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{ "a_id": [ "d7a8mvl" ], "text": [ "It's an interesting question but one I feel is incomplete without understanding Kuhnian incommensurability, i.e. that concepts and the language which describes them do not change at the same rate.\n\nSo the big debate was between Antoine Lavoisier and Joseph Priestly in the 1770s to 1780s.\n\nPriestly was a supporter of Phlogiston. He thought that phlogiston was what burnt and was absorbed into the air. So instead of the current understanding that fire feeds off oxygen in air until it runs out of oxygen, Phlogiston theory was that the air absorbs Phlogiston from the fire until it can make no more and the fire starves.\n\nIt's great point in favour was it was a way of explaining the demonstrated link between air and fire.\n\nAnd when Priestly and Joseph Black discovered nitrogen and oxygen they fit those elements into that theory so oxygen was air which still was empty and could take more Phlogiston and nitrogen/co2 was air full of Phlogiston which could no longer burn. In actuality it was deoxynated air with the air converted to co2 by the fire.\n\nAnd plants, which convert co2 into oxygen, were seen as then reabsorbing the Phlogiston from the air.\n\nSo essentially Phlogiston theory was a step in the right direction, they just got the details wrong.\n\nWhich gets back to Kuhnian incommensurability. Gravity as a term dates back to the 1620s and we say that newton was right about gravity. But what we understand to be gravity now is very different, we just kept the name.\n\nOr we say Galileo was right because he was less wrong than some previous people even though he posited the sun being the centre of the universe, orbits being perfectly circular and stars fixed in place. We improved and corrected his theories but didn't change the name.\n\nOr Darwin. Our current theory on evolution is different to Darwin's original one but we kept the name so it seems like he was right.\n\nThat could have happened to Phlogiston. Phlogiston can roughly stands in for carbon and it works. Phlogisticated air is carbon dioxide and dephlogisticated air is oxygen. You have to alter the details but the word could have been reused like gravity was.\n\nIt wasn't because Antoine Lavoisier, who was writing at the time, opposed the theory and he discredited it rather than modified it because he was disagreeing with priestly and his followers in real time.\n\nNow Lavoisier was a brilliant man, who worked out conversation of mass and oxidation and that there must be two elemnts in the air, oxygen and nitrogen, one which burned and one which did not. But he was equally wrong about what oxygen was, oxygen means \"acid former\" because Lavoisier thought oxygen was the constituent of all acids, which it isn't and he thought it was an abstract principle, never identifying it with a specific element with weight and other defined properties.\n\nSo it's not so much that phlogiston was untrue and oxygen was true. It's that the latter theory was adapted and changed and the former theory was thrown out. The current understanding is hugely different to what anyone in the 1780s, on either side, posited." ], "score": [ 3 ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "e59rsoi" ], "text": [ "Stahl's phlogiston came, by his own account, from Johann Becher. Becher was a mid-17th century alchemist and chymist who in many ways lived up to the early modern stereotype of the alchemist-charlatan (as in Ben Johnson's play), for instance, Becher had encountered a rock which made you invisible if you held it, and tried to get the Dutch government to sponsor his scheme to produce gold from sand. (That said, one should avoid adopting the traditional Enlightenment historigraphy of viewing alchemists as _little more than_ charlatans)\n\nBecher's legacy would be his book _Physica Subterranea_ ('Subterranean physics') of 1669, where he laid out his ideas, which were not really _that_ revolutionary. Becher held fast to the classical four elements, but considered 'air' and 'fire' to be the agents of chemical change rather than elements per se. Earth was the most significant element (perhaps inspired by his professional interests in minerals and mining). He subdivided the element of earth into three 'earths': _terra lapidea_ (rocky earth), _terra fluida_ (liquid earth) and _terra pinguis_ (oily earth), which bore more than a passing resemblance to the Three Principles of Paracelsus.\n\nThe association between 'oiliness' and fire might not seem so obvious to a modern observer, but at the time it was 'established' that sulphur was the element of fire - it came out of the earth near volcanos, it burned with a mysterious blue flame and left no ash, and such. But sulphur is also a yellow, waxy substance in elemental form, and oil of vitriol (sulphuric acid) is of course an oily substance. (Compare to the 'sulphur principle' of Homberg, which he associated with light)\n\nIt doesn't seem like Becher's book had much impact - Boyle never mentioned it. Becher on the other hand, was influenced by Boyle. (In fact, those who would paint Boyle as the 'father of chemistry', particularly 19th century Englishmen, would often paint phlogiston almost as a distraction that set chemistry back between Boyle and Lavoisier) Even though Stahl gave huge credit to Becher, phlogiston theory was largely his own invention. (to some extent he was probaly following the old routine of seeking raising his own status by raising that of his predecessor)\n\nThere is no way to explain what exactly whas meant by phlogiston, because it depended on the scientist using the term and the experiment in question. Phlogiston and its properties were not rigourously defined during its existence. Phlogiston sought to explain what we now understand to be multiple distinct phenomena; that is, combustion and its production of heat and the apparent loss of matter associated with it. Wood had phlogston in it, which was lost on combustion and heat emitted. But wood contained many other 'earths' and left ash behind. Sulphur and carbon would be rich in phlogston, leaving nothing behind as they burned. But they did contain something else, since they produced acid when the combustion products were mixed with water. In that context, phlogiston is effectively \"negative oxygen\". Phlogiston was also a substance of great 'levity' (and here we go all the way back to Aristotle), explaining why the combustion products would rise and disappear. \n\nCavendish, upon discovering hydrogen (inflammable air) as its own substance in 1766, thought that it might be pure phlogiston - it burned with a barely visible flame and produced no ash or products (later he would discover that water was produced when burning inflammable air in dephlogistated air), and the gas was a substance of great levity. The identity of phlogiston with hydrogen was shared by Scheele and Kirwan among others, although their theories cannot be reduced to that alone.\n\nPriestley would also term pure oxygen as 'dephlogistated air'. But _phlogistated_ air was CO2. Hydrogen doesn't quite fit with that.\n\nJean Bodin had already in 1596 observed another mysterious thing. Burning/heating metal turned it to a powder, a _calx_ (metal oxide), which weighed _more_ than the metal had done. While adding carbon to a calx and heating it produces metal again. Boyle, pre-phlogiston, had explained this as fire particles having combined with the metal. This was an apparent challenge to phlogiston theory was handled in various ways (besides claiming it to be in error, of course) \n\nThis is not as big as a discrepancy as it might occur to us now that we take Lavoisier's conservation of mass for granted. If phlogiston weighed less than air, then ought things not weigh more if they lost it? Perhaps the loss of mass on burning other matter was simply due to the acids they form? Metal calxes on the other hand are bases, so this can seem quite reasonable. Another idea was that the loss of phlogiston was accompanied by some acid-making substance combining with with things like carbon, but being lost with metals. (let's note here that 'oxygen' means 'acid-making')\n\nStahl himself acknowleged that metals got heavier as they lost phlogiston and formed a calx, but it's not entirely clear whether he considered phlogiston itself to have mass. \n\nLomonosov disputed Boyle's interpretation by heating metal in a closed glass vial, finding the total weigh of the vial not to have changed. (However, as opposed to frequent claims, Lomonosov did _not_ draw any general conclusions on the conservation of matter from this) Lomonosov explained the phenomenon through his own theory of gravity. He also had a peculiar mechanical theory of heat of his own, even though he was a phlogistonist (despite claims to the opposite) \n\nThe result though, is that phlogiston theory was not much of a scientific theory in the modern sense - even though it became widespread, it didn't have much predictive value. Phlogiston only really comes to the forefront as it comes under scrutiny and attack, around the 1770s-1780s. But at the same time it's a moving target, as I mentioned - the theory developed and changed with Cavendish, Priestley, Kirwan, etc. In Kuhnian terms this was of course a 'crisis', being one of the defining examples in _The Structure of Scientific Revolutions_. However it has been challenged, not least in recent years, whether phlogiston ought to be considered a paradigm in the first place (e.g. Kim 2008)\n\nThe revolution of the Lavoisiers and their close collaborators was not just about throwing out phlogiston, but jettisoning _all_ old alchemical rubbish from chemistry that lacked empirical support. For instance old mystical planetary names and symbols - just say 'copper sulphate' not 'vitriol of venus', much less '🜖♀', not to mention stuff like 'salt of crab's eye' (calcium acetate). Lavoisier was a republican but the revolution he was plotting in 1789 wasn't the one most think about. Nevertheless he did correspond with people he disagreed with, from all over too. (It's rather fascinating when you consider the discovery of oxygen is shared by a English theologist sitting in rural Wiltshire, a French tax farmer in Paris, and a Swedish small-town apothecary. Even if Lavoisier to his shame denied getting Scheele's letter announcing the discovery. A century later it was found in Lavoisier's archives)\n\nSo Lavoisier came up with 'caloric theory' instead, separating out heat/light from being any sort of corporeal matter, even if he listed it as an 'element', it lacked mass. The likely reason why he grouped it with elements was that considered caloric to be conserved, as mass was. He describes it as a fluid which can be transferred from one body to another, and has for instance the effect of causing expansion, getting in-between the particles in matter to move them farther apart. However, unlike many phlogistonists or indeed any scientists of his time, Lavoisier was very lucid about the ontological status of his substance. In _Traité Élémentaire de Chimie_ he more or less states that he cannot prove caloric exists, and that it _need not actually exist_ merely that something that causes its described effects does exist. In other words, caloric theory in Lavoisier's view was not actually incompatible with the later kinetic theory of heat (which it's frequently put in opposition to), other than in the conservation aspect. But that aspect was in turn key to Carnot's theories (1820) which were the start of thermodynamics. (Carnot himself would abandon caloric in that sense, having discovered Joule's results before Joule did, but not publish them - likely because he couldn't reconcile it with his earlier ideas. They weren't reconciled until the Second Law of Thermodynamics came about in the 1850s)" ], "score": [ 7 ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "c7sjojb", "c7t4a51" ], "text": [ "I can tell you right from a cursory glance that this does not seem to be in either the Attic or the 'Koine' version of the Greek alphabet. There are a couple of irregular characters that mark it out as a specific local alphabet, in particular the **C** symbol; in some cases, it might be a faded letter Eta, but in some cases it seems clear that this is something different. Depending on which alphabet this is, it could represent either Beta or Gamma, and I suspect that it's G here.\n\nEDIT: It's also possible the *C* represents Sigma, and this is where the_gnart's translation/transliteration proceeds from. I didn't assume this because I'm used to Σ appearing in Seleucid inscriptions.\n\nNow, the issue is that whilst the photograph is a good one, a number of the characters have faded enough that they are sometimes hard to distinguish or there are elements of weathering that look like they're part of letters.\n\nIn order to translate it, it would need to be transliterated. And unfortunately, the ambiguity of some of the symbols as seen on the photograph is making that difficult. I don't doubt there may be a more experienced transliterator on the subreddit than me who is able to do it, but I'm having enough trouble that I'm uncertain over several letters, and this is hampering transliteration considerably.", "Thank you all for your invaluable contribution to this small but exciting subject. I am yet to reveal this discussion to my uncle but if I do, I suspect he may return with more transliteration/translation requests. I read the subreddit rules but just for me to be sure, please tell me if submitting them would or would not be welcome.\n\nThank you all again for this wonderful discussion." ], "score": [ 14, 3 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [ "http://i.imgur.com/LUSt1.jpg", "https://maps.google.com/maps?q=Do%C4%9Fanhisar,+Turkey&hl=en&ie=UTF8&sll=25.075941,55.229816&sspn=0.675408,1.352692&oq=doganhi&t=h&hnear=Do%C4%9Fanhisar,+Turkey&z=14" ] }

{ "url": [] }

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{ "a_id": [ "e59iv57" ], "text": [ "If I understand you right, you're asking for the Greek text? That's in Plutarch's Life of Alexander, 14.3. It looks like this:\n > ‘μικρὸν’ εἶπεν, ‘ἀπὸ τοῦ ἡλίου μετάστηθι’\n\nεἶπεν is \"he said.\" So actual quote would be ‘μικρὸν ἀπὸ τοῦ ἡλίου μετάστηθι’\n\nWriting Greek on an American keyboard is a pain in the ass. There are a couple of fonts available for it (TAPA uses GreekKeys, for instance). Honestly the easiest way I've found is to find the text online and copy and paste. I got this text from the [Perseus Project](_URL_0_). You may like to see that this site has the Greek text and the English translation, if you open the panel on the right." ], "score": [ 2 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [ "http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=Perseus%3Atext%3A2008.01.0129%3Achapter%3D14%3Asection%3D3" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cbtfqoy" ], "text": [ "It's been a while since I've brushed up on my classics, but the first place that I can think of where a phalanx is scattered by irregular soldiers is [the battle of Lechaeum](_URL_0_), where javelin-throwing peltasts harried the Lacedaemonian (Spartan) phalanx until they retreated in disarray. But that was an unusual event, and most battles were still conducted by phalanx for some time. Certainly in most battles both sides had a counter to the other's peltasts, either in cavalry or their own peltasts. I seem to remember that cavalry played a major role in breaking the Athenian invasion of Sicily, but I'd prefer that somebody who knows better than me take over on that point.\n\nThat said, there's certainly a reason that phalanxes stopped existing by the time of the Roman Empire, as the Roman cohort system was easily able to scatter around them and cut them to pieces. I seem to remember hearing in a lecture that the last recorded phalanx was defeated in the Roman invasion of Greece, by a general whose name I forget, but, again, I'd prefer to let somebody else take over on this point.\n\nApologies for the rather skeletal answer, this is outside of my field and I've been drinking a bit. ^please ^don't ^hurt ^me ^AskHistorians" ], "score": [ 5 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [ "http://en.wikisource.org/wiki/Hellenica_%28Xenophon%29/Book_4/Chapter_5" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "c9qapk2" ], "text": [ "I'd like to add to this with horse riding. Going from transport to leisure. Manual gearbox cars? Will they go the same way?\n\nIs there a term for these transitions?" ], "score": [ 7 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

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{ "a_id": [ "ccorjna" ], "text": [ "The short and sweet of it is that they are placed in the order by when their department was established. The last Secretary in the line is the Secretary of Homeland Security. Before that it was the Secretary of Veterans Affairs." ], "score": [ 5 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cli94u5" ], "text": [ "Schedule out your weeks so you know what you want to get done; be sure you schedule in some extra time in case you don't stick to your schedule, and then go have fun if you do stick to the schedule. They key is to making sure you can get everything done without burning out. Keeping a regular schedule and having actual goals for each day really helps. Checking things off listen always makes me feel accomplished.\n\nI often schedule backwards; figure out when stuff is due and then figure out how that is going to happen." ], "score": [ 2 ] }

{ "url": [] }

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{ "a_id": [ "ecjtecn", "ecjr88h" ], "text": [ "You're comparing apples and oranges.\n\nThe Mosquito and the B-25 Mitchell (and the B-26 Marauder, for that matter) were built with different doctrine and tactics in mind. The Mosquito was designed to operate semi-independently and use speed as its defense. The B-25 and B-26 were medium bombers designed to bomb in tight formation from medium or high altitudes of ~10-25,000 feet. Altitude and aerial gunnery were meant to be their defense.\n\nBy 1942 North American was already rolling B-25s off the line and Martin was building B-26s. Suddenly stopping production right as the USAAF desperately needed medium bombers would have been a terrible strategic decision. Retooling and overhauling factories to build an brand-new, all-wood aircraft would have meant months of delays and a huge aircraft production shortfall at the worst possible moment.\n\nThe USAAF did make some use of Mosquitos they got from the British, primarily in the reconnaissance role.\n\nA better comparison might be between the A-20 Havoc and the Mosquito. The Havoc was built as a light bomber, meant to attack at low- and medium-level. However, ending production of the metal Havoc to build wooden Mosquitos would also have meant massive disruption to production. Shortly before the US entered the war, Douglas had build a massive factory in Santa Monica to build the Havoc. They would have had to throw away millions of dollars in brand-new tooling, retrain thousands of workers, find new suppliers and contractors, and learn an unfamiliar aircraft construction technique. For obvious reasons, this was a bad idea.\n\nWhen it came to buying aircraft, the RAF bought (or was essentially given through Lend-Lease) large numbers of US aircraft. Indeed the RAF would go on to use Douglas Bombers (they called the A-20 the \"Boston\") with great success. The RAF had a massive shortage of light bombers and the Boston fit the bill quite nicely!", "Hey there,\n\nJust to let you know, your question is fine, and we're letting it stand. However, you should be aware that questions framed as 'Why didn't X do Y' relatively often don't get an answer that meets our standards (in our experience as moderators). There are a few reasons for this. Firstly, it often can be difficult to prove the counterfactual: historians know much more about what happened than what might have happened. Secondly, 'why didn't X do Y' questions are sometimes phrased in an ahistorical way. It's worth remembering that people in the past couldn't see into the future, and they generally didn't have all the information we now have about their situations; things that look obvious now didn't necessarily look that way at the time.\n\nIf you end up not getting a response after a day or two, consider asking a new question focusing instead on why what happened did happen (rather than why what didn't happen didn't happen) - this kind of question is more likely to get a response in our experience. Hope this helps!" ], "score": [ 8, 3 ] }

{ "url": [] }

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{ "a_id": [ "csnygzq", "csnt9rb" ], "text": [ "Why do you think people with ancestry leading to Virginia have a lot of \"gateway ancestors\"? Could it be sampling bias, in that you've mainly known people from Virginia so you are unaware of similar situations in other areas?", "Can you clarify what you mean by gateway ancestors?" ], "score": [ 3, 2 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cb024fk" ], "text": [ "I believe that one man held pieces of pottery or ceramic, some of which had mark scratched on them, some of which didn't. The others would take one piece each, and the ones with the mark would win the draw, or vice versa.\n\nSources:\n\n[Imperium, Robert Harris](_URL_1_\n\n[Rubicon, Tom Holland](_URL_0_" ], "score": [ 3 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rubicon_(book)", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperium_(novel)" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cfh24zq" ], "text": [ "This is something more fit for /r/AskScience than a historian or archaeologist." ], "score": [ 2 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

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{ "a_id": [ "e5q06yy" ], "text": [ "I’m hoping someone around here might have some valuable insight. But in the meantime, you might try cross-posting to r/AskAnthropology and/or r/AskSocialScience." ], "score": [ 4 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cjrk27q" ], "text": [ "Perhaps the decisive move from paddle wheels to propellers was initiated by the famous Royal Navy trials between the HMS Alecto and HMS Rattler.\n\nThe screw propeller had been invented in 1830, and this trial took place in 1845.\n\nThe Alecto and the Rattler were similar sized warships, with similar horse power steam engines. The Alecto had paddle wheels and the Rattler had a propeller.\n\nThe trials included a 100 mile race, and a tug of war between the two ships. The Rattler won decisively.\n\nThis demonstration proved that the propeller was faster and more powerful than the paddle wheel. For warships, the propeller also had other advantages, allowing the warship to mount more broadside guns, and protecting the propulsion system more against enemy cannon fire.\n\nThis led to the increasing adoption of propellers versus paddle wheels on ocean going steam ships.\n\nSource:\n\n_URL_0_" ], "score": [ 2 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [ "http://books.google.com/books?id=yci2AgAAQBAJ&pg=PA8&lpg=PA8&dq=royal+navy+paddle+wheel+vs+propeller+trials&source=bl&ots=u6TI5B-KKy&sig=xNC-WmjwYZLKyB14X6E1ljYU8dI&hl=en&sa=X&ei=-7DuU4ezA82MyATX0IGYAQ&ved=0CD0Q6AEwBQ#v=onepage&q=royal%20navy%20paddle%20wheel%20vs%20propeller%20trials&f=false" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "caasozx" ], "text": [ "I find it very interesting that Douglas MacArthur suggested that his father came up with the idea of the capture of Aguinaldo - a raid that happened in 1901, had no involvement whatsoever by him and was really a lucky opportunity taken advantage of by a group of skilled soldiers. I've written more about this before, but I can't seem to find the thread. This is what I did write on it, since I had a copy around:\n\nIn 1901, during the Philippine-American War (1899-1902), the capture of an enemy courier led to the acquire to a letter from Emilio Aguinaldo, the commander of the Philippine insurgents. The letter was to Aguinaldo's cousin and was a request for reinforcements to his headquarters (and hiding place) in the mountains of Palan. After further investigation (and interrogation of the courier), it was decided to make up a plan to capture him.\n\nThe plan was as follows: 80 Macebe scouts (these were Filipinos from the town of Macebe which traditionally served Spain) who could speak Tagalog would be dressed up as insurgents together with 4 Tagalog loyal to the Americans who would dress up as officers. These men would then enter the hideout together with 5 American \"prisoners\". One of the prisoners would be none other than Brigadier General Fred Funston himself. Two letters would also be sent to Aguinaldo, complete with official stationary from an insurgent base and forged signature, to make the party with prisoners seem less suspicious.\n\nAfter a grueling 100-mile trek and the crossing of the Palan River, two of the disguised Tagalog officers entered the base while awaiting the Macebe scouts to show up (since they had to cross the river). Aguinaldo had taken the bait and greeted them with a complete honor guard. When the Macebe scouts arrived, they took position as to prepare to salute Aguinaldo, only to open fire at the guards at the hideout when a signal was called out. Startled and surprised, the Tagalog officers quickly seized Aguinaldo and together with the five American \"prisoners\", escaped.\n\nAguinaldo was taken to Manila to meet with General MacArthur and a month later took an oath of allegiance to the United States together with a proclamation to all the insurgents to lay down arms. Despite the loss of the highest ranking commander that the Filipinos had, the war continued on for another year. \n\nFrom the accounts I've read on it, not once have I really heard Arthur MacArthur's name being mentioned alongside it except what happened after the raid. While it's truly that he capitulated and swore loyalty, it would take yet another year before the fighting ceased. The account seems to simplify the US Army's counterinsurgency in the Philippines as being completely about the capture of Aguinaldo - something which just isn't true. \n\nThe claim that the hatred disappeared almost overnight is obviously an exaggeration, but what you deem impossible was something actually put into reality. The policy was called \"The Policy of Attraction\" and was meant to convince the average Filipino that siding with the US was a great idea by providing them with schools, medical help and other public services which would be of help to provide a better quality of life. I am, however, limited to the counterinsurgency aspect of this particular conflict and would like to some input from anyone on this subreddit who has further knowledge to offer.\n\nTo sum it up, it sounds to me like Douglas MacArthur greatly exaggerated the role of his father but as with all stories, they have a basis in the truth." ], "score": [ 5 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

