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ent and that anything he says will be used against him in court he must be clearly informed that he has the right to consult with an attorney and to have that attorney present during interrogation and that if he is indigent an attorney will be provided at no cost to represent him as a result american english has acquired the verb mirandize meaning to read to a suspect his or her miranda rights when that suspect is taken into custody for the purpose of interrogation typical miranda warning though every u s jurisdiction has its own regulations regarding what precisely must be said to a person when they are arrested the typical warning is as follows you have the right to remain silent if you give up that right anything you say can and will be used against you in a court of law you have the right to an attorney and to have an attorney present during questioning if you cannot afford an attorney one will be provided to you at no cost during any questioning you may decide at any time to exercise these rights not ans |
wer any questions or make any statements the courts have since ruled that the warning must be meaningful so it is usually required that the suspect be asked if he understands his rights sometimes firm answers of yes are required an arrestee s silence is not a waiver evidence has been ruled inadmissible because of an arrestee s poor knowledge of english and the failure of arresting officers to provide the warning in the arrestee s language also because of various education levels officers must make sure the suspect understands what the officer is saying it may be necessary to translate to the suspect s level of understanding courts have ruled this admissible as long as the original waiver is said and the translation is recorded either on paper or on tape the right of a juvenile to remain silent without his or her parent or guardian present is provided in some jurisdictions indiana and a few other states add the sentence we have no way of giving you a lawyer but one will be appointed for you if you wish if and |
when you go to court even though this sentence can be somewhat ambiguous to some hapless laypersons who can and who have interpreted it to mean that you will not get a lawyer until you confess and are arraigned in court the u s supreme court has approved of it as an accurate description of the procedure in those states duckworth v eagan california and many other states also add the following questions do you understand the rights i have just read to you with these rights in mind do you wish to speak to me a yes answer to both completes the waiver a no to either invokes the right under the uniform code of military justice article three one provides for the right against self incrimination interrogation subjects must first be given three eight eight one form pdf which informs them of the charges and their rights and sign it confusion regarding the miranda warning due to the prevalence of american television programs and motion pictures in which the police characters frequently read suspects their rights it has |
become an expected element of arrest procedure in two zero zero zero chief justice william rehnquist wrote that miranda warnings had become embedded in routine police practice to the point where the warnings have become part of our national culture the economist july two eight two zero zero five however police are only required to warn an individual whom they intend to subject to custodial interrogation at the police station or when detained arrests can occur without questioning and without the miranda warning although if the police do change their mind and decide to interrogate the suspect the warning must be given then furthermore if public safety warrants such action the police may ask questions prior to a reading of the miranda warning and the evidence thus obtained can sometimes still be used against the defendant miranda does not protect detainees from standard booking questions name date of birth address and the like also persons suspected of driving under the influence do not have miranda rights prior |
to blood alcohol tests currently there is a question about corrections and miranda if an inmate is in jail and invoked miranda on one case it is unclear whether this extends to any other cases that he or she may be charged with while in custody equivalent rights in other countries australia within australia the right to silence derives from english law the uniform position amongst the states is that neither the judge nor the jury is permitted to draw any inference which is unfavourable to the defendant where he does not answer police questions while this is the common law position it is buttressed by various legislative provisions within the states for instance s four six four j of the crimes act one nine five eight vic and s eight nine of the evidence act one nine nine five nsw it has also been upheld by the high court in the case of petty v the queen one nine nine one one seven three clr nine five however where a defendant answers some police questions but not others an inference may sometimes be drawn abo |
ut the questions he refused to answer see coldrey below the current caution used in new south wales is you are not obliged to say or do anything unless you wish to do so but whatever you say or do may be used in evidence do you understand where a defendant refuses to speak to the police but then speaks to an undercover member of the police that evidence is likely to be excluded so as to ensure that the police do not avoid their limitations however if a defendant speaks to a person who is not a member of the police and who is fitted with a listening device that evidence would be admitted australian research indicates that very few suspects actually refuse to speak stevenson s research see below for citation indicates that only four of suspects who are subsequently charged and tried in the sydney district court remain silent during interviews the victorian dpp found that seven nine of suspects refused to answer police questions a number of states have conducted enquiries into the adoption of the english changes |
set out in the criminal justice and public order act one nine nine four see here here or here all states have rejected such change as the nsw report said it is reasonable that innocent persons faced with a serious accusation might wish to consider their situations carefully before making any disclosure especially where the circumstances appear suspicious but it cannot be assumed that they are rational and articulate in many cases suspects may be emotional perhaps panicked inarticulate unintelligent easily influenced confused or frightened or a combination of these they may be unable to do themselves justice such persons may be well advised to hold their peace at least at an early stage they may of course have something to hide but that something may simply be shameful and not a crime or it may implicate others for whom they feel responsible the supposition that only a guilty person has a reason for not speaking freely to investigating police is an unreasonable assumption canada in canada equivalent rights ex |
ist pursuant to the charter of rights and freedoms under the charter an arrested person has the right a to be informed promptly of the reasons therefor b to retain and instruct counsel without delay and be informed of that right and c to have the validity of the detention determined by way of habeas corpus and to be released if the detention is not lawful see r v hebert one nine nine zero two s c r one five section one one of the charter further provides that a person cannot be compelled to be a witness in a proceeding against them s one one c protection against self incrimination and is presumed innocent until proven guilty according to law in a fair and public hearing by an independent and impartial tribunal s one one d section one four of the charter further provides that a translator must be made available so that the person can understand the proceedings against them this right to a translator extends to the deaf thus under canadian law a person charged of a crime effectively has the same protections und |
er the law as are provided by miranda england and wales the right against self incrimination originated in england and wales in one nine one two the judges of the kings bench issued the judges rules these provided that when a policeman wished to question a suspect about an offence the policeman should first caution the person that he was entitled to remain silent the pre trial operation of the privilege against self incrimination was further buttressed by the decision in ibrahim v r one nine one four ac five nine nine that an admission or confession made by the accused to the police would only be admissible in evidence if the prosecution could establish that it had been voluntarily an admission or confession is only voluntary if it was made in the exercise of a free choice about whether to speak or remain silent in r v leckey one nine four three car one two eight the court of criminal appeal said an innocent person might well either from excessive caution or for some other reason decline to say anything when |
charged and cautioned and if it were possible to hold that out to a jury as a ground on which they might find a man guilty it is obvious that innocent persons might be in great peril therefore a caution of the form you have the right to remain silent but anything you do say will be taken down and may be used in evidence against you was used the criminal justice act one nine nine four amended some say abolished the right to silence by allowing inferences to be drawn by the jury in cases where a suspect refuses to explain something and then later produces an explanation in other words the jury is entitled to infer that the accused fabricated the explanation at a later date as he or she refused to provide the explanation during the time of the police questioning the jury is also free not to make such an inference the new caution is you do not have to say anything but it may harm your defence if you do not mention when questioned something that you later rely on in court anything you say may be given in evidence |
or you do not have to say anything unless you wish to do so but i must warn you that if you fail to mention any fact which you rely on in your defence in court your failure to take this opportunity to mention it may be treated in court as supporting any relevant evidence against you if you do wish to say anything what you say may be given in evidence the caution is a restriction on drawing adverse inferences applies for example where the suspect has been denied legal advice is you do not have to say anything but anything you do say may be given in evidence it is important to note that the caution in england and wales does not explicitly require that a suspect affirms that he or she understands the caution and many law enforcement staff do not ask this to prevent a recalcitrant suspect from delaying the investigation by falsely claiming not to understand the caution france in france any person brought in police custody garde vue must be informed of the maximal duration of the custody and a number of rights in |
