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dor and flavor and potentially harmful medicinal effects pennyroyal resembles the other mints but corsican mint is unusual in being a low mossy groundcover flavoring chemicals the substances that give the mints their characteristic aromas and flavors are menthol the main aroma of spearmint peppermint and japanese peppermint a major commercial source pulegiol in pennyroyal and corsican mint wintergreen methyl salicylate another popular candy flavor does not come from mints but can be extracted from many non mint plant species some of which are actually called wintergreen or manufactured by a simple synthetic process culinary uses mint leaves are used in teas beverages jellies syrups and ice creams in mid eastern cuisines mint is used on lamb dishes in british cuisine mint sauce is popular with meats mint essential oil and menthol are extensively used as flavourings in drinks gum and candies see mint candy medicinal and cosmetic uses mint was originally used as a medicinal herb to treat stomach ache and chest p

ains during the middle ages powdered mint leaves were used to whiten teeth menthol is an ingredient of many cosmetics and parfumes menthol and mint essential oil are also much used in medicine as component of many drugs and are very popular in aromatherapy ecological importance mints are used as food plants by the larvae of some lepidoptera species including buff ermine distribution and cultivation mint is native to europe and asia and was previously grown in convent gardens it was brought to north america by early settlers today mint is commercially cultivated in the united states and egypt mints are generally vigorous spreading plants that tolerate a wide range of conditions mint is a highly invasive plant so caution should be taken in cultivation or it can take over an entire garden see also minthe external links mints at botanical com medicinal use of mint in armenia lamiaceae herbs image origanum majorana jpg image width two four zero px regnum plantae divisio magnoliophyta classis magnoliopsida ordo lam

iales familia lamiaceae genus origanum species o majorana binomial origanum majorana binomial authority l marjoram origanum majorana lamiaceae is a cold sensitive perennial herb or undershrub with sweet pine and citrus flavors it is also called sweet marjoram or knotted marjoram and majorana hortensis the name marjoram old french majorane medieval latin majorana is not connected with the word major marjoram is cultivated for its aromatic leaves either green or dry for culinary purposes the tops are cut as the plants begin to flower and are dried slowly in the shade it is often used in herb combinations such as herbes de provence and za atar related species oregano origanum vulgare sometimes listed with marjoram as origanum majorana is also called wild marjoram it is a perennial common in southern europe in dry copses and on hedge banks with many stout stems three zero eight zero cm high bearing short stalked somewhat ovate leaves and clusters of purple flowers it has a stronger flavor and a more penetrating q

uality pot marjoram or cretan oregano origanum onites has similar uses to marjoram hardy marjoram or italian marjoram is a cross of marjoram with oregano that is much more resistant to cold but is slightly less sweet catalan marduix spanish mejorana surname marjoram is a surname lamiaceae herbs medicine is the branch of health science and the sector of public life concerned with maintaining human health or restoring it through the treatment of disease and injury it is both an area of knowledge a science of body systems their diseases and treatment and the applied practice of that knowledge overview the practice of medical care is shared between the medical profession physicians or doctors and other groups of professionals such as nurses and pharmacists sometimes known as allied health professionals historically only those conferred with a medical doctorate have been considered to practice medicine clinicians can be physicians nurses or medical assistants the medical profession is the social and occupational s

tructure of the group of people formally trained and authorized to apply medical knowledge many countries and legal jurisdictions have legal limitations on who may practice medicine or the allied medical fields medicine is typically seen as composed of various specialized sub branches such as pediatrics gynecology neurology dealing with particular body systems diseases or areas of health systems of medical and healthcare practices have existed among human societies since at least the dawn of recorded history these systems have developed in various ways in different cultures and regions medicine as understood in the modern period has historically been considered to be the mainstream tradition which developed in the western world since the early modern age many other traditions of medicine and healthcare are still widely practiced throughout the world most of which are still considered to be separate and distinct from western medicine also called biomedicine or the hippocratic tradition the most highly develope

d systems of medicine outside the western system are traditional chinese medicine and the ayurvedic traditions of india and sri lanka various non mainstream traditions of healthcare have also developed in the western world distinct from mainstream medicine medicine is also often used amongst medical professionals as shorthand for internal medicine veterinary medicine is the practice of healthcare in animal species other than human beings history of medicine medicine as it is practiced now is rooted in various traditions but developed mainly in the late one eight th and early one nine th century in germany rudolf virchow and france jean martin charcot claude bernard and others the new scientific medicine replaced earlier western traditions of medicine mostly based on the four humours and other pre modern theories the focal points of development of clinical medicine shifted to the united kingdom and the usa by the early one nine zero zero s sir william osler harvey cushing evidence based medicine is the recent

movement to link the practice and the science of medicine more closely through the use of the scientific method and modern information science genomics and knowledge of human genetics is already having a large influence on medicine as the causative genes of most monogenic genetic disorders have now identified and the development of techniques in molecular biology and genetics are influencing medical practice and decision making practice of medicine the practice of medicine combines both science and art science and technology are the evidence base for many clinical problems for the general population at large the art of medicine is the application of this medical knowledge in combination with intuition and clinical judgment to determine the proper diagnoses and treatment plan for this unique patient and to treat the patient accordingly central to medicine is the patient doctor relationship established when a person with a health concern or problem seeks the help of a physician i e the medical encounter other h

ealth professionals similarly establish a relationship with a patient and may perform interventions from their perspective e g nurses radiographers and therapists as part of the medical encounter the doctor needs to develop a relationship with the patient gather data medical history and physical examination combined with laboratory or imaging studies analyze and synthesize that data assessment and or differential diagnosis and then develop a treatment plan further testing therapy watchful observation referral and follow up treat the patient accordingly assess the progress of treatment and alter the plan as necessary the medical encounter is documented in a medical record which is a legal document in many jurisdictions one method that is used is called the problem oriented medical record pomr which includes a problem list of diagnoses and a soap method of documentation for each visit s subjective the medical history of the problem from the point of view of the patient o objective the physical examination and a

ny laboratory or imaging studies a assessment is the medical decision making process including the differential diagnoses and most probable diagnoses p plan the way resolve the problem and monitor progress healthcare delivery systems medicine is practiced within the medical system which is a legal credentialing and financing framework established by a particular culture or government the characteristics of a healthcare system have significant effect on the nature and format of how medical care is delivered financing framework has the greatest influence as it defines who pays the cost and how medical practitioners are compensated aside from tribal cultures the most significant divide in developed countries is that between universal health care and the market based health care such as practiced in the u s universal healthcare might allow or ban a parallel private market the latter case is described as single payor system transparency of information is another critical factor defining a delivery system access to

information on conditions treatments quality and pricing greatly affects the choice by patients consumers and therefore the incentives of medical professionals while us healthcare system has come under fire for lack of openness new medical blog and medical wiki services hold promise to encourage greater openness patient doctor relationship the doctor patient relationship and interaction is a central process in the practice of medicine there are many perspectives from which to understand and describe it an idealized physician s perspective such as is taught in medical school sees the core aspects of the process as the physician learning from the patient his symptoms concerns and values in response the physician examines the patient interprets the symptoms and formulates a diagnosis to explain the symptoms and their cause to the patient and to propose a treatment in more detail the patient presents a set of complaints or concerns about his health to the doctor who then obtains further information about the pat

ient s symptoms previous state of health living conditions and so forth and then formulates a diagnosis and enlists the patient s agreement to a treatment plan importantly during this process the doctor educates the patient about the causes progression outcomes and possible treatments of his ailments as well as often providing advice for maintaining health this teaching relationship is the basis of calling the physician doctor which originally meant teacher in latin the patient doctor relationship is additionally complicated by the patient s suffering patient derives from the latin patiens suffering and limited ability to relieve it on his own the doctor s expertise comes from his knowledge about or experience with other people who have suffered similar symptoms and his presumed ability to relieve it with medicines or other therapies about which the patient may initially have little knowledge the doctor patient relationship can be analyzed from the perspective of ethical concerns in terms of how well the goal

s of non maleficence beneficence autonomy and justice are achieved many other values and ethical issues can be added to these in different societies periods and cultures different values may be assigned different priorities for example in the last three zero years medical care in the western world has increasingly emphasized patient autonomy in decision making the relationship and process can also be analyzed in terms of social power relationships e g by michel foucault or economic transactions physicians have been accorded gradually higher status and respect over the last century and they have been entrusted with control of access to prescription medicines as a public health measure this represents a concentration of power and carries both advantages and disadvantages to particular kinds of patients with particular kinds of conditions a further twist has occurred in the last two five years as costs of medical care have risen and a third party an insurance company or government agency now often insists upon a

share of decision making power for a variety of reasons reducing freedom of choice of both doctors and patients in many ways the quality of the patient doctor relationship is important to both parties the better the relationship in terms of mutual respect knowledge trust shared values and perspectives about disease and life and time available the better will be the amount and quality of information about the patient s disease transferred in both directions enhancing accuracy of diagnosis and increasing the patient s knowledge about the disease where such a relationship is poor the doctor s ability to make a full assessment is compromised and the patient is more likely to distrust the diagnosis and proposed treatment in these circumstances and also in cases where there is genuine divergence of medical opinions a second opinion from another doctor may be sought in some settings e g the hospital ward the patient doctor relationship is much more complex and many other people are involved when somebody is ill rel