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{ "a_id": [ "ceqpnuc" ], "text": [ "I can't claim to know that my submission is the single most expensive military machine. Likely it would be dwarfed by the Manhattan Project, and maybe beaten by a few more projects as well. But *per unit*, I think my choice will at least have a place on the list.\n\nNow, in recent years, a billion dollar project isn't that rare. Even a billion dollars for a single plane is not unheard of. But the Valkyrie bomber project cost 1.5 billion dollars--*in 1950's and 60's money*--and delivered two aircraft. Two. And then one got ran into by a friendly aircraft during a photo opportunity, and it was \"the good one.\" \n\nI first ran into the Valkyrie as a child. The museum now known as the [National Museum of the U.S. Air Force](_URL_0_) is located in Dayton, Ohio. This put it on the route between my home and a set of relatives, and my dad indulged my budding love of history by stopping off. I was amazed by the biplanes, and entranced by the WWII warbirds. The jet fighters were pretty neat, too. But then we ended up in the big hangar. I went from plane to plane, making my way around the displays. I eventually ran out of hangar to explore, and was next to a wall. I looked up. [I was staring into six of the biggest engines i had ever seen](_URL_2_). I scampered around to find more information. \n\nAs it turns out, [I was looking at the only surviving example of a heck of a plane](_URL_0_/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=592). It was designed to fly at Mach 3 at over 70,000 feet to strike targets in the Soviet Union. The fact that it could achieve those feats starting in 1964 was astonishing. But, those same figures were its downfall. Designed as a high-altitude penetrator, it was supposed to fly higher than anything that could bring it down. However, developments in anti-aircraft missiles meant that the Valkyrie was quite within range from the ground. And when you tried to go in low--like the B-52 was able to do--the tradeoffs necessary to achieve those lofty figures quoted above were just too drastic. The Valkyrie was barely faster than a B-52 on the deck, and its fuel economy left a good deal to be desired. Also, the bomb bay was limited in relation to the Stratofortress. The Valkyrie was an engineering marvel, but it was made obsolete before it was even built by the engineering marvel of the anti-aircraft missile.\n\nThere was just enough momentum in the program to get two examples built. The first one had some problems in its construction, as there were some new processes being used. The second example righted many of these problems. Then there was a request for a photoshoot. Sadly, one of the pilots flying an F-104 fighter in formation with the larger bomber got too close, and the wings of the two planes made contact. The F-104 pilot and one of the two pilots of the Valkyrie were killed. That happened in 1966, and the plane was retired in 1969. That is when it was flown to Dayton, there to wait until it astonished a young kid with six huge engines.\n\nNow, again, I can't promise that 750 million dollars per unit in 1950's and 1960's dollars is the most expensive military machine. In fact, it probably doesn't. But I can say I have kicked the tires (gently, and only as a kid, I got a bit smarter and more respectful as I aged) on a one of a kind masterpiece of engineering that cost a mint.\n\n--------------------------\n\n[If you have an hour, and don't mind cheesy military videos, this link should give you a ton of info](_URL_1_)\n\nAlso, the Valkyrie is no longer readily available to be viewed at the museum. It is still free, but you have to sign up to take a bus trip to the R & D hangar. The museum is well worth the trip, and the side trip to the R & D hangar and the presidential aircraft hangar are worth the time as well." ], "score": [ 23 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [ "http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil", "http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Rd0mSLv7zoA", "http://www.aviationexplorer.com/Commercial_Airliners-Military_Aircraft_Pictures/XB-70A-Valkyrie-USAF.jpg", "http://www.nationalmuseum.af.mil/factsheets/factsheet.asp?id=592" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "dxoo8je" ], "text": [ "A mission to another country can refer to a detachment of persons assigned to liase with and learn from or communicate with them on the behalf of the power who sent them. A military mission to another country doesn't mean a military operation in that country, it means that the personnel assigned were sent to communicate with, liase with and represent the interests of their home country to the military of the country they were sent to." ], "score": [ 2 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Last_Battle_(Harding)" ] }

{ "url": [] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cg9y36c" ], "text": [ "I'm going to provide you with an answer, but not really the answer to your question. I actually wrote my Master's thesis about the crisis in print journalism during the seventies and eighties, but I wrote it specifically about Flemish newspapers. There's a lot in there that'll answer your question at least partially, though, as much of the problems in print media were universal at that time. That said, I found that America was \"ahead\" in comparison to the rest of the world, in that because America was ground zero for capitalism at the time, newspapers were more vulnerable to the structural problems this system poses to print media (and, in fact, most other industries as well). I'll try to keep this as short as possible, but here we go:\n\n\nMy thesis was specifically about the bankruptcy of the Volksgazet and the Vooruit, two party newspapers of the Belgian Socialist Party (now sp.a and PS) - the Belgian/Flemish social democratic party. They actually went bankrupt in 1978 as well, but were eventually reborn as De Morgen a few years later - only to go bankrupt again, relaunching without the party affiliation and limping on until this very day. So here are the facts I started my research with: on Tuesday 18 July 1978, the last edition of the Volksgazet was printed, having gone under after years of crisis. The question was: why did this happen? \n\n\nThe seventies and eighties were very turbulent years for the newspaper industry. Not a single paper escaped the crisis. Many went under, some of which were eventually relaunched, but many more were lost forever. In Flanders, the other \"quality newspaper\" - De Standaard - went under in 1976. In Britain, the famous The Times fell into dire straits and was eventually acquired by Rupert Murdoch in 1981 (Murdoch would benefit greatly from the crisis, gobbling up papers everywhere). Pretty much every government had plans to help their respective newspaper industries. So, why did this happen. As with most questions in history, the real answer is that there are a bunch of reasons that came together to create the circumstances that led to the crisis. But more specifically:\n\n\n**The concentration of the press**\n\n\nTo have a healthy press, you need a diverse press. It needs to be pluralistic and pluriform. Pluralism in the press is usually measured quantitatively - there need to be a large amount of different units within the media. This alone is often not enough to form a healthy press. A healthy press also needs to be pluriform - there need to be a wide range of opinions and viewpoints represented in the press. The problem of the press is, however, that the press follows the rules of capitalism. \n\n\nOne of these laws is that the free market and competition on the economic field can be self-destructive. In a free market, after a period of time, companies will start to compete their competitors out of said market, which in turn will give these companies a larger grasp over this market. This will give them advantages of scale and will also give them the advantage of being a household name. This allows them to ward off newcomers in the market, but also to compete other smaller companies out of the market. This is the inherent drive towards monopoly or oligopoly in capitalism. In the media industry, this phenomenon gets its own term called *Press Concentration*. \n\nPress concentration means that a large amount of diverse newspapers will eventually evolve to a limited group of non-diverse newspapers, under control of a small amount of companies. This means bankruptcies, mergers, etc. Press concentration also has a few subdivisions. \n\n* First up is the concentration of providers - this is the form that gets the most attention and is the closest to the general theory of concentration in capitalism. It refers to the trend in newspapers and other media that leads to them merging into large media companies. \n\n* The second form is the concentration of the newsrooms. This refers to the process where two newsrooms will work together, while maintaining the two individual newspapers. While the first form mainly influenced the pluralism of the press, this form influences the pluriformity. \n\n* The third form is the concentration of the publicity, of advertising. Advertisers form a substantial source of income for newspapers, but they don't advertise in all papers equally. Advertisers usually flock to the big newspapers - or in some cases, to speciality papers like the Financial Times who can attract advertisers thanks to their well-off audience. These advertisers concentrate their efforts towards the larger newspapers, then. While this isn't part of press concentration per se, it does influence the other processes of concentration because of the importance of advertising.\n\n* The last form is the concentration of the public. The public tends to flock to the bigger names in the market, which leaves smaller and newer names out in the cold. \n\n\nThese four forms of concentration join together to form the phenomenon we know as press concentration. They influence and strengthen each other, but the final result is that large papers will get larger and small papers will struggle to survive. This phenomenon was always present in the industry, but really started becoming a large problem after the Second World War. A large factor in all of this was the rapidly advancing technology. New printing techniques allowed for greater circulation and lowered the amount of labourers needed per printing press. The main problem, however, was that the substantial cost of these advancements wasn't optional. Aside from cutting costs in terms of labour and materials, these new advancements also improved the collection of news and the finding of sources. Furthermore, the public quickly takes these things for granted. If your competitor has a paper with colour photography, your paper will become less attractive unless you too make the costly switch to colour photography. \n\n\nNow, as I said, this is all very costly. The profit margins in the newspaper industry were never really all that impressive (if not for advertising, for example, newspapers would be sold at a loss) and it was often impossible for individual titles to purchase these new technologies. Papers at this point had three options - either you look for investments in the private sector (as De Standaard did) or your political affiliate (as Volksgazet did); or you merge with other newspapers; or you slowly go bankrupt. The third option here is obviously the option only taken when the other two weren't possible. The first option was popular, but rarely proved enough, so the second option became the go-to option to save your newspaper. Merging with other titles into news companies and concerns. \n\n\nThe advantages to the owners were clear: scale advantages in production, a stronger market position and a greater amount of capital. But there were also other factors driving papers towards mergers. Most notably, the rising costs of production. Wages are a large cost for papers, as they are for any business, and they tended to rise exponentially during the post-war years. Other costs, such as the cost of paper (newsprint was produced in only a few locations in the world), rose spectacularly as well. The advertising market was also very important, as it is very susceptible to economic crises. All these costs couldn't be countered with raising the price of the papers (although it was raised) because the price was very inflexible. More on all this later, though. \n\nWhat this comes down to, is that between - say - 1965 and 1985, there was a large amount of concentration in the press. Titles disappeared, media companies were formed, plurality and pluriformity declined. \n\n\n**The specific problems of a newspaper, in this case Volksgazet**\n\n\nI didn't think this post through, but here's a bit about Volksgazet’s woes – which I hope will give you some insight into the financial problems these newspapers faced. I’ll generally leave out the bits specific to Belgium.\n\nVolksgazet was in bad shape. Despite vehemently denying this reality for ages, eventually it turned out that Volksgazet was running a great, big loss for several years. The last year it – the publisher Ontwikkeling and the printer Excelsior combined – made a profit was in 1968, making 6.835.340 Belgian Francs. From then onwards, the combined companies always posted a loss, with 1973 being the most dramatic year with a loss of 25.418.831 BEF. After this year, aid from the socialist community made up for some of the losses, but if we didn’t count it – as we shouldn’t, if we’re gauging the health of the organization – there’d be an ever greater loss. \n\n\n*Wages*\n\n\nThe reasons for this, then. As mentioned, the rising cost of the wages were a large factor. Back in the day, printing a newspaper was a labour intensive procedure. In 1972, both companies had a combined workforce of 424. The gross cost of wages was 100.563.001 BEF. Three years later, after an effort to reduce this workforce – mainly through people retiring and such – the companies had 328 employees left, with a gross wage cost of… 159.715.210 BEF. Despite lowering the workforce by 25%, the wages rose by 50%. This was partially because of the fact that nobody was actually fired and because the hours that those that left had lost, were now just taken over by the workers left behind. But this only explains why the wage cost didn’t go down, not why it went up. This rise wasn’t even exceptional in comparison to other companies at the time. \n\n\nSo what caused this? The seventies were an exceptionally instable time economically speaking. The international monetary system moved away from the gold standard and the Bretton Woods-system was ended. This shook up the foundations of the international economic and financial systems. A further blow came in 1973, with the oil crisis as a consequence of the Yom Kippur war. Markets crashed and stagflation arose. Stagflation is the – until that point thought impossible – combination of inflation and economic stagnation. Production declined, but at the same time individual products became more expensive. \n\n\nIn Belgium, this crisis already started during the sixties. There was a lot of social strife, which business leaders tried to subdue with exceptional wage increases. This went in against the dominant system at the time – the Keynesian pacification system. This system allowed wages to increase along with productivity and was aimed at avoiding social upheaval. But by moving away from this system, productivity and wages became detached. Between 1970 and 1975, the real wages increased by 44,35%, while productivity only increased by 31%. Between 1974 and 1975, productivity even dropped. \n\n\nBelgium also has a system where wages are attached to the index of prices – every time the cost of living increased, wages had to be raised as well. Thanks to the economic crisis and the inflation part of stagflation, this happened very often. Eventually, between 1972 and 1977, wages would more than double for most workers." ], "score": [ 8 ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "d4xakg6" ], "text": [ "The Homestead Act of 1862 allowed any US citizen to stake out 160 acres of Federally owned land. Provided that the citizen lived on that land and improved it, they would own the land, free and clear. By 1889, most of the land that was worth farming had already been settled. The last really large chunk of prime unsettled land was located inside the Indian Territory. On April 22nd 1889, the Oklahoma Allocation Act opened up 8000 square kilometers (Two Million Acres) for homesteaders. They had to line up at the border and race into this territory to stake out their claim. Some people jumped the gun and staked out their farms a few days early. They were known as \"Sooners\" and the Oklahoma University Football team is named after them. The best fictional account of the events on April 22nd 1889 in Edna Ferber's novel Cimmeron, from 1929. The town of Oklahoma City and Gutherie literally sprang up like mushrooms. Those two towns had their town plots laid out, a town government established and a population of 10,000 people by the end of April 22 1889. So, in one specific incident, that was exactly how it happened. There were future openings of other parts of Oklahoma, prior to 1907, but these subsequent events were smaller in scale and much less hectic. \nFor more details about the five land grants that settled Oklahoma between 1889 and 1907, check out \n_URL_0_" ], "score": [ 2 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [ "http://www.okgenweb.org/~land/" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "c8lz8yp" ], "text": [ "Dates are notoriously difficult things to substantiate. Are you asking for a rough period? a year? a day? \nRoughly - We know about Longshan and Erlitou cultures from the archeological record, but there is no evidence to suggest that either were the semi-legendary Xia Dynasty. Nothing about the Xia is especially datable. Erlitou seems like an excellent fit for the Xia, if the Xia ever existed at all. But we will probably never know. So for datable history, we really have to talk about the Shang. We have so much writing, in bronze inscription and in oracle bones, that we can safely date the Shang in general. But it sounds like you are looking for something more specific. \nIn that case I think we can start to trust the yearly dating given for at least the Warring States period. The shell of history writing existed from the Spring and Autumn Annals, and there were so many literate traditions that came from that time that we can trust the collected accounts of the Han. \nHow do we know these things? Writings might reference particular rulers, and the date of their rule (Wu's 14th year, etc etc) - when we put together all of these sources we can then line up the rulers with somewhat accurate reign dates. We stack these reign dates back to back starting with the last rulers before the Qin (when dates are extremely reliable) and working backwards, and we have a reliable dating system that stretches back until things get fuzzy in the spring and autumn/late Zhou period. \nExact day - either the Qin or the Han - it was absolutely vital to the legitimation of a new dynasty to establish a reliable and accurate calendar. The Qin and Han rulers were very careful about this process, and so dates are very reliable after 221." ], "score": [ 2 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

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{ "a_id": [ "dhfj22x" ], "text": [ "In the middle ages, someone might have posted a similar question: \"Are military strategy books like Vegetius and the Aeneid useful?\" And the answer would have been a resounding TL;DR yes.\n\nBut not because a Roman military theorist or a Roman poet imagining the Greek mythic past really had much to do with medieval warfare. The events in the Aeneid never happened, and the military system of Vegetius and the Roman society that supported it were both parts of the distant past, long before Charlemagne rose to power.\n\nInstead, these texts offered a language for discussing war and a ready vocabulary that could be adapted to the present-day values that guided warfare. These two texts in particular balanced very well, with Vegetius emphasizing logistics and planning, and the Aeneid celebrating charisma and leadership, based on piety and an acceptance of fate (which ended up being two celebrated values of the early middle ages). The Roman supply chain and the pantheon of the Roman gods were both dead and gone, but planning and piety could both be recontextualized to meet contemporary needs.\n\nAnd just as important, there was a social function to these books. Knowing a few tidbits from Vegetius might get you into the in-crowd at Lothar's table, just as a few witty quips about Clausewitz might win a post pouring coffee at the Pentagon. Learned authors could drop lines from these texts to prove just how learned they were, or maybe even to test their readers' attentions. Expressing a modicum of knowledge about Vegetius or the Aeneid was a sort of an unofficial certificate in military strategy that other people could easily recognize.\n\nSo it wasn't so much the texts themselves but knowing how to interpret them—both practically and, in a word, politically—that guaranteed their importance. In the early middle ages, at least, interpretation was often much more important than the text itself. The dissonance between medieval realities and the classical texts they used demanded a good deal of interpretation to make them meaningful.\n\nIn a way, this might be the key to Clausewitz's success. Clausewitz was reacting to and reflecting on the Napoleonic wars, when conscription and democratic nationalism had just recently transformed the stakes of state-organized violence. But modern warfare kept changing quickly due to factors of technological change, economic mobilization, and the democratization of international politics. The world of Clausewitz has gone the way of the Roman gods, so if we are to read Clausewitz today, we need to read beyond his most straightforward pronouncements and question the assumptions he was making and the priorities that he was using. In short, we need to recontextualize Clausewitz's advice and priorities to meet our own needs. And we use Clausewitz because he already belongs to the in-crowd of the military literati. Name-dropping Clausewitz gives us an instantly recognizable basis of credibility that, say, Jomini typically does not.\n\nSo *On War* is absolutely a useful text, if it's read with an agile mind and a sense of Clausewitz's place in history—just as medieval readers treated Vegetius and the Aeneid. But whether the other books you list can be just as useful, I suppose, depends on your own attitudes toward reading. If you can deal with the cognitive dissonance and remain attentive to the fact that each of these texts arose or arises from its own particular contexts, you're probably doing it right. Or, at least, you're reading them as a historian might.\n\nTLDR. Are these texts useful? Yes. But it depends on how you use them." ], "score": [ 104 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [ "https://ryanholiday.net/24-best-books-strategy/" ] }

{ "url": [] }

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{ "a_id": [ "dxblcmn" ], "text": [ "Hi there -- you may be interested in this older answer from u/iphikrates on the topic: _URL_0_" ], "score": [ 3 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [ "https://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/66xtyc/how_hoplites_wielded_their_spears_icepick_vs/dgrx57f/" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "e7po3js" ], "text": [ "Glancing at this, it seems to me that this could be a referring to the idea of rationalization, which I can start describing in the early 1900s with Max Weber. In *The Protestant Ethic and the Spirit of Capitalism* (1905), Weber argues that supernatural belief has been replaced by the rational belief in the concrete improvement of one's condition in the world through the acquisition of capital. This \"Protestant work ethic\" is rooted in the belief that those who toil humbly have the blessing of God and that this blessing is expressed through economic success. In other words, it connects holiness with material diligence. Work and capital became the defining marks of morality, and our relationship with the means of production becomes the fundamental relationship in our daily lives. \n\nWeber argues that the \"spirit of capitalism\" strips us of our belief in the world as an enchanted place. He describes a move from literal naturalist belief (such as pre-industrial people have when they consume flesh to gain power) to a symbolic belief (such as we find in myths) to the rise of rationalist belief. He calls this \"disenchantment.\" (It's worth noting that Weber's ideas have been questioned by Jason Josephson Storm, who points out in his book *The Myth of Disenchantment* the tremendous popularity of the occult and magic in the exact time Weber was writing.)\n\nIf you're curious, I would point you to another landmark book, *Dialectic of Enlightenment,* by Theodor Adorno and Max Horkheimer. They identify the European Enlightenment as the key time that this shift took place. Adorno and Horkheimer, writing during the Second World War, used as a starting point the Marxist hope that enlightened reason would lead to the universal emancipation of the proletariate. Instead, they write, it has led to the loss of myth and the rise of fascism. According to Adorno and Horkheimer, we have created mass culture whose purpose it is to ensure mass society remains in place, yoked to a capitalistic system. In their reading, this becomes a circular process: we recreate a system of blind belief very similar to the one that we supposedly just left.\n\nI don't know how much more detail to go into, since I don't know if your post is even referring to these theories, but I'd be happy to if there is interest." ], "score": [ 10 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [ "https://imgur.com/gallery/rjm8j6v" ] }