a language that this person understands among these rights are the possibility of warning a relative or employer of the custody that of asking to be examined by a physician that of discussing the case with an attorney witnesses against whom there exists indictments or that are cited as suspects cannot be heard under oath and thus do not risk prosecution for perjury must be assisted by an attorney and must be informed of these rights when heard by the judiciary suspects any person against which exist plausible causes of suspicion must be informed of their right to remain silent to make statements or to answer questions in all cases an attorney can be designated by the head of the bar if necessary european union within the european union a gradual process of harmonising the laws of individual countries has resulted in calls for a common letter of rights which would apply to all eu citizens the proposed common standard would protect access to legal advice translation assistance as needed protection for those una |
ble to follow the proceedings and consular assistance for foreign detainees these would be contained in a letter of rights which would be a printed document to be given to suspects after they are detained and before interrogation obstacles to its enactment include the anti terrorism laws of certain eu members which conflict with these proposed rights references coldrey j the right to silence reassessed one nine nine zero seven four victorian bar news two five coldrey j the right to silence should it be curtailed or abolished one nine nine one two zero anglo american law review five one rehnquist s legacy the economist july two nd eight th two zero zero five p two eight stevenson n criminal cases in the nsw district court a pilot study in j basten m richardson c ronalds and g zdenkowski eds the criminal injustice system australian legal workers group nsw and legal service bulletin sydney one nine eight two see also right to silence criminal justice civil rights arrest criminal law law enforcement in the united |
states rights of the suspect the word moot has multiple meanings in anglo saxon england a moot was a meeting or meeting place a moot mound or later a moot hall typically invoked to decide local issues the sense of debate persists in the legal term moot court the sense of a gathering is retained in scouting a world scout moot a gathering of rover scouts in the law of the united states there is a legal concept of mootness or not actionable moot game is an etymology board game note that the word moot may be used differently in british english and us english in us english a moot point is one of no importance whereas in british english it is a critical or decisive issue from which many other decisions may follow the expression that point is moot is exclusively american whereas in british english a debatable point would be described as a moot point see see also list of words having different meanings in british and american english rewrite moot this article is about the geologic period for the north american cultu |
re see mississippian culture a now defunct newspaper that was active in the nineteenth century was called the mississippian and was published in jackson mississippi the mississippian is an epoch of the carboniferous period lasting from roughly three six zero ma to three two five ma million years ago as with most other geologic periods the rock beds that define the period are well identified but the exact start and end dates are uncertain by a few million years in north america where the interval consists primarily of marine limestones it is treated as a full fledged geologic period between the devonian and the pennsylvanian in europe the mississippian and pennsylvanian are one more or less continuous sequence of lowland continental deposits and are lumped together as the carboniferous period the mississippian is so named because rocks from this age are exposed in the mississippi river valley refer to the carboniferous period article for information on faunal stages climate etc external links the carboniferous |
carboniferous for the article on the figure of speech see meiosis figure of speech in biology meiosis is the process that transforms one diploid cell into four haploid cells in eukaryotes in order to redistribute the diploid s cell s genome meiosis forms the basis of sexual reproduction and can only occur in eukaryotes in meiosis the diploid cell s genome which is composed of ordered structures of coiled dna called chromosomes is replicated once and separated twice producing four sets of haploid cells each containing half of the original cell s chromosomes these resultant haploid cells will fertilize with other haploid cells of the opposite gender to form a diploid cell again the cyclical process of separation by meiosis and genetic recombination through fertilization is called the life cycle the result is that the offspring produced during germination after meiosis will have a slightly different blueprint which has instructions for the cells to work contained in the dna this allows sexual reproduction to oc |
cur meiosis uses many biochemical processes that are similar to those used in mitosis in order to distribute chromosomes among the resulting cells however the outcome is very different history meiosis was discovered and described for the first time in sea urchin eggs in one eight seven six by noted german biologist oscar hertwig one eight four nine one nine two two it was described again in one eight eight three at the level of chromosomes by belgian zoologist edouard van beneden one eight four six one nine one zero in ascaris worms eggs the significance of meiosis for reproduction and inheritance however was described only in one eight nine zero by german biologist august weismann one eight three four one nine one four who noted that two cell divisions were necessary to transform one diploid cell into four haploid cells if the number of chromosomes had to be maintained in one nine one one the american geneticist thomas hunt morgan one eight six six one nine four five observed cross over in drosophila melanog |
aster meiosis and provided the first true genetic interpretation of meiosis occurrence of meiosis in eukaryotic life cycles gametic life cycle zygotic life cycle sporic life cycle meiosis occurs in all eukaryotic life cycles involving sexual reproduction comprising of the constant cyclical process of meiosis and fertilization this takes place alongside normal mitotic cell division in multicellular organisms there is an intermediary step between the diploid and haploid transition where the organism grows the organism will then produce the germ cells that continue in the life cycle the rest of the cells called somatic cells function within the organism and will die with it the organism phase of the life cycle can occur between the haploid to diploid transition or the diploid to haploid transition some species are diploid grown from a diploid cell called the zygote others are haploid instead spawned by the proliferation and differentiation of a single haploid cell called the gamete humans for example are diploid |
creatures human stem cells undergo meiosis to create haploid gametes which are sperm cells for males or ova for females these gametes then fertilize in the uterus of the female producing a diploid zygote the zygote undergoes progressive stages of mitosis and differentiation to create an embryo the early stage of human life there are three types of life cycles that utilise sexual reproduction differentiated by the location of the organisms stage in the gametic life cycle of which humans are a part the living organism is diploid in nature here we will generalize the example of human reproduction stated previously the organism s diploid germ line stem cells undergo meiosis to create haploid gametes which fertilize to form the zygote the diploid zygote undergoes repeated cellular division by mitosis to grow into the organism mitosis is a related process to meiosis that creates two cells that are genetically identical to the parent cell the general principle is that mitosis creates somatic cells and meiosis creat |
es germ cells in the zygotic life cycle the living organism is haploid two organisms of opposing gender contribute their haploid germ cells to form a diploid zygote the zygote undergoes meiosis immediately creating four haploid cells these cells undergo mitosis to create the organism fungi and many protozoa are members of the zygotic life cycle finally in the sporic life cycle the living organism alternates between haploid and diploid states consequently this cycle is also known as the alternation of generations the diploid organism s germ line cells undergo meiosis to produce gametes the gametes proliferate by mitosis growing into a haploid organism the haploid organism s germ cells then combine with another haploid organism s cells creating the zygote the zygote undergoes repeated mitosis and differentiation to become the diploid organism again the sporic life cycle can be considered a fusion of the gametic and zygotic life cycles and indeed its diagram supports this conclusion chromosome segregation in mei |
osis meiosis produces four genetically varied gametes a diploid cell contains a full set of chromosome pairs each pair containing one chromosome from each parent these chromosome pairs are called homologous chromosomes homologous chromosomes need not be genetically identical for example one particular locus location on one of the father s chromosomes may code for green eyes while the same locus on the mother s chromosome may code for brown eyes this genetic variety produced by sexual reproduction is the key to its power before division the genome is replicated each chromosome now contains two identical sister chromatids joined together by a region of dna called the centromere meiosis i the first round of division separates homologous chromosomes meiosis ii the second round of division separates sister chromatids there are four haploid cells produced at the conclusion of meiosis this description suggests that two out of four gametes will contain the maternal set of chromosomes while the other two will contain |
the paternal set in practice however the gametes are genetically varied containing a mix of both paternal and maternal genetic information this is accomplished in two processes during meiosis i genetic information is distributed through independent assortment homologous chromosomes will eventually part ways into separate cells however homologous chromosomes are oriented independently of their companions that means that each daughter cell has a fifty fifty chance of receiving the maternal chromosome or the paternal chromosome at the same time during meiosis i when the chromosomes are pairing up together for a short time before being separated during synapsis chromosomal crossover occurs during this time nonsister chromatids of homologous chromosomes may exchange segments at random locations called chiasmata the chromosome that is subjected to crossing over is then called a recombinant chromosome the diagram shown above summarizes the segregation of the meiotic chromosomes chromosomes which are the same size on |
e light blue and one red to show parentage are homologous to each other they are replicated before meiosis so that each chromosome contains two genetically identical sister chromatids the vertical bars of the h like structure crossing over occurs between nonsister chromatids of the two homologous chromosomes homologous chromosomes are separated in meiosis i in this case each daughter cell receives one recombinant mother chromosome and recombinant father chromosome meiosis ii separates the sister chromatids at conclusion four genetically varied gametes are produced process because meiosis is a one way process it cannot be said to engage in a cell cycle that mitosis does however the preparatory steps that lead up to meiosis are identical in pattern and name to the interphase of the mitotic cell cycle interphase is divided into three phases growth one g one phase characterized by increasing cell size from accelerated manufacture of organelles proteins and other cellular matter synthesis s phase the genetic mater |