atives neighbors rescue specialists nurses technical personnel social workers and others clinical skills main articles medical history physical examination a complete medical evaluation includes a medical history a physical examination appropriate laboratory or imaging studies analysis of data and medical decision making to obtain diagnoses and treatment plan the components of the medical history are chief complaint cc the reason for the current medical visit history of present illness hpi the chronological order of events of symptoms a mnemonic opqrst is sometimes helpful in obtaining the history o nset when the symptoms began p rovocative palliative factors what makes a symptom worse or better q uality description of the symptom r egion which part of the body is affected s everity what is the intensity of the symptom using a scale of zero one zero one zero worst t iming what is the course of the symptom current activity occupation hobbies what the patient actually does medications what drugs including otcs

and home remedies as well as herbal remedies such as st john s wort allergies are recorded past medical history pmh pmhx other medical diagnoses past hospitalizations and operations injuries past infectious diseases and or vaccinations history of known allergies review of systems ros an outline of additional symptoms to ask which may be missed on hpi generally following the body s main organ systems heart lungs digestive tract urinary tract etc social history sh birthplace residences marital history social and economic status habits including diet medications tobacco alcohol family history fh listing of diseases in the family that may impact the patient a family tree is sometimes used the physical examination is the examination of the patient looking for signs of disease the doctor uses his senses of sight hearing touch and sometimes smell taste has been made redundant by the availability of modern lab tests four chief methods are used inspection palpation percussion and auscultation smelling may be useful e

g infection uremia diabetic ketoacidosis the clinical examination involves study of vital signs include height weight body temperature blood pressure pulse respiration rate hemoglobin oxygen saturation general appearance of the patient skin head eye ear nose and throat heent cardiovascular heart and blood vessels respiratory lungs abdomen and rectosigmoid genitalia spine and extremities musculoskeletal neurological and psychiatric laboratory and imaging studies results may be obtained if necessary the medical decision making mdm process involves analysis and synthesis of all the above data to come up with a list of possible diagnoses the differential diagnoses along with an idea of what needs to be done to obtain a definitive diagnosis that would explain the patient s problem the treatment plan may include ordering additional laboratory tests and studies starting therapy referral to a specialist or watchful observation follow up may be advised this process is used by primary care providers as well as speciali

sts it may take only a few minutes if the problem is simple and straightforward on the other hand it may take weeks in a patient who has been hospitalized with multi system problems with involvement by several specialists on subsequent visits the process may be repeated in an abbreviated manner to obtain any new history symptoms physical findings and lab or imaging results or specialist consultations settings where medical care is delivered see also clinic hospital and hospice medicine is a diverse field and the provision of medical care is therefore provided in a variety of locations primary care medical services are provided by physicians or other health professionals who has first contact with a patient seeking medical treatment or care these occur in physician s office clinics nursing homes schools home visits and other places close to patients about nine zero of medical visits can be treated by the primary care provider these include treatment of acute and chronic illnesses preventive care and health edu

cation for all ages and both sex secondary care medical services are provided by medical specialists in their offices or clinics or at local community hospitals for a patient referred by a primary care provider who first diagnosed or treated the patient referrals are made for those patients who required the expertise or procedures performed by specialists these include both ambulatory care and inpatient services emergency rooms intensive care medicine surgery services physical therapy labor and delivery endoscopy units diagnostic laboratory and medical imaging services hospice centers etc some primary care providers may also take care of hospitalized patients and deliver babies in a secondary care setting tertiary care medical services are provided by specialist hospitals or regional centers equipped with diagnostic and treatment facilities not generally available at local hospitals these include trauma centers burn treatment centers advanced neonatology unit services organ transplants high risk pregnancy rad

iation oncology etc modern medical care also depends on information still delivered in many health care settings on paper records but increasingly nowadays by electronic means branches of medicine working together as an interdisciplinary team many highly trained health professionals besides medical practitioners are involved in the delivery of modern health care some examples include nurses laboratory scientists pharmacists physiotherapists speech therapists occupational therapists dietitians and bioengineers the scope and sciences underpinning human medicine overlap many other fields dentistry and psychology while separate disciplines from medicine are sometimes also considered medical fields physician assistants nurse practitioners and midwives treat patients and prescribe medication in many legal jurisdictions veterinary medicine applies similar techniques to the care of animals medical doctors have many specializations and subspecializations which are listed below there are variations from country to coun

try regarding which specialities certain subspecialities are in basic sciences anatomy is the study of the physical structure of organisms in contrast to macroscopic or gross anatomy cytology and histology are concerned with microscopic structures biochemistry is the study of the chemistry taking place in living organisms especially the structure and function of their chemical components biostatistics is the application of statistics to biological fields in the broadest sense a knowledge of biostatistics is essential in the planning evaluation and interpretation of medical research it is also fundamental to epidemiology and evidence based medicine cytology is the microscopic study of individual cells embryology is the study of the early development of organisms epidemiology is the study of the demographics of disease processes and includes but is not limited to the study of epidemics genetics is the study of genes and their role in biological inheritance histology is the study of the structures of biological

tissues by light microscopy electron microscopy and immunohistochemistry immunology is the study of the immune system which includes the innate and adaptive immune system in human for example microbiology is the study of microorganisms including protozoa bacteria fungi and viruses neuroscience is a comprehensive term for those disciplines of science that are related to the study of the nervous system a main focus of neuroscience is the biology and physiology of the human brain nutrition is the study of the relationship of food and drink to health and disease especially in determining an optimal diet medical nutrition therapy is done by dietitians and is prescribed for diabetes cardiovascular diseases weight and eating disorders allergies malnutrition and neoplastic diseases pathology is the study of disease the causes course progression and resolution thereof pharmacology is the study of drugs and their actions physiology is the study of the normal functioning of the body and the underlying regulatory mechani

sms toxicology is the study of hazardous effects of drugs and poisons diagnostic specialties clinical laboratory sciences are the clinical diagnostic services which apply laboratory techniques to diagnosis and management of patients in the united states these services are supervised by a pathologist the personnel that work in these medical laboratory departments are technically trained staff each of whom usually hold a medical technology degree who actually perform the tests assays and procedures needed for providing the specific services transfusion medicine is concerned with the transfusion of blood and blood component including the maintenance of a blood bank cellular pathology is concerned with diagnosis using samples from patients taken as tissues and cells using histology and cytology clinical chemistry is concerned with diagnosis by making biochemical analysis of blood body fluids and tissues hematology is concerned with diagnosis by looking at changes in the cellular composition of the blood and bone

marrow as well as the coagulation system in the blood clinical microbiology is concerned with the in vitro diagnosis of diseases caused by bacteria viruses fungi and parasites clinical immunology is concerned with disorders of the immune system and related body defenses it also deals with diagnosis of allergy radiology is concerned with imaging of the human body e g by x rays x ray computed tomography ultrasonography and nuclear magnetic resonance tomography interventional radiology is concerned with using imaging of the human body usually from ct ultrasound or fluoroscopy to do biopsies place certain tubes and perform intravascular procedures nuclear medicine uses radioactive substances for in vivo and in vitro diagnosis using either imaging of the location of radioactive substances placed into a patient or using in vitro diagnostic tests utilizing radioactive substances clinical disciplines anesthesiology ae anaesthesia be is the clinical discipline concerned with providing anesthesia pain medicine is often

practiced by specialised anesthesiologists dermatology is concerned with the skin and its diseases subspeciality of general medicine in the uk emergency medicine is concerned with the diagnosis and treatment of acute or life threatening conditions including trauma surgical medical pediatric and psychiatric emergencies general practice family practice family medicine or primary care is in many countries the first port of call for patients with non emergency medical problems family doctors are usually able to treat over nine zero of all complaints without referring to specialists hospital medicine is the general medical care of hospitalized patients doctors whose primary professional focus is hospital medicine are called hospitalists internal medicine is concerned with systemic diseases of adults i e those diseases that affect the body as a whole restrictive current meaning or with all adult non operative somatic medicine traditional inclusive meaning thus excluding pediatrics surgery gynaecology men s health

vascular surgery is surgery of peripheral blood vessels i e those outside of the chest usually operated on by cardiovascular surgeons and of the central nervous system treated by neurosurgery urgent care focuses on delivery of unscheduled walk in care outside of the hospital emergency department for injuries and illnesses that are not severe enough to require care in an emergency department interdisciplinary fields interdisciplinary sub specialties of medicine are aerospace medicine deals with medical problems related to flying and space travel bioethics is a field of study which concerns the relationship between biology science medicine and ethics philosophy and theology clinical pharmacology is concerned with how systems of therapeutics interact with patients conservation medicine studies the relationship between human and animal health and environmental conditions also known as ecological medicine environmental medicine or medical geology diving medicine or hyperbaric medicine is the prevention and treatme