{ "url": [] }

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{ "a_id": [ "e518eao", "e51j2rz" ], "text": [ "I can give you a partial answer, for the Colonies.\n\nLike anything manufactured in the 18th c., they were what we'd call expensive, because of all the labor required. The cost depended on what the gun was. George Washington order a very nice fowler from London gunsmith John Brazier in 1767. It had silver mounts ( i.e. triggerguard, buttplate, etc) a new-style water-resistant lock , a hook breech so the barrel could easily be removed for cleaning, and a case. That cost eight pounds and eight shillings. On the other hand, a trade gun, very basic , would go for about four pounds and sixteen shillings. An old musket might go for as little as three pounds. Pistols were not as useful and not as common, but often were sold in pairs. In York Co. in 1740 a Pennsylvania merchant ordered for resale from London a pair of simple \"pocket pistols\" ( maybe something with a screw-on barrel) for eight shillings, a pair of bigger ones ( that you sometimes see mistakenly called dueling pistols) for one pound fifteen shillings. At this time in the Colonies a carpenter might get around six shillings a day, a laborer two shillings. ( 1 pound = 20 shillings). Those wages would be higher than in England- (there was a labor shortage in the Colonies) and I don't know what those would be.\n\nIt can be tempting to assume that, based on the expense, not many people owned guns. But farmers did, and in the rural Colonies there were a lot of farmers. For England I honestly don't know, but am more dubious: wages were lower, and hunting was a more aristocratic pastime requiring the use of someone's estate, and poaching was severely punished.\n\nHarold Gill, Jr : *The Gunsmith in Colonial Virginia*\n\n[History of Wages in the US](_URL_0_)", "Bodark's answer is great for the American colonies but I'm going to go over to England.\n\nSo, you're a gentleman in 18th century England. That means you have an income of at least 200l. from lands you own. And even that's low, you might be more of a very wealthy yeoman at that point. Though legally there would be little difference, 200l. was plenty to fulfill all property requirements virtually everywhere, socially there would be a distinction. It would be rather blurrier in the countryside, especially the part of the country where you owned land, but if you went somewhere you were not known they might politely inquire about class markers. (\"Which university did you attend?\" with the proper answer being Oxford or Cambridge. Maybe that backwater Harvard if you were a colonial.)\n\nYou are not the average person. Even though you're barely scraping into the lowest class of the aristocracy, you're much wealthier than even a master tradesman, who would make (if they were average) about 50l. per year. And you're much, much wealthier than unskilled laborers, who would make about 10l. per year. So you can absolutely afford a gun.\n\nHow much would it cost you? Unlike the colonies, where gunsmiths still make the majority of rifles with a relatively high degree of customization, often with expensive imported material, things are much more standardized, local, and industrialized in England. There are actual gun manufactories in Birmingham and London that pump out hundreds of thousands of guns on standard patterns. (This will rise to millions in times of war.) One of these pattern muskets might cost as little as 15s. (3/4ths of a pound) new when prices are low, and less on the used market. (You'd probably have to pay extra for shipping or travel to a store.) Some more expensive models might rise to two or three times that, especially if it was something that had to be machined like a rifle. In times of war, even a colonial war, these prices will increase as demand for guns goes up due to both military and civilian demand. Sometimes dramatically. Otherwise, they'll fluctuate about 25% throughout the century.\n\nOf course, if you want to pay a few pounds, you could get it made custom by a gunsmith. As a gentleman, you probably do. Owning custom, well made objects is part of your class. Buying something obviously cheap will be a little problematic when you go hunting with friends. And paradoxically, since you have such a small estate, people will be watching the quality of your gun *more* (with the usual gossip accompanying that watching). The price will then depend on exactly what you want but. Fortunately, most gentlemen spent at most a few pounds, so this is well within your budget.\n\nLeaving your rarefied atmosphere, could an average Englishman buy a gun? Yes, if they were willing to stretch their finances even a poor laborer could buy a cheap gun. While wages were higher in the colonies, gun prices were much, much lower in England. (There was a brisk trade buying guns and gun parts and shipping them to the colonies.) That said, it wasn't likely most of your workers would have one.\n\nThere was less reason for an Englishman to buy one. Britain saw less invasions, rebellions, and general disturbances than the colonies. Hunting was also less legally supported and there were fewer dangerous animals. Colonists didn't buy guns because they thought they were neat, they bought them because they needed them to keep out pests, dangerous animals, and invading Frenchmen. These concerns were simply less present in England. (There were also some regulations on who could buy guns in England that were absent in the colonies, but these affected, at most, a fifth of all Englishmen. They might have had a small downward effect in England. They undoubtedly had a huge downward effect in Ireland.)\n\nFrom **The Birmingham Gun Trade**, **Gunpowder, Explosives and the State: A Technological History**, and **The English Gun Trade**." ], "score": [ 14, 12 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [ "https://babel.hathitrust.org/cgi/pt?id=uc1.32106007458745;view=1up;seq=67" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cgftatn" ], "text": [ "Among the general public appeasement was considered a dividing topic but the slant was definitely towards appeasement, the majority of the media, and public opinion polls showed the British public favored appeasement. There are several theories for why appeasement was popular but the generally accepted one is that much of the British public had gone through WW1 just 20 years ago and had been bombarded with messages about how WW1 would be the war to end all wars, so the public was naturally against any action that might spark a new war.\n\nNow politically it was in no way unanimous and Chamberlain's appeasement was highly divisive. Generally the right wing was supportive of appeasement as it prevented a war without weakening Britain, the left on the other hand, hated appeasement because it went against the principles of the League of Nations. The Left Wing branded Chamberlain the \"Arch-appeaser\" and some even went as far as calling him a \"proto-fascist\". \n\nAll the criticism Chamberlain gets for being weak and naive is really unfair to Chamberlain in my opinion, Chamberlain wanted to isolate Hitler, while Britain rearmed. He knew Hitler wouldn't stop with the Sudetenland, he just wanted to buy time to get his country into a position where could it threat Hitler militarily and diplomatically isolate Hitler by repairing relations with Mussolini. \n\nSource:\n\nThe Rise and Fall of the British Empire by Lawrence James\n\nThis paper gives a pretty good overview as well.\n_URL_0_" ], "score": [ 2 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [ "http://www.loyno.edu/~history/journal/1993-4/Lilly.html" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "dqglcwb", "dqhi1le" ], "text": [ "This section of Marx' Letter to Ruge is particularly illuminating so I'll quote it at length, but the whole letter is worth a read.\n > Not only has a state of general anarchy set in among the reformers, but everyone will have to admit to himself that he has no exact idea what the future ought to be. On the other hand, it is precisely the advantage of the new trend that we do not dogmatically anticipate the world, but only want to find the new world through criticism of the old one. Hitherto philosophers have had the solution of all riddles lying in their writing-desks, and the stupid, exoteric world had only to open its mouth for the roast pigeons of absolute knowledge to fly into it. Now philosophy has become mundane, and the most striking proof of this is that philosophical consciousness itself has been drawn into the torment of the struggle, not only externally but also internally. But, if constructing the future and settling everything for all times are not our affair, it is all the more clear what we have to accomplish at present: I am referring to ruthless criticism of all that exists, ruthless both in the sense of not being afraid of the results it arrives at and in the sense of being just as little afraid of conflict with the powers that be.\n\n > Therefore I am not in favour of raising any dogmatic banner. On the contrary, we must try to help the dogmatists to clarify their propositions for themselves. Thus, communism, in particular, is a dogmatic abstraction; in which connection, however, I am not thinking of some imaginary and possible communism, but actually existing communism as taught by Cabet, Dézamy, Weitling, etc. This communism is itself only a special expression of the humanistic principle, an expression which is still infected by its antithesis – the private system. Hence the abolition of private property and communism are by no means identical, and it is not accidental but inevitable that communism has seen other socialist doctrines – such as those of Fourier, Proudhon, etc. – arising to confront it because it is itself only a special, one-sided realisation of the socialist principle.\n\n > And the whole socialist principle in its turn is only one aspect that concerns the reality of the true human being. But we have to pay just as much attention to the other aspect, to the theoretical existence of man, and therefore to make religion, science, etc., the object of our criticism. In addition, we want to influence our contemporaries, particularly our German contemporaries. The question arises: how are we to set about it? There are two kinds of facts which are undeniable. In the first place religion, and next to it, politics, are the subjects which form the main interest of Germany today. We must take these, in whatever form they exist, as our point of departure, and not confront them with some ready-made system such as, for example, the *Voyage en Icarie*.", "It's first of all important to understand what \"private property\" is for Marx. He explains this in the section on \"The Trinity Formula\" in Capital Volume 3:\n\n > However, capital is not a thing, but rather a definite social production relation, belonging to a definite historical formation of society, which is manifested in a thing and lends this thing a specific social character. Capital is not the sum of the material and produced means of production. Capital is rather the means of production transformed into capital, which in themselves are no more capital than gold or silver in itself is money. **It is the means of production monopolised by a certain section of society**, confronting living labour-power as products and working conditions rendered independent of this very labour-power, which are personified through this antithesis in capital. It is not merely the products of labourers turned into independent powers, products as rulers and buyers of their producers, but rather also the social forces and the future [? illegible] [A later collation with the manuscript showed that the text reads as follows: \"die Gesellschaftlichen Kräfte und Zusammenhängende Form dieser Arbeit\" (the social forces of their labour and socialised form of this labour). — Ed.] form of this labour, which confront the labourers as properties of their products. Here, then, we have a definite and, at first glance, very mystical, social form, of one of the factors in a historically produced social production process.\n\n- [Karl Marx, Capital Volume 3, 1894](_URL_1_)\n\nThe bolded part is what is most important: Private property for Marx rests on exclusion. This means that whereever the means of production are monopolised by a section distinct from society itself, private property exists. It does not matter whether this instance is a person, a collective of some sort, a corporation or a state.\n\nThe question of private property is central, because it necessitates the producers exchanging their labour products in order to meet their needs. Marx argues that therefore production being carried out by isolated producers makes the products of labours \"commodities\", which means that additionally to their social utility, they acquire the property of posing the social relation \"value\". He explains that the simple equation of two products means that the respective producers abstract from the concrete labour that was necessary to produce the product, and that they therefore equate \"abstract labour\", labour-time in trade, which then becomes the substance of value.\n\nMarx's work in \"Capital\" is not one of an economist. He is not trying to rival Adam Smith or David Ricardo, who he thoroughly studied, as much as all the other economists of his time. His endeavour is different:\n\n > The standpoint of the old materialism is civil society; the standpoint of the new is human society, or social humanity. \n\n- [Karl Marx, Theses on Feuerbach, 1845](_URL_0_)\n\nTaking on the \"standpoint of social humanity\" means to acknowledge that the way humanity currently lives is fundamentally inhuman, perverted, inverted. Marx's attempt is to explain what humanity has to do in order to escape from its self-created inhuman shell - he finds this inhuman, alienated way of living most adequately expressed in the categories of economics, as in productive, purposeful activity, humanity not only creates the world it inhabits, but also itself. His aim is therefore to show how the categories that economics expresses arise, and consequently how they're transitional, how humanity can do away with them in order to finally be at home in its self-created world.\n\nThe real abstraction \"value\", unconsciously brought about by the producers in trade, ultimately finding its most adequate form of expression in money, becomes the real subject that governs society. Even though humanity does create its world, its own powers confront it as an alien thing: the substance that is also subject; value in process: capital." ], "score": [ 15, 8 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [ "https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1845/theses/theses.htm", "https://www.marxists.org/archive/marx/works/1894-c3/ch48.htm" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "ct93lys" ], "text": [ "It's a copy of [this 1881 painting by Alma-Tadema,](_URL_0_) depicting Sappho and her friends listening to a performance by Alcaeos." ], "score": [ 2 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [ "https://drive.google.com/file/d/0B9gddb_hzAOmeFRicWJXaGNqVFJyLXM5alFYemRQMjFXV2ww/view?pli=1" ] }

{ "url": [ "http://art.thewalters.org/detail/10245" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cdu11rw" ], "text": [ "If animal populations, than humans are responsible for wiping out 100% of not just local populations, but entire species.\n\nFor humans, what kind of units are we talking about? If it's just \"larger than a tribe\", there have been cities or regions completely depopulated by war, famine, or natural disasters- Pompeii was bigger than a tribe, and that had a nearly 100% fatality rate. The Black Death also had higher fatality rates in some areas than others- 30% is averaged across Europe. Some areas were completely depopulated; others were unscathed. Ditto the Holocaust; half of European Jewry and one-third of world Jewry was killed, but some countries escaped. Poland saw 3,000,000 of 3,300,000 killed, so 90% of a large, national population murdered there. For just straight up war, some central German provinces saw an 80% loss of population in 30 years.\n\nIf we want to go bigger geographically, then European colonization wiped up over 90% of the native population of the Americas, with disease doing most of the work before colonists arrived and began killing them in other ways.\n\nThe Toba catastrophe would also be another contender, wiping out most of the global human population and leaving just a few thousand breeding pairs." ], "score": [ 2 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

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{ "a_id": [ "dn941t2" ], "text": [ "That sounds a bit vague. Could you give a bit more details about this supposed post World War 2 doctrine?\n\n > I was reading somewhere about post-WW2 US foreign policy where the military was supposed to be used not to dominate, but to protect borders enabling peace and trade. \n\nI think its worth mentioning that the US wasn't always overwhelmingly dominant post WW2, militarily. Remember, the US was locked in a competition with the Soviet Union, with both sides trying to get a military edge over one another throughout the Cold War.\n\nAnd it's not like the US dominating militarily means that the US hasn't been involved in protecting trade or being involved in peacekeeping missions protecting borders. The US led the United Nations Command sent in to Korea to repel the North Koran invasion, and the US Navy has been involved in protecting sea routes around the world for quite some time. In fact, the Naval Act of *1794* authorizing the creation of the original six frigates of the US Navy was an acknowledgement by the US that it needed naval forces to secure its own trade routes and interests overseas. *Source: Six Frigates by Ian W. Toll*\n\nIn terms of foreign policy (to include military policy), you can gleam a lot from the National Security Strategy of the United States, written by successive presidential administrations. An archive of this can be found [online here](_URL_1_), stretching back to the Reagan era.\n\nI also want to emphasize that the actual post-WW2 military doctrine of the United States had already been envisioned by many strategic thinkers before WW2 had even ended.\n\nIn General George C. Marshall's [Biennial Reports as Chief of Staff of the Army](_URL_0_), completed before Japan had even formally surrendered, Marshall writes extensively about the state of the US military before the war, the challenges it took to organize the massive and unprecedented mobilization of manpower and industry, and what the US had to do in the post-war world.\n\nIn his chapter *For the Common Defense*, starting on page 208, Marshall ponders what the US military must become to prevent a future WW2 and how to be better prepared. He acknowledges that if it weren't for the vast oceans, as well as British and Soviet blood, the US would have suffered considerably more:\n\n > In order to establish an international system for preventing\nwars, peace-loving peoples of the world are\ndemonstrating an eagerness to send their representatives\nto such conferences as those at Dumbarton Oaks\nand San Francisco with the fervent hope that they may\nfind a practical solution. Yet, until it is proved that\nsuch a solution has been found to prevent wars, a rich\nnation which lays down its arms as we have done after\nevery war in our history, will court disaster. The existence\nof the complex and fearful instruments of\ndestruction now available make this a simple truth\nwhich is, in my opinion, undebatable. \n\n...\n\n > The German armies swept over Europe at the very\nmoment we sought to avoid war by assuring ourselves\nthat there could be no war. The security of the United\nStates of America was saved by sea distances, by\nAllies, and by the errors of a prepared enemy. For\nprobably the last time in the history of warfare those\nocean distances were a vital factor in our defense. We\nmay elect again to depend on others and the whim\nand error of potential enemies, but if we do we will be\ncarrying the treasure and freedom of this great Nation\nin a paper bag. \n\nHe then also writes:\n\n > Twice in recent history the factories and farms and\npeople of me United States have foiled aggressor\nnations; conspirators against the peace would not give\nus a third opportunity. \n\nHe's quite blunt too about his assessment of the necessity of the US to have forces worldwide:\n\n > It no longer appears practical to continue what we\nonce conceived as hemispheric defense as a satisfactory\nbasis for our security. We are now concerned\nwith the peace of the entire world. And the peace can\nonly be maintained by the strong. \n\nAnd:\n\n > The Regular Army must be comprised largely of a\nstrategic force , heavy in air power, partially deployed\nin the Pacific and the Caribbean ready to protect the\nNation against a sudden hostile thrust and immediately\navailable for emergency action wherever required.\nIt is obvious that another war would start with a lightning\nattack to take us unaware. The pace of the attack\nwould be at supersonic speeds of rocket weapons\nclosely followed by a striking force which would seek\nto exploit the initial and critical advantage. We must\nbe suffciently prepared against such a threat to hold\nthe enemy at a distance until we can rapidly mobilize\nour strength. The Regular Army, and the National\nGuard, must be prepared to meet such a crisis. \n\nIt's hard to argue with much of what Marshall has written here with how the US has employed its military post WW2: one that is heavy in airpower, forward deployed across the Pacific and Atlantic oceans, and one that is strong." ], "score": [ 3 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [ "http://www.history.army.mil/html/books/070/70-57/CMH_Pub_70-57.pdf", "http://nssarchive.us/" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cutke8r" ], "text": [ "This is a difficult question to answer since there were very few Soviet analogues to Kennan's overarching Containment Doctrine. One could argue that Marxist-Leninism, which argued that a revolution could be achieved under the leadership of an organized communist party, was the cornerstone of the Soviet's understanding of foreign affairs, but the importance of a Marxist-Leninist *Weltanschauung* generates more questions than answers. Although Moscow's foreign policy establishment produced reams of pronouncements on world affairs, these were often couched in such sweeping ideological rhetoric that made it difficult to parse out what was actual Soviet policy. One of the important subfields of the West's Cold War-era Kremlinologists was engaged in actively trying to parse out the kernels of wheat from its Marxist-Leninist chaff. \n\nIn general, the Soviet's foreign policy in the Cold War had a degree of continuity from its foreign policy in the 1930s. The position of the USSR was that it was the leader of a large global movement of both anti-fascist and anti-imperialist organizations. Within this umbrella organization of the global left, Moscow reserved pride of place for local communist parties who were tasked with being the ideological leaders in local political movements. The Soviets encouraged party discipline and demanded a degree of loyalty from the leadership of various communist parties. Andrei Zhdanov's [1947 pronouncement](_URL_0_) of the creation of the Cominform, a successor to the disbanded Comintern, outlines this Soviet-centric umbrella approach:\n\n > In the pursuit of these ends the imperialist camp is prepared to rely on reactionary and anti-democratic forces in all countries, and to support its former adversaries in the war against its wartime allies.\n\n > The anti-fascist forces comprise the second camp. This camp is based on the U.S.S.R. and the new democracies. It also includes countries that have broken with imperialism and have firmly set foot on the path of democratic development, such as Rumania, Hungary and Finland. Indonesia and Vietnam are associated with it; it has the sympathy of India, Egypt and Syria. The anti-imperialist camp is backed by the labor and democratic movement and by the fraternal Communist parties in all countries, by the fighters for national liberation in the colonies and dependencies, by all progressive and democratic forces in every country. The purpose of this camp is to resist the threat of new wars and imperialist expansion, to strengthen democracy and to extirpate the vestiges of fascism. \n\nEven though Zhdanov's declaration was one of the first major foreign policy pronouncements by a Soviet leader in the postwar era, the Cominform fizzled out despite the fears it engendered in the West's anticommunists. In practice, the Soviets sought to use the structure of the Cominform to break any sign of independence from its constituent members. Although initially headquartered in Belgrade, Yugoslavia would actually be expelled from the Cominform less than a year later on account of Tito's independent approach to Yugoslavia's relations to its Balkan neighbors. The Cominform's coordination with Western communist parties fared little better. Instead of resurrecting a Popular Front strategy, Western communist parties increasingly adapted a strategy of being political outliers critiquing the postwar political establishment. Although this meant communism was able to make some ideological inroads in the West, especially in the late 1940s, Western communist parties became marginal political actors. The case of the KPD was an extreme example in which its kneejerk political activism (abetted by forged documents provided by the CIA) led the FRG courts to ban it as an antidemocratic party in 1956. \n\nUnderlying the general failure of the Cominform is a thread that remained one of the few consistencies of Soviet foreign policy: whatever the situation, Moscow's interpretation and interests were paramount. This fusion of *realpolitik* and Marxist-Leninism created a highly mercurial foreign policy that was highly reactive in nature. In his memoirs, Molotov outlined thegeneral thrust of the Soviet postwar view of its interests:\n\n > They hardened their line against us, and we had to consolidate what we had conquered. We created our socialist Germany in part of Germany, and in Czechoslovakia, Poland, Hungary and Yugoslavia, where the situation was fluid, we needed to restore order. Suppress capitalist order. This was the Cold War. Of course, you had to know the right measure. I believe that in this sense Stalin kept himself well within the limits.\n\n Italy in the late 1940s was a case in point of how Stalin tried to temper the situation in favor of order. The attempted assassination of the PCI leader Palmiro Togliatti in July 1948, coupled with widespread allegations of electoral fraud the previous April, generated widespread strikes and demonstrations among the Italian left. Togliatti would sometimes employ the rhetoric of civil war in public pronouncements, indicated the PCI was going to lead a wider struggle. Stalin reigned in this rhetoric, underscoring to Togliatti that the PCI had not exhausted all legal measures to power and that a civil war was not in the larger interests of the Soviet Union. So despite fulfilling much of the criterion of Zhdanov's proclamation, Soviet geostrategic interests trumped that of the need for a global struggle. \n\nMoscow's insistence that it was the elder brother of the global communist movement did not sit well abroad, especially in areas outside of direct Soviet military power. Stalin's somewhat patronizing attempts to control Mao and the CCP poisoned Sino-Soviet relations well after Stalin's death. With the conclusions of hostilities in 1945, Stalin desired for Mao to continue his wartime collaboration with the KMT and Chiang Kai-Shek. Stalin believed not only would the KMT prevail in a civil war, but that civil war would destroy China. Stalin gave Mao a diktat in August 1945 that he should travel to Chungking and negotiate with Chiang or \"his stand would be repudiated in China and abroad.\" The Chungking meeting had the opposite effect than Stalin intended. Mao's meetings with Chiang reinforced within him the idea that he could win a civil war; Mao would later claim that Chiang was \"a corpse and no one believes him anymore.\" The communist victory thus came as much a shock to Moscow as to Washington. Although the Red Army turned over some Japanese war material to the CCP, they largely kept the best equipment and destroyed the remainder. Mao's victory emerged as a fait accompli for the newly-formed PRC as the USSR could not repudiate a successful communist revolution. But this did not stop Stalin from insisting that the PRC make economic and political concessions to the USSR and refused to aid Mao in efforts to invade Taiwan.\n\nThe emergence of Mao and the PRC as an ideological rival deeply unnerved the Kremlin and colored the perceptions of its foreign policy. With an alternative and seemingly more vibrant Marxist rival, Soviet actions seemed to be much more the actions of an old-school great power than a force trying to lead the world's downtrodden masses. The need for the Soviets to maintain security over Eastern Europe led to a series of crackdowns in East Germany, Poland, and Hungary. In light of these actions, Khrushchev's attempt to craft a peaceful coexistence with the West became the source of much criticism in the PRC and other left radical groups. The dissolving of the Cominform in 1956 and the Soviet destalinization drive gave further fodder for these anti-Soviet critiques. This denuding of its ideological purity meant that as the USSR sought to engage with movements in the Third World like Nasser's Egypt, Soviet foreign policy appeared to many as less it leading an umbrella movement and more as sheer opportunism. The fact that many of these nationalist movements in the third world, such as Nasserism or Ba'ath ism repressed or subordinated local communist parties gave cause for further critiques of the USSR for its self-interested foreign policy. \n\nThese matters came to a head in the 1968 Prague Spring where a Warsaw Pact invasion crushed a Czechoslovakian reform movement. The resulting outcry both within the Soviet sphere of influence and abroad was quite condemnatory. The result of this outcry was the most clearly articulated Soviet position on foreign policy yet, the Breznev Doctrine. Although the Brezhnev Doctrine fit within the pattern of prior Soviet (or Soviet-enabled) interventions in Hungary, Poland, and East Germany, the Doctrine was only truly formalized in the aftermath of Prague Spring. The rationale behind it was to try and reinvigorate the connectivity of the Warsaw Pact and underscore each member's commitment to the Marxist-Leninist socialism championed by the USSR. The Doctrine not only stated that the USSR had a right to intervene in a Warsaw Pact state if it adapted a political course contrary to socialism, but also other Warsaw Pact states had to intervene as well. The fear of other Warsaw Pact states forming their \"own road to socialism,\" and breaking Moscow's monopoly on what it perceived as the correct political path. This fear was particularly acute for many Soviet leaders and the events in Prague Spring underscored how such a danger was real." ], "score": [ 31 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [ "http://slantchev.ucsd.edu/courses/nss/documents/zhdanov-response-to-x.html" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "c5n0j6a", "c5o6fsl" ], "text": [ "There have been some concerns about the lack of footnoting. As far as I can tell, he is not a published historian with any credentials so don't expect too much analysis and treat it as any popular narrative history subject.", "Sorry, this is late.\n\nIf you want an accessible, single volume history of the Roman military you will not beat Adrian Goldsworthy. His first book, *The Roman Army At War* made a bit of a splash when it came out, and his more popular works are also well regarded." ], "score": [ 3, 2 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