ial is replicated growth two g two phase the cell continues to grow it is immediately followed by meiosis i which divides one diploid cell into two haploid cells by the separation of homologous chromosomes and meiosis ii which divides two haploid cells into four haploid cells by the separation of sister chromatids meiosis i and ii are both divided into prophase metaphase anaphase and telophase subphases similar in purpose to their analogous subphases in the mitotic cell cycle therefore meiosis encompasses the interphase g one s g two meiosis i prophase i metaphase i anaphase i telophase i and meiosis ii prophase ii metaphase ii anaphase ii telophase ii meiosis i prophase i in the leptotene stage the cell s genetic material which is normally in a loosely arranged pile known as chromatin condenses into visible threadlike structures along the thread centromeres are visible as small beads of tightly coiled chromatin recall that centromeres are connection sites between sister chromatids which are not yet distingui |
shable as the chromatin becomes progressively ordered and visible homologous chromosomes find each other and bind together in this process called synapsis a protein structure called the synaptonemal complex attaches the homologous chromosomes tightly together all along their lengths the zygotene stage sees the completion of synapsis the paired homologous chromosomes are said to be bivalent they may also be referred to as a tetrad a reference to the four sister chromatids during this stage one percent of dna that wasn t replicated during s phase is replicated the significance of this cleanup act is unclear the pachytene stage heralds crossing over nonsister chromatids of homologous chromosomes exchange segments of genetic information because the chromosomes cannot be distinguished in the synaptonemal complex the actual act of crossing over is not perceivable through the microscope during the diplotene stage the synaptonemal complex degrades homologous chromosomes fall apart and begin to repel each other the ch |
romosomes themselves uncoil a bit allowing some transcription of dna they are held together by virtue of recombination nodules betraying the sites of previous crossing over the chiasmata chromosomes recondense during the diakinesis stage sites of crossing over entangle together effectively overlapping making chiasmata clearly visible in general every chromosome will have crossed over at least once the nucleoli disappears and the nuclear membrane disintegrates into vesicles during these stages centrioles are migrating to the two poles of the cell these centrioles which were duplicated during interphase function as microtubule coordinating centers centrioles sprout microtubules essentially cellular ropes and poles during crossing over they invade the nuclear membrane after it disintegrates attaching to the chromosomes at the kinetochore the kinetochore functions as a motor pulling the chromosome along the attached microtubule toward the originating centriole like a train on a track there are two kinetochores on |
each tetrad one for each centrosome prophase i is the longest phase in meiosis microtubules that attach to the kinetochores are known as kinetochore microtubules other microtubules will interact with microtubules from the opposite centriole these are called nonkinetochore microtubules metaphase i as kinetochore microtubules from both centrioles attach to their respective kinetochores the homologous chromosomes align equidistant above and below an imaginary equatorial plane due to continuous counterbalancing forces exerted by the two kinetochores of the bivalent because of independent assortment the orientation of the bivalent along the plane is random maternal or paternal homologues may point to either pole anaphase i kinetochore microtubules shorten severing the recombination nodules and pulling homologous chromosomes apart since each chromosome only has one kinetochore whole chromosomes are pulled toward opposing poles forming two diploid sets each chromosome still contains a pair of sister chromatids nonk |
inetochore microtubules lengthen pushing the centrioles further apart the cell elongates in preparation for division down the middle telophase i the first meiotic division effectively ends when the centromeres arrive at the poles each daughter cell now has half the number of chromosomes but each chromosome consists of a pair of chromatids the microtubules that make up the spindle network disappear and a new nuclear membrane surrounds each haploid set the chromosomes uncoil back into chromatin cytokinesis the pinching of the cell membrane in animal cells or the formation of the cell wall in plant cells occurs completing the creation of two daughter cells cells enter a period of rest known as interkinesis or interphase ii no dna replication occurs during this stage note that many plants skip telophase i and interphase ii going immediately into prophase ii meiosis ii prophase ii takes an inversely proportional time compared to telophase i in this prophase we see the disappearance of the nucleoli and the nuclear |
envelope again as well as the shortening and thickening of the chromatids centrioles move to the polar regions and are arranged by spindle fibres the new equatorial plane is rotated by nine zero degrees when compared to meiosis i perpendicular to the previous plane in metaphase ii the centromeres contain two kinetochores organizing fibers from the centrosomes on each side this is followed by anaphase ii where the centromeres are cleaved allowing the kinetochores to pull the sister chromatids apart the sister chromatids by convention are now called sister chromosomes and they are pulled toward opposing poles the process ends with telophase ii which is similar to telophase i marked by uncoiling lengthening and disappearance of the chromosomes occur as the disappearance of the microtubules nuclear envelopes reform cleavage or cell wall formation eventually produces a total of four daughter cells each with an haploid set of chromosomes meiosis is complete significance of meiosis meiosis facilitates stable sexual |
reproduction without the halving of ploidy or chromosome count fertilization would result in zygotes that have twice the number of chromosomes than the zygotes from the previous generation successive generations would have an exponential increase in chromosome count resulting in an unwieldy genome that would cripple the reproductive fitness of the species polyploidy the state of having three or more sets of chromosomes also results in developmental abnormalities or lethality most importantly however meiosis produces genetic variety in gametes that propagate to offspring recombination and independent assortment allow for a greater diversity of genotypes in the population a system of creating diversity meiosis allows a species to maintain stability under environmental change nondisjunction the normal separation of chromosomes in meiosis i or sister chromatids in meiosis ii is termed disjunction when the separation is not normal it is called nondisjunction this results in the production of gametes which have eit |
her more or less of the usual amount of genetic material and is a common mechanism for trisomy or monosomy nondisjunction can occur in the meiosis i or meiosis ii phases of cellular reproduction or during mitosis this is a cause of several medical conditions in humans including down syndrome trisomy of chromosome two one patau syndrome trisomy of chromosome one three edward syndrome trisomy of chromosome one eight klinefelter syndrome an extra x chromosome in males turner syndrome only one x chromosome present jacob syndrome an extra y chromosome in males meiosis in humans in females meiosis occurs in precursor cells known as oogonia that divide twice into oocytes these stem cells stop at the diplotene stage of meiosis i and lay dormant within a protective shell of somatic cells called the follicle follicles begin growth at a steady pace in a process known as folliculogenesis and a small number enter the menstrual cycle menstruated oocytes continue meiosis i and arrest at meiosis ii until fertilization the pr |
ocess of meiosis in females is called oogenesis in males meiosis occurs in precursor cells known as spermatogonia that divide twice to become sperm these cells continuously divide without arrest in the seminiferous tubules of the testicles sperm is produced at a steady pace the process of meiosis in males is called spermatogenesis see also mitosis spermatogenesis oogenesis cell biology minix is an open source unix like operating system based on a microkernel architecture andrew s tanenbaum wrote the operating system to be used for educational purposes minix also inspired the creation of linux history andrew tanenbaum created minix at vrije universiteit in amsterdam to exemplify the principles conveyed in his textbook operating systems design and implementation one nine eight seven an abridged one two zero zero zero lines of source code of the kernel memory manager and file system are printed in the book minix is written mostly in the c programming language tanenbaum originally developed minix for compatibilit |
y with the ibm pc and ibm pc at microcomputers available at the time minix version one five was also ported to the motorola six eight zero zero zero cpu which allowed compatibility with such popular computer platforms as atari st amiga apple macintosh there were also ports to the sparc national semiconductor ns three two five three two and transputer processors demand for these architectures waned however and minix version two zero was once again only available for the x eight six architecture it was included with the second edition of tanenbaum s textbook co written with albert woodhull minix version three was publically announced on two four october two zero zero five by andrew tanenbaum during his keynote speech at the acm symposium on operating systems principles conference although it still serves as an example for the new edition of tanenbaum and woodhull s textbook it is redesigned to be usable as a serious system on resource limited and embedded computers and for applications requiring high reliabilit |
y it is available in a livecd format that allows it to be used on a computer without installing it on the hard drive and in versions compatible with hardware emulation virtualization systems including bochs qemu vmware and virtual pc minix and linux the design principles tanenbaum applied to minix famously influenced the design decisions linus torvalds applied in the creation of linux torvalds used and appreciated minix but his design deviated from the minix architecture in significant ways most notably by employing a monolithic kernel instead of a microkernel licensing at the time of its original development the license for minix was considered to be rather liberal its licensing fee was very small compared to those of other operating systems although tanenbaum wished for minix to be as accessible as possible to students his publisher was not prepared to offer material such as the source code that could be copied freely so a restrictive license requiring a nominal fee included in the price of tanenbaum s book |