nt of diving related problems evolutionary medicine is a perspective on medicine derived through applying evolutionary theory forensic medicine deals with medical questions in legal context such as determination of the time and cause of death medical humanities includes the humanities literature philosophy ethics history and religion social science anthropology cultural studies psychology sociology and the arts literature theater film and visual arts and their application to medical education and practice medical informatics and medical computer science are relatively recent fields that deal with the application of computers and information technology to medicine nosology is the classification of diseases for various purposes sports medicine deals with the treatment and preventive care of athletics amateur and professional the team includes specialty physicians and surgeons athletic trainers physical therapists coaches other personnel and of course the athlete therapeutics is the field more commonly reference

d in earlier periods of history of the various remedies that can be used to treat disease and promote health travel medicine or emporiatrics deals with health problems of international travelers or travelers across highly different evironments medical education an image of a one nine zero one examination in the faculty of medicine medical education is education related to the practice of being a medical practitioner either the initial training to become a doctor or further training thereafter medical education and training varies considerably across the world however typically involves entry level education at a university medical school followed by a period of supervised practise and possibly postgraduate vocational training continuing medical education is a requirement of many regulatory authorities various teaching methodologies have been utilised in medical education which is an active area of educational research medical devices see also the main articles implant artificial limbs corrective lenses cochle

ar implants ocular prosthetics facial prosthetics somato prosthetics surgical prosthetics maxillo facial prosthetics and dental implants medical devices are devices used by health professionals as tools in diagnosis treatment or other aspects of patient care legal restrictions in most countries it is a legal requirement for medical doctors to be licensed or registered in general this entails a medical degree from a university and accreditation by a medical board or an equivalent national organization which may ask the applicant to pass exams this restricts the considerable legal authority of the medical profession to doctors that are trained and qualified by national standards it is also intended as an assurance to patients and as a safeguard against charlatans that practice inadequate medicine for personal gain while the laws generally require medical doctors to be trained in evidence based western or hippocratic medicine they are not intended to discourage different paradigms of health and healing such as a

lternative medicine or faith healing criticism criticism of medicine has a long history in the middle ages some people did not consider it a profession suitable for christians as disease was often considered godsent however many monastic orders particularly the benedictines considered the care of the sick as their chief work of mercy barber surgeons generally had a bad reputation that was not to improve until the development of academic surgery as a speciality of medicine rather than an accessory field through the course of the twentieth century doctors focused increasingly on the technology that was enabling them to make dramatic improvements in patients health the ensuing development of a more mechanistic detached practice with the perception of an attendant loss of patient focused care led to further criticisms this issue started to reach collective professional consciousness in the one nine seven zero s and the profession had begun to respond by the one nine eight zero s and one nine nine zero s perhaps t

he most devastating criticism of modern medicine came from ivan illich in his one nine seven six work medical nemesis in his view modern medicine only medicalises disease causing loss of health and wellness while generally failing to restore health by eliminating disease the human being thus becomes a lifelong patient other less radical philosophers have voiced similar views but none were as virulent as illich another example can be found in technopoly the surrender of culture to technology by neil postman one nine nine two which criticises overreliance on technological means in medicine criticism of modern medicine has led to some improvements in the curricula of medical schools which now teach students systematically on medical ethics holistic approaches to medicine the biopsychosocial model and similar concepts the inability of modern medicine to properly address many common complaints continues to prompt many people to seek support from alternative medicine although most alternative approaches lack scient

ific validation some report improvement of symptoms after obtaining alternative therapies the bioscience medical paradigm and the alternative complementary healthcare paradigms may differ to such an extent that what constitutes scientific evidence is contested many medical doctors also practice alternative medicine alongside the orthodox medical errors are also the focus of many complaints and negative coverage practitioners of human factors engineering believe that there is much that medicine may usefully gain by emulating concepts in aviation safety where it was long ago realized that it is dangerous to place too much responsibility on one superhuman individual and expect him or her not to make errors reporting systems and checking mechanisms are becoming more common in identifying sources of error and improving practice radical critics of certain medical traditions may hold that whole fields or traditions of medicine are intrinsically harmful or ineffective they would reject any use or support of practices

belonging to that tradition however generally there is spectrum of efficacy on which all traditions lie some are more effective some are less effective but nearly all contain some harmful practices and some effective ones naturally though most individuals or groups seeking a healthcare practice to improve their own health would seek a tradition with the maximum degree of efficacy see also academic conference big killers complementary and alternative medicine health profession healthcare system iatrogenesis ill health caused by medical treatment list of diseases list of medical abbreviations list of medical schools important publications in medicine medical equipment rare diseases external links medicine on the web nlm national library of medicine contains resources for patients and healthcare professionals virtual hospital digital health sciences library by the university of iowa online medical information medical news links and resources collection of links to free medical resources medicine artists concept

of the two zero zero one mars odyssey spacecraft two zero zero one mars odyssey is an unmanned spacecraft orbiting the planet mars its mission is to use spectrometers and imagers to hunt for evidence of past or present water and volcanic activity on mars it is hoped that the data odyssey obtains will help answer the question of whether life has ever existed on mars it also acts as a relay for communications between the mars explorations rovers and earth odyssey was launched april seven two zero zero one on a delta ii rocket from cape canaveral florida and reached mars on october two four two zero zero one zero two three zero universal time october two three seven three zero pm pdt one zero three zero edt the spacecraft s main engine fired to brake the spacecraft s speed and allowed it to be captured into orbit around mars odyssey used a technique called aerobraking that gradually brought the spacecraft closer to mars with each orbit by using the atmosphere of mars to slow down the spacecraft in its orbit rat

her than firing its engine or thrusters odyssey was able to save more than two zero zero kilograms four four zero pounds of propellant summary of the mars odyssey mission aerobraking ended in january and began its science mapping mission on february one nine two zero zero two the three primary instruments odyssey uses are the thermal emission imaging system themis gamma ray spectrometer grs and mars radiation environment experiment marie it also carries a neutron spectrometer hend provided by russia on may two eight two zero zero two nasa reported that odyssey s grs had detected large amounts of hydrogen a sign that there must be ice lying within a meter of the planet s surface nasa has approved an extended mission through september two zero zero six to allow observation of year to year differences in phenomena like polar ice clouds and dust storms the extension will also continue odyssey s support for other mars missions about eight five percent of images and other data from nasa s twin mars rovers spirit an

d opportunity have reached earth via communications relay by odyssey which receives transmissions from both rovers every day the orbiter helped analyze potential landing sites for the rovers and is doing the same for nasa s phoenix mission scheduled to land on mars in two zero zero eight plans call for odyssey to aid nasa s mars reconnaissance orbiter due to reach mars in march two zero zero six by monitoring atmospheric conditions during months when the newly arrived orbiter uses aerobraking to alter its orbit into the desired shape mars odyssey was originally named the mars surveyor two zero zero one orbiter and was intended to have a companion spacecraft known as mars surveyor two zero zero one lander the lander mission was canceled in may two zero zero zero following the failures of mars climate orbiter and mars polar lander in late one nine nine nine subsequently the name two zero zero one mars odyssey was selected for the orbiter as a specific tribute to the vision of space exploration shown in works by

arthur c clarke including two zero zero one a space odyssey the project was developed by nasa and contracted out to lockheed martin the expected cost for the entire mission is us two nine seven million see also exploration of mars space exploration unmanned space missions external links the mars odyssey site bbc news story on mars odyssey observations of apparent ice deposits mars missions this article is about the african nation for the two zero zero five film see madagascar film the republic of madagascar or madagascar is an island nation in the indian ocean off the eastern coast of africa the main island also called madagascar is the fourth largest island in the world it is the home of five percent of the world s plant and animal species eight zero percent of them are unique to madagascar among its most notable examples of biodiversity are the lemur family of primates three endemic bird families and its baobab trees the adjective language ethnicity and citizenship derived from madagascar is malagasy the p

rimary language spoken on madagascar is malagasy history the written history of madagascar began in the seven th century when arabs established trading posts along the northwest coast european contact began in the one five zero zero s when portuguese sea captain diego dias sighted the island after his ship became separated from a fleet going to india in the late one seven th century the french established trading posts along the east coast from about one seven seven four to one eight two four it was a favorite haunt for pirates including americans one of whom brought malagasy rice to south carolina during the middle ages the chiefs of the different settlements on the island began to extend their power through trade with madagascar s indian ocean neighbors notably north africa the middle east and india large chiefdoms began to dominate considerable areas of the island among these were the sakalava chiefdoms of the menabe centered in what is now the town of morondava and of boina centered in what is now the pro

vincial capital of mahajanga majunga the influence of the sakalava extended across what is now the provinces of antsiranana mahajanga and toliara but with the domination of the indian ocean by the british fleet and the end of the arab slave trade the sakalava would lose their power to the emerging merina threat for a short time the betsimisaraka of the east coast also unified but this unification was short lived beginning in the one seven nine zero s merina rulers succeeded in establishing hegemony over the major part of the island including the coast in one eight one seven the merina ruler and the british governor of mauritius concluded a treaty abolishing the slave trade which had been important in madagascar s economy in return the island received british military and financial assistance british influence remained strong for several decades during which the merina court was converted to presbyterianism congregationalism and anglicanism the british accepted the imposition of a french protectorate over mada