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{ "a_id": [ "ciis4pk", "ciiqhzt" ], "text": [ "Speaking to the Arab Revolt, the British weren't writing a check they \"couldn't cash\", they were playing an exceedingly careful game that many would argue was masterfully played. They didn't necessarily expect what followed, but it's more likely they saw the use of these contradictory promises as potentially problematic later, but not as urgent or eventually painful as the loss of WWI.\n\nThe British, in attempting to get the Arab revolt going, were looking to weaken the Ottoman Empire to keep the Entente powers going. I can't go too far into detail on the military goals of this, but they included (from my memory) aspirations to get Iraqi oil (the Royal Navy now worked on oil, I believe), get control of the Mediterranean, and otherwise tie down enemy troops.\n\nI'm presuming you are referring to the contradictory promise made in the Balfour Declaration and the McMahon-Husayn correspondences. While some scholars argue that the British had no ill intent and simply didn't see the promises as conflicting, this is a very rare position. In reality, most argue, the British intentionally left the promises vague and twisted them semantically later. They wanted to gain the support of the Arabs, but at the same time didn't want to alienate the Jews. This was the cause of the Balfour Declaration (in addition to lobbying and Jewish contributions to WWI, specifically Weizmann's research with acetone for ammunitions, as I understand it), which was meant to inspire support for the Entente among the Jews. This was particularly hoped-for in Russia, where unrest seemed to be threatening to pull the Russians out of the war. Charles D. Smith argues that the Balfour Declaration was thus meant to prop up the Russians, while the McMahon Correspondences were left vague to keep Britain's options open and give them a semantic \"way out\" when necessary. Again, the idea this could cause serious troubles was dwarfed by the fear of losing Russia in the war and the want to tie down Ottoman troops while gaining a foothold in the Middle East.\n\nThis doesn't suggest poor diplomacy, it suggests a very fine line that the British diplomats managed to walk to ensure WWI victory, while hoping to avoid being tied down. To a certain degree, part of the problem arose also from miscommunication and liberties taken by diplomats involved in the McMahon correspondences, and the instructions given to those diplomats being vague. But at the same time, to suggest the British \"didn't know what they were doing\" is definitely...not right. In fact, I'd argue British diplomacy was extraordinarily masterful in getting the Arab revolt going with such vague promises, and in getting Jewish support, though it ultimately failed to prevent the Russian revolution. The British acted with clear goals and managed to walk the finest of tightropes to ensure their victory, and I'd say it was *impressive*, even if it was underhanded or ingenuous.", "The biggest failure of British Diplomacy was to not come out and tell Bethman-Hollweg that the UK would fight along side France, if the Germans invaded Belgium. If Gray was more open in his support of France and Russia, the Kaiser might have waffled on his unwavering support for Austria. As it was, Berchtold dithered from June 28 until late July. The Kaiser went on vacation and the situation spun out of control. Gray and Bethman Hollweg did very little to stop the slide towards war between June 28 and July 28 1914." ], "score": [ 7, 2 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

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{ "a_id": [ "d616in0", "d63rpf9" ], "text": [ "I have not found any info(granted did not look that hard.) my suggestion would be to send an email or call schofield barracks public affairs unit and see if they can help or point you to the base historian. I'll keep looking and if I find anything I'll shoot it to you", "The guy I know there is deployed, so no luck on that end. I'll keep looking man" ], "score": [ 2, 2 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [ "http://www.worthpoint.com/worthopedia/hawaii-ww-ii-photo-album-745th-mp-battalion-hula" ] }

{ "url": [] }

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{ "a_id": [ "c8y5gr2" ], "text": [ "In Australia, pretty good. Health improved, real costs fell and with new social technology (movies, radio, etc) things could become a lot more enjoyable. Middle class workers were much less likely to lose their jobs and, because the majority of the job losses were in labouring positions (construction especially) they had a better chance of regaining employment. It was entirely possible for people who didn't lose their jobs to have almost no idea that the Depression had happened - as I discovered in an Australian history class when a classmate was shocked to learn of the Depression as his grandparents had built their fortune during the 1930s and thus had remained basically oblivious to the downturn. My great-grandfather, on the other hand, tramped up and down New South Wales looking for work as a carpenter for about half a decade (I think).\n\nThis has been a contentious debate in Australian academia as the hardship of the Depression has been central to the culture and history of the labour movement, culminating in The Light on the Hill (a speech summarising the Australian Labor Party ideology) and the Welfare State. Unfortunately the debate has been pretty piss poor, so I'm hoping my PhD will be a bit of a better contribution to the debate than what has come before." ], "score": [ 2 ] }

{ "url": [] }

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{ "a_id": [ "dmj09zl" ], "text": [ "Follow up question - if there were diplomats located in enemy territory how did they travel to or from their own country without being killed, and how did they communicate with their own government without their communications being intercepted by the enemy?" ], "score": [ 2 ] }

{ "url": [] }

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{ "a_id": [ "ch9e2t6" ], "text": [ "I can't say I've read it but my library is one of the UK's legal deposit libraries, and they only list a single volume edition edited by William Foster and titled as \"The embassy of Sir Thomas Roe to India, 1615-19 : as narrated in his journal and correspondence\"\n\nwhich seems to be this one here, although it's a 1990 edition so it seems to have grown a bit from the 1926 one in the Bodleian:\n\n _URL_0_" ], "score": [ 2 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [ "theclassics.us" ] }

{ "url": [ "http://www.amazon.co.uk/The-Embassy-Thomas-India-1615-19/dp/8121505097/ref=sr_1_fkmr0_3?ie=UTF8&qid=1399227545&sr=8-3-fkmr0&keywords=The+embassy+of+Sir+Thomas+Roe+to+India%2C+1615-19+%3A+as+narrated+in+his+journal+and+correspondence" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cht3tfr", "cht8ej9", "chttqnp", "chteheb" ], "text": [ "The [Avalon Project](_URL_2_) at Yale is one place where you can find many of primary sources related to the topic you are interested in. \n\nIn addition, [this website](_URL_0_) also provides numerous documents. \n\nLastly, the [Liberty Fund](_URL_1_) also contains numerous sources that touch on the Revolutionary period. \n\nEach site contains a treasure trove of unedited transcribed documents that detail the lead up to the revolution, the formation of the Articles of Confederation, and extend beyond the Constitutional Convention. \n\nHope this helps.", "Pauline Maeir's *Ratification* is the standard work on the ratification debates, although I think it is important to note that the Federalist papers had practically no influence on the decision to ratify the constitution.", "You will have to do your own digging and interpretation, but _URL_3_ has over 120,000 searchable and annotated documents from the founding fathers. \n\nFrom the website:\n > Now, for the first time, users can freely access the written record of the original thoughts, ideas, debates, and principles of our democracy. You will be able to search across the records of all six Founders and read first drafts of the Declaration of Independence, the spirited debate over the Constitution and Bill of Rights, and the very beginnings of American law, government, and our national story. You will be able to compare and contrast the thoughts and ideas of these six individuals and their correspondents as they discussed and debated through their letters and documents.", "James Madison's notes on the convention are among the most complete. They can be found in many places, including _URL_4_" ], "score": [ 12, 5, 3, 3 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [ "http://www.let.rug.nl/usa/documents/", "http://oll.libertyfund.org/", "http://avalon.law.yale.edu/default.asp", "http://founders.archives.gov", "http://teachingamericanhistory.org/convention/debates/" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "dp8usdc" ], "text": [ "Seal carvers were known in Sumerian as *bur-gul* (Akkadian *purkullu*). Seals were difficult to make, and a text from the Achaemenid period (Strassmaier, Cyrus 325) indicates that seal carvers were trained for 4 years.\n\n > ...for four years. He will teach him the stones pertaining to the whole of the seal-cutter's craft.\n\nThe cylindrical shape of the seal was created by a tubular drill, as one can see in Egyptian reliefs of the New Kingdom. (See [here](_URL_0_) for an example of drill use in furniture making.) Another drill was used to drill a hole through the seal in order to place it on a string; seals were often worn as amulets or jewelry. \n\nThe creation of the seal design required specialized tools. The best evidence for the production of seals comes not from Mesopotamia but from Crete, where a [seal workshop](_URL_2_) was excavated at the palatial site of Malia. Tools found in the workshop include copper saws (for cutting the seal), obsidian blades (for rough gouging), and bronze needles and bone points (for more detailed work). The workshop included lumps of clay and a basin, suggesting the seal carvers regularly made impressions as they worked to test their designs. \n\n\"Lenses\" of rock crystal have been found in workshops in Iraq, but they are more likely furniture inlays than magnifying glasses. Seal carving would have been done primarily by [nearsighted individuals](_URL_1_). \n\n*Ancient Mesopotamian Materials and Industries* discusses seal carving among other types of crafts production in Mesopotamia. The best overviews of Mesopotamian seals are Dominique Collon's *First Impressions: Cylinder Seals in the Ancient Near East* and *Near Eastern Seals*." ], "score": [ 3 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [ "https://photos.smugmug.com/Features/Africa/Egypt-Luxor-tombs/i-DC7RsJV/1/3ce4a1e4/XL/29359-egypt-XL.jpg", "https://www.penn.museum/sites/expedition/close-work-without-magnifying-lenses/", "https://www.penn.museum/sites/expedition/creating-a-sealstone/" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "c5rr1v1", "c5oio3z" ], "text": [ "Certainly. [Here is his AWM profile](_URL_4_). He won the VC at Gallipoli in 1915, and went on to fight in France. [Here](_URL_3_) is the relevant volume of the Official History of Australia's Participation in WWI, 'Chapter V – The Turkish Attack of May 19th' is where you will find the battle in which he won the VC. He subsequently served at [Pozieres](_URL_1_) (Chapter XIV – Operations at Pozieres – July 14th to 22nd), [Bullecourt](_URL_2_) (Chapter IX – The First Battle of Bullecourt) and [Villers-Bretonneux](_URL_0_) (Chapter XI – First Villers–Bretonneux). Hope this gets you on your way. :)", "Best advice: contact the Australian War Memorial. They will not only have general info about most/all VC recipients but given his importance as the first Australian recipient of the VC during WWI and his later career in local politics they may have a special collection on him. The Victorian Records Office (in North Melbourne) might also have some info on him and it might be an idea to contact the Barwon and Geelong heritage/historical groups as they may have compiled histories on him as one of their old sons." ], "score": [ 2, 2 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [ "http://www.awm.gov.au/histories/first_world_war/volume.asp?levelID=67891", "http://www.awm.gov.au/histories/first_world_war/volume.asp?levelID=67889", "http://www.awm.gov.au/histories/first_world_war/volume.asp?levelID=67890", "http://www.awm.gov.au/histories/first_world_war/volume.asp?levelID=67888", "http://www.awm.gov.au/people/226.asp" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "ceqiz0f" ], "text": [ "My suggestion to you is to read Susan Whitfields \"Life Along the Silk Road\", it is a historical fiction book, but it beautifully illustrates the trials that people faced along the Silk Road routes.\n\nThe Silk Road, as I'm sure you're aware was not just one long trail that stretched from East to West. There was just as much trade North to South between the newly settled civilizations thanks to the threat of violent reprisal from the Han and Qin Dynasty, who had eliminated the nomadic tribes such as the Hsiung-nu.\n\nThat being said, just because the routes had become settled enough to traverse with goods, it did not mean that one was entirely safe from brigands and the like. Very often you would hire protection if you could pay for it, the journey could take months if you were planning on going from one end to the other, which you often were as the silk in the East was a *very* precious commodity throughout most of the Silk Roads lifespan.\n\nSources:\n\nWaugh, Charles. University of Washington, \"Narratives of the Han Dynasty.\" Last modified 1999. _URL_0_\n\n_URL_1_" ], "score": [ 2 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [ "https://depts.washington.edu/silkroad/texts/hantxt1.html", "http://books.google.com/books?id=uauW9cvqKGYC&pg=PA27&source=gbs_toc_r&cad=4#v=onepage&q&f=false" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "d94djje" ], "text": [ "The main problem with history channel documentaries (most documentaries really) is that they tend to take a simplified and uncritical perspective on history: something on Nero, for example, will more or less keep to the \"Nero is a monster\" line, something on Julius Caesar's campaigns will be about Rome's inexorable march to total conquest, etc. On any given topic there will always be a lot more that can be said or delved into, and it won't really give the complexities of the situations.\n\nThat being said, with some exceptions (Ancient Aliens, Hancrockery, etc) it will also give an accurate representation of basic facts and will string it together into a cohesive narrative. This is incredibly important for understanding Rome, so if there are any gaps in your knowledge you should definitely treat them as educational--just not the final word. Keep an open mind and don't hesitate to delve deeper into any topic they bring up that grabs your interests." ], "score": [ 30 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

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{ "a_id": [ "c4ulwic", "c4v9rpb", "c4unhlm" ], "text": [ "Are you sure it's illegal to farm squirrels? As for selling their meat there are all kinds of laws about selling the meat of wild game that are hardly exclusive to squirrels.\n\nSquirrel is still a perfectly acceptable food source in the South. It's not popular with good reason though. Have you ever had squirrel? If so I think you would understand why it is not for sale at your local grocer's meat counter.", "I doubt any rules against farming and selling squirrel are unique to squirrel, instead they are probably fish and wildlife regs about dealing with native mammals. Many states frown heavily on people keeping native species in captivity (for reasons I've never been fully clear on since they don't mind you just shooting them, and native species at least can't become invasive). It's also worth noting that pretty much all rules about interacting with non-endangered wildlife vary from state to state. Anyway, rules about squirrels would almost certainly be based on conserving local wildlife, and squirrels are just included in the big lump category.\n\nAnyway, no one farms squirrels because a) they are very difficult to actually keep from escaping, b) there's not much meat on them, and c) not much demand. Oh and bad food-meat ratio, with a somewhat specialized diet.", "As a young man growing up in the 1930s and 40s my dads family ate squirrel all the time. There was not much else to have except chickens. I am sure squirrels are not raised for a food source the the same as rats are not. Rodents are not very appealing or appetizing. Just my thoughts." ], "score": [ 3, 2, 2 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

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{ "a_id": [ "dnvvbia" ], "text": [ "Although he hasn't gotten to the actual Napoleonic wars, /u/ageofnapoleon is doing a great podcast on Napoleon. You can find it at\n_URL_0_\n\nSo far, the podcast has mostly focused on the conditions in Europe in the late 18th century and Napoleon's youth in Corsica. It does a great job describing societal trends while also telling an interesting narrative." ], "score": [ 3 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [ "http://podbay.fm/show/1223795973" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "dt8usll" ], "text": [ "[The FAQ](_URL_1_) has some questions and answers that might interest you:\n\n- [How strong/muscular were ancient warriors? Did they know enough about muscle growth to be the same build as many athletes/bodybuilders now? When did humans start becoming adept at bodybuilding?](_URL_3_) has some interesting answers, particularly from /u/vonadler and /u/talondearg\n- /u/Thrasyboulus answered the question [Did spartan warriors \"work out\" in the sense that athletes do today? What did they do?](_URL_0_)\n- /u/iphikrates answered the question [Gym rat here. How ripped did ancient Greeks get?](_URL_2_)\n\nThose questions tend to relate more to warriors/soldiers as opposed to \"normal\" people, but it seems there's some general info that should relate to your question. There's always room for more answers though, especially since the most recent of those answers is at least a year old." ], "score": [ 4 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [ "https://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/18zv6l/did_spartan_warriors_work_out_in_the_sense_that/c8jwpwz/", "https://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/wiki/science#wiki_hygiene_and_healthy_lifestyles", "https://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/46guc3/gym_rat_here_how_ripped_did_ancient_greeks_get/d054pdh/?st=j9ts9f9j&sh=5ae95dcf", "https://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/1huqtq/how_strongmuscular_were_ancient_warriors_did_they/" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "ctkkmks" ], "text": [ "I don't think that you will be able to get what you're looking for in less than 300 pages. That book would fall into pitfalls similar to the pitfalls of textbooks; they can't cover everything or give in depth coverage to the most important parts without cutting some peoples, places, and events." ], "score": [ 3 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