was applied as a compromise this prevented the use of minix as the basis for a freely distributed software system which prompted the creation of linux and led volunteer software developers to contribute to operating systems such as linux and freebsd instead in april two zero zero zero minix became open source under the bsd license but by this time other operating systems had surpassed its capabilities and it remained primarily an operating system for students and hobbyists commercially published distributions tanenbaum andrew s minix binaries and sources prentice hall one nine eight seven isbn zero one three five eight three eight seven three eight a set of three five zero kb five floppy disks intended for use with ibm pcs with six four zero kb of ram a set of disks for ibm pc with two five six kb ram which does not include the c compiler since it cannot execute in the amount of memory isbn zero one three five eight three eight eight one nine tanenbaum andrew s minix one three binaries and sources for ibm pc |
ats prentice hall one nine nine four isbn zero one three five eight three eight six five seven a set of one two mb five floppy disks for ibm pc at computers with at least five one two kb ram tanenbaum andrew s minix source software pearson higher education one nine nine zero isbn zero one three five eight three eight nine nine one nine track industry standard one six zero zero bpi magnetic tape containing files encapsulated in the tar file format includes an ibm pc emulator as well as libraries and programs allowing the minix file system to operate on vax and other minicomputers running unix tanenbaum andrew s and albert s woodhull operating systems design and implementation second edition prentice hall one nine nine seven isbn zero one three six three eight six seven seven six this hardcover textbook includes a bundled cd rom containing minix version two zero tanenbaum andrew s and albert s woodhull operating systems design and implementation third edition prentice hall two zero zero six isbn zero one three |
one four two nine three eight eight see also minix file system minix from scratch minix vmd external links minix three org the official minix three operating system site minix one hampshire edu the minix category at the open directory project minix on laptops and pdas history of minix from andrew tanenbaum linus torvalds and andrew tanenbaum argue about technologies in minix and linux minix under the bsd license source code for the minix system compiler news comp os minix comp os minix the minix usenet newsgroup unix the muscular dystrophies are a group of genetic and hereditary muscle diseases characterized by progressive skeletal muscle weakness defects in muscle proteins and the death of muscle cells and tissue in some forms of muscular dystrophy cardiac and smooth muscles are affected the muscular dystrophies are the most known hereditary diseases genetic cause the most common form is duchenne muscular dystrophy this form is caused by mutations of the gene for the dystrophin protein the dystrophin gene i |
s the second largest gene in mammals the dystrophin gene is located on the x chromosome thus making it a sex linked disorder accordingly muscular dystrophies are much more common in males as females have two copies of the x chromosome while males have only one role of heredity duchenne muscular dystrophy is caused by an x linked gene this means that only boys are affected but that their mothers may be carriers in almost half of all affected boys the faulty gene has arisen by mutation in the boy himself and no other family member carries it however this may be difficult to prove and can be decided only after careful and expert assessment of the family in the remaining cases somewhat over half of all cases the mother carries the gene but is usually not herself affected by it such women are known as carriers each subsequent son of a carrier has a five zero five zero chance of being affected and each daughter has a five zero five zero chance of being a carrier herself a small number of female carriers of the gene |
have a mild degree of muscle weakness themselves and are then known as manifesting carriers one of the most important things that needs to be done soon after the diagnosis of a boy with duchenne muscular dystrophy is to seek genetic advice and appropriate tests for those family members who are at risk of being carriers types of muscular dystrophies the major types of muscular dystrophy include duchenne muscular dystrophy becker s muscular dystrophy congenital muscular dystrophy distal muscular dystrophy emery dreifuss muscular dystrophy facioscapulohumeral dystrophy fukuyama congenital muscular dystrophy fcmd limb girdle muscular dystrophy several others myotonic muscular dystrophy oculopharyngeal muscular dystrophy scapuloperoneal muscular dystrophy severe childhood autosomal recessive muscular dystrophy common forms duchenne md is the most common form of muscular dystrophy affecting children and myotonic muscular dystrophy is the most common form affecting adults muscular dystrophy can affect people of all |
ages although some forms first become apparent in infancy or childhood others may not appear until middle age or later incidence about one zero zero boys with duchenne muscular dystrophy are born in the uk each year there are about one five zero zero known boys with the disorder living in the uk at any one time for the general population the risk of having an affected child is about one in every three five zero zero male births the most frequent symptoms are muscle weakness frequent falls walking problems drooping eyelid and skeletal and muscle deformities neurologic examination often reveals loss of muscle tissue wasting muscle contracture pseudohypertrophy and weakness diagnosis is usually established by muscle biopsy elevated serum creatine kinase levels and electromyography which is consistent with myogenic involvement some types of muscular dystrophies may result with additional cardiac diseases intellectual deterioration and infertility prenatal diagnosis female carriers of muscular dystrophy who are c |
onsidering having children should be aware that prenatal diagnosis is available tests can be carried out during pregnancy to try to find out if the fetus unborn child is affected a couple may want to consider whether or not to continue the pregnancy if the fetus is affected alternatively they may wish to know if the fetus is affected so that they can carry on with the pregnancy armed with knowledge that will help them to prepare and plan for the future different types of prenatal tests can be carried out after about one zero weeks of pregnancy chorionic villus sampling cvs can be done at one zero one two weeks and amniocentesis at about one four one six weeks while placental biopsy and fetal blood sampling can be done at about one eight weeks treatment there is no known cure for muscular dystrophy inactivity such as bed rest and even sitting for long periods can worsen the disease physical therapy and orthopedic instruments e g wheelchairs standing frames may be helpful there is no specific treatment for any |
of the forms of muscular dystrophy physical therapy to prevent contractures a condition in which shortened muscles around joints cause abnormal and sometimes painful positioning of the joints orthoses orthopedic appliances used for support and corrective orthopedic surgery may be needed to improve the quality of life in some cases the cardiac problems that occur with emery dreifuss muscular dystrophy and myotonic muscular dystrophy may require a pacemaker the myotonia delayed relaxation of a muscle after a strong contraction occurring in myotonic muscular dystrophy may be treated with medications such as quinine phenytoin or mexiletine prognosis the prognosis of muscular dystrophy varies according to the type of muscular dystrophy and the progression of the disorder some cases may be mild and very slowly progressive with normal lifespan while other cases may have more marked progression of muscle weakness functional disability and loss of ambulation scoliosis is commonly seen in duchenne muscular dystrophy an |
d in spinal muscular atrophy types two and three it is also seen in some types of congenital muscular dystrophy and in other rarer neuromuscular conditions if a child or adult has a neuromuscular condition in which scoliosis can be a feature they should attend a specialist clinic where their spine can be checked on a regular basis if a scoliosis starts to develop spinal surgery may be offered life expectancy may depend on the degree of progression and late respiratory deficit in duchenne muscular dystrophy death usually occurs in the late teens to early twenties the use of mechanical ventilation and heart medications have been shown to prolong life in dmd current research the muscular dystrophy association is one of the most prominent disease advocacy organizations in the world raising millions of dollars every year for md research and related activities comedian jerry lewis has made a name for himself supporting the organization for over five zero years and has hosted an annual nationwide telethon every labo |
r day since one nine six six the national institutes of health http www nih gov nih support a broad program of basic translational and clinical research on many forms of muscular dystrophy the goals of these studies are to increase understanding of muscular dystrophy and its cause s develop better therapies and ultimately find ways to prevent and cure the disorders many approaches for the treatment of muscular dystrophy are being explored including gene therapy cell therapy and pharmacological treatments one promising approach for treatment of muscular dystrophy involves the blocking of myostatin which is a natural inhibitor of muscle growth another area of research involves modifying the splicing of the dystrophin rna using steric blocking oligos such as two o methyl phosphorothioates or morpholinos external links muscular dystrophy australia nih a source for this article mda muscular dystrophy family foundation muscular dystrophy canada muscular dystrophy campaign uk parent project uk cardiff university mus |
cular dystrophy research group muscular dystrophy the mongols are an ethnic group that originated in what is now mongolia russia and china particularly inner mongolia they currently number about eight five million and speak the mongol language there are approximately two three million mongols in mongolia four million mongols living in inner mongolia and two million mongols living in neighboring provinces in addition there are a number of ethnic groups in north china and russia related to the mongols the daurs buryats evenks dorbots kalmyks and huns history genghis khan genghis khan was originally called temujin he led his clan to unify the others into a literal military juggernaut that swept across the asian continent and reached the fringes of europe and the holy roman empire the mongols were originally a confederation of tribes in competition with the tatar kerait merkit and naiman confederations and therefore only one division of what we call the mongol nation genghis khan unified the mongol people by abso |
