generally warming effect of albedo change and cooling effect of carbon sequestration on planting forests they found that new forests in tropical and midlatitude areas tended to cool new forests in high latitudes e g siberia were neutral or perhaps warming snow snow albedos can be as high as nine zero this is for the ideal example however fresh deep snow over a featureless landscape over antarctica they average a little more than eight zero if a marginally snow covered area warms snow tends to melt lowering the albedo and hence leading to more snowmelt the ice albedo feedback this is the basis for predictions of enhanced warming in the polar and seasonally snow covered regions as a result of global warming clouds clouds are another source of albedo that play into the global warming equation different types of clouds have different albedo values theoretically ranging from a minimum of near zero to a maximum in the high seven zero s climate models have shown that if the whole ea

rth were to be suddenly covered by white clouds the surface temperatures would drop to a value of about one five zero c two four zero f this model though it is far from perfect also predicts that to offset a five c nine f temperature change due to an increase in the magnitude of the greenhouse effect all we would need to do is increase the earth s overall albedo by about one two by adding more white clouds albedo and climate in some areas are already affected by artificial clouds such as those created by the contrails of heavy commercial airliner traffic a study following the september one one attacks after which all major airlines in the u s shut down for three days showed a local one c increase in the daily temperature range the difference of day and night temperatures see contrail aerosol effects aerosol very fine particles droplets in the atmosphere has two effects direct and indirect the direct albedo effect is generally to cool the planet the indirect effect the particles act as ccns and thereby change

cloud properties is less certain black carbon another albedo related effect on the climate is from black carbon particles the size of this effect is difficult to quantify the ipcc say that their estimate of the global mean radiative forcing for bc aerosols from fossil fuels is zero two w m two from zero one w m two in the sar with a range zero one to zero four w m two electromagnetic radiation climatology climate forcing astrophysics view of abu dhabi satellite image of abu dhabi march two zero zero three emirates palace hotel front emirates palace hotel from the side abu dhabi arabic ab aby is the largest of the seven emirates that comprise the united arab emirates and was also the largest of the former trucial states abu dhabi is also a city of the same name within the emirate that is the capital of the country in north central uae the city lies on a t shaped island jutting into the persian gulf from the central western coast an estimated one zero zero zero zero zero zero lived there in two zero zero zero w

ith about an eight zero expatriate population abu dhabi city is located at al ain is abu dhabi s second largest urban area with a population of three four eight zero zero zero two zero zero three census estimate and is located one five zero kilometres inland history parts of abu dhabi were settled as far back as the three rd millennium bc and its early history fits the nomadic herding and fishing pattern typical of the broader region modern abu dhabi traces its origins to the rise of an important tribal confederation the bani yas in the late one eight th century who also assumed control of dubai in the one nine th century the dubai and abu dhabi branches parted ways into the mid two zero th century the economy of abu dhabi continued to be sustained mainly by camel herding production of dates and vegetables at the inland oases of al ain and liwa and fishing and pearl diving off the coast of abu dhabi city which was occupied mainly during the summer months most dwellings in abu dhabi city were at this time cons

tructed of palm fronds barasti with the better off families occupying mud huts the growth of the cultured pearl industry in the first half of the two zero th century created hardship for residents of abu dhabi as pearls represented the largest export and main source of cash earnings in one nine three nine sheikh shakhbut bin sultan al nahyan granted petroleum concessions and oil was first found in one nine five eight at first oil money had a marginal impact a few lowrise concete buildings were erected and the first paved road was completed in one nine six one but sheikh shakbut uncertain whether the new oil royalties would last took a cautious approach prefering to save the revenue rather than investing it in development his brother zayed bin sultan al nahayan saw that oil wealth had the potential to transform abu dhabi the ruling al nahayan family decided that sheikh zayed should replace his brother as ruler and carry out his vision of developing the country on august six one nine six six with the assistance

of the british sheikh zayed became the new ruler see generally al fahim m from rags to riches a story of abu dhabi chapter six london centre of arab studies one nine nine five isbn one nine zero zero four zero four zero zero one with the announcement by britain in one nine six eight that it would withdraw from the gulf area by one nine seven one sheikh zayed became the main driving force behind the formation of the united arab emirates after the emirates gained independence in one nine seven one oil wealth continued to flow to the area and traditional mud brick huts were rapidly replaced with banks boutiques and modern highrises current ruler his highness sheikh khalifa bin zayed al nahayan is the hereditary emir and ruler of abu dhabi as well as the current president of the united arab emirates uae postal history shaikh zaid one nine six seven now part of the united arab emirates abu dhabi was formerly the largest of the seven sheikdoms which made up the trucial states on the so called pirate coast of easte