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{ "a_id": [ "crgv4ou", "crgx9tt" ], "text": [ "On February 15, 1898, The USS Maine's forward 6\" ammunition bunker exploded. 266 U.S. Navy sailors were killed. \n\nThe Press and the U.S. public were quick to blame Spain for the sinking. Spain vehemently denied any involvement. An initial investigation by the U.S. government determined the cause of the sinking to have been a high explosive mine from outside the ship. The U.S. government never accused Spain of sinking the Maine but 2 months after the sinking the US and Spain were at war. \"Remember the Maine to hell with Spain\" was a common rallying cry for the war.\n\nIn 1911 a second US government investigation also concluded that an external explosion caused the magazine to explode. This report though disagreed on the exact circumstances of the explosion believing it to have occurred much further back and to have had a lower yield.\n\nIn 1975 Admiral Hyman Rickover convinced the US Navy to conduct a third investigation although this one was unofficial. This investigation concluded that the most likely cause of the explosion was an internal fire in the coal storage which was located adjacent to the forward 6\" ammunition storage.\n\nIn 1999 PBS conducted an investigation that agreed with the external explosion cause.\n\nIn addition to the physical evidence, however, I think a look at the political landscape is very telling. In 1898 the United States was the second or third largest industrial power in the world (very close to tied with Germany depending on how you read the figures) Spain was still largely agricultural with their industrial power about 1/30th that of the US. The US population was about 4 times that of Spain. Spain's colonies (Cuba, The Phillipines) were nearly in revolt. The USS Maine was one of 8 US battleships. Spain had only a single battleship (which could not carry enough coal to travel from Spain to Cuba without refueling). Spain was aware of how unprepared they were for war with the US and desperately tried to avoid war.\n\nThe conspiracy theory is that Spain was responsible for the sinking of the USS Maine using a high explosive mine. I believe evidence points away from Spain being responsible. Spain had no motive for sabotaging the Maine: Spain did not want a war with the US. The physical evidence is very much in doubt but the explosion very possibly may have been an accident. The US never accused Spain of sinking the Maine but many Americans believed Spain to be responsible anyway. The conspiracy isn't completely baseless but I think there is pretty strong evidence that an accidental explosion on board a US Warship was the catalyst that precipitated the Spanish-American War.", "The Dolchstoßlegende (Stab-in-the-back legend) that was popular among rightists and, later, Nazis after the first World War was, at best, an extraordinarily creative interpretation of how events actually unfolded. And, how the world suffered because of its popularity. \n\nIt wasn't so much that the basic events surrounding the legend didn't happen, but the armistice was quite surely not the result of a deliberate attempt by communists and Jews to weaken Germany to the point where her enemies on the inside and out could finish her off. It started, probably, as a way for demoralized Germans to feel better about how the war turned out, but it soon became a driving force for the radicalization of politics in the country, and in particular, a weapon with which to beat to death the Weimar Republic." ], "score": [ 9, 3 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

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{ "a_id": [ "dcbg6rf" ], "text": [ "Edward Morse's 1886 book, *Japanese Homes and Their Surroundings* ( reprinted by Dover) , describes the use of elaborate joints for regular house construction. Morse also did not think that the joints were necessarily stronger than simpler ones, however, or the nailed-together Western frames. The joinery was also echoed in eastern furniture. Traditional Chinese furniture has quite complex joinery- a chair can be actually quite a puzzle, with several different interlocking parts with sliding [keys locking each joint together](_URL_0_). Whether they decided to first build houses like chairs, or first decided to build their chairs like houses, is beyond my knowledge. \n\nJapan was iron-poor, and so you would expect nails would have been expensive...but if they were able to make swords out of the iron they could find, it is hard to imagine how they could not make workable nails from it." ], "score": [ 3 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [ "https://www.reddit.com/r/todayilearned/comments/5ndhh4/til_that_traditional_japanese_buildings_do_not/" ] }

{ "url": [ "http://www.antique-chinese-furniture.com/blog/2009/02/27/excellent-diagrams-on-chinese-joinery-and-chinese-furniture-construction/" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cgc3622" ], "text": [ "In my genetics class we went over a brief history of gene selection and its said that the Romans knew that breeding strong, healthy animals with each other would result in better livestock however they didn't know, nor care particularly why this happened. I would assume the same for other agricultural societies in that they knew that there was a benefit, but didn't have the info/resources to find out why" ], "score": [ 2 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

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{ "a_id": [ "c4dh9r0" ], "text": [ "It's a bit complicated. Wilson was a segregationist, and did nothing to assist blacks in fighting that evil. He removed some blacks from appointed offices. He also praised the KKK in his writing. \nHowever he also got some black support for his liberal policies, despite blacks being at that time a traditional republican voting group. \nHe liked Jews though." ], "score": [ 6 ] }

{ "url": [] }

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{ "a_id": [ "c99ypy6", "c9a0u3q" ], "text": [ "I think it helps to consider Corinth's geography. Corinth, as you can see on [this map](_URL_0_), is located in a very interesting place. **(Note that it is found in the blue stretch between Attica and the Peloponnese)** It is situated on a very narrow stretch of land, with sea on either side. \n\nOnce upon a time, some bright spark decided to create the diolkos, a paved pathway along which ships could be dragged. This shortcut allowed sailors to avoid the often treacherous journey around the Peloponnese peninsula. The ship was unloaded at one side, placed on runners, and dragged over land. The cargo was transported separately and reunited with the vessel at the other end.\n\nNeedless to say, this shipping shortcut brought a lot of wealth to Corinth. And, because the process of transporting the ship took some time, it also meant that there were plenty of sailors left hanging around in the city. Oft-times, where there are sailors, there is prostitution, and Corinth is no exception. In fact, Corinth had a temple full of 'sacred' prostitutes. \n\n**Strabo (viii,6.20) tells us:**\n\n\"The temple of Aphrodite was so rich that it employed more than a thousand hetairas, whom both men and women had given to the goddess. Many people visisted the town on account of them, and thus these hetairas contributed to the riches of the town: for the ship captains frivolously spent their money there, hence the saying: ‘The voyage to Corinth is not for every man’.\"\n\nI think that ancient Corinth would certainly have been a lively place, with drinking, gambling, and prostitution aplenty. The fact that much of the prostitution was temple-sanctioned wouldn't have gone down well with the early Christians. So, depending on whose perspective you're looking at it from, the claims do indeed have some validity.", "I would be interested to know more about what you read about Christianity's view on the Hellenistic period. I've not come across any specific derision for that period, compared to say the Roman period. \n\nThe spread of Hellenism ultimately created the cultural links and common language that allowed Christianity to develop and move its ideas, whilst later theologians ended up absorbing and co-opting parts of Greek philosophy. \n\nPerhaps it was the Hellenistic approach to what is now regarded as 'homosexual' sex - back then as long as you were 'on top' it wasn't really an issue. Or it could be a reference to their religious practice. I know some scholars don't like using the word 'Pagan' due to its connotations, and since the worshipers usually referred to themselves as Hellenes. Are your references to 'Hellenes/Hellenic practices' or the period?\n\n\nAs for Corinth I think Giesskane is totally correct. Port cities are infamous for their reputations (See the accusations against Venice as a later example). Money, trade, exotic foreigners and prostitutes all create a toxic atmosphere for early Christian's (And some old Roman stoics too!). I wouldn't say it was any worse than any other port city, or large city in general. Ammianus Marcellinus (XXVIII.4) writing in the 4th C A.D. didn't like the way the crowds would react to circus games in the city of Rome.\n\n\"[the masses]devote their whole life to drink, gambling, brothels, shows, and pleasure in general. Their temple, dwelling, meeting-place, in fact the centre of all their hopes and desires, is the Circus Maximus. [They swear] that the country will go to the dogs if in some coming race the driver they fancy fails to take a lead from the start, or makes too wide a turn round the post with his unlucky team.\"\n\nAnd this was from a staunch 'Pagan'. Can you imagine the outrage of an evangelizing christian?" ], "score": [ 34, 8 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [ "http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/2/2d/362BCThebanHegemony.png" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cq7edwg" ], "text": [ "It means he supported Cato the Younger. Cato's whole deal was a return to what he considered old morality (although he was also an adulterous hypocrite) and a defense of the Sullan constitution. Cato's more specific problem was a staunch opposition to anything that Caesar did--it was Cato that got the order sent to Caesar to disband and come to Rome for prosecution. The Catonians joined up with Pompey at Pharsalus and after their defeat there went to Africa, where they were destroyed along with the rest of the remaining Republicans (which at that point was basically the same thing as the Catonians) at Thapsus" ], "score": [ 2 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cic8jz4" ], "text": [ "hi! do please specify the location you have in mind (whether that's a country, region, state, whatever).. otherwise this question is difficult for the historians to answer meaningfully." ], "score": [ 3 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

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{ "a_id": [ "envj7v6" ], "text": [ "There are \"standards\" (more like restrictions) for the questions that are asked here. [You can find them in our rules for asking questions.](_URL_1_) We also have featured posts from our Rules Roundtable series where we explain how [\"There Is No Such Thing as a Stupid Question\"](_URL_0_) and offer a guide on [\"How to Ask Better Questions\"](_URL_2_) so users know not only what kinds of questions will yield the information they're looking for, but also how to generally improve the odds of the question being answered at all.\n\nRules Roundtable #16 actually addresses some of the concerns you've raised. Regarding questions that might appear \"too opinion based,\" we note:\n\n > Often times a question will be asked in which the underlying premise of the question is off. As long as it isn't in a manner which violates the rules concerning Soapboxing in questions, we will rarely remove a question simply because it is based on a faulty question. We try to be understanding and accommodating that the very reason someone has come to the subreddit is to learn, and removing the question generally won't help the user who asked it, but rather would punish the user for their lack of knowledge. Our decided preference and hope is that their misunderstanding can be corrected by users or flairs of the subreddit, and so those questions are allowed to remain. \n\nAnd regarding questions that might appear \"too broad,\" \"too specific,\" or \"too obscure,\" we note:\n\n > As exemplified by the \"Example Seeking Rule\", we try to ensure that questions don't end up too broad in scope. But the flip-side, of course, is the need to balance those constraints with the simple fact that, like with falsely premised questions, laymen coming here to ask questions might not know enough to make their question as specific as some might like to see.\n\nEach moderator has an initial discretion for evaluating the questions as they get posted to the sub and makes a judgment based on their understanding of our rules. If one ever believes there is an error, the OP can appeal it through modmail or other users can report something they think breaks the rules, to which a moderator will reevaluate the question (and we do check every single report that comes in, which is currently \"0\" at the time of writing this!)." ], "score": [ 14 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [ "https://history.stackexchange.com/help" ] }

{ "url": [ "https://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/4vn3d9/rules_roundtable_16_there_is_no_such_thing_as_a/", "https://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/wiki/rules#wiki_questions", "https://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/505nw2/rules_roundtable_18_how_to_ask_better_questions/" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "e1ruf9t" ], "text": [ "This is a question that really interests me, but has a scope well beyond my knowledge. I can provide a partial answer with reference to the interwar period, where the association between mining and communism really got off the ground, but I can’t give a particularly good account of the post-1945 history.\n\nThe association between mining districts and communism, more specifically the Communist Party of Great Britain (CPGB), was relatively swift to emerge after the CPGB’s founding. This undoubtedly built on radical traditions in these districts, and the relatively militant character of trade unionism in these areas. This was particularly in evidence during the lockout of 1926, with Alan Campbell describing the miners’ tactics as resembling ‘quasi-guerrilla warfare involving arson and the use of explosives to sabotage colliery machinery and railway lines.’ The CPGB was able to build substantial influence in the mining unions in this period, mostly notably in the South Wales Miners Federation (SWMF), whose president from 1936, Arthur Horner, was a communist (albeit an independently-minded one), as were many other key union officials. West Fife, one of the few electorates where mining communities made up a majority of electors, saw the only CPGB candidate elected in the General Election of 1935. Willie Gallagher remained the local MP for 15 years, the last communist to sit in the House of Commons. Interestingly he wasn’t actually a local or even a miner – he had made his name on ‘Red Clydeside’ in 1919 as the chairman of the Clyde Workers’ Committee. He had run (unsuccessfully) in seats across Scotland for over ten years beforehand before finally winning in 1935.\n\nYet while communism was more influential in these mining districts than was the norm in interwar Britain, the CPGB still faced important limitations. Scotland, was home to a crucial communist experiment in the late 1920s and early 1930s, with the CPGB attempting to parlay its influence among Scottish miners into a new, communist-led trade union, the United Mineworkers of Scotland (UMS). This union would challenge the dominance of the older, traditionalist ‘county’ unions. The union saw some success in the key districts of Lanarkshire and Fife, but struggled to establish itself more broadly, not least in the face of cooperation between employers and the old unions. Moreover, in line with the broader shift away from the ‘Class Against Class’ strategy of confronting left-wing rivals towards the coalition-building approach of the ‘Popular Front’, the UMS was disbanded and reabsorbed into the county unions in 1935.\n\nIn communist strongholds such as West Fife, this was actually a huge setback for CPGB influence in the union movement. While the UMS had had thousands of members, only a tiny minority were actually CPGB members (just 55 in 1931), reflecting a broader pattern which saw considerable communist influence and electoral support in some mining areas (South Wales was another), but relatively weak membership numbers that stayed quite flat even as the CPGB itself expanded considerably in the late 1930s. This made active communists easy targets for blacklisting and exclusion from the pits, particularly given the issues with mass unemployment in the period. Given that employment in the mines was a condition of holding office in the union, this arrangement allowed for communist influence in the old mining unions to be heavily curtailed in Scotland (particularly Fife), and entrenched bureaucratic resistance from the anti-communist old guard lasted well into the 1940s. \n\nIt’s no coincidence that the examples discussed so far were Welsh or Scottish. While communism – or militant unionism – was hardly unknown in England, the CPGB never managed to acquire the same centrality to political life. This phenomenon is, I think, underresearched, but I think the dynamics of communist influence in these areas points to at least a partial explanation. A very useful text in this regard is Stuart Macintyre’s *Little Moscows*, which deals with the enduring popularity and resilience of communism in certain semi-rural industrial communities. Macintyre pointed to the ability of the Communist Party to integrate itself not just politically, but socially, becoming part of the fabric of local communities, writing that\n\n > The relationship of the Communists to the community was therefore ambiguous... the Party organised sport, musical events, evening socials and so on... It was also significant that Party members occupied an accepted place in the community, based on an extensive network of kin and friendship. The identity of the left was much broader than politics in the conventional sense. \n\nThis, in other words, meant that local identity and political identity became conflated in these spaces, made possible by the relative neglect of these locales by older political parties. It’s worth noting that in Scotland, older radical political traditions – up to the 1930s embodied by the Independent Labour Party – had a similar focus on local community building, and so was perhaps a natural route for communist activists to follow, particularly as many communists had their political apprenticeships in the ILP. In South Wales, the communal role of the SWMF played a similar role – communism, community and union became inseparably intertwined. This wasn’t specifically a mining phenomenon – Macintyre deals with a non-mining case study as well, the Vale of Leven north of Glasgow – but the nature of the mining industry perhaps leant itself particularly well to such tactics, with the multiplication of small, relatively new communities based around a particular pit and monolithic occupational identity. While urban spaces were varied, multifaceted and contested, even in working-class districts, these rural industrial pockets allowed for a relatively complete – and enduring – cultural and political foothold.\n\n**Sources**\n\nArnot, Robert, *The Miners in Crisis and War: A History of the Miners’ Federation of Great Britain (from 1930 onwards)*, (London, 1961).\n\nCampbell, Alan, *The Scottish Miners, 1874-1939 (Volume Two): Trade Unions and Politics*, (Aldershot, 2000). \n\nMacintyre, Stuart, *Little Moscows: Communism and Working-class Militancy in Inter-war Britain*, (London, 1980).\n\nMcKinlay, Alan. and R.J. Morris, *The ILP on the Clydeside, 1893-1932: From Foundation to Disintegration*, (Manchester, 1991).\n\nMorgan, Cohen and Flinn, *Communists and British Society, 1920-1991*, (London, 2007).\n\nFrancis, Hywel, *Miners Against Fascism: Wales and the Spanish Civil War*, (London, 1984)." ], "score": [ 4 ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cx27ev3", "cx28biu", "cx2cii7", "cx290ym" ], "text": [ "I haven't actually read it, but I *did* glance over the Wikipedia article, and I can respond to to it if this can be considered an accurate representation of her argument:\n\n > In the second part of the book Jacobs argues that cities preceded agriculture. She argues that in cities trade in wild animals and grains allowed for the initial division of labor necessary for the discovery of husbandry and agriculture; these discoveries then moved out of the city due to land competition. Another interpretation of history, generally and erroneously considered to be contradictory to Jacobs' is supported by Marxist archaeologist Vere Gordon Childe and in recent times by another historical materialist Charles Keith Maisels[88][89] These writers argue that agriculture preceded cities. The apparent oppostion between Childe and Jacobs theories rests in their definition of 'city,' 'civilization,' or 'urban.' Childe, like other materialists like Maisels or Henri Lefebvre defines 'urban' or 'civilization' as Synoecism—as a literate, socially stratified, monolithic political community,[90] whereas, as one can see from The Economy of Cities or from Cities and the Wealth of Nations, Jacobs defines the city purely along the lines of geographically dense trade giving way to entrepreneurial discovery and subsequent improvements in the division of labor. Without the requirements of literacy, monumental building, or the signs of specialized civil and armed forces, 'cities' can be accurately be interpreted to exists thousands of years before when Childe and Maisels place them.\n\nMy initial reaction, and, well my subsequent reaction, is that any definition of city that proceeds agriculture is stretched to the point of uselessness. There are examples of settlements before agriculture, which I am defining as a subsistence system that relies on the human control of genetically domesticated crops, most notably (but not exclusively) rice, wheat, potato and maize. These settlements depended on geological fortune, either being near dense fishing areas (for example in Portugal or the Columbia River) or near wild growing starches (the Natufian culture of the Levant being most well known). But these can't really be considered cities, and they didn't really produce the sort of division of labor and the like Jacobs' theory demands. If I may be uncharitable, it seems that she developed an economic conception of the city as the driver of \"progress\" and crafted a narrative of the origins of agriculture to justify that, rather than by following evidence.\n\nThat being said, trading patterns in a pre-agricultural environment did exist, the best example of which would be the trade in stone types. To simplify this somewhat, stone uncovered archaeologically can be traced back to its source, and thus we can get a sense of how far given items might travel. Incredible work has been done on this, and it has shown that stone might travel hundreds of kilometers from its source ( whether through trading, raiding, simple transportation is more difficult to know). But this trade can often be conceptualized through the idea of a \"gift economy\", most famously detailed by Malinowski in his description of the \"Kula ring\" of the Trobriand Islanders. Broadly speaking this trade was not economically productive as we might think of it, as its purpose was not to increase efficiency bt rather to embody social relations. It is difficult to imagine the sort of economies of scale and specialization demanded by Jacobs in the Paleolithic.\n\nThat being said, I am rather unclear on exactly what is being described here.", "Jane Jacobs is treated with near religious respect in urban planning circles. Her word is taken as gospel and her book \"Death and Life of Great American Cities\" is required reading in nearly all urban planning programs. There is no name held in higher regard among contemporary urban planners.\n\nIn addition, her work has completely transformed urban planning. Community engagement was not part of of the field in the 1950s and today is considered the backbone. Many attribute that change to Jane Jacob's battle with Robert Moses.\n\nSource: I'm an urban planner", "Here is architecture critic [Paul Goldberger](_URL_0_) describing *The Death and Life of Great American Cities*, her most famous work.\n > One of those rare books that have changed the world, it was to urban planning what Rachel Carson's \"Silent Spring\" was to the environmental movement, and it is arguably the most important book written about cities in the 20th century.\n\nThe New York Times also discussed the book in her [obituary](_URL_1_):\n > Some dismissed it as amateurism, but to many others it was a point of view that made new ideas not only thinkable but suddenly and eminently reasonable.\n\n > \"When an entire field is headed in the wrong direction, when the routine application of mainstream thinking has produced disastrous results as I think was true of planning and urban policy in the 1950's, then it probably took someone from outside to point out the obvious,\" Alan Ehrenhalt wrote in 2001 in Planning, the magazine of the American Planning Association .\n\nFor as much as any acheivement, she is renowned for leading the fight against the [Lower Manhattan Expressway](_URL_2_), a battle that pitted her against New York City's urban planner Robert Moses. Urban policy analyst Professor [Peter Dreier](_URL_3_) writes:\n > The 1950s was the heyday of urban renewal, the federal program that sought to wipe out urban “blight” with the bulldozer...\n > When Robert Moses, New York’s planning czar and perhaps the most powerful unelected city official of the 20th century, proposed building a highway bisecting Jacobs’ Greenwich Village neighborhood, she sprung into action, mobilizing her neighbors to challenge and confront the bulldozer bully in the name of human-scale, livable communities... For her efforts, she was arrested and jailed. Her courageous efforts helped catalyze a broader grassroots movement against the urban renewal bulldozer, first in New York and then around the country.\n\nIn her day she was not without her critics, especially those she positioned herself against in her writings. As Goldberger explains in his review of *Cities*, her writing included condemnations of such architects as Le Corbusier and Lewis Mumford.\n\n > Mr. Mumford held his fire for a year before replying in a New Yorker article that he later considered too mild. Either he or his editors gave the article the sardonic title, \"Home Remedies for Urban Cancer.\"\n\nThere is little debate that she is a preeminent thinker in the field. Current urban planners of course continue to build upon, discuss, and even criticize Jacobs' ideas, but it's difficult to discuss that aspect of her continuing legacy without breaking this sub's 30-year rule.", "If you're looking for an answer about how policymakers view Jacob's theories of city planning today, you might be better-suited to check out /r/AskSocialScience. \n\nI can tell you that Jacobs's *Death and Life of Great American Cities* is required reading alongside Caro's *Power Broker* in any decent urban studies course. But while the latter analyzes urban planning *history* and its consequences, *Death and Life* is more of a recap and critique of urban planning *theory*. \n\nThat said, the one person who might be able to answer this historically is /u/discovering_NYC. I apologize in advance for paging you again on a hunch :)." ], "score": [ 5, 5, 2, 2 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [ "http://www.nytimes.com/1996/04/28/books/bookend-jane-jacobs-still-a-pioneer.html?pagewanted=all", "http://www.nytimes.com/2006/04/25/books/25cnd-jacobs.html", "http://research.gsd.harvard.edu/zofnass/files/2013/05/Lower-Manhattan-Expressway.pdf", "http://nhi.org/online/issues/146/janejacobslegacy.html" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "c7q4th4", "c7qdp2m" ], "text": [ "Rommel and Eisenhower were both reluctant to attack at Omaha. It was well-defended and difficult terrain, but had to be included to avoid too great of a distance between the other landing sites. In order to minimize allied casualties, four factors were taken into account:\n\n1. Allied intelligence claimed that the trenches and fortifications were manned by a low-quality unit of Poles and Russians with little or no regard for victory, and only one battalion of 800 men was available to man the defenses.\n2. To the Allies, aerial bombardment would neutralize the bunkers and create craters on the beach that could be employed as foxholes for infantry.\n3. The navy would then destroy anything left after the air bombardment.\n4. Forty thousand men with 3,500 motorized vehicles were expected to land at Omaha on D-Day.\n\n[This](_URL_0_) site has a pretty good breakdown of the logistics of the attack.", "Such a huge attack using multiple nations across a huge expanse of territory is almost indefensible and is a great strategy.\n\nThe entire invasion of France was quite the spectacle, actually. An inflatable army was developed (the division was a secret for years following the war) and placed in Britain along coastlines to trick Nazi defenders to move to other locations. Allied paratroopers were dropped behind enemy lines to take out artillery guns shooting at the various beaches and surround the beachfront fortifications. Navy shelling of the beaches and foritifications were to weaken the enemy's defenses. Also, a coordinated attack among Allied nations across nearly the entire northern coast of France was taking place. It just so happened that the Americans were to take Omaha/Normandy (hadn't been in the war as long as other nations and most capable at the time); little resistence was found at the other beaches (in comparison to Omaha).\nComing up through Italy and down from Britain would pinch the Nazi's out of France. It was costly, yes, but unavoidably necessary. \n\nThe other options? Paradrop into Nazi Germany - nope. Hook up with the Russians - nope. Invade Spain and cross an invasion force through mountains - nope.\nIt made strategic sense to launch an invasion from an ally's country where proper preparations could be made." ], "score": [ 3, 2 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [ "http://cghs.dadeschools.net/normandy/operationoverlord/omaha/first_wave.htm" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "c7ppmtc" ], "text": [ "Your level is what anyone who graduated from a a public school system should have. For America public schools started in the 19th and grew to encompass universal education for all children. Before that it was who could afford the education, either with teachers, tutors, self educated or smaller community based public education.\n\nNow here is the problem, the level you have is what anyone SHOULD have. Maybe you are not an American but what you are describing is not average. The level of knowledge you are claiming is well above the typical. Take a survey of your patrons (all of them not just the ones who seem responsive), ask them to name the leaders of those countries and you will find the majority can not unless your tending bar with some unusual clientele say only people who work on capitol hill. Most American's do not understand or recognize the scientific method, if they did we would not be having the arguments about teaching creationism in schools that we have. This is partly a failure of the system to educate, but it is also a failure on the populace to maintain the information they have been taught after their school years. I'm 38, I had a good education (High school top 5 in the country, B.S. in Russian) and I'm very smart (my mother had me tested) but at this point I'd have to look up most of Algebra II, I haven't used it since I was 18. Yes I know the words cosine, tangent and sine but I can't tell you which one to use when anymore. A 5 minute refresher course and I'll be fine but not off the cuff. The average person only maintains the knowledge the use and/or they are interested in. \n\nPlay trivial pursuit with your patrons. Surreptitiously keep score on how many questions each person gets right and wrong. You will most likely find the level of general knowledge appallingly low, oh and keep note of how many refuse to play.\n\nCheck current events too. I'll wager you can't find a patron who can name the leaders of all the countries you mentioned, much less who ran it in the last 20 years. Heck I can't, who knows who runs Canada its thousands of miles from here (Florida) and not really relevant, and I know Mexico got a new president but cant remember his name. I pay attention to current events but these things aren't that important to my life. But do you want to discuss beekeeping or astronomy? I can talk to you for hours." ], "score": [ 7 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cf6w6kl", "cf71nz3", "cfczl68" ], "text": [ "George Washingtons papers are digitized through the Library of Congress as are many of the surviving newspapers. For example, the Virginia Gazette can be searched by topic through the Colonial Williamsburg research site for free. Many of the other newspapers require subscriptions, but most universities have or qualify for that already.\nFor secondary sources your best bet is to take a look at some of the re-enactor recommended books. There are a number of forums and group websites that have discussions on that topic. Depending on how much reading you want to do some of David McCulloughs books could be a good start. If you are anywhere near a historic site (Colonial Williamsburg, Ft Ticonderoga, etc) stop off and ask questions. There are many military experts there that can guide you to specific references.", "Assuming this is a term paper, you have lots of time. Regardless, your first line of inquiry should always be your professor since they are the one who will be grading your paper and are likely more knowledgeable about the time period you are discussing than anyone on this thread. In addition, find out who the other Americanists are in your school's history/art departments and set up a meeting with them - they are there to help students out.\n\nI would suggest finding at least one biography of the figures you are interested in and three books about the American Revolution, preferably published in the last ten years by an ACADEMIC PRESS (Harvard University Press, Cornell University Press, and so forth), and look at their footnotes and bibliographies. Your primary and secondary source list writes itself at that point.\n\nFinally, take advantage of databases like JSTOR, ProjectMUSE, WorldCat, and EBSCO. Play around with your search terms; you'll usually end up with drastically different search results. U.S. governmental websites such as the Smithsonian and Library of Congress have easily accessible sources, exhibits, and digital collections. \n\nA policy I have told students before is that you should spend at least twice as much time reading and researching as you do studying. Do that and it's hard to write a bad paper. If you've never done intensive research, talk to your professor! They can help you with strategies and techniques you're probably unfamiliar with.\n\nI usually provide a list of books that directly address the posted question, but these, I think, will be more useful to you:\n\n(1) Alfred Young & Gregory Nobles. *Whose American Revolution Was It? Historians Interpret the Founding* (2011)\n\n(2) Alan Gibson. *Interpreting the Founding: Guide to the Enduring Debates over the Origins and Foundations of the American Republic* (2006)\n\n(3) Gwenda Morgan. *The Debate on the American Revolution* (2007)\n\nHope this helps a little. Happy Reading!", "/u/smileyman has an excellent series of [posts](_URL_0_) on /r/badhistory that talk about just that. I believe they have cited their sources as well. I highly recommend taking a look." ], "score": [ 5, 3, 2 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [ "http://www.reddit.com/r/badhistory/comments/1t7go2/bad_history_in_art_the_death_of_general_warren_at/" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cbsvika", "cbsra8m" ], "text": [ "Fellow writer here (published two novels): You might have better luck if you simply asked for good books on the topic or even potential places to look for primary sources and discovered the answers to these questions yourself. \n\nIt's pretty easy to get \"the facts\" when researching for historical fiction, but it's a lot harder to get the true flavour of the place: the slang people used, their body mannerisms, what food they ate and how it was different from what they wished they were eating, the jokes they told, etc. etc. When researching my second book, I spent two days trying to figure out whether the protagonist would have had access to oranges in February 1946 in a mining town. I could have made it up or took the detail out, but along the way I got to enjoy so many bizarre food ads in the local newspaper, and I learned more about the world my characters were living in. You get so much from slogging through newspaper articles of the time, reading survivor diaries (from both sides), pouring over photos and maps, unearthing a rare video clip that shows the people you've come to know in action etc. etc. \n\nVerisimilitude is terribly hard to attain in historical fiction and the more heavy lifting you can do on your own, the better chance you have of having those few really great details that makes the reader think \"I never would have thought of that.\"", "Read the first couple chapters of \"Ghost Soldiers\" by Hampton Sides. It gives you some insight into the conditions the soldiers were fighting in leading up to their surrender and the Bataan Death March. I'm sure there are more detailed books out there though." ], "score": [ 9, 6 ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "edqbb8k" ], "text": [ "It's worth noting that *every* ancient society established contracts essentially orally, whether or not they were literate. Roman law in particular, despite having a complex and often obtuse system of contracts and contractual obligations, did not have written contracts. Mutual agreements resulting in changes of legal definition were oral, and are treated as such in the many dozens of cases where they are defined in the Digest. To quote the New Pauly, since I don't think I need to reinvent the wheel here: \"In the 2nd cent. AD, the jurist Gaius [2] (Gai. Inst. 3,89) differentiated four types of contract: they are created by agreement ( consensus), making a payment (a real contract, such as a loan; mutuum), the use of verbal formulas (verbis, especially the stipulatio) or the rather rare written contract ( litterarum obligatio).\" Contracts established by agreement, which were not necessarily explicitly legally stated (though only a certain body of recognized types of agreements were actionable, and verbal agreement in general was not actionable) and did not necessarily require witnesses or oaths, the Digest defines as being regulated simply by *bona fides*. Most formal contracts, such as the transfer of *res mancipi*, required complex formulaic rituals, featuring oaths and multiple witnesses. These complex, and often highly archaic, formulas were increasingly done away with over time, but nonetheless the regulation of sworn contracts by rite and witness remains a typical feature of ancient societies. There's nothing particularly unusual about non-literate societies in this regard." ], "score": [ 12 ] }