rbing the other confederations into his own and the word mongol came to mean the entire people though few in number approximately two zero zero zero zero zero people at the height of their empire mongols were important in eurasian history under the leadership of genghis khan the mongols created the second largest empire in world history ruling three five million km one three eight million miles and more than one zero zero million people nearly equal to the british empire in land area at its height the mongol empire spanned from korea to hungary and included most of the lands in between such as afghanistan turkey uzbekistan georgia armenia russia persia northern india china and much of the middle east the mongols were a nomadic people who in the one three th century found themselves encompassed by large city dwelling agrarian civilizations however none of these civilizations with the possible exception of the islamic caliphate located in baghdad were part of a strong central state asia russia and the middle ea |
st were either declining kingdoms or divided city states taking the strategic initiative the mongols exploited this power vacuum and linked all of these areas into a mutually supportive trade network mongol empire eurasia on the eve of the mongol invasions c one two zero zero ce the mongols were largely dependent on trade with the city dwelling peoples but resorted to raiding villages when times were particularly hard as nomads they could not accumulate a surplus against bad times or support artisans when trade was reduced by the northern chinese kingdoms in the one two zero zero s shortly after genghis khan became khan of the mongol tribes the mongols repeated their tradition of getting their goods by looting northern china but the military expansion of the mongols was not merely part of their long held tradition of raiding rather the unification of the mongol tribes by genghis khan made this both a possibility and a necessity in the mongol culture of the time people became respected political leaders by amo |
ng other things demonstrating their martial virtues in combat this was more often than not done by raiding and fighting other mongol tribes the booty of such raids was then distributed by the leaders in order to consolidate their political position this is clearly attested by genghis khan s own personal history before he became the great khan his own wife was kidnapped in a raid by another tribe and he had to organize a counter attack to rescue her once he had unified the mongols however he naturally had to forbid or at least drastically curb these raids that contributed to the poverty and instability of the mongol people but no more raids meant no more prizes to distribute consequently genghis khan had to turn outward for military targets in order to consolidate and maintain his own political position conquest in the khan s initial viewpoint did not consist of subordination of competing cultures to the nomadic way of life rather if there was resistance it took the form of looting and destruction if there was |
no resistance mongols usually left the town unharmed and demanded that the townspeople pay them tribute as a nomad genghis khan is supposed to not have understood or cared about the supposed benefits of the city dwellers way of life this contrasts with their dependence on trade with the cities however theories on the economics of these relationships still lay seven centuries in the future mongol empire under genghis khan and subsequent great khans the khan s initial plan of conquest if there was resistance was to sack all that was valuable and then raze the city killing the resisters and leaving only artists and human shields for future campaigns to survive genghis khan himself was extremely supportive to people that were loyal to him even his former enemies different theories exist as to why the mongols initially behaved in such an extreme manner from a military perspective the mongols were often far from home territory and greatly out numbered and therefore it was unwise to leave enemies at their rear terr |
or also served as a useful weapon in reducing an opponent s ability to rally support against mongol invasion economically destroying population centers gave the mongols more room to graze their herds one such example is the capture of zhongdu zh ngd roughly on the site of modern beijing in one two one five rather than adding the city to the mongol kingdom it was instead thoroughly sacked for silk and other valuables as the mongols grew more powerful advisers convinced genghis khan to start building a vassal empire if the city dwelling peoples were allowed to continue their way of life they could produce a surplus of food and goods a portion of which could be paid to the khan as taxes given the khan s extraordinary success in his aggressive foreign policy this wealth could be equally extraordinary the khan agreed taking his tribute in tax of one zero and saving countless lives and cultures in the process until one two two five they continued their invasions through western asia into persia and russia in one tw |
o two seven genghis khan died his third son ogedei khan was elected by the tribes to succeed him ogedei khan continued the expansion into north eastern asia conquering northern china and vassalizing korea in the process the armies of the mongols had reached poland hungary and egypt by one two four one and were poised to continue when ogedei khan suddenly died mongol law required all descendants of genghis to return to elect a new khan the leader of the european expedition rushed back to press his claim nearly a decade later mongka khan grandson of genghis and nephew of ogedei took the throne through the assistance of his mother sorghaghtani beki by this time the western expansion had lost its momentum these events are credited in several counterfactual historical scenarios with saving european civilization from a second dark age precipitated by mongol conquest evidence given in support of such theories usually include the swift and crushing early victories of the mongol campaign in poland and hungary and the |
disunified state of the other european powers such scenarios however carefully constructed must always be viewed keeping in mind their nature as mere speculation ethnic cultural and religious diversity the term mongol referring to the one two th and one three th century mongol reign presumably included soldiers and generals in the middle east china eastern and central europe who all fought under the identity of being mongols although not exclusively having a heritage in modern mongolia the name probably was very symbolic and powerful concept to those that pledged allegiance to the mongol empire to genghis khan and his successor great khans and to themselves it was probably the genius of genghis khan to unify all these different people under one identity as a single and powerful fighting force with superb military strategy dedication and mobility the word mongol should not be interpreted literally in historical perspective to many of those who identified themselves as being mongols various members of the mongo |
l court including sorghaghtani beki were nestorian christians while the court was nominally buddhist and maintained a policy of being open to all religions it was known as particularly sympathetic to christians which may have helped contribute to the legend of prester john in one two five three the court followed the suggestion of crusader kingdoms in syria to attack the muslim capitals of baghdad and cairo baghdad was conquered and sacked in one two five eight with the city s christians spared and the abbasid caliph killed however with the troops on the road to cairo mongka khan died in one two five nine and much of the force returned home for the selection of the new leader egyptian troops finally repelled the attack in one two six zero this and ultimately the gates of vienna marked the farthest west the mongol empire would progress kublai khan quickly succeeded mongka khan moved the court to beijing formed the yuan dynasty and re started the invasion of china in the first war with guns on both sides after |
one eight years kublai khan conquered both northern and southern china forming the largest land empire in history famously described by marco polo however by the early one four th century the prominence of trade and a possible cooling of the world s climates led to worldwide outbreaks of plague which encouraged revolt and invasion early ming emperors led campaigns into mongolia and destroyed harhorin and khar khot but later ming emperors resorted to more defensive policies meanwhile various mongolian tribes fought against each other usually western mongols oirats against eastern mongols chakhars tumeds ordoses or khalkhas and continued to threaten china s borders the internal struggle gave the emerging manchus the possibility of assimilating the mongol tribes bit by bit in one six three six the chakhars of inner mongolia were conquered in one six nine one the khalkhas of outer mongolia submitted to the kangxi emperor in order to escape from the threat of being conquered by the oirat and in the one seven five |
zero s the qianlong emperor completely destroyed the oirat dzungar empire in today s xinjiang mongol military methods and innovation for a more detailed analysis see military advances of genghis khan scope of mongol operations the mongols were one of the most feared forces ever to take the field of battle operating in massive sweeps extending over dozens of miles the fierce horsemen combined a shock mobility and firepower unmatched in land warfare until the gunpowder age other peoples such as the romans had stonger infantry and others like the byzantines deployed more heavily armored cavalry still others were experts in fortification but none combined combat power on land with such devasting range speed scope and effectiveness as the mongols the mongols also deployed technical expertise using siege experts sappers and mass labor to help destroy fortified strongpoints from their small niche on the mongolian steppe the mongol warriors defeated some of the world s most powerful well established and sophiscated e |
mpires and claiming over one twelfth of the world s land surface at their height seen by some as the largest contiguous empire in human history stretching from asia to europe to the middle east weapons and equipment of the mongols the mongols deployed three general weapons bows scimitars and lances of these the most important was the dreaded mongol bow some scholars see encyc britannica warfare conduct of show two types of bows one for long range markmanship and the other for shorter range work arrows were of different calibers for tactical purposes ranging from warheads capable of penetrating heavy armor to an assortment of longer range more specialized heads like fire arrows like many asiatic bows the mongol bow was a composite bow made from glue horn sinew wood and bamboo lances and scimitars were used for close range encounters within cities or against dispersed enemies in the field the central weapon however was the bow with a range of over two zero zero yards morale and makeup of the mongol warrior and |
their mounts the mongol was an exceedingly tough warrior reared on the harsh steppes of their native land they were generally a short people spending hours on horseback from childhood they were used to privation and hardship and were extremely dedicated the mongol was always seemingly identified with his horse the equally tough hardy steppe pony they were inseparable not only providing the means of transport into battle but very important to the mongol steppe economy providing milk blood and meat for food hair and skin for clothing and tents and glue and sinews for bow and arrow making on the march the mongol warrior carried a string of ponies rotating them as remounts to keep up the momentum of the advance in a tight spot the mongol would bleed selected ponies using their blood to aussage his hunger this extremely lean way of operation contributed to the rapidity of mongol maneuvers characteristically the mongol was practical about his mounts and would discard or slaughter them as demanded by the situation w |