rn arabia between oman and qatar the trucial states as a whole had an area of some three two zero zero zero square miles of which abu dhabi alone had two six zero zero zero the capital was the town of abu dhabi which is on an offshore island and was first settled in one seven six one the name trucial states arose from treaties made with great britain in one eight two zero which ensured a condition of truce in the area and the suppression of piracy and slavery the treaty expired on three one december one nine six six the decision to form the uae was made on one eight july one nine seven one and the federation was founded on one august one nine seven two although the inaugural uae stamps were not issued until one january one nine seven three oil production began on das island after prospecting during one nine five six one nine six zero das island is part of abu dhabi but lies well offshore about one zero zero miles north of the mainland oil production on the mainland began in one nine six two as a major oil pro

ducer abu dhabi soon acquired massive financial wealth investment in long term construction projects and the establishment of a finance sector has led to the area becoming a centre of commerce which may well secure its lasting importance when the oil resources are exhausted in december one nine six zero postage stamps of british postal agencies in eastern arabia were supplied to the construction workers on das island but the postal service was administered via the agency office in bahrain the mail was also postmarked bahrain so there was no clear indication that a letter had come from das island on three zero march one nine six three a british agency was opened in abu dhabi and issued the agency stamps after the sheik objected to the use of the trucial states definitives mail from das island continued to be administered by bahrain but was now cancelled by an abu dhabi trucial states postmark the first abu dhabi stamps were a definitive series of three zero march one nine six four depicting shaikh shakhbut bin

sultan al nahyan there were eleven values under the indian currency that was used of one zero zero naye paise one rupee the range of values was five np to one zero rupees despite the introduction of these definitives the british agency stamps remained valid in both abu dhabi and das island until the end of one nine six six when they were withdrawn a post office was opened on das island on six january one nine six six and this ended the bahrain service mail from das island was now handled within abu dhabi when the treaty with great britain expired at the end of one nine six six abu dhabi introduced a new currency of one zero zero zero fils one dinar and took over its own postal administration including the das island office the earlier issues were subject to surcharges in this currency and replacement definitives were released depicting the new ruler shaikh zaid issues continued until introduction of uae stamps in one nine seven three in all abu dhabi issued nine five stamps from one nine six four to one nine

seven two the final set being three views of the dome of the rock in jerusalem source encyclopaedia of postal history climate sunny blue skies can be expected through out the year the months june through september are generally hot and humid with temperatures averaging above four zero c one one zero f the weather is usually pleasant from october to may january to february is cooler and may require the use of a light jacket the oasis city of al ain enjoys cooler temperatures even through summer due to sporadic rainfall transport abu dhabi international airport serves this city the local time is gmt four hours trivia the cartoon cat garfield would often put the kitten nermal in a box and ship him to abu dhabi a common phrase from garfield is abu dhabi is where all the cute kittens go the reason is that the author of garfield found out through over seas relations that the city of abu dhabi and the majority of uae has a large amount of cats that roam wild many live around the suburbs see also mina zayid the port

of abu dhabi al ain marawah postal authorities saudi arabia transportation in the united arab emirates external links encyclopaedia of postal history abu dhabi the persian gulf abudhabi com abu dhabi chamber of commerce and industry abu dhabi national oil company spe history with oil details abu dhabi postal history adias abu dhabi islands archaeological survey expatriates forums in abu dhabi time out abu dhabi guide to life in abu dhabi career uae useful web site for the job seekers in abu dabi united arab emirates non government organisations ansar burney trust human rights and anti slavery organisation capitals in asia cities in the united arab emirates emirates coastal cities philately by country the letter a is the first letter in the latin alphabet its name in english is a plural aes a s or as history the letter a probably started as a pictogram of an ox head in egyptian hieroglyphs or the proto semitic alphabet by one six zero zero bc the phoenician alphabet s letter had a linear form that served as t

he basis for all later forms its name must have corresponded closely to the hebrew aleph the name is also similar to the arabic alif when the ancient greeks adopted the alphabet they had no use for the glottal stop that the letter had denoted in phoenician and other semitic languages so they used the sign for the vowel and changed its name to alpha in the earliest greek inscriptions dating to the eight th century bc the letter rests upon its side but in the greek alphabet of later times it generally resembles the modern capital letter although many local varieties can be distinguished by the shortening of one leg or by the angle at which the cross line is set the etruscans brought the greek alphabet to what was italy and left the letter unchanged the romans later adopted the etruscan alphabet to write latin and the resulting letter was preserved in the modern latin alphabet used to write many languages including english the letter has two minuscule lower case forms the form used in most current handwriting co

nsists of a circle and vertical stroke most printed material uses a form consisting of a small loop with an arc over it both derive from the majuscule capital form in greek handwriting it was common to join the left leg and horizontal stroke into a single loop as demonstrated by the uncial version below many fonts then made the right leg vertical in some of these the serif that began the right leg stroke developed into an arc resulting in the printed form while in others it was dropped resulting in the modern handwritten form usage in english the letter a by itself usually denotes the lax open front unrounded vowel as in pad the open back unrounded vowel as in father or in concert with a later orthographic e the diphthong though the pronunciation varies with the dialect as in ace due to effects of the great vowel shift in most other languages that use the latin alphabet the letter a denotes either an open back unrounded vowel or an open central unrounded vowel in the international phonetic alphabet variants o