{ "url": [] }

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{ "a_id": [ "dske0as" ], "text": [ "Hi, just came across this while looking up some old search terms.\n\nWhat you're looking at is the Kirghiz Autonomous Soviet Socialist Republic. At the time, this was a sublevel unit of the Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic. It is unusual that they were labeled as an independent republic, being subordinate not even just within the Soviet Union, but subordinate to Russia at the time--unlike full-level SSRs, they did not have the right to secede. (Great Soviet Encyclopedia 1973)\n\nI can only speculate as to why the map labelled it this way, but other atlases of the period (for example, one in my possession from 1927), take great pains to explain the new political structure of the Soviet Union, and your map, being from 1923, was published with the Russian Civil War (and proximate independent Bolshevik revolutions and counter-revolutions) still being fresh. Western atlases may not yet have reflected an understanding of the national sublevels under the Soviet government.\n\nAs to the name--\"Kirghiz\" and \"Kazakh\" people at the time were named interchangeably by Russians (both were successor kingdoms to Turkic states that went on to be conquered and annexed by the Russians), so Kirghiz was officially used to refer to what is now Kazakhstan while Kara-Kirghiz (Black Kirghiz) was used to refer to Kyrgyzstan. A few years after your map was published, their council of ministers elected to rename themselves the Kazakh ASSR. A decade after that, they were elevated to full Soviet Republic status." ], "score": [ 2 ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "dpb3okb", "dpar3q8" ], "text": [ "⚠️ Important update: according to reviews I read, the incident was meant to have happened at the end of WWI, not WWII, and it was meant to have happened on the ship on which FDR and Eleanor Roosevelt sailed home from Europe. \n\nThis review at _URL_1_ refers to the event in question, and the reviewer can find no historical basis for it:\n\n“The play, covering three years of Mrs. Roosevelt’s life (framed by an incident which occurred shortly after FDR’s death in 1945), relies heavily on two events for which I can find no evidence in history — the flirtation with the harmonica-playing soldier, which ends in a soap opera-ish twist, and a bizarre incident on the troop ship carrying the Roosevelts home from Europe.”\n\nFrom _URL_0_ :\n\n“Upon her return to New York, the celebration goes awry with two nurses committing suicide because it was crazily shouted, “The donuts are poisoned!” \n\nI have no idea what the donuts are about. In my memory of the scene, the nurses commit suicide because they can see the cheering crowd and parade atmosphere.", "Do you recall what play? Was it intended to be factual?" ], "score": [ 682, 178 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [ "dcmetrotheaterarts.com", "DCTheatreScene.com" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "ciq8yhs", "ciqcd8w", "ciq7nig", "cl5wduh" ], "text": [ "Having only read \"Bury the Chains, The British Struggle to Abolish Slavery\", a popular history book that depicts the british abolition movement not gaining momentum until over a decade after 1775, I wonder how the author mentioned by the OP manages to make a covincing argument that there was a realistic abolition threat from Britain in 1775.", "I can't speak for this specific author's academic reception, but what I can say is that such an interpretation is at least partially supported by other historians. \n\nIn *Forced Founders: Indians, Debtors, Slaves, and the Making of the American Revolution in Virginia*, Woody Holton argues that the American Revolution was not so much the righteous throwing off of a despotic, absentee foreign ruler that your high-school textbooks talk about, but rather that the wealthy gentry, especially the likes of Thomas Jefferson and George Washington, had no choice but to take up arms to prevent a rebellion by debtors, slaves, and the \"99%\" of the period, largely due to economic recessions tied to the prices of agricultural goods. In essence, what he is saying is that it was either a case of stay in the British Empire, and take a massive hit to their pocket books (including, of course, the possibility of ending slavery), or declare independence and pass laws that ensured they could continue to make top dollar selling their goods, and also continue a system of both slavery (of blacks) and share-cropping debt bondage (of non-blacks).\n\nHolton, Woody. *Forced Founders: Indians, Debtors, Slaves, and the Making of the American Revolution in Virginia*. Published for the Omohundro Institute of Early American History and Culture. Williamsburg. 1999.", "I was not familiar with this thesis so did a bit of googling. I found a *democracy now* interview video and transcript in which Gerald Horne outlines his basic premises and reasoning. \n\nPosting here as this gives a much more nuanced overview of this thesis as compared to the summaries on book review sites etc. \n\n_URL_0_", "I am currently reading the Horne book. I think the arguments he makes are important. Perhaps they can be argued but I do not think they can be effectively repudiated nor should they be ignored. \n\nA couple of the key points he makes are:\n\na) The British fought the French, Spanish and Indian Wars 1756- 1763 in large part to protect the colonies (Besides direct warfare, both France and Spain were offering Africans liberty and arms if they escaped from the colonies and converted to Catholicism). The subsequent taxes imposed on the Mainland colonists to help off set the costs of that war and of the garrisons required to defend them were not only being repudiated by the colonists but they were now establishing trading channels with the defeated French and Spanish, while transgressing treaty agreements between Britain and the indigenous people. \n\nb) Many New Englanders were involved in the slave trade at secondary and tertiary levels, transporting or legally developing and defending property rights over slaves and their transportation \n(Besides, did the majority of Americans and Canadians and Brits really want to fight the war in Iraq, or was this an agenda item of a few interested parties who promoted the idea irrespective of the costs to or interests of the majority of people in their countries, Again, were the majority of British subjects pro-Bourbon Monarchists and anti-Jacobin during the French Revolution or was this something promoted by British merchant and financial interests through their lackies).\n\nc) The fear of Africans or Indigenous uprisings led to a community of interests among all 'whites' in the colonies, which was a supra-social dynamic that instituted a unspoken apartheid regime in American Colonies. Which brings up the obvious point that while fighting for their emancipation, the emancipation for their slaves was not tabled until the 1840s.\n\nOn a different note of historical interest: I was surprised by the significant population of 'Transported Felons' that were dropped off in the colonies (particularly int he Southern States) int he years prior to the 1776. These criminals benefited from their whiteness once in America to obtain some level of acceptance in their new lives. This option had to be abandoned in 1776, though a couple of years later, another colony was found where the Brits could dump their down and out who had turned to crime in order to survive. \n\nThe Horne book is definitely worth a read, even if Dr Horne's tendencies to repeat himself and to jump around when it comes to chronology can be frustrating. I would also have preferred the inclusion of some statistical tables.\n\nApologies for the long, late response." ], "score": [ 14, 13, 8, 3 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [ "http://libcom.org/history/counter-revolution-1776-was-us-independence-war-conservative-revolt-favor-slavery" ] }

{ "url": [ "http://www.democracynow.org/2014/6/27/counter_revolution_of_1776_was_us" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "c8m8832", "c8mhlnx", "c8lyprh", "c8m5rd8" ], "text": [ "One of the major factors in dogfighting which affects the outcome is who gets the initiative. It has been proving that aircraft that might not be on the same level (such as the Hurricane during the Battle of Britain) as its' adversary, and the pilot may not be as skilled, but if he has the advantage of initiative, then the odds are in his favour.\n\nDuring the Vietnam war, one of the things that had changed since previous wars was the use of air-to-air missiles. Vietnam-era missiles weren't exactly known for being overly accurate (only about a 50% accuracy rate) and American crews had become a little too reliant on the use of missiles and they struggled with close in dogfighting. The North Vietnamese flew Mig-19s and 21s, of which only the Mig-21 was the only aircraft able to carry missiles (at the time).\n\nOnce the Americans realised that they were losing out in dogfights, they started training their fighter crews to dogfight again (which is why the \"top Gun\" training school was established) and fighters such as Phantom IIs were re-armed to carry machine guns. This resulted in an improvement in kill ratios for the Americans.", "Caveat up front, no sources on hand. \n\nThe six day war involved an early Israeli strike on the airfields of their opponents. What chance the Arabs had at mounting an air war against the Israelis was severely blunted off the bat. Israel was, in fact, so successfull in neutralizing opposing air forces that combat aircraft are no longer parked ajacent to eachother in any country which does not wish to lose an Air Force in one fell swoop \n\nAdditionally, Israel enjoyed the advantage of facing multiple opponents with a disintegrated command structure and the complementary communication issues. \n\nAs I have no sources on hand and injected speculation I'll see myself out.", "North Vietnam had the latest Soviet hardware - not just new jets, but also up-to-date missiles and an air defense system bristling with AA guns and surface-to-air missiles, guided by a fully integrated radar and intelligence system. \n\nFurther, highly trained Soviet personnel were heavily involved in the anti-air effort; Soviet ships in international waters raised the alarm as soon as U.S. bombers left their bases for Vietnam. Soviet anti-air crews (ostensibly in Vietnam on 'training missions') downed U.S. planes on several occasions. The U.S. government was aware of Soviet involvement in these actions but refused to publicize that; acknowledging direct combat would lead to World War III.", "I have never heard that the MiGs did well against the US airplanes in Vietnam. A [quick wiki search](_URL_0_) turned up that the US shot down 202 MiGs while losing 90 aircraft to MiGs, a 2:1 kill ratio. The primary role of US aircraft in Vietnam was strategic bombing and close air support. Most of the US losses were probably these type of aircraft, which are not designed for dogfights. If you were to look strictly at the fighter to fighter kill ratio, I am sure it would improve in the US favor to 3:1 or 4:1, but I don't have any data for that." ], "score": [ 2, 2, 2, 2 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [ "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dogfight#Vietnam_war" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cfbt6fq", "cfc9594" ], "text": [ "> \"I can't say I've done a complete medieval mindset. I haven't. In fact, if I had I think it would be too alien.\"\n\nThis is a fascinating statement and I'm going to take it apart. Don't get me wrong: I enjoy Game of Thrones. But I don't enjoy it as a medievalist - I enjoy it as entertainment.\n\n1. GRR Martin and whoever the interviewer is clearly had some discussion about a 'medieval mindset' in total ignorance of medieval ideas. The idea that Martin has an understanding of the 'medieval mind' in the barest sense (but couldn't go 'full medieval') would be a surprise to anyone with academic training in Medieval studies. He is interested in telling a story, but the same story could have been told with any era. The relationship Martin's books have with the medieval world are weapons, castles, and half-baked stereotype of 'feudal' relations.\n\n2. Further to point 1, but with more emphasis: there was no 'medieval mindset' anyway. The medieval world spans 1000 years, spans diverse peoples, and saw extreme transformations across both. So what 'medieval mindset' are we talking about? The inhabitants of post-Roman Merovingian Gaul in 600 AD? The minds of the 'heretics' of Occitania in 1195? And that's just western European middle ages. Martin says his ideas are inspired by the events of the Wars of the Roses - and generalization of these 'events' are the only relationship his books have.\n\nLet's put it simply, before entering the castle that is the medieval mind there is one toll that must be paid and of which GRRM has not paid one *dinari* : consider the complex facets of the Christian God in experience, beliefs and institutions as inseparable from daily life.\n\nThe western medieval mindset, which was agricultural, was concerned with increasing tillage and make it more productive. Where is the Martin's concern for the plow? The medieval mindset was concerned for the place in heaven. Where is Martin's consideration (at least even in allegorical form) of the place of Christianity in his world? Where is the transformation of landscape and society through the efforts and institutions of monks? Where is the engagement of ideas which so thoroughly permeated the medieval experience and transformed the lives of even most peasant of peasants?", "This doesn't have much to do with George RR Martin, but an interesting book which deals with how Medieval people viewed the world is Johan Huizinga's The Autumn of the Middle Ages (also known as The Waning of the Middle Ages). One thing which isn't all that surprising is that most people in the later European middle ages really did view the world as being structured hierarchically. There was an order to existence leading from heaven to hell, with this world in between, and a part of that was the order of humanity. Some people were higher than you, some lower, by birth and by divine plan. (Obviously in practice things were a bit more fluid, but this was the the mindset.) \n\nFar more alien to me was the fact that people viewed the world symbolically. By this I mean that they took things, not empirically as we would, but as symbols of the divine plan. To put it crudely, if something was shaped like a cross, it symbolized the cross; God made it that way to tell us something, and that was its reality, a more important reality than the simple physical facts of it. I can't pretend to be more specific than this, or to speak about the subtleties of this kind of thinking, because, well, it's alien to me. I'm not medieval. But it's interesting." ], "score": [ 25, 2 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