ithout sentiment organization and tactics and of the mongols numerous accounts of the mongols typically call them a horde as if they were merely a mob of savage milling horsemen nothing could be further from the truth the touman decimal system and leadership in reality they were tightly organized troops parceled into units of ten and from that basic building block grouped into larger formations roughly corresponding to regiments and other units finally culimanting in the distinct field force of one zero zero zero zero horsemen the famous mongol touman several of these divisional equivalents were grouped or subdivided as the situation demanded coordination was provided by designated unit leaders with signalling provided via horns smokes flags etc whatever the exact mix or sub division deployed it usually spelled bad news for their opponents swarm encirclement tactics and massed firepower in the field mongol tactics were marked by speed surprise and massive mobility they approached in widely separated columns b |
oth to ease logistics as well as to gain maneuvering room once they had isolated their target the toumans deployed in wide sweeps convering on the enemy from several directions upon contact the mongols played cat and mouse standing off while devasting opponents with massed arrow fire or charging in close only to veer off while discharging yet another vicious rain of shafts opponents who took the bait and gave pursuit were quickly cut off and liquidated the constant rain of arrows the converging swarms of charges and probes all carried out by the encircling mongols were usually enough to soften up an enemy typically the opposing force broke and then the deadliest butchery began as is well known a force is most vulnerable in retreat and the mongols were ruthless flexible tactics ruses and ambushes the mongols were not rigid in their thinking nor did they adhere to european notions of chivalry they deployed a wide variety of large or small tactical subdivisions as the action demanded and feigned retreat to set t |
raps for pursuers conducted ambushes and constantly probed and raided their enemies unsentimental in their approach to warfare they did whatever it took to win mongol siege warfare and logistics the mongol logistical system was distinguished by its mobility and practicality most columns or toumen were self suficient in the short run the mongol armies lived off the land heavily bad news indeed for hapless civilians in their path heavier equipment was brought up by well organized supply trains local lumber labor and other resources were pressed into service to feed the needs of the advancing toumen primarily a cavalry force the mongols made wide use of captured or hired siege engineers to overcome fortifications a supply train hauled a variety of siege engines in the wake of the touman sweep and these were deployed against cities the mongols were unsentimental and used every trick in the book from sapper tunnels to treachery once a city had fallen it was subjected to wholesale massacre and pillaging cities that |
surrendered had an easier time but regardless of how the city or area submitted certain outcomes were still the same the mongol era is filled with supply trains hauling booty to their core homeland in the steppes mongol terror mongol terror and atrocity was notable even for the one three th century they employed a deliberate policy of terror it was not unusual for them to round up the civilian population of a city or area and drive the hapless victims forward as human herd against an opponent who faced the anguished choice of firing upon or killing their own people contemporary accounts speak of mass mountains of human bones or of vast areas burned to rubble devoid of all life long before the chinese communists used the phrase mongol operations in many areas could indeed be classified as a three all policy burn all kill all destroy all and yet such terror at times also had a rational end in sight to intimidate opponents further down the line into surrending or making concessions in a cruel age where few nati |
ons or tribes won prizes for humane behavior the mongols seemed to have added their own distinct stamp defeat of the mongols undefeated in most encounters mongols operations under genghis khan and his later successors stretched from asia to central europe to russia to india to the middle east what then stopped the asiatic horsemen from conquering the land surface of the earth the tribal structure for one was a relative fragile one help together initially by genghis khan s ruthless will on his death the empire became divided such division arguably saved the people of europe for mongol victories penetrated as far as poland and hungary could have gone much further succession disputes and deliberations however caused the fierce horsemen to withdraw from central europe russia received no such reprieve nor did china nor parts of the middle east but they met their fates separately under varying circumstances over time some conquered peoples were able to dilute absorb or blunt mongol advances china is the most famous |
example with the powerful chinese culture eventually absorbing and turning the rough horsemen another factor was that success bred division so that in time like the vikings mongol came to fight mongol over the spoils of victory the mongols also were never really tested for an extended time on terrain unsuitable to mass cavalry sweeps nor were they noted for exploits in the naval arena these twin factors would have been hindrances in further expansion although as noted above they were supremely adaptable they conquered afganhistan s main routes and cities with ease but the bulk of the country with its forbidding terrain bane of invaders everywhere was not pacified the mongols also met defeat in japan failing to project their power over a large body of water and maintain a foothold on a hostile shore whether they would have had the same world beating success if they had pushed into the forests and swamps beyond poland or hungary is open to question mongol manpower also was not unlimited the steppe economy was |
supremely proficient in producing tough archers and their ponies but the farther away they moved from that area the greater the drain on their manpower although shrewd and adaptable such manpower problems would loom large in any putative program of world conquest finally the shrinkage of the steppes by the encroachment of agricultural peoples helped reduce the economic base that had produced so many ponies and fighting men the final straw was the gunpowder age which put paid to the run of success enjoyed by the mounted warrior not only in asia but elsewhere as well timeline of conquest the mongols attempted two unsuccessful invasions of japan see mongol invasions of japan the first attempt ended in a retreat after the battle of bun ei in one two seven four the second attempt was cancelled after many ships had been destroyed by a famous typhoon called kamikaze divine wind in one two eight one the mongols succeeded very briefly in their invasion of dai viet in the northern part of contemporary vietnam but were |
soon defeated by the vietnamese general tran hung dao after almost three decades the attack on the javanese kingdom of singhasari in one two nine three caused the collapse of that state but the new empire of majapahit remained independent estimated fatalities from the mongol campaigns are one two zero zero northern china unknown one two one five yanjing china present day beijing unknown one two two one nishapur persia one seven million killed in assault one two two one merv persia one four million killed in assault one two two one meru chahjan persia one three million killed in assault one two two one rayy persia one six million killed in assault one two three six bil r bulgar cities volga bulgaria one five zero zero zero zero or more nearly half of population one two three seven one two four zero kievan rus half of population one two four one battle of legnica defeat of a combined polish german force in lower silesia poland one two four one batu khan defeats bela iv of hungary at the battle of muhi five zero |
zero zero zero zero people one two four two the mongols turn back to attend to the election of a new grand khan one two five eight baghdad eight zero zero zero zero zero people results in destruction of abbasid dynasty modern history the orange line shows the extent of the mongol empire in the late one three th century the red areas show areas dominated by ethnic mongols today in one nine one one mongolia revolted against manchu rule with russian support forming modern mongolia a communist government was formed in one nine two one the ussr defended mongolia from japanese invasion however the mongolian people s revolutionary party for reasons both practical and philosophical enacted an often brutal if not entirely effective sweeping aside mongolian tradition working against the buddhist religions clan ism and script and for collectivism as opposed to the traditional nomadic lifestyle mongolia aligned itself with russia after the sino soviet split of one nine five eight in one nine nine zero the communist gove |
rnment was overthrown and by one nine nine two mongolia established a parliamentary government inner mongolia is an autonomous region within china han chinese have been massively re settled there and are the dominant ethnic group china places many of the same cultural restrictions on inner mongolians however inner mongolians are exempt from the government s one child policy and the prc officially promotes the mongol language the russian federation also has some autonomous regions for descendants of the mongols such as the buryats kalmykia autonomous republic western mongolians oirats ust orda buryats autonomous district aga buryat autonomous district buryatia autonomous republic see also mongolia mongol empire outer mongolia inner mongolia references encyclop dia britannica almanac two zero zero six pg five zero five introduction to the history of mongolia indiana university genghis khan and the great mongolian empire university of pennsylvania museum of archaeology and anthropology external links ethnic grou |
ps of mongolia ethnic map of mongolia ethnic groups in mongolia mongol peoples a page from the marmalade boy manga volume one japanese version manga is the japanese word for comics and print cartoons outside of japan it usually refers specifically to japanese comics manga developed from a mixture of ukiyo e and western styles of drawing and took its current form shortly after world war ii it comes mainly in black and white except for the covers and maybe the first few pages popular manga is often adapted into anime once a market interest has been established stories are often modified to appeal to a more mainstream market although not as common original anime is sometimes adapted into manga such as neon genesis evangelion origins two nd english edition of inuyasha vol one graphic novel literally translated manga means random or whimsical pictures the word first came into common usage after the publication of the one nine th century hokusai manga containing assorted drawings from the sketchbook of the famous u |