gascar in one eight eight five in return for eventual control over zanzibar now part of tanzania and as part of an overall definition of spheres of influence in the area absolute french control over madagascar was established by military force in one eight nine five one eight nine six and the merina monarchy was abolished in december one nine zero four the russian baltic fleet stopped at diego suarez for coal and provisions before sailing on to its doomed encounter with the japanese fleet in the battle of tsushima before leaving port the russian sailors were required to put ashore the animals they had acquired including monkeys boa constrictors and one crocodile an one eight eight eight map of madagascar during world war ii malagasy troops fought in france morocco and syria immediately preceding the fall of france germany initiated planning to forcibly deport all of europe s jews to madagascar in what was known as the madagascar plan action on the plan was never begun after france fell to germany the vichy go

vernment administered madagascar british troops occupied the strategic island in one nine four two to preclude its seizure by the japanese the free french received the island from the united kingdom in one nine four three in one nine four seven with french prestige at low ebb a nationalist uprising was suppressed after several months of bitter fighting the french subsequently established reformed institutions in one nine five six under the loi cadre overseas reform act and madagascar moved peacefully toward independence the malagasy republic was proclaimed on october one four one nine five eight as an autonomous state within the french community a period of provisional government ended with the adoption of a constitution in one nine five nine and full independence on june two six one nine six zero politics madagascar s first president philibert tsiranana was elected when his social democratic party gained power at independence in one nine six zero and was reelected without opposition in march one nine seven t

wo however he resigned only two months later in response to massive antigovernment demonstrations the unrest continued and tsiranana s successor gen gabriel ramanantsoa resigned on february five one nine seven five handing over executive power to lt col richard ratsimandrava who was assassinated six days later a provisional military directorate then ruled until a new government was formed in june one nine seven five under didier ratsiraka during the one six subsequent years of president ratsiraka s rule madagascar continued under a government committed to revolutionary socialism based on the one nine seven five constitution establishing a highly centralized state during this period a strategy of nationalization of private enterprises centralization of the economy and malgasization of the education system crippled the economy leaving traces even today of a highly centralized economic system and a high level of illiteracy national elections in one nine eight two and one nine eight nine returned ratsiraka for a

second and third seven year presidential term for much of this period only limited and restrained political opposition was tolerated with no direct criticism of the president permitted in the press with an easing of restrictions on political expression beginning in the late one nine eight zero s the ratsiraka regime came under increasing pressure to make fundamental changes in response to a deteriorating economy ratsiraka relaxed socialist economic policies and instituted some liberal private sector reforms these along with political reforms like the elimination of press censorship in one nine eight nine and the formation of more political parties in one nine nine zero were insufficient to placate a growing opposition movement known as hery velona active forces a number of already existing political parties and their leaders among them albert zafy and rakotoniaina manandafy anchored this movement which was especially strong in antananarivo and the surrounding high plateau in response to largely peaceful mass

demonstrations and crippling general strikes ratsiraka replaced his prime minister in august one nine nine one but suffered an irreparable setback soon thereafter when his troops fired on peaceful demonstrators marching on iavoloha the suburban presidential palace killing more than three zero in an increasingly weakened position ratsiraka acceded to negotiations on the formation of a transitional government the resulting panorama convention of october three one one nine nine one stripped ratsiraka of nearly all of his powers created interim institutions and set an one eight month timetable for completing a transition to a new form of constitutional government the high constitutional court was retained as the ultimate judicial arbiter of the process in march one nine nine two a widely representative national forum organized by the ffkm malagasy christian council of churches drafted a new constitution troops guarding the proceedings clashed with pro ratsiraka federalists who tried to disrupt the forum in protes

t of draft constitutional provisions preventing the incumbent president from running again the text of the new constitution was put to a nationwide referendum in august one nine nine two and approved by a wide margin despite efforts by federalists to disrupt balloting in several coastal areas presidential elections were held on november two five one nine nine two after the high constitutional court had ruled over hery velona objections that ratsiraka could become a candidate runoff elections were held in february one nine nine three and the leader of the hery velona movement albert zafy defeated ratsiraka zafy was sworn in as president on march two seven one nine nine three after president zafy s impeachment by the national assembly in one nine nine six and the short quasi presidency of norbert ratsirahonana the one nine nine seven elections once again pitted zafy and ratsiraka with ratsiraka this time emerging victorious a national assembly dominated by members of president ratsiraka a political party arema

subsequently passed the one nine nine eight constitution which considerably strengthened the presidency in december two zero zero one a presidential election was held in which both major candidates claimed victory the ministry of the interior declared incumbent ratsiraka of the arema party victorious marc ravalomanana contested the results and claimed victory a political crisis followed in which ratsiraka supporters cut major transport routes from the primary port city to the capital city a stronghold of ravalomanana support sporadic violence and considerable economic disruption continued until july two zero zero two when ratsiraka and several of his prominent supporters fled to exile in france in addition to political differences ethnic differences played a role in the crisis and continue to play a role in politics ratsiraka is from the coastal betsimisaraka tribe and ravalomanana comes from the highland merina tribe after the end of the two zero zero two political crisis president ravalomanana began many re

form projects forcefully advocating rapid and durable development and the launching of a battle against corruption december two zero zero two legislative elections gave his newly formed tim tiako i madagasikara i love madagascar party a commanding majority in the national assembly november two zero zero three municipal elections were conducted freely returning a majority of supporters of the president but also significant numbers of independent and regional opposition figures following the crisis of two zero zero two the president replaced provincial governors with appointed pdss presidents des delegations speciales subsequent legislation established a structure of two two regions to decentralize administration in september two zero zero four the government named two two regional chiefs reporting directly to the president to implement its decentralization plans financing and specific powers for the regional administrations remain to be clarified government in march one nine nine eight malagasy voters approved

a revised constitution the principal institutions of the republic of madagascar are a presidency a parliament national assembly and senate a prime ministry and cabinet and an independent judiciary the president is elected by direct universal suffrage for a five year term renewable twice the national assembly consists of one six zero representatives elected by direct vote every five years the last election was held in december two zero zero two the senate consists of nine zero senators two thirds elected by local legislators and other grand electors and one third appointed by the president all for six year terms a prime minister and council of ministers carries out day to day management of government the president appoints the prime minister the prime minister and members of parliament initiate legislation and the government executes it the president can dissolve the national assembly for its part the national assembly can pass a motion of censure and require the prime minister and council of ministers to ste

p down the constitutional court approves the constitutionality of new laws madagascar is also part of the indian ocean commission territorial subdivisions during the second republic the country was divided into five levels faritany province fivondronana or fivondronampokontany firaisana or firaisampokontany fokontany fokonolona the constitution of one nine nine two ruled that the country should be organized in decentralized territorial entities the name number and limits of territorial entities should be determined by law in the law passed by the national assembly in one nine nine four three such entity levels were defined region faritra department departemanta and commune kaominina the communes were created in one nine nine six with didier ratsiraka back in power the constitution was changed in one nine nine eight to include and specifically mention six autonomous provinces divided into undefined regions and communes the autonomous provinces having the same names and territories as the already existing provi

nces were created in two zero zero zero during the power struggle after the presidential elections in two zero zero one five of those provinces whose governors supported ratsiraka declared themselves independent from the republic the new president ravalomanana replaced the provincial governments by special delegations appointed by the president this effectively means that the autonomous provinces have ceased to exist as such although it remains unclear whether they will remain in place in two zero zero four the regions were finally created by the national assembly in law no two zero zero four zero zero one meanwhile the two eight regions originally proposed had become two two although they are subdivisions of the provinces they are representatives and representing the people of the republic not the province the regions will also take over the assets of the ex fivondronampokontany it is also mentioned that the communes are the only entities that are operational and there will be an unspecified period of transi

tion to the new system the departments are not mentioned in the law instead the designation components of the regions is used it appears that the departments will be based on the fivondronampokontany although it is unclear whether they are already in place and what it means that the assets will be taken over by the regions provinces image madagascarnumbered png madagascar is divided into six autonomous provinces faritany mizakatena each named for their capital they are antananarivo antsiranana fianarantsoa mahajanga toamasina toliara regions the two two regions by province antananarivo bongolava itasy vakinankaratra antsiranana diana sava fianarantsoa amoron i mania atsimo atsinanana haute matsiatra ihorombe vatovavy fitovinany mahajanga betsiboka boeny melaky sofia toamasina alaotra mangoro analanjirofo atsinanana toliara androy anosy atsimo andrefana menabe geography map of madagascar nosy means island in the malagasy language tsingy in madagascar the east coast of madagascar has lowlands leading to steep b

luffs and central highlands the tsaratanana massif in the north has volcanic mountains the west coast has many protected harbors and broad plains while the southwest is a plateau and desert region there are two seasons it is hot and rainy from november to april and cooler and dry from may to october southeastern trade winds dominate and there are occasional cyclones ecology madagascar s long isolation from the neighboring continents has resulted in a unique mix of plants and animals many found nowhere else in the world some ecologists refer to madagascar as the eighth continent the eastern or windward side of the island is home to tropical rainforests while the western and southern sides of the island which lie in the rain shadow of the central highlands are home to tropical dry forests thorn forests and deserts and xeric shrublands economy structural reforms began in the late one nine eight zero s initially under pressure from international financial institutions notably the world bank an initial privatizati