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{ "a_id": [ "c6ju8k3", "c6jr6yv" ], "text": [ "You're basically advocating the somewhat new, and definitely growing, trends in academic history toward global history and transnationalism. This approach is certainly wise and yielding some great results, but there are significant obstacles associated with it. First off there's lingering (though much less intentional) Euro-centrism. Notice how you want to unite a broad spectrum of revolutions but only mentioned European ones? Not an insult, it happens, but what about India, China, Mexico and S. America, etc? Another big problem in this field is language barriers. If you're a researcher and want to get to the heart of a region's revolution you damn well better speak the language. How many authors publishing in English speak Vietnamese, let along have access to their archives (hint: not many). But even if you speak a more common language (for academics) like French, what are the odds you speak French, Spanish, Italian, German, Hungarian, Russian, Mandarin, and Hindi? Progress is being made but you're talking about a surprisingly large undertaking.\n\nUnfortunately I don't have perfect recommendations for you. For interesting examples of global approaches I'd recommend David Day's *Conquest*, dealing with the process of exploration, colonization, conquest by European powers, quite interesting. C.A. Bayly's *The Birth of the Modern World: 1780-1914* takes a global approach and discusses revolutions, though I don't believe the main focus is on them. For a treatment of Europe's Revolutions of 1848, check out Jonathan Sperber's *The European Revolutions: 1848-1851*. Haven't read it myself, though.", "Recently deceased Eric Hobsbawm's book [The Age of Revolution](_URL_2_) is a good one, but it's limited to the earlier period of modern Europe, so it doesn't cover communism, fascism, etc. which were more prevalent in the 20th century.\n\nHobsbawm also wrote [The Age of Extremes](_URL_0_) which might have some of what you're looking for wrt 20th century, but is more focused on ideology rather than revolutions. Also, he was a Marxist (in the historiographical sense) so some might have a problem with that.\n\nCrane Brinton's [The Anatomy of Revolution](_URL_1_) somewhat fits the bill, but I don't think it really joins the revolutions in a narrative in the way you're looking for.\n\n\n > I also conceive broad in the sense that this history would not start its analysis from the perspective of one specific organization because that specific organization ended up winning in the end, or worse because the author has a specific affinity for a certain political group. I would rather prefer a broader view across different movements and which encompasses the entirety of revolutionary activity.\n\nThat might be a bit of a problem, actually. All historians take sides. Hobsbawm, for example, was a Marxist historian, so he would generally tend to take the view that revolutions are good and progress society. Brinton, on the other hand, took something of an opposing perspective, but was fairly moderate." ], "score": [ 2, 2 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [ "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Age_of_Extremes", "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Anatomy_of_Revolution", "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/The_Age_of_Revolution:_Europe_1789%E2%80%931848" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "czh1v6f", "czh212x" ], "text": [ "The Brunswick Manifesto published by the counter-revolutionary Austrian and Prussian armies on 25 July 1792 pledged to raze Paris if the royal family was harmed. This obviously stoked huge fears that there were conspirators within the capital, starting with the King and his court. Tim Blanning in The French Revolutionary Wars: 1787-1802 asserts this was key in driving the paranoia that drove the increasing severity of the terror. \n\nThe primacy of this foreign policy focus has been criticised for vindicating the cruelty of those who perpetrated the terror, and there were obviously plenty of individuals in Paris in 1782/3 who were willing to take advantage of chaos for personal advancement.\n\nNevertheless, i reckon the fear was real. France had taken historically unprecedented steps towards reshaping the state and it was only tenuously under control at the best of times. All this was massively threatened. The Allied armies were not more than 100 miles from Paris, Fleurus hadn't yet happened and it was pretty unclear whether there was anything the revolutionary government could do to stop them. And all across the peripheral regions of France there were counter-revolutionary reactions and uprisings that filtered back to Paris and then bounced around the revolutionary echo chamber. It'd have been pretty hard to tell friend from foe.", "France actually *was* threatened on all sides by reactionary powers eager to strangle Republicanism in its cradle. This might not qualify as a conspiracy, since their marching armies into France with the express intent of restoring the Bourbons wasn't exactly subtle, but it was a clear threat to the Revolution's survival. \n\nAs for internal conspiracies, there were a few. The Vendémiaire uprising, famously crushed by Napoleon and his 'whiff of grapeshot', was a royalist assault on the republic in the heart of Paris itself. This is a little later than the Reign of Terror, but a few French Royalists tried (and came very close to) blowing up First Consul Bonaparte as the first step of a plan to restore the monarchy. The very popular General Moreau betrayed the French Republic and offered his services to Great Britain and Royalist agents.\n\nOf course, many (if not most) of the royalist plots that got people sent to the guillotine were entirely imaginary, but there were more than enough very real threats to make the state of paranoia which gripped France during this time period very easy to understand." ], "score": [ 6, 4 ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "eefb6j6" ], "text": [ "Towards the late Middle Ages crew of a European ship could be paid in one of roughly two concepts: they could either get a predetermined amount of money, like a labourer, or they could get a percentage of the success of the voyage, like a minor partner in the venture . The former would eliminate the risk for the crewmember and make sure they get at least something, but the downside was the pay wasn't much. And the latter would enable a possibility of higher profit but could just as well mean ending up with zero money. \n\nBy the eve of Age of Exploration it seems the preferred way has leaned to the first option, where crew would get a fixed sum or a monthly wage, but additionally they would also get some cargo space where they could carry trade items, in a way indirectly enabling the men to earn more money for themselves. \n\n**Spanish**\n\nThe abundance of interest and research that from earliest times focused on Columbus' voyage to America amassed a wealth of data. One of the relevant documents is the muster roll of the 4 month advances Columbus gave to his crew, which you can read [here](_URL_2_).\n\nThe list isn't complete, but we have enough data that we can see that most ordinary mariners got a wage of 1000 maravedis per month (4000 advance for 4 months). Ship's boys, or junior seamen got 2/3 of that amount, or 666 maravedis per month. If the advances followed the same ratio as for the sailors, we can see that the pilots wages were 1.75x or 2x higher then for the mariners, the same went for the master and other higher officers, while a captain (of the Pinta, Martin Alonso Pinzon) got 4x the wage. The level of discrepancy between the captain and the men is here unusually low, and with time the difference would rise substantially\n\nThe base pay mentioned, of 1000 maravedi per month for ordinary seamen is confirmed by documents from other sources. Magellan had to raise the offered wages to incite men to sign up for his expedition, but he could only offer the wages of 1200 maravedis for mariners, 800 for junior seamen and 500 to pages, a very minor increase.\n\nBy the late 16th century the wages either stagnated or rose slightly nominally to 1500 maravedis per month, but rose less then for other professions. Pablo E. Perez-Mallaina in his book *Spain's Men of the Sea: Daily Life on the Indies Fleets in the Sixteenth Century* (which I highly recommend btw) gives a comparison of [wages](_URL_0_) and we can see that sailors earned much less then craftsmen in cities, even when we account for free food they received. They did receive wages similar to soldiers though, as wages of Spanish pikemen was 900 maravedis per month and arquebusier earned 1200 maravedis per month.\nTo get a insight in how much that wage could give you, here is a list of common item [prices](_URL_3_) in 16th century compiled by Perez-Mallaina.\n\nFor the officers, the situation gets harder to clarify. The highest officials didn’t get paid monthly, but usually for the whole voyage, with a traditional advance. For example, Spanish pilots going to America and back were to be paid between 40,000 and 50,000 maravedis per completed trip.\n\n**Portuguese**\n\nIn addition to Spanish data, we have some Portuguese data. [According to](_URL_1_) Gaspar Correa, 16th century Portuguese writer, who admittedly is slightly unreliable, for Vasco da Gama’s voyage King ordered higher salaries to be paid. The Able mariners would get 10 Portuguese Cruzados, which would convert to 3400 maravedis per month, able seamen would get half that that, at 5 cruzados or 1700 maravedis, pages one thirds of mariners pay at 3.33 cruzados. Captains of the fleet would get 1000 cruzados (340,000 maravedis) for the whole voyage, and master and the pilots 500 cruzados. Boatswains, mates and minor officers would get 1.5x the mariners pay, while specialized craftsmen like caulkers, carpenters etc. would get 2/3 of the mariner pay.\n\nImportantly, in addition to this wages, they were also allocated some pepper from the hold, and a space on the ship (in the form of chests) where they could carry their own stuff. The amounts were also divided in similar ratios like the sums of money. \n\nIf wages of Vasco da Gama’s expedition were high, they didn’t stick around till end of century. [According to](_URL_4_) Jan Huygenvan Linschoten in a work published in 1590s, Portuguese crew wages on Indian Armadas dropped significantly. Able Mariners earned 1000 Reis (2.5 cruzados, or around 900-1000 maravedis at the time) per month, oridnary seamen earned 666 reis, pages 443 reis. Carpenters, coopers etc had now 1200 reis per month, while masters and the pilots got 120,000 maravedis (300 cruzados) per trip. Again, the key incentive was actually the allotted space one could use to ferry items and conduct personal trade.\n\n & nbsp;\n\n\nI hope this made some sense, I had to go around and get data from numerous sources, and I might have made it more complicated then it should be." ], "score": [ 14 ] }

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{ "url": [ "https://imgur.com/Sy9UZbR", "https://archive.org/details/in.ernet.dli.2015.57073/page/n279", "https://archive.org/stream/christophercolu00thacgoog#page/n524/mode/2up", "https://imgur.com/pX8Ku2Z", "https://books.google.hr/books?id=d9wxgEKTfSAC&lpg=PR22&dq=milreis%20silver%20age%20of%20discovery&pg=PA8#v=onepage&q&f=false" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "desj44p" ], "text": [ "The only link I know of between scientific developments in the West and China, goes through the Jesuit missionaries. The Jesuits were responsible for a lot of the transfer of knowledge to China, but they had their own agenda and beliefs. Because of their beliefs, the heliocentric model of Copernicus or Galileo was never properly introduced in China. In turn, this complicated the introduction of Newton to the Chinese, because they still believed in geocentrism and had not been converted to the new worldview of the scientific revolution, in which experiments trumped doctrine and in which all of nature could be described by mathematical laws. As a result of the Jesuit efforts to misrepresent the modern science and philosophy, the Chinese did not have the worldview necessary to understand and accept Newton's work.\n\nAs Nathan Sivin argues:\n\n > The character of early modern science was concealed from Chinese scietists, who depended on the Jesuit writings. Many of those curious about astronomy were brilliant by any standard. \nAs is easily seen from their responses to the European science they knew, they would have been quite capable of comprehending modern science if their introduction to it had not been both contradictory and trivial. \n\nand\n\n > The crucial limitation on the Chinese reception of modern cosmology, my reading suggests, was the quality and quantity of information available in China about what was going on at the other side of the world. Chinese could begin contributing to modern astronomy only after they confirmed for themselves that the achievement of the Copernican Revolution lay in its description of physical reality. That they were not able to learn until a little over a century ago. \n\nThe result of this was that most scientific developments between 1600 and 1750 were never communicated to the Chinese. Though the Chinese knew of Copernicus, they continued to use a geocentric theory of astronomy based on Tycho Brahe.\n\nThe only knowledge they had of Newton, was some of his work on the motions of the moon (which, conveniently, was not incompatible with the geocentric theory):\n\n > The Jesuit missionaries Koegler and Andrt Pereira from Portugal drew up an improved astronomical system in 10 volumes called LiXiang KaoCheng HouBian (LKH) in collaboration with 40 Chinese astronomers, at the order of the Emperor, from 1736 to 1742, published in 1742. The Chinese name for Newton, Nei Duan, first appears in this document.\nIt was only quite recently, in the 1990s, that Dr Lu Dalong of the Chinese Academy of Sciences realized that the lunar theory contained within LKH was based on Newton’s lunar “theory” of 1702 (private communication). One or two of its constants had been adjusted to accord with the Principia of 1713. Its volume II is the mathematical–geometrical theory of lunar equations, composed in 11 sections, and it has many “Newtonian” constants, but no theory of universal gravitation, as was in contradiction to missionary doctrine. \n\n\n\nWhat's worse, when Jesuit missionaries in the second half of the 18th century finally began to introduce heliocentric ideas, this caused even more confusion in China; rather than correcting previous misconceptions, it only showed the Chinese how very inconsistent and contradictory Western astronomy was. \n\nIt wasn't until the 19th century that Chinese were finally properly introduced with the work of Newton and other modern astronomers, through the effort of protestant missionaries writing Chinese textbooks for professional astronomers.\n\n\nSources: \n\nSivin, Nathan, *Science in Ancient China: Researches and Reflections*, Aldershot: Variorum, 1995, chapter IV. Available online for free at _URL_0_\n\nKollerstrom, Nicholas, \"How Newton inspired China’s calendar\", *Astronomy & Geophysics* 41 (2000), pp. 5.21-5.22. Available online for free at _URL_1_" ], "score": [ 8 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [ "http://ccat.sas.upenn.edu/~nsivin/cop.pdf", "http://dioi.org/kn/newtonmoonchina.pdf" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cq65psn" ], "text": [ "LaRouche is more of a cult than a political movement. If you'd like I'd suggest going to\n_URL_0_ which is a forum in which the 40+ year history and continued ongoing operation of the LaRouche organization is discussed." ], "score": [ 2 ] }

{ "url": [] }

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{ "url": [ "http://www.larouchecontinued.org" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cazw64d", "cb04ztq" ], "text": [ "So many questions! Unfortunately, I fail to answer all of them but I can give my perspective as an Hispanic Historian from Texas as well as what I do know about how the subject is taught in Mexico.\n\nThe answers are dependent on which particular part of a Texan's life as a student you are referring to. For example, for me, an entire year-long course in middle school was dedicated to the history of Texas. I was taught the story that the Texans fought valiantly and almost always succeeded against a superior Mexican force led by an evil dictator. This is the story you hear when you visit the Alamo as a tourist. Of course the people giving the free tours, the Daughters of the Republic of Texas, give you the heavily biased version. From what I recall, the way the history is told by most teachers (of any ethnic background) makes it very white vs brown when it was anything but that.\n\nFor a more accurate version you have to go to academia, at least in heavily populated Hispanic areas of the state, professors (of all ethnic backgrounds) teach a more balanced and seemingly truthful version of events. I do not know if this applies for the northern and eastern part of the state.\n\nAs for how it is taught in Mexico, I can only provide what my wife experienced. My wife went to primary and secondary school in Mexico (came to a U.S. school as a sophomore) and she was never taught about the Texas Revolution. She didn't learn about it until she moved to Texas and was surprised about how big of a topic it is there. What's funny is that, like their Texan counterparts, she was taught that ~~Porfirio Diaz~~ Santa Anna (sorry for the original mistake) was a dictator that drastically hurt the country.\n\nI hope this at least answers some of your questions.", "I'm a mexican student and the way it was taught by my textbooks was that the mexican government gave americans permission to settle Texas because the northern states were mostly depopulated, and later on the settlers came and brought their slaves with them, and slavery was already outlawed in Mexico, so the government didn't like that (plus the fact that the settlers outnumbered mexicans 4:1 I think) and they sent troops (or policemen) to the north to counter this, the settlers didn't like it and they revolted and declared independence, the government did't recognize it and they sent the military to regain the territory, the Texan government allied itself with the United States and they won." ], "score": [ 16, 11 ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cg3tcci" ], "text": [ "Vermeer's portrait is clearly posed and it's possible that the subject doesn't actually know how to play the instrument or doesn't play very well (the thumb over the top of the neck is a bit of a giveaway of bad technique, although it could just be a concession to comfort while sitting for the portrait), but other than that, it appears to be more-or-less accurate. For reference, [here is a video](_URL_1_) of a modern performance on a Baroque-era guitar.\n\nAs you can see from both the painting and this video, the body of the Baroque instrument was narrower and smaller than a modern classical guitar, and it had five doubled strings (so ten actual strings total, but paired up so that there were only five discrete pitches for the open strings).\n\nThe bottom two strings of the Baroque instrument (A and D) were often tuned an octave higher than they are now ([source](_URL_0_)). The addition of the low E string and the removal of the doubling strings on the modern instrument were late 19th century Italian innovations.\n\nBecause of the smaller size, the modern playing pose — with the butt of the instrument resting on the right thigh and the body supported by the raised left knee — wasn't possible, so it was either rested entirely on the right thigh or supported by a shoulder strap (or both)." ], "score": [ 3 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [ "http://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/7/70/Jan_Vermeer_van_Delft_013.jpg" ] }

{ "url": [ "http://www.classicalguitar.ws/baroque.shtml", "http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=BfVZRevRKv8" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "dutxl09" ], "text": [ "Then, it reminded me of all the great epic stories I read as a child.\n\nNow, it grabs me like a slowly unfolding mystery with no clear end in sight." ], "score": [ 3 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cjypma7" ], "text": [ "A lot of 18th century literature talks about money and how much a person had \"settled\" on them per year. Jane Austen and similar writers focused on this a lot. Jane's characters always knew how much every person made and how much they could expect to have if they married that person. \n\n\nI am not sure how accurately that translated into real life though. Or how much it happened in the middle and lower classes, since most literature focused on the richer classes." ], "score": [ 16 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