kiyo e artist hokusai however gi ga literally funny pictures drawn in the one two th century by various artists contain many manga like qualities such as emphasis on story and simple artistic lines manga developed from a mixture of ukiyo e and western art movements when the united states began trading with japan japan tried to modernise itself and catch up with the rest of the world thus they imported western artists to teach their students things such as line form and colour things which were never concentrated on in ukiyo e as the idea behind the picture was normally considered more important manga at this period was known as ponchi e punch picture and like its british counterpart punch magazine mainly depicted humour and political satire in short one or four picture format manga as people know it in the two zero th and two one st centuries only really came into being after dr osamu tezuka widely acknowledged to be the father of story based manga became popular in one nine four five tezuka who was studying |
medicine saw a war propaganda animation film called momotarou uminokaihei whose style was largely copied from disney s fantasia though a war propaganda film it was also a children s film so the main theme of the film was peace and hope in the time of darkness tezuka was greatly inspired by the film and later decided to become a comic artist which at the time and somewhat even now was an unthinkable choice for someone who qualified as a medical doctor and ph d in medicine he later commented that a part of reason he went to medical school was to avoid conscription and he actually didn t like seeing blood before tezuka most japanese comics were drawn on one or four picture format dealing with social or political satire or humour tezuka introduced film like story telling and character in comic format in which each short film like episode is part of larger story arch and just like film the only text in tezuka s comic was character s spoken line moreover each of the pictures in pages flow from top right to bottom l |
eft so that people could see and read comic in speed reading manner note that vertical japanese is written in top right down to bottom left order tezuka also adopted disney like facial feature where eyes mouth eyebrows or nose are drawn in a very exaggerated manner to add more distinct characterisation with fewer lines which made his prolific output possible this somewhat revived the old ukiyo e like tradition where the picture is a projection of an idea rather than actual physical reality initially his comic was published in a children s magazine soon it became a specialised weekly or monthly comic magazine which is now the foundation of the japanese comic industry tezuka adopted his comic to almost all film genres at the time his manga series cover from action adventure eg kimba the white lion jungle emperor leo to serious drama eg black jack to science fiction eg astro boy horror eg dororo mitumega tooru it is often commented that any manga genre which tezuka did not create was done by someone who was desp |
erately trying to find something tezuka wasn t doing though he is known in the west as a creator of the children s animation astro boy many of his comics had some very mature and sometimes dark undertones most of his comics central characters had a tragic background atom astro boy was created by a grieving scientist trying to create an imitation of his dead son who then later abandoned the boy kimba s father was killed by human hunters and the theme of conflict between man and nature was a reccuring theme for the comic hyakkimaru in dororo was born severly crippled because his father offered four eight parts of dororo s infant body to four eight demons some criticise tezuka s somewhat excessive use of tragic dramatisation in his stories as the manga generation of children grew up the market for comics expanded accordingly and manga soon become a major cultural force of japan tezuka also contributed to the social acceptance of manga his qualification as a medical doctor as well as his serious story lines were |
used to deflect criticism that manga was vulgar and undesirable for children he also mentored a number of important comic artists such as fujiko fujio creator of doraemon akatuka fujio and shotaro ishinomori another important trend in manga was gekiga between the one nine six zero s and the one nine seven zero s there were two forms of comic serialisation one the manga format was based on sales of comic magazine the other gekiga was based on a rental format much in the same line as the modern movie rental systems manga was based on weekly or biweekly magazine publications so the demand for prompt production and deadline was paramount consequently most manga artist adopted tezuka style drawing where characters are drawn in a simpler but exaggerated manner most typified by large round eyes which is regarded as a defining feature of japanese comic in the west gekiga on the other hand did not have any deadline so the artist could use much more detailed drawing and more realistic portraial of character with a grea |
tly complex and mature story line for this reason gekiga was considered to be much more artistically superior however gekiga s rental business model eventually died out in the one nine seven zero s while comic artists in manga format significantly improved their graphic quality and story eventually gekiga was absorbed into manga and now are used to describe manga style which does not use cartoonish drawing the most famous gekiga style manga in the west is akira though roughly equivalent to the american comic book manga holds more importance in japanese culture than comics do in american culture in economic terms a weekly sales of comics in japan outsell entire annual output of the american comic industry several major manga magazines sell several million copies each per week manga is well respected both as an art form and as a form of popular literature though it has not reached acceptance of higher art genre like film or music like its american counterpart some manga has been criticized for being violent and |
sexual for example a number of film adaptation of manga such as ichi the killer or old boys were rated restricted or mature in the west however there have been no official inquiries or laws trying to limit what can be drawn in manga except for vague decency laws applying to all published materials stating that overly indecent materials should not be sold this freedom has allowed artists to draw manga for every age group and for about every topic the manga style the popular and recognizable style of manga is very distinctive emphasis is often placed on line over form and the storytelling and panel placement differs from those in western comics panels and pages are typically read from right to left consistent with traditional japanese writing while the art can be incredibly realistic or cartoonish it is often noted that the characters have large eyes small noses and tiny mouths large eyes have become a permanent fixture in manga and anime since the one nine six zero s when osamu tezuka see above started drawin |
g them in this way mimicking the style of disney cartoons from the united states being a very diverse artform however not all manga artists adhere to the conventions most popularized in the west through anime such as akira sailor moon dragon ball z and ranma a fair number of manga artists do not feel that their stories and characters are set in stone so a set of characters may build relationships jobs etc in one set of stories story arc only to have another story arc run where the same characters do not know each other the tenchi series in particular is known for this there are more than thirteen different unrelated story arcs based around tenchi and his friends manga symbols some symbols that appear in manga are quite typical for manga there is for instance a white cross like symbol that denotes pain manga format manga magazines usually have many series running concurrently with approximately two zero four zero pages allocated to each series per issue these manga magazines or anthology magazines as they are |
also known colloquially phone books are usually printed on low quality newsprint and can be anywhere from two zero zero to more than eight five zero pages long manga magazines also contain one shot comics and various four panel yonkoma equivalent to comic strips manga series can run for many years if they are successful manga artists sometimes start out with a few one shot manga projects just to try to get their name out if these are successful and receive good reviews they are continued when a series has been running for a while the stories are usually collected together and printed in dedicated book sized volumes called tank bon these are the equivalent of american comic s trade paperbacks these volumes use higher quality paper and are useful to those who want to catch up with a series so they can follow it in the magazines or if they find the cost of the weeklies or monthlies to be prohibitive recently deluxe versions have also been printed as readers have gotten older and the need for something special gr |
ew old manga have also been reprinted using somewhat lesser quality paper and sold for one zero zero yen approximately one us dollar each to compete with the used book market manga are primarily classified by the age and gender of the target audience in particular books and magazines sold to boys sh nen and girls sh jo have distinctive cover art and are placed on different shelves in most bookstores japan also has manga caf s or manga kissaten at a manga kissaten people drink coffee and read manga many things appear in manga format including wanted posters for criminals traditionally manga are written from yokogaki and tategaki to left some publishers of translated manga keep that format but some switch the direction to left to right so as not to confuse western readers d jinshi some manga artists will produce extra sometimes unrelated material which are known as omake lit bonus or extra they might also publish their unfinished drawings or sketches known as oekaki lit sketches d jinshi is produced by small am |
ateur publishers outside of the mainstream commercial market in a similar fashion to small press independently published comic books in the united states comiket the largest comic book convention in the world with over four zero zero zero zero zero gathering in three days is devoted to d jinshi unofficial fan made comics are also called d jinshi some d jinshi continue with a series story or write an entirely new one using its characters much like fan fiction types of manga many of these genres apply equally well to anime which very often includes adaptations of manga and japanese computer games some of which are also adaptations of manga by target audience josei or redikomi women kodomo children seinen men sh jo young and teenage girls sh nen young and teenage boys genres alternative see also garo gekiga dramatic pictures la nouvelle manga franco belgian japanese artistic movement semi alternative popular publication individualistic style battling companion not an official name d jinshi fan art or self publis |