on program one nine eight eight one nine nine three and the development of an export processing zone epz regime in the early one nine nine zero s were key milestones in this effort a period of significant stagnation from one nine nine one nine six was followed by five years of solid economic growth and accelerating foreign investment driven by a second wave of privatizations and epz development although structural reforms advanced governance remained weak and perceived corruption in madagascar was extremely high during the period of solid growth from one nine nine seven through two zero zero one poverty levels remained stubbornly high especially in rural areas a six month political crisis triggered by a dispute over the outcome of the presidential elections held in december two zero zero one virtually halted economic activity in much of the country in the first half of two zero zero two real gdp dropped one two seven for the year two zero zero two inflows of foreign investment dropped sharply and the crisis t

arnished madagascar s budding reputation as an agoa standout and a promising place to invest following resolution of the crisis the economy rebounded with gdp growth of over one zero in two zero zero three currency depreciation and rising inflation in two zero zero four have hampered economic performance but growth for the year reached five three percent with inflation reaching around two five at the end of the year in two zero zero five inflation was brought under control by tight monetary policy the taux directeur or central bank rate was raised to one six and reserve requirements for banks tightened and growth will reach around six five in two zero zero five following the two zero zero two political crisis the government attempted to set a new course and build confidence in coordination with international financial institutions and the donor community madagascar developed a recovery plan in collaboration with the private sector and donors and presented it at a friends of madagascar conference organized by

the world bank in paris in july two zero zero two donor countries demonstrated their confidence in the new government by pledging one billion in assistance over five years the malagasy government identified road infrastructure as its principle priority and underlined its commitment to public private partnership by establishing a joint public private sector steering committee in two zero zero zero madagascar embarked on the preparation of a poverty reduction strategy paper prsp under the heavily indebted poor countries hipc initiative the boards of the imf and world bank agreed in december two zero zero zero that the country had reached the decision point for debt relief under the hipc initiative and defined a set of conditions for madagascar to reach the completion point in october two zero zero four the boards of the imf and the world bank determined that madagascar had reached the completion point under the enhanced hipc initiative the madagascar u s business council was formed in madagascar in two zero zer

o two the u s madagascar business council was formed in the united states in may two zero zero three and the two organizations continue to explore ways to work for the benefit of both groups the government of president ravalomanana is aggressively seeking foreign investment and is tackling many of the obstacles to such investment including combating corruption reforming land ownership laws encouraging study of american and european business techniques and active pursuit of foreign investors president ravalomanana rose to prominence through his agro foods tiko company and is known for attempting to apply many of the lessons learned in the world of business to running the government some recent concerns have arisen about the confict of interest between the policies pursued by president and the activities his firms most notably with preferential treatment for rice imports initiated by the government in late two zero zero four responding to a production shortfall in the country madagascar s sources of growth are

tourism textile and light manufacturing exports notably through the epzs agricultural products the country is the world s leading producer of vanilla accounting for about half the world s export market and mining tourism targets the niche eco tourism market capitalizing on madagascar s unique biodiversity unspoiled natural habitats and lemur species exports from the epzs located around antananarivo and antsirabe consist the most part of garment manufacture targeting the us market under agoa and the european markets under the everything but arms eba agreement agricultural exports consist of low volume high value products like vanilla litchies and essential oils mining investment is beginning to take off following the introduction of a new law opening the country up to foreign mining companies a large mining investment by rio tinto in the fort dauphin region to exploit ilmenite titanium dioxide is expected by late two zero zero five and other projects in ilmenite ticor kumba in tulear and nickel dynatec implats

near tamatave could also be launched in the coming months foreign relations madagascar which has historically been perceived as on the margin of mainstream african affairs eagerly rejoined the african union in july two zero zero three after a one four month hiatus triggered by the two zero zero two political crisis from one nine seven eight until one nine nine one then president ratsiraka emphasized independence and nonalignment and followed an all points policy stressing ties with socialist and radical regimes including north korea cuba libya and iran taking office in one nine nine three president albert zafy expressed his desire for diplomatic relations with all countries early in his tenure he established formal ties with south korea and sent emissaries to morocco starting in one nine nine seven globalization encouraged the government and president ratsiraka to adhere to market oriented policies and to engage world markets external relations reflect this trend although madagascar s physical isolation and

strong traditional insular orientation have limited its activity in regional economic organizations and relations with its east african neighbors it enjoys closer and generally good relations with its indian ocean neighbors mauritius r union and comoros active relationships with europe especially france germany and switzerland as well as with britain russia japan india and china have been strong since independence more recently president ravalomanana has cultivated strong links with the united states and madagascar was the first country to benefit from the millennium challenge account mca president ravalomanana has stated that he welcomes relations with all countries interested in helping madagascar to develop he has consciously sought to strengthen relations with anglophone countries as a means of balancing traditionally strong french influence demographics antananarivo madagascar antananarivo madagascar madagascar s population is predominantly of mixed asian and african origin though those who are visibly a

sian in appearance and culture are the minority found in the highland regions recent research suggests that the island was uninhabited until malay seafarers arrived between about two zero zero zero to one five zero zero years ago recent dna research shows that the malagasy are approximately of half malay and half east african stock although some arab indian and european influence is present along the coast the malagasy language shares some nine zero of its basic vocabulary with the maanyan language from the region of the barito river in southern borneo subsequent migrations from both the pacific and africa further consolidated this original mixture and three six separate tribal groups emerged asian features are most predominant in the central highlands people the merina three million and the betsileo two million the coastal people called c tiers are of more clearly african origin the largest coastal groups are the betsimisaraka one five million and the tsimihety and sakalava seven zero zero zero zero zero eac

h the malagasy language is of malayo polynesian origin and is generally spoken throughout the island french is spoken among the educated population of this former french colony english is becoming more widely spoken and in two zero zero three the government began a pilot project of introducing the teaching of english into the primary grades of four four schools with hopes of taking the project nationwide many peace corps volunteers are serving to further this effort and train teachers approximately half of the country s population practices traditional religions which tend to emphasize links between the living and the dead the merina in the highlands particularly tend to hold tightly to this practice they believe that the dead join their ancestors in the ranks of divinity and that ancestors are intensely concerned with the fate of their living descendants the merina and betsileo reburial practice of famadihana or turning over the dead celebrate this spiritual communion in this ritual relatives remains are rem

oved from the family tomb rewrapped in new silk shrouds and returned to the tomb following festive ceremonies in their honor about four five of the malagasy are christian divided almost evenly between roman catholics and protestants many incorporate the cult of the dead with their religious beliefs and bless their dead at church before proceeding with the traditional burial rites they also may invite a pastor to attend a famadihana the roman catholic church is open to its members continuing these practices while more conservative protestant denominations tend to condemn them to be superstitions or demon worship that should be abandoned many of the christian churches are influential in politics the best example of this is the malagasy council of churches ffkm comprised of the four oldest and most prominent christian denominations roman catholic reformed protestant lutheran and anglican in the coastal regions of the provinces of mahajanga and antsiranana diego suarez muslims constitute a significant minority mu

slims are divided between those of malagasy ethnicity indo pakistanis and comorians culture music of madagascar list of writers from madagascar salegy is a popular music form there is a sudden interest in american culture and european popular culture which is eroding the more traditional culture and especially the music trivia madagascar and mauritania are the only countries in the world not to use decimal based currency both nations instead use multiples of five the malagasy economy took a brief downturn during the one nine eight zero s when coca cola the world s leading purchaser of vanilla switched to the new coke formula that contained synthetic vanillin the situation reversed itself when the company reintroduced its classic formula according to the latest census data the majority of malagasy citizens about five two practice indigenous religious beliefs rather than world religions on an official lp of fiddler on the roof starring herschel bernardi one of the songs was preceded by a story of three displace

d jews one says he s going to new york america the second says he s going to chicago america they rejoice that they ll be neighbors the third says he s going to madagascar the other to say that it s so far to which the third say far far from where references matthew e hules et al two zero zero five the dual origin of the malagasy in island southeast asia and east africa evidence from maternal and paternal lineages american journal of human genetics seven six eight nine four nine zero one two zero zero five cia world factbook us state department miscellaneous topics communications in madagascar foreign relations of madagascar military of madagascar transportation in madagascar external links government embassy of madagascar in canada government information and links embassy of madagascar in washington dc national assembly of madagascar official site the malagasy government official site news allafrica com madagascar news headline links overviews bbc news country profile madagascar cia world factbook madagascar

library of congress country study madagascar data as of august one nine nine four directories looksmart madagascar directory category open directory project madagascar directory category stanford university africa south of the sahara madagascar directory category the index on africa madagascar directory category university of pennsylvania african studies center madagascar directory category yahoo madagascar directory category tourism lonely planet madagascar tourist guide madagascar african union member states the flowering plants also called angiosperms are a major group of land plants they comprise one of the two groups in the seed plants the flowering plants cover their seeds by including them in a true fruit they bear the reproductive organs in a structure called a flower the ovule is enclosed within a carpel which will lead to a fruit in the other major group of seed plants called gymnosperms the ovule is not enclosed at pollination and the seeds are not in a true fruit although occasionally fleshy stru

ctures may cover the seed e g taxus history the botanical term angiosperm from the ancient greek receptacle and seed was coined in the form angiospermae by paul hermann in one six nine zero as the name of that one of his primary divisions of the plant kingdom which included flowering plants possessing seeds enclosed in capsules in contradistinction to his gymnospermae or flowering plants with achenial or schizo carpic fruits the whole fruit or each of its pieces being here regarded as a seed and naked the term and its antonym were maintained by carolus linnaeus with the same sense but with restricted application in the names of the orders of his class didynamia its use with any approach to its modern scope only became possible after robert brown had established in one eight two seven the existence of truly naked ovules in the cycadeae and coniferae entitling them to be correctly called gymnosperms from that time onwards so long as these gymnosperms were as was usual reckoned as dicotyledonous flowering plants

the term angiosperm was used antithetically by botanical writers but with varying limitation as a group name for other dicotyledonous plants the advent in one eight five one of hofmeister s brilliant discovery of the changes proceeding in the embryo sac of flowering plants and his determination of the correct relationships of these with the cryptogamia fixed the position of gymnosperms as a class distinct from dicotyledons and the term angiosperm then gradually came to be accepted as the suitable designation for the whole of the flowering plants other than gymnosperms and as including therefore the classes of dicotyledons and monocotyledons this is the sense in which the term is nowadays received and in which it is used here origins the trend of the evolution of the plant kingdom has been in the direction of the establishment of a vegetation of fixed habit and adapted to the vicissitudes of a life on land and the angiosperms are the highest expression of this evolution and constitute the dominant vegetation

of the earth s surface at the present epoch there is no land area from the poles to the equator where plant life is possible upon which angiosperms are not found they also occur abundantly in the shallows of rivers and fresh water lakes and in less number in salt lakes and in the sea such aquatic angiosperms are not however primitive forms but are derived from immediate land ancestors associated with this diversity of habitat is great variety in general form and manner of growth the familiar duckweed which covers the surface of a pond consists of a tiny green thalloid shoot one that is which shows no distinction of parts stem and leaf and a simple root growing vertically downwards into the water the great forest tree has a shoot which in the course perhaps of hundreds of years has developed a wide spreading system of trunk and branches bearing on the ultimate twigs or branchlets innumerable leaves while beneath the soil a widely branching root system covers an area of corresponding extent between these two ex

tremes is every conceivable gradation embracing aquatic and terrestrial herbs creeping erect or climbing in habit shrubs and trees and representing a much greater variety than is to be found in the other subdivision of seed plants the gymnosperms the first evidence of angiosperms appears in the fossil record approximately one four zero million years ago during the jurassic period two zero three one three five million years ago based on current evidence it seems that the ancestors of the angiosperms and the gnetophytes diverged from one another during the late triassic two two zero two zero two million years ago fossil plants with some identifiable angiosperm characteristics appear in the jurassic and early cretaceous one three five six five million years ago but in relatively few and primitive forms the great angiosperm radiation when a great diversity of angiosperms appear in the fossil record occurred in the mid cretaceous approximately one zero zero million years ago by the late cretaceous angiosperms appe

ar to have become the predominant group of land plants and many fossil plants recognizable as belonging to modern families including beech oak maple and magnolia appeared classification the flowering plants are usually treated as a division as this is a group above the rank of family there is a free choice of name art one six of the icbn allows either a descriptive name or a name based on a generic name the favorite name in the latter category is magnoliophyta at the rank of division based on the magnolia the most popular descriptive name is angiospermae angiosperms with anthophyta flowering plants a second choice the internal classification of this group has undergone considerable revision as ideas about their relationships change the cronquist system proposed by arthur cronquist in one nine eight one is still widely used but is no longer believed to reflect phylogeny a general consensus about how the flowering plants should be arranged has only recently begun to emerge through the work of the angiosperm phy

logeny group who published an influential reclassification of the angiosperms in one nine nine eight an update incorporating more recent research was published as apg two zero zero three and is available at the wikipedia tree of life update of the angiosperm phylogeny group traditionally the flowering plants are divided into two groups which in the cronquist system are called magnoliopsida at the rank of class based on magnolia and liliopsida at the rank of class based on lilium much more popular are their descriptive names as allowed by art one six of the icbn dicotyledones some prefer dicotyledoneae and monocotyledones some prefer monocotyledoneae which have been in use for very long in english a member of either group may be called a dicotyledon plural dicotyledons and monocotyledon plural monocotyledons or more popularly dicot plural dicots and monocot plural monocots these names derive from the fact that the dicots often but not always have two cotyledons embryonic leaves within each seed while the monoc

ots typically will have one only from a diagnostic point of view the number of cotyledons is neither a particularly handy nor reliable character recent studies show that the monocots are a good group a holophyletic or monophyletic group while the dicots are not a paraphyletic group however within the dicots a good group exists which includes most of the dicots this new group is semi informally called the eudicots or tricolpates the name tricolpates derives from the type of pollen found throughout this group the name eudicots is formed by preceding dicot by the prefix eu greek eu true as the eudicots share the characters traditionally attributed to the dicots such a four or five merous flowers the uninitiate may be tempted to jump to the conclusion that eudicot is short for eudicotyledon but it is not the name is eudicot a formal name that is sometimes used for this group is rosopsida at the rank of class based on rosa separating this group of eudicots from the rest of the former dicots leaves a remainder whic

h sometimes are called informally palaeodicots the prefix palaeo means old and derives from the classic greek as this remainder group is not a good group this is a term of convenience only families of flowering plants the most diverse families of flowering plants in order of number of species are bumblebee pollinating an asteraceae flower asteraceae or compositae daisy family two six zero zero zero species orchidaceae orchid family two zero zero zero zero possibly three zero zero zero zero fabaceae or leguminosae pea family one seven zero zero zero poaceae or gramineae grass family nine zero zero zero rubiaceae madder family seven zero zero zero euphorbiaceae spurge family five zero zero zero malvaceae mallow family four three zero zero cyperaceae sedge family four zero zero zero in the list above showing only the eight largest families the orchidaceae poaceae and cyperaceae are monocot families the others are dicot families the total number of families in the flowering plants is over four six zero there are

around nine five zero zero zero species also internal structure in internal structure the variety of tissue formation far exceeds that found in gymnosperms the vascular bundles of the stem belong to the collateral type that is to say the elements of the wood or xylem and the bast or phloem stand side by side on the same radius in the larger of the two great groups into which the angiosperms are divided the dicotyledons the bundles in the very young stem are arranged in an open ring separating a central pith from an outer cortex in each bundle separating the xylem and phloem is a layer of meristem or active formative tissue known as cambium by the formation of a layer of cambium between the bundles interfascicular cambium a complete ring is formed and a regular periodical increase in thickness results from it by the development of xylem on the inside and phloem on the outside the soft phloem soon becomes crushed but the hard wood persists and forms the great bulk of the stem and branches of the woody perennial

owing to differences in the character of the elements produced at the beginning and end of the season the wood is marked out in transverse section into concentric rings one for each season of growth the so called annual rings in the smaller group the monocotyledons the bundles are more numerous in the young stem and scattered through the ground tissue moreover they contain no cambium and the stem once formed increases in diameter only in exceptional cases vegetative organs as in gymnosperms branching is monopodial dichotomy or the forking of the growing point into two equivalent branches which replace the main stem is absent both in the case of the stem and the root the leaves show a remarkable variety in form but are generally small in comparison with the size of the plant exceptions occur in some monocotyledons e g in the aroid family where in some genera the plant produces one huge much branched leaf each season in rare cases the main axis is unbranched and ends in a flower as for instance in the tulip wh

ere scale leaves forming the underground bulb green foliage leaves and coloured floral leaves are borne on one and the same axis generally flowers are formed only on shoots of a higher order often only on the ultimate branches of a much branched system a potential branch or bud either foliage or flower is formed in the axil of each leaf sometimes more than one bud arises as for instance in the walnut where two or three stand in vertical series above each leaf many of the buds remain dormant or are called to development under exceptional circumstances such as the destruction of existing branches for instance the clipping of a hedge or the lopping of a tree will cause to develop numerous buds which may have been dormant for years leaf buds occasionally arise from the roots when they are called adventitious this occurs in many fruit trees poplars elms and others for instance the young shoots seen springing from the ground around an elm are not seedlings but root shoots frequently as in many dicotyledons the prim

ary root the original root of the seedling persists throughout the life of the plant forming as often in biennials a thickened tap root as in carrot or in perennials a much branched root system in many dicotyledons and most monocotyledons the primary root soon perishes and its place is taken by adventitious roots developed from the stem the flower fruit and seed see main article flower the characteristic feature of angiosperms is the flower which shows remarkable variation in form and elaboration and provides the most trustworthy external characteristics for establishing relationships among angiosperm species the function of the flower is that of ensuring fertilization of the ovule and development of fruit containing seeds the floral apparatus may arise terminally on a shoot or from the axil of a leaf occasionally as in violet a flower arises singly in the axil of an ordinary foliage leaf however more typically the flower bearing portion of the plant is sharply distinguished from the foliage bearing or vegeta

tive portion and forms a more or less elaborate branch system called an inflorescence as in gymnosperms spores produced by flowers are of two kinds microspores or pollen grains borne in the stamens or microsporophylls and megaspores in which the egg cell is developed contained in the ovule and enclosed in the carpel or megasporophyll the flower may consist only of these spore bearing parts as in willow where each flower comprises only a few stamens or two carpels usually however other structures are present and serve both to protect the sporophylls and to form an attractive envelope the individual members of these surrounding structures are called sepals and petals or tepals in a flower such as michelia the outer series calyx of sepals is usually green and leaf like and functions to protect the rest of the flower especially in the bud the inner series corolla of petals is generally white or brightly coloured and more delicate in structure and functions in attracting a particular insect or bird by agency of wh

ich pollination is effected this attraction involves colour and scent and frequently also nectar which is secreted in some part of the flower these characteristics that attract pollinators account for the popularity of flowers and flowering plants among humans flowering plant sexuality see main article plant sexuality flowers are the reproductive structures of flowering plants the male organ is the stamen or androecium which produces pollen male spores in anthers the female organ is the carpel or gynoecium which contains the egg female gamete and is the site of fertilization while the majority of flowers are perfect or hermaphrodite having both male and female parts in the same flower structure flowering plants have developed numerous morphological and physiological mechanisms to reduce or prevent self fertilization heteromorphic flowers have short carpels and long stamens or vice versa so animal pollinators cannot easily transfer pollen to the pistil receptive part of the carpel homomorphic flowers may emplo

y a biochemical physiological mechanism called self incompatibility to discriminate between self and non self pollen grains in other species the male and female parts are morphologically separated developing on different flowers fertilization at the period of fertilization the embryo sac lies in close proximity to the opening of the micropyle into which the pollen tube has penetrated the separating cell wall becomes absorbed and the male or sperm cells are ejected into the embryo sac guided by the synergidae one male cell passes into the oosphere with which it fuses the two nuclei uniting while the other fuses with the definitive nucleus or as it is also called the endosperm nucleus this remarkable double fertilization as it has been called although only recently discovered has been proved to take place in widely separated families and both in monocotyledons and of a prothallium after a pause following the reinvigorating union of the polar nuclei this view is still maintained by those who differentiate two ac

ts of fertilization within the embryo sac and regard that of the egg by the first male cell as the true or generative fertilization and that of the polar nuclei by the second male gamete as a vegetative fertilization which gives a stimulus to development in correlation with the other if on the other hand the endosperm is the product of an act of fertilization as definite as that giving rise to the embryo itself we have to recognize that twin plants are produced within the embryo sac one the embryo which becomes the angiospermous plant the other the endosperm a short lived undifferentiated nurse to assist in the nutrition of the former even as the subsidiary embryos in a pluri embryonic gymnosperm may facilitate the nutrition of the dominant one if this is so and the endosperm like the embryo is normally the product of a sexual act hybridization will give a hybrid endosperm as it does a hybrid embryo and herein it is suggested we may have the explanation of the phenomenon of xenia observed in the mixed endospe

rms of hybrid races of maize and other plants regarding which it has only been possible hitherto to assert that they were indications of the extension of the influence of the pollen beyond the egg and its product this would not however explain the formation of fruits intermediate in size and colour between those of crossed parents the signification of the coalescence of the polar nuclei is not explained by these new facts but it is noteworthy that the second male cell is said to unite sometimes with the apical polar nucleus the sister of the egg before the union of this with the basal polar one the idea of the endosperm as a second subsidiary plant is no new one it was suggested long ago in explanation of the coalescence of the polar nuclei but it was then based on the assumption that these represented male and female cells an assumption for which there was no evidence and which was inherently improbable the proof of a coalescence of the second male nucleus with the definitive nucleus gives the conception a m

ore stable basis the antipodal cells aid more or less in the process of nutrition of the developing embryo and may undergo multiplication though they ultimately disintegrate as do also the synergidae as in gymnosperms and other groups an interesting qualitative change is associated with the process of fertilization the number of chromosomes see plant cytology in the nucleus of the two spores pollen grain and embryo sac is only half the number found in an ordinary vegetative nucleus and this reduced number persists in the cells derived from them the full number is restored in the fusion of the male and female nuclei in the process of fertilization and remains until the formation of the cells from which the spores are derived in the new generation in several natural orders and genera departures from the course of development just described have been noted in the natural order rosaceae the series querciflorae and the very anomalous genus casuarina and others instead of a single macrospore a more or less extensiv

e sporogenous tissue is formed but only one cell proceeds to the formation of a functional female cell in casuarina juglans and the order corylaceae the pollen tube does not enter by means of the micropyle but passing down the ovary wall and through the placenta enters at the chalazal end of the ovule such a method of entrance is styled chalazogamic in contrast to the porogamic or ordinary method of approach by means of the micropyle embryology the result of fertilization is the development of the ovule into the seed by the segmentation of the fertilized egg now invested by cell membrane the embryo plant arises a varying number of transverse segment walls transform it into a pro embryo a cellular row of which the cell nearest the micropyle becomes attached to the apex of the embryo sac and thus fixes the position of the developing embryo while the terminal cell is projected into its cavity in dicotyledons the shoot of the embryo is wholly derived from the terminal cell of the pro embryo from the next cell the

root arises and the remaining ones form the suspensor in many monocotyledons the terminal cell forms the cotyledonary portion alone of the shoot of the embryo its axial part and the root being derived from the adjacent cell the cotyledon is thus a terminal structure and the apex of the primary stem a lateral one a condition in marked contrast with that of the dicotyledons in some monocotyledons however the cotyledon is not really terminal the primary root of the embryo in all angiosperms points towards the micropyle the developing embryo at the end of the suspensor grows out to a varying extent into the forming endosperm from which by surface absorption it derives good material for growth at the same time the suspensor plays a direct part as a carrier of nutrition and may even develop where perhaps no endosperm is formed special absorptive suspensor roots which invest the developing embryo or pass out into the body and coats of the ovule or even into the placenta in some cases the embryo or the embryo sac se

nds out suckers into the nucellus and ovular integument as the embryo develops it may absorb all the food material available and store either in its cotyledons or in its hypocotyl what is not immediately required for growth as reserve food for use in germination and by so doing it increases in size until it may fill entirely the embryo sac or its absorptive power at this stage may be limited to what is necessary for growth and it remains of relatively small size occupying but a small area of the embryo sac which is otherwise filled with endosperm in which the reserve food is stored there are also intermediate states the position of the embryo in relation to the endosperm varies sometimes it is internal sometimes external but the significance of this has not yet been established the formation of endosperm starts as has been stated from the endosperm nucleus its segmentation always begins before that of the egg and thus there is timely preparation for the nursing of the young embryo if in its extension to conta

in the new formations within it the embryo sac remains narrow endosperm formation proceeds upon the lines of a cell division but in wide embryo sacs the endosperm is first of all formed as a layer of naked cells around the wall of the sac and only gradually acquires a pluricellular character forming a tissue filling the sac the function of the endosperm is primarily that of nourishing the embryo and its basal position in the embryo sac places it favourably for the absorption of food material entering the ovule its duration varies with the precocity of the embryo it may be wholly absorbed by the progressive growth of the embryo within the embryo sac or it may persist as a definite and more or less conspicuous constituent of the seed when it persists as a massive element of the seed its nutritive function is usually apparent for there is accumulated within its cells reserve food and according to the dominant substance it is starchy oily or rich in cellulose mucilage or proteid in cases where the embryo has stor

ed reserve food within itself and thus provided for self nutrition such endosperm as remains in the seed may take on other functions for instance that of water absorption some deviations from the usual course of development may be noted parthenogenesis or the development of an embryo from an egg cell without the latter having been fertilized has been described in species of thalictrum antennaria and alchemilla polyembryony is generally associated with the development of cells other than the egg cell thus in erythronium and limnocharis the fertilized egg may form a mass of tissue on which several embryos are produced isolated cases show that any of the cells within the embryo sac may exceptionally form an embryo e g the synergidae in species of mimosa iris and allium and in the last mentioned the antipodal cells also in coelebogyne euphorbiaceae and in funkia liliaceae polyembryony results from an adventitious production of embryos from the cells of the nucellus around the top of the embryo sac in a species of

allium embryos have been found developing in the same individual from the egg cell synergids antipodal cells and cells of the nucellus in two malayan species of balanophora the embryo is developed from a cell of the endosperm which is formed from the upper polar nucleus only the egg apparatus becoming disorganized the last mentioned case has been regarded as representing an apogamous development of the sporophyte from the gametophyte comparable to the cases of apogamy described in ferns but the great diversity of these abnormal cases as shown in the examples cited above suggests the use of great caution in formulating definite morphological theories upon them fruit and seed as the development of embryo and endosperm proceeds within the embryo sac its wall enlarges and commonly absorbs the substance of the nucellus which is likewise enlarging to near its outer limit and combines with it and the integument to form the seed coat or the whole nucellus and even the integument may be absorbed in some plants the nu

cellus is not thus absorbed but itself becomes a seat of deposit of reserve food constituting the perisperm which may coexist with endosperm as in the water lily order or may alone form a food reserve for the embryo as in canna endospermic food reserve has evident advantages over perispermic and the latter is comparatively rarely found and only in non progressive series seeds in which endosperm or perisperm or both exist are commonly called albuminous or endospermic those in which neither is found are termed exalbuminous or exendospermic these terms extensively used by systematists only refer however to the grosser features of the seed and indicate the more or less evident occurrence of a food reserve many so called exalbuminous seeds show to microscopic examination a distinct endosperm which may have other than a nutritive function the presence or absence of endosperm its relative amount when present and the position of the embryo within it are valuable characters for the distinction of orders and groups of

orders meanwhile the ovary wall has developed to form the fruit or pericarp the structure of which is closely associated with the manner of distribution of the seed frequently the influence of fertilization is felt beyond the ovary and other parts of the flower take part in the formation of the fruit as the floral receptacle in the apple strawberry and others the character of the seed coat bears a definite relation to that of the fruit their function is the twofold one of protecting the embryo and of aiding in dissemination they may also directly promote germination if the fruit is a dehiscent one and the seed is therefore soon exposed the seed coat has to provide for the protection of the embryo and may also have to secure dissemination on the other hand indehiscent fruits discharge these functions for the embryo and the seed coat is only slightly developed economic importance flowering plants provide a very high percentage of the base food for human use whether directly or through livestock feed of all the

families of flowering plants the poaceae or grass family is by far the most important providing the bulk of all feedstocks rice corn maize wheat barley rye oats millet sugar cane sorghum with the fabaceae or legume family in second place also of high importance are the solanaceae or nightshade family potatoes tomatoes and peppers among others the cucurbitaceae or gourd family also including pumpkins and melons the brassicaceae or mustard plant family including rapeseed and cabbage and the apiaceae or parsley family many of our fruits come from the rutaceae or rue family and the rosaceae rose family including apples pears cherries apricots plums etc in some parts of the world certain single species assume paramount importance because of their variety of uses an example is the coconut cocos nucifera on pacific atolls another example is the olive olea europaea in the mediterranean flowering plants also provide economic resources in the form of wood paper fiber cotton flax and hemp among others medicines digitali

s camphor decorative and landscaping plants and many many other uses see also list of flowers references and external links angiosperm phylogeny group two zero zero three an update of the angiosperm phylogeny group classification for the orders and families of flowering plants apg ii botanical journal of the linnean society one four one three nine nine four three six available online angiosperms tree of life web project cronquist arthur one nine eight one an integrated system of classification of flowering plants columbia univ press new york oldest known flowering plants identified by genes william j cromie harvard gazette december one six one nine nine nine stevens p f two zero zero one onwards angiosperm phylogeny website at missouri botanical garden l watson and m j dallwitz one nine nine two onwards the families of flowering plants descriptions illustrations identification information retrieval http delta intkey com magnoliophyta plant taxonomy plants sexuality pollination malvales is the name of an order

of flowering plants as circumscribed by apg ii system it includes about six zero zero zero species within nine families the order is placed in the rosids which are part of the eudicots families apg system bixaceae cistaceae cochlospermaceae diegodendraceae dipterocarpaceae malvaceae muntingiaceae neuradaceae sarcolaenaceae sphaerosepalaceae thymelaeaceae the plants are mostly shrubs and trees most of its families have a cosmopolitan distribution in the tropics and subtropics with limited expansion into temperate regions an interesting distribution occurs in madagascar where there are three endemic families of malvales sphaerosepalaceae sarcolaenaceae and diegodendraceae the morphology of malvales is diverse and there are few common characteristics among those most commonly encountered are palmate leaves connate sepals and a specific structure and chemical composition of the seeds the cortex is often fibrous built of soft phloem layers family boundaries and circumscriptions of the core malvales families malva

ceae bombacaceae tiliaceae and sterculiaceae have long been problematic a close relationship among these families and particularly malvaceae and bombacaceae has generally been recognized although until recently most classification systems have maintained them as separate families with numerous molecular phylogenies showing that sterculiaceae bombacaceae and tiliaceae as traditionally defined are either paraphyletic or polyphyletic a consensus has been emerging that there has been a trend to expand malvaceae to include these three families this expanded circumscription of malvaceae has been recognized in the most recent version of the thorne system by the angiosperm phylogeny group and in the most recent comprehensive treatment of vascular plant families and genera the kubitzki system bayer and kubitzki two zero zero three the dominant family in the apg ii system is the extended malvaceae malvaceae sensu lato with over four zero zero zero species followed by thymelaeaceae with seven five zero species this expa

nded circumscription of malvaceae is taken to include the families bombacaceae sterculiaceae and tiliaceae under the older cronquist system the order contained these four core malvales families plus the elaeocarpaceae and was placed among the dilleniidae some of the currently included families were placed by cronquist in the violales many species of malvaceae s l are known for their wood with that of ochroma being known for its lightness and that of tilia as a popular wood for carving the cacao tree theobroma cacao is used as an ingredient for chocolate kola nuts genus cola are notable for their high content of caffeine and in past were commonly used for preparing of various cola drinks references alverson w s k g karol d a baum m w chase s m swensen r mccourt and k j sytsma one nine nine eight circumscription of the malvales and relationships to other rosidae evidence from rbcl sequence data american journal of botany eight five eight seven six eight eight seven available online abstract bayer c and k kubitz

ki two zero zero three malvaceae pp two two five three one one in k kubitzki ed the families and genera of vascular plants vol five malvales capparales and non betalain caryophyllales edlin h l one nine three five a critical revision of certain taxonomic groups of the malvales new phytologist three four one two zero one two two one four three judd w s c s campbell e a kellogg p f stevens m j donoghue two zero zero two plant systematics a phylogenetic approach two nd edition pp four zero five four one zero malvales sinauer associates sunderland massachusetts isbn zero eight seven eight nine three four zero three zero kubitzki k and m w chase two zero zero three introduction to malvales pp one two one six in k kubitzki ed the families and genera of vascular plants vol five malvales capparales and non betalain caryophyllales b c j du mortier one eight two nine analyse des familles de plantes avec l indication des principaux genres qui s y rattachent p four three imprimerie de j casterman tournay b a whitlock oct

ober two zero zero one malvales mallow in nature encyclopedia of life sciences nature publishing group london available online doi els site malvales the myrtales are an order of flowering plants placed within the rosid group of dicotyledons the following families are typical of newer classifications family alzateaceae family combretaceae family crypteroniaceae family heteropyxidaceae family lythraceae loosestrife family family melastomataceae family memecylaceae family myrtaceae myrtle family family oliniaceae family onagraceae evening primrose family family penaeaceae family psiloxylaceae family rhynchocalycaceae family vochysiaceae the older cronquist system gives essentially the same composition except the vochysiaceae are removed to the order polygalales and the thymelaeaceae are included the families sonneratiaceae trapaceae and punicaceae are removed from the lythraceae while the psioxylaceae and heteropyxidaceae are treated within the myrtaceae and the memecyclaceae within the melastomataceae reference

s conti elena erikkson torsten schonenberger jurg sytsma kenneth j and baum david a early tertiary out of india dispersal of crypteroniaceae evidence from phylogeny and molecular dating evolution five six one zero two zero zero two pp one nine three one one nine four two sch nenberger j rg and conti elena molecular phylogeny and floral evolution of penaeaceae oliniaceae rhynchocalycaceae and alzateaceae myrtales american journal of botany two zero zero three nine zero two nine three three zero nine myrtales the malpighiales are a large order of flowering plants included in the group named rosid by apgs its internal systematics are still uncertain under the older cronquist system the families now included in the malpighiales were dispersed throughout a number of different orders not all of which belonged to the rosidae the most notable of these are the polygalales violales theales linales and euphorbiales the family malpighiaceae itself was placed in polygalales an order still recognised by itis malpighiales t

he miranda warning is a police warning that must be given to criminal suspects in police custody in the united states before they can be asked questions relating to the commission of crimes police may request biographical information such as name date of birth and address without reading suspects their miranda warnings confessions will not constitute admissible evidence unless suspects have been made aware of and waived their miranda rights the miranda warnings were mandated by the one nine six six united states supreme court decision in the case of miranda v arizona as a means of protecting a criminal suspect s fifth amendment right to avoid coercive self incrimination see right to silence however since its creation by the warren court the supreme court has indicated that the miranda decision imposes prophylactic or preventative safeguards rather than protections mandated by the fifth amendment privilege miranda v arizona in one nine six three ernesto miranda was arrested for robbery kidnapping and rape he w

as interrogated by police and confessed at trial prosecutors offered only his confession as evidence and he was convicted the supreme court ruled miranda v arizona three eight four u s four three six one nine six six that miranda was intimidated by the interrogation and that he did not understand his right to not incriminate himself nor his right to have counsel on this basis they overturned his conviction miranda was later convicted in a new trial with witnesses testifying against him and other evidence presented he served one one years in two zero zero zero the issue of miranda rights came up before the supreme court once again the justices re affirmed the role of the earlier precedent miranda rights the supreme court did not specify the exact wording to be used when informing a suspect of his or her rights however they did set down a set of guidelines which must be followed the ruling states the person in custody must prior to interrogation be clearly informed that he has the right to silence to remain sil