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{ "a_id": [ "c6qq6bs" ], "text": [ "There's a book on them: [Terriers in the Trenches:\nThe Post Office Rifles at War 1914-1918](_URL_5_)\n\nIt's hard to find, though, 1 used at $110.47 at Amazon (I can't link to Amazon or I'll get caught in the spam filter). \n\nHere's a [list of UK libraries](_URL_2_) that have a copy, assuming you're in the UK. If not, you can change the location.\n\nThen there's the [British Postal Museum and Archive's page on the Post Office Rifles](_URL_1_).\n\nThe [Memorial Museum Passchendaele 1917](_URL_4_) has a [list of known casualties](_URL_3_) (pdf). They invite your [contributions](_URL_0_)." ], "score": [ 6 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [ "http://www.passchendaele.be/eng/archivesEN.html", "http://www.postalheritage.org.uk/page/postofficerifles", "http://www.worldcat.org/title/terriers-in-the-trenches-the-post-office-rifles-at-war-1914-1918/oclc/10139795?lang=en", "http://www.passchendaele.be/downloads/PASSCHENDAELE%20ARCHIVES%20LIJST1sept17.pdf", "http://www.passchendaele.be/eng/homeEN.html", "http://books.google.be/books/about/Terriers_in_the_Trenches.html?id=yz2MAQAACAAJ&redir_esc=y" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "ea9edyw" ], "text": [ "Some I’ve read and recommend \n\nFridtjof Nansen Farthest North, attempt to get to the North Pole by getting a ship locked into the polar ice. \n\nRoland Huntford The Last Place on Earth, about the Scott and Amundsen race to the South Pole. \n\nSouth by Shackleton and Endurance by Alfred Lansing" ], "score": [ 5 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cocqpw7" ], "text": [ "I'll take a stab at answering your question, /u/rewdea, but I want to share something before I get going. Modern single-crop agriculture is a relatively new phenomenon, mostly from the second half of the 20th century. Before that, farms -- even the big cotton plantations of the Lower South -- grew other products and raised livestock alongside their \"main\" crop. \n\nLet's talk about a man named James Hamilton Couper. He's sometimes called the prototypical antebellum southern planter, but he was more modern than most. He was born in 1794 and graduated from Yale in 1814 -- not exactly typical, except for the very wealthy. He traveled to Holland and learned water control methods (irrigation and dikes) he would later use on his plantation at home in Georgia.\n\nWhen his father died, he inherited his father's acres on St. Simon Island. He began scientific research and experimentation, trying to find the best way to get the most growing potential out of his land. He started out as a cotton planter but expanded into other crops, including rice and sugarcane. In 1829, he built a modern sugar mill. He became the first American to build and operate a cottonseed mill.\n\nHe had impeccable manners, offered graceful conversation, owned an extensive library, and was popular socially. \n\nHe also owned slaves. Many. According to some records, the figure approached 2,000 at its peak.\n\nThe Civil War ruined him. Two of his sons died in the fighting, his slaves were freed, and his industrial efforts were foiled. He died in 1866, but he left behind [an extensive collection of journals and records](_URL_2_). These were collected into *Rice Gold,* a book explaining plantation life in coastal Georgia.\n\nNow, if we talked only about Couper's perspective, you wouldn't get a good answer. As fugitive slave John Little said in 1855: \"T'isn't he who has stood and looked on, that can tell you what slavery is 'tis he who has endured.\" If you want to understand what plantation life was like, you *NEED* to read the perspective of the slaves themselves. One of the most convenient resources for an online reader to do that are [the Works Progress Administration Slave Narratives](_URL_1_). These were collected between 1936 and 1938 and include more than 2,300 first-person accounts of slavery. \n\nThese are filled with color and character, and if you want to understand slavery from the point of view of those who experienced it, you need to search and view these.\n\n***\n\nNow, with that preamble out of the way, let me give you an answer.\n\nWhen it came to rice, winter was the time when the stubble from the previous year's crop was either plowed under or burned off. Irrigation ditches were cleaned and cleared, and if any soil maintenance was needed, it was done then.\n\nFor cotton, winter included the first steps in the spring planting. The stubble of the previous year's crop was plowed under. Manure -- (at Couper's plantations, this was rice straw and cane trash that had been 'seasoned' in the stock pens and mixed with marsh mud) -- was plowed into the earth with the previous crop. The land was plowed and then cross-plowed to pulverize the earth. This process usually started at the New Year, following the Christmas holidays, and lasted until it was time to seed everything in March. Plowing also meant putting drainage ditches in the fields to keep them from being flooded. Unlike rice, flooding wasn't good for cotton.\n\nFor sugar cane, Couper subdivided his fields into two-acre plots to separate his slaves into work teams. Each splace was plowed deep to pulverize the soil, then harrowed smooth. Plows would come through again, creating ridges into which the sugar cane would be planted.\n\nWinter also tended to be the time that land was cleared of brush and timber. \"On New Year's Day, if dere warn't too much snow on de ground, de Niggers burnt brush and cleared new ground,\" said Addie Vinson, who was a slave in Georgia on a large cotton plantation. There's an important point to be made here -- even if a planter owned a set amount of acreage, all of that usually wasn't cleared fields or orderly orchards.\n\n[Louis Hughes, who wrote *Thirty Years A Slave: From Bondage to Freedom* in 1897](_URL_0_), describes the process:\n\n > \"The season selected for clearing the land was winter, beginning with January. The trees, except the larger ones, were cut down, cut into lengths convenient for handling and piled into great heaps, called “log heaps,” and burned. The undergrowth was grubbed out and also piled and burned. The burning was done at night and the sight was often weird and grand. The chopping was done by the men slaves and the grubbing by women. All the trees that blew down during the summer were left as they fell till winter when they were removed. This went on, year after year, until all the trees were cleared out. The first year after the new land was cleared corn was put in, the next season cotton. As a rule corn and cotton were planted alternately, especially if the land was poor, if not, cotton would be continued year after year on the same land. Old corn stalks were always plowed under for the next year’s crop and they served as an excellent fertilizer. Cotton was seldom planted on newly cleared land, as the roots and stumps rendered it difficult to cultivate the land without injury to the growing plant.\" \n\nPhillis Hicks, who was born shortly after the war's end, said winter was the time for making cloth and clothing, at least where she lived in Arkansas. That way, the wearers of that clothing would have the thickest possible fabric to stay warm in. As the summer wore on, the clothes would wear out, and they would become thinner and cooler. Paul Smith, at a plantation in Georgia, had a similar experience, as did Vinson. Vinson and Smith both said that slaves didn't wear shoes except in winter, when a traveling man would set up shop at the plantation until everyone had shoes to wear for winter.\n\nHughes offers a description of clothes-making as well:\n\n > \"Through the winter and on rainy days in summer, the women of the field had to card the wool and spin it into yarn. They generally worked in pairs, a spinning wheel and cards being assigned to each pair, and while one carded the wool into rolls, the other spun it into yarn suitable for weaving into cloth, or a coarse, heavy thread used in making bridles and lines for the mules that were used in the fields. This work was done in the cabins, and the women working together alternated in the carding and spinning. Four cuts were considered a task or day’s work, and if any one failed to complete her task she received a whipping from the madam.\"\n\nAs Smith explained: \"When us warn't out in de fields, us done little jobs 'round de big house, de cabins, barns, and yards. Us used to help de older slaves git out whiteoak splits, and dey larnt us to make cheer [chair] bottoms and baskets out of dem splits.\"\n\nAt Couper's plantations, there were the cotton and saw mills, the rice and cane mills, blacksmith shop, cooperage, cattle barns and dairies. There was work smoking and seasoning meat, preserving fruit and vegetables, making saddles and tack, and mending and making clothes. From time to time, Couper even operated an ice house, each winter packing great hunks of North-shipped ice into sawdust-filled buildings for preservation into the summer.\n\nSlaves with specialized skills, such as carpenters and bricklayers, could be hired out to people needing those services." ], "score": [ 93 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [ "http://nationalhumanitiescenter.org/pds/maai/enslavement/text3/plantationhughes.pdf", "http://memory.loc.gov/ammem/snhtml/snhome.html", "http://www2.lib.unc.edu/mss/inv/c/Couper,J.Hamilton.html" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "ccfx2oc", "ccg4zyc" ], "text": [ "I think he comes up with a good *definition* of a nation (sort of) as an \"imagined *political* community, both limited and sovereign\" (people always drop the second word), but his causal mechanism for nationalism (\"print-capitalism\") isn't even supported by the evidence in his own book. It is however important to keep ones definition of \"nation\" and \"nationalism\" separate. Most of the stuff he mentions are explicitly involve bounding the political body or the state (all the stuff on the creole roots, the chapter on nationalism in the colonial world), and have little to do with print and nothing to do with capitalism. Other people have tried to tie the birth of nationalism to changes in culture, as well, but no one as clearly or as popularly. The main other cultural explanations rely on how people have thought about the Bible and Israel's example (Hirschi and Andrian Hastings come to mind here). Ultimately, I think Anderson just included the \"capitalism\" part of \"print capitalism\" to give a nod to being an appropriately \"material\" leftist--if you pay attention to the first part of the book, how the left should deal with the question of nationalism is clearly a major driving concern of his--because there is basically nothing actually tying his theory to any economic change.\n\nHis most famous intellectual opponent, Ernest Gellner, actually was much more economically based, and argued that the demands of industrialization led to nationalism, which is a neat little theory but an empirically untenable one. Michael Mann also at one point basically took Gellner's theory and replaced industrialization with \"commercial capitalism\". Still, ultimately not convincing--Miroslav Hroch, for example, found that in some places nationalism preceded capitalism, and in some places the two developments were concurrent (and in cases he didn't look at, like England, it seems like nationalism antedates the development of capitalism).\n\nBeyond cultural and economic origins, the last major explanation for the origins of nationalism focuses on political changes. This is the set I find most convincing. Michael Hechter argues it has to do with the change from indirect to direct rule. Anthony Marx puts the early modern development of nationalism in England, Spain, and France as part of state centralization. Ultimately, both have their downsides (Marx's causal story is better but definition of nationalism worse), but more where I am in my own understandings of nationalism and are absolutely great works of social science history.\n\nThis brackets a whole set of people who argue nationalism doesn't need an origin story because it's not modern (or early modern) at all. I've talked about them [elsewhere on this sub](_URL_1_) (which also discusses nationalism more generally and links to a couple of even older in-depth comments on nationalism). I've been working on this for about two years now and my understanding of it all is still developing. Also worth noting is the latest major word on this all may be Andreas Wimmer's 2010 quantitative article \"The Rise of the Nation-State across the World, 1816 to 2001\" ([pdf](_URL_0_)) which sets out to test Hechter, Gellner, and Anderson (as well as Tilly and Meyer) and finds them all wanting. Instead, Wimmer supports a much more historical-institutionalist approach (that is, local and regional political factors), which makes sense to me and fits in with what I've been coming across looking at the actual empirics of it all. Again, though, pay attention to exact terms, as he tests arguments about *nationalism* using the *creation of nation-states* as a measure. These clearly are two different things (nationalism existed within the Ottoman, Hapsburg, and Romanov Empires long before they melted into nation states in the wake of WW1, as a major argument against this measure).\n\nEdit: just to be clear, I love *Imagined Communities* and the paper I've been working on is basically rereading its cases and analysis (rather than its grand claims) from a political eater than cultural perspective.", "I think I'm going to come at this from a different direction. One of the most interesting things about *Imagined Communities* in my opinion is its flexibility. Setting aside for a moment his argument about nations, I think the idea of the Imagined Community as a way of understanding the (relatively) spontaneous sense of belonging to a group larger than yourself is very powerful.\n\nI've spent quite a bit of time pondering what the internet means in this context. It seems to me that we can see very similar things at work thanks to what maybe we could call \"digital print culture\" that have created communities which extend far beyond any national borders. Now, not all of them are imagined, but I often here words like \"netizen\" or even here on reddit with the \"hive mind\" that suggest a sense of belonging to a community that extends far beyond direct or indirect communication but which people identify with pretty strongly in some cases.\n\nOf course, with all identities, I think it is fair to say that we don't just have one. Anderson is really talking about the emergence of a specifically national identity, but that doesn't mean that all other identities disappeared, and it doesn't mean in my example above that some kind of global or cosmopolitan identity is going to replace the national. But I think that as historians look back at our period, they might consider a similar kind of process that began to foster cosmopolitan identities among \"the masses\" which were at most historically present in the elite who were schooled in international languages (like French, say) and often not present even among them." ], "score": [ 9, 7 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [ "http://www.princeton.edu/~awimmer/WimmerFeinstein.pdf", "http://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/1kohp2/why_is_nationalism_considered_a_modern_concept/cbr6aub" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cdo1yot" ], "text": [ "You should check books about polish history written by Norman Davies: \"White Eagle, Red Star: the Polish-Soviet War\",\n\"God's Playground: a history of Poland\"\n\"Heart of Europe: a short history of Poland\" \nDavies is really good storytelle." ], "score": [ 2 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cmngolo" ], "text": [ "Oh boy! \n\nWelcome, in part, to my dissertation.\n\nThis is a complex issue--and one that many disagree on. Let's start with a handful of helpful sources:\n\nNorman Yoffee, *Myths of the Archaic State*\n\nAvraham Faust, *Israel's Ethnogenesis*\n\nElman Service, *Origins of the State and Civilization*\n\nFrank Frick, *The Formation of the State in Ancient Israel*\n\nPeter Lemche, *Ancient Israel*\n\nDavid Jamieson-Drake, *Scribes and Schools in Iron Age Judah*\n\nIsrael Finkelstein, *The Quest for Historical Israel*\n\nWilliam Dever, *Who Were the Early Israelites...?*\n\nSo--here's some of the evidence we look for when we are talking about the existence or non-existence of particular social systems of various levels of social complexity:\n\n- Mortuary evidence\n- Settlement data, patterns, reconstructed demographics, relationship of various archaeological sites to one another (i.e., is there a NETWORK involved between cities, etc.)\n- Urbanization\n- Prestige items\n- Textual/written evidence\n- Historical Climate Data\n- Pottery\n- Food and animal remains\n\nFurthermore, when we talk about an \"early Israel\", we are necessarily primarily going to be talking about the central highlands in Iron Age (i.e., 1200-586 BCE) Palestine. \n\nThe first bit of evidence we have for \"Israel\" is what's known as the Merneptah Stele (ca. 1204 BCE), commissioned by Pharaoh Merneptah (obvi.). This Egyptian Stele mentions \"Israel\" and marks the word with what we call a \"determinative\" (meaning a symbol that classifies the following word in a certain semantic word family). The determinative used with the name Israel is the one for a people group [as opposed to \"nation\"]). This epigraphic evidence is still very ambiguous and we're entirely certain what the determinative means--but we're certain that it mentions Israel directly.\n\nSecond, we have to understand that there was a massive social system collapse at the end of the Late Bronze Age (i.e., 13th century BCE). This caused a settlement shift from the Palestinian Shephelah (i.e., the lowland country to the west of the highlands) to the central highlands. At this point, we're probably talking about some kind of nearly egalitarian (true egalitarianism is pretty impossible to suggest in my opinion), kinship based society. This kinship system eventually led to the elevation of a particular family line where the *pater familias* of this line became a sort of paramount or \"big man\" who wound up running the system for a while. His family line then became sort of charged with what Service calls \"mana\"--essentially, leadership becomes somewhat hereditary at this point as the social system begins to stratify a bit more and social elites are starting to be a little more segregated from the regular, terrace farming and pastoral based economy.\n\nI should point to \"Yoffee's Rule\"--if you can argue whether a particular social system is or isn't a state, then it isn't. I'm going to avoid trying to define state in a taxonomic fashion (because people like Service were rather obsessed with this silliness and it doesn't really get us anywhere because everybody makes the state look like what they want it to). \n\nA few little notes about the biblical text--I'm convinced that Saul, David, and Solomon were historical individuals (i.e., they were not *made up* like a lot of people -- especially those over in /r/atheism -- would like to believe). Saul's enthronement was likely an instantiation of some kind of regularly cycling chiefdom where new chiefs were selected on a somewhat regular basis (see Jeremy Hutton's article comparing the Ahansali in Morocco as a sociological analogue to help reconstruct what's happening in 1 Samuel 10:17-27). We probably don't have a \"state\" until David comes along (historical evidence for a David: the Tel Dan Stele).\n\nEDIT: I derped on the formatting" ], "score": [ 10 ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "dcn7ddr" ], "text": [ "I don't have B, but I can provide another example of this happening -- Georgia's \"Three Governors Controversy\".\n\nThe state of Georgia had a similar crisis in 1946-47. The winner of the election, Eugene Talmadge (a long-time figure in GA politics), died before being sworn in, and his party arranged for the state legislature to elect the governor. This was possible because of ambiguities in the new state constitution (which stated that the lieutenant governor would succeed a *sitting* governor), and the legislature elected Talmadge's son, Herman in January of 1947. After this, the lieutenant governor-elect Melvin Thompson filed suit for the governorship.\n\nMeanwhile, the outgoing governor Ellis Arnall refused to leave office until it was clear who the rightful new governor was. However, Talmadge had the locks changed in the governor's office, leading Arnall to set up a governor's office-in-exile in the lobby of the capitol building. Arnall eventually gave up his claim and supported Thompson.\n\nSo it was then down to two governors, who both were attempting to run the state. In March, the Georgia Supreme Court ruled in favor of Thompson, leaving him as acting governor until a special election to fill the post could be held.\n\nTalmadge won the election, so there's that.\n\n**SOURCE:** *New Georgia Encyclopedia* \"Three Governors Controversy\" _URL_0_" ], "score": [ 3 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [ "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Governor_of_Colorado#notes" ] }

{ "url": [ "http://www.georgiaencyclopedia.org/articles/government-politics/three-governors-controversy" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cbgv2dh" ], "text": [ "If you're quick, and have a British IP address, there is a TV documentary on Don McCullin's work [available via the BBC iplayer](_URL_0_), which I'm sure at least mentions that particular photograph. It will only last two more days or so. I can't remember what was said about it though." ], "score": [ 2 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [ "http://www.theguardian.com/artanddesign/2010/feb/07/don-mccullin-shaped-war-review", "http://cphmag.com/migrant-mother/" ] }

{ "url": [ "http://www.bbc.co.uk/iplayer/episode/b036j3fp/imagine..._Summer_2013_McCullin/" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cl46fsn", "cl43vu8", "cl45w29" ], "text": [ "Prehistory to 1500 CE? Wow that's wide topic, I suspect this is an introductory course?\n\nI'd recommend you work with a primary text that's well known. This will show the prof that you can work with primary texts and secondary critique. A primary source that's well known will make it easy. I know you want to do something unique but save that for thesis papers and get to know the basics first. I've gotten poor marks because of taking the hard path and not following through.\n\nAncient religions? Look at Classical religious texts or myth. Propaganda and religion in Rome under Augustus is a good rich, easily identified topic for amateurs and experts. A primary source for this would be Virgil's Aeneid. Examining Roman and Greek cults like the cult of Isis would interesting too.\n\nThe topic is super broad and you should try to work with primary documents to show analysis with consultation from secondary sources. Stay simple, its better to understand a basic concept well and how to write a research paper then to show an obscure topic and get lost in it.\n\nMy own bias says stay with Greek and Roman topics because of the accessibility to English and understandable sources.\n\nEdit question: History course, 1st year college? Stay away from art as a primary focus, often these classes want a specific demonstration of research and writing skills on written sources. Art might not be the best subject.", "Maybe something on the Han and Three Kingdoms periods contrasted with the creating of the *Romance of the Three Kingdoms* over a millennia later?\n\nIt would be a great opportunity to demonstrate all of the above - but it would also require a lot of work. You'd need context for both the third- and fourteenth-centuries and discuss the development of the mythos and historiography. There are probably some good books published on the topic if you can get your hands on them though!\n\nThis might be a bit much for a high-school project if that's what this is for.", "For ancient Egypt, might I suggest going to your local art museum, picking out an object, and researching it? You could find out about its specific time period, what it would be used for, what it meant, what the arguments about it are (and then take a position on those arguments) -- essentially, build a world around an object.\n\nThat's the kind of stuff I like. I don't know about you." ], "score": [ 2, 2, 2 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cn3w4fi" ], "text": [ "The bandana you are talking about is called a \"hokkamuri\". \nThe stereo typical thieve you are talking about also always comes together with a \"furoshiki\", a big towel which is used to wrap around and carry things.\n\n_URL_1_\n\nFirst mentioning of a \"furoshiki\" in Japan is from 1616 inside a inheritance note regarding Tokugawa Ieyasu's assets. The furoshiki was an ubiquitous object in every Japanese house up until ca. 1960.\n\nDuring the Edo period the average burglar would walk inside a house with nothing. He would pick up a \"furoshiki\" from inside the house, stuff everything he wants inside the \"furoshiki\" and walk away with it. This is how ubiquitous \"furoshiki\" were. The burglar usually would not even bring his own.\n\nNow to the bandana. The \"hokkamuri\" is a popular way with farmers to avoid sun with a simple towel and many people today still do it if they have no hat at hand. You can simply google 頬っ被り (hokkamuri in Japanese) and you will find many modern examples.\n\nThe \"hokkamuri\" is usually not tied around the upper lip but around the chin. The thieve will tie it around his nose in order to additionally give cover to his face to hide it. This is a little technique which was also used by ninja.\n\n_URL_0_\n\nThe thieve with \"furoshiki\" and \"hokkamuri\" appears already in pre-WW2 manga. It is therefore a very old stereotype which everybody in Japan knows, so this leads to other artists also using the same stereotype.\n\nI hope this clears it up for you." ], "score": [ 21 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [ "http://farm4.static.flickr.com/3292/2950892158_346226eb79_m.jpg", "http://media.tumblr.com/aa26a43b6b66d641966788700befb48a/tumblr_inline_mgbny2fOsx1qi2w9p.jpg", "http://blog-imgs-33.fc2.com/b/a/s/bassplus/ika8-7.jpg" ] }

{ "url": [ "http://image.space.rakuten.co.jp/lg01/15/0000588915/51/img935746f3zikdzj.jpeg", "http://1.bp.blogspot.com/-06CrtOSQFlM/UTbWtSKSYWI/AAAAAAAAOjE/zJbvNU_I4dM/s1600/dorobou.png" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "dh77fog" ], "text": [ "The short answer would be that Santa Anna was operating with outdated equipment. I hate to use the battle near Palo Alto, Texas in 1846 as a case study because the Mexican army there was under the command of General Mariano Arista, but that particular battle highlights the difference in military equipment that was one of the main issues of the Mexican-American War. Artillery won at Palo Alto and artillery was key to US success for the campaigns in Mexico.\n\nThe US created its first light artillery battalion with the Act of 1821. In 1824, the US opened the Artillery School of Practice in Fort Monroe, Virginia. In 1836, the Army began to truly field these light artillery battalions. This \"flying artillery\" were horse drawn and capable of rapid deployment and repositioning on the field, faster rate of fire, and greater range. In addition, the US had switched over to an explosive shell instead of solid shot.\n\nMexico, on the other hand, were using older cannons. They also still used solid shot. Witnesses at Palo Alto said that the Mexican rounds traveled so slow that the troops would see them and open ranks to allow the rounds to pass. While this statement is very likely hyperbole, the fact is that the Mexican artillery was unable to provide much effects against the massed US infantry.\n\nAt Palo Alto, the US artillery fired volley after volley into the Mexican ranks. Arista attmepted to sway the battle by sending the more experienced and battle tested Mexican cavalry to flank the artillery lines. Brevet Major Ringgold, commander of the artillery battery at Palo Alto, was able to have his battery cease firing on the Mexican infantry, turn to face the cavalry charge, direct lay the guns to engage the cavalry with the cannons, and return to their engagement of the infantry. The conflict ended with the Mexican army breaking ranks and conducting a hasty retreat. \n\nDuring the campaigns in Meixco, US artillery was able to consistently find advantageous positioning and engage the Mexican army. At Buena Vista, the artillery was able to repulse the Meixcan army, this time commanded by Santa Anna. \n\nDespite the fact that Santa Anna and the Mexican Army usually outnumbered their US opposition, the US had spent 10 years training and equiping their field artillery to overcome that numerical disparity. Santa Anna had the more experienced cavalry and manuever forces, but inadequate weapons for mass formations. While his maneuver capabilities may have rivaled Napoleon, he did not follow Napoleon's love and use of artillery.\n\n_________\nReferences:\nAllan Millet and Peter Maslowski, For the Common Defense: A Military History of the United States.\nDavid Norris, \"Opening Moves on the Rio Grande,\" Military Heritage (June, 2011).\nR. Powl Smith, \"Staying on the Cutting Edge: Military Professionalism and the Mexican War,\" Field Artillery (July/August, 1998)." ], "score": [ 3 ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cb55os7" ], "text": [ "1. I don't know where they got the concrete... I don't really know what makes concrete, so I couldn't tell you. But, I can say that a lot of steel (especially in rebar) went into those bunkers. The Rhine River is rich in coal and iron ore. Also, the Rhineland has strong coal beds, and the French Lorraine region is rich in iron ore. So, they had plenty of iron and steel for that.\n\n2. The mobile harbors were called \"mulberries.\" They were first designed by Hugh Iorys Hughes, a Welshman. There was a planning conference in Dec. 1943 that included Eisenhower, Bradley, Adm. Leslie Hall, Gen. Gerow, and others, about the D-Day invasion. The mulberries weren't to win the beaches, but to supply reinforcements after the beaches had been secured. Not everyone was supportive of the idea -- especially Admiral Hall. Hall called them, \"the biggest waste of manpower and equipment that I have ever seen. . . . I can unload a thousand LSTs at a time over the open beaches. Why do you give me something that anybody who's ever seen the sea act upon 150-ton concrete blocks at Casablanca knows the first storm will destroy? What's the use of building them just to have them destroyed