hed manga magical girl mah sh jo mecha giant robots mo also mah kanojo or magical girlfriend sh jo ai or yuri lesbian romance sh nen ai or yaoi gay romance popular sh nen manga series bleach action adventure comedy fantasy shaman king action adventure fantasy fullmetal alchemist action adventure comedy fantasy science fiction naruto fantasy ninja samurai deeper kyo samurai epic one piece pirate action comedy epic dragon ball martial arts comedy superhero great teacher onizuka high school comedy action negima harem magic comedy rurouni kenshin historical fiction romantic comedy action saint seiya mythological adventure action popular sh jo manga series nana drama romance ceres celestial legend ayashi no ceres paranormal romance boys over flowers hana yori dango drama romance fruits basket comedy romance paranormal hana kimi hanazakari no kimi tachi e comedy romance drama kare kano his and her circumstances a k a kareshi kanojo no jij comedy romance drama marmalade boy comedy romance drama please save my earth |
sci fi drama revolutionary girl utena action drama cardcaptor sakura action fantasy bishoujo senshi sailormoon fantasy romance action hellsing horror comedy psychic popular seinen manga series oh my goddess manga cover three x three eyes mythology comedy horror akira science fiction oh my goddess fantasy action angel densetsu drama berserk medieval fantasy blade of the immortal samurai drama ghost in the shell science fiction hellsing horror action lone wolf and cub samurai drama monster horror drama densha otoko comedy drama battle royale thriller horror drama international influence demo by brian wood story and becky cloonan art is an example of an american comic that is influenced by manga manga has long had an influence on international comics and animation the world over american alternative comics artists such as frank miller and scott mccloud were somewhat influenced by manga in a few of their works other artists such as americans brian wood and becky cloonan demo and canadian bryan lee o malley lost a |
t sea are heavily influenced by the mainstream manga style and have received acclaim for their work outside of anime manga fan circles these artists have many other influences that make their work more palatable to non manga readers these artists have their roots in the anime manga subculture of their particular regions american artist paul pope worked in japan for kodansha on the manga anthology afternoon before he was fired due to an editorial change at kodansha he was developing many ideas for the anthology that he would later publish in the u s as heavy liquid as a result his work features a strong influence from manga without influences from international otaku culture in france there is a nouvelle manga movement started by fr d ric boilet which seeks to combine mature sophisticated daily life manga with the artistic style of traditional franco belgian comics while the movement also involves japanese artists a handful of french cartoonists other than boilet have decided to embrace its ideal in addition t |
here are many amateur artists who are influenced exclusively by the manga style many of these have their own small publishing houses and some webcomics and webmanga in this style have become very popular see megatokyo for the most part these artists are not yet recognized outside of the anime and manga fan community many people outside of those circles view those works as being too focused on the american anime subculture and not focused enough on telling stories that resonate with a wider audience manga outside japan language notes because nouns in japanese do not have a plural form manga is the form for both plural and singular it is also commonly called komikku from comic in japanese mangaka literally manga professional is a japanese term for a manga author artist see also anime d jinshi list of dojinshi manga list of manga list of h manga list of h d jinshi manga list of manga by japanese title list of manga distributors list of manga magazines manhua manga from the sinosphere manhwa korean manga referenc |
es gravett paul manga six zero years of japanese comics new york collins design two zero zero four isbn one eight five six six nine three nine one zero schodt frederik l dreamland japan writings on modern manga berkeley calif stone bridge press one nine nine six isbn one eight eight zero six five six two three x schodt frederik l manga manga the world of japanese comics new york kodansha international one nine eight three isbn eight seven zero one one seven five two one isbn four seven seven zero zero two three zero five seven external links websites with descriptions and information anime frontier features a number of manga reviews and news items as well as a growing database of manga related information anime news network a huge database of information on anime as well as manga anime university history of manga history of manga article from animeinfo manganews net contains a large database of manga titles with useful descriptions and also lists recently scanlated manga with manga news and reviews updated da |
ily baka updates manga lists manga title and author information and has information pertaining to manga scanlations u s papers adding japanese style comics manga design reviewed w art manga magazine guide guide to japanese manga anthology websites of news manga jouhou manga news manga three yen daily news and info on manga from japan manga reviewer reviews previews and mangaka bios websites with tutorials mangaka co za a south african manga community site with artist profiles video manga tutorials forum discussions how to draw manga a popular series of art instruction books here the tutorial page websites with illustrations mangallery a big manga and anime gallery in poland lyhana eight huge database of pics able to illustrate this article webstores supplying japanese language original manga jlist a store with doujinshi and artbooks bemmu supplies any japanese manga or artbooks sasuga great selection of manga others websites imaf international manga and anime festival county hall london fansubbers com online |
manga manga online by fansubbers noated very active community forum including anime manga db book store and site directory the gioi manga community forum on manga and anime of hong bang university vietnam comic books manga monterey may refer to places in australia monterey new south wales in the united states monterey alabama monterey arkansas monterey california monterey florida monterey illinois monterey indiana monterey iowa monterey kentucky two locations monterey bourbon county kentucky monterey owen county kentucky monterey louisiana monterey massachusetts monterey michigan monterey minnesota monterey mississippi monterey missouri monterey nebraska monterey new york monterey ohio two locations monterey clermont county ohio monterey mercer county ohio monterey pennsylvania three locations monterey berks county pennsylvania monterey franklin county pennsylvania monterey lancaster county pennsylvania monterey tennessee monterey virginia monterey wisconsin other mercury monterey a minivan produced by mercur |
y project monterey a failed effort to produce a single unix like operating system that ran on intel ia three two ia six four and ibm power and powerpc platforms similar names monterrey a city in nuevo le n mexico monterrey colombia a city in santander colombia monterrei in the province of ourense galicia spain mexico city spanish ciudad de m xico is the name of a megacity located in the valley of mexico valle de m xico a large valley in the high plateaus altiplano in the south of mexico about two two four zero meters seven three four nine feet above sea level surrounded on most sides by volcanoes towering at four zero zero zero to five five zero zero meters one three zero zero zero to one eight zero zero zero feet above sea level mexico city was originally a municipality founded in one five two one by cort s in the middle of the now drained lake texcoco on the ruins of tenochtitlan the capital of the aztec empire and its lesser known twin city tlatelolco the municipality was abolished in one nine two eight an |
d the name mexico city can now refer to two things officially the name ciudad de m xico is used by the distrito federal d f the d f is a federal district serving as the capital of mexico and which is administered by the mexican federal government the d f encompasses the historical center of mexico city but is much larger than the historical municipality of mexico city abolished in one nine two eight the urbanized area of mexico city covers only the north of the d f while the south of the d f is made up of rural areas and mountains although the d f is not a municipality the name ciudad de m xico is used by mexican authorities as a synonym for distrito federal such as in article four four of the mexican constitution in a broader meaning mexico city refers to the whole metropolitan area of greater mexico city the metropolitan area extends beyond the limits of the d f and encompasses tens of independent municipalities located in the state of m xico estado de m xico to the north east and west of the d f extending |
as far north as the state of hidalgo the population of the entire metropolitan area in two zero zero five is estimated between one eight and two two million inhabitants depending where the limits of the metropolitan area are set this means mexico city is the third or fourth most populated metropolitan area in the world behind tokyo new york and possibly seoul depending on which data are compared mexico city with its distinct mestizo culture blending native indian nahuatl and spanish heritages has in recent decades become one of the great financial economic educational cultural and tourist centers of the world history for the pre columbian detailed history of the city see tenochtitlan and tlatelolco view along paseo de la reforma from chapultepec castle metropolitan cathedral the original aztec city was established in one three two five as tenochtitlan and immediately became the center of a growing empire located on a small island on the middle of lake texcoco the layout of the city forced the aztecs to build |
artificial islands and create a series of canals to allow the growth of the metropolis in fact although the lake was salty dams built by the aztecs kept the city surrounded by clear water from the rivers that fed the lake two double aqueducts provided the city with fresh water this was intended mainly for cleaning and washing after centuries of pre columbian civilization spanish conquistador hern n cort s first arrived in the area in one five one nine he did not succeed in conquering the city until august one three one five two one after a seven nine day siege that destroyed most of the old aztec city in one five two five the rebuilt city served as the capital of the viceroyalty of new spain and the political and cultural center of mexico the importance of the city was such that the captaincy general of guatemala cuba florida and the philippines were administered from it this colonial period culminated with the construction of the baroque metropolitan cathedral and the basilica of guadalupe the outbreak of th |
e war of independence in one eight one zero and the eventual independence of the country in one eight two one were unable to hamper the influence of the city the capital became host of the first ruler of the mexican empire agustin de iturbide as well of the republic that replaced it in one eight two three in one eight two four the mexican federal district was established by the new government before such decision mexico city served at the same time as seat of government for both the estado de mexico and the nation the war with the united states and the civil unrest of the xix century had little effect upon the city although it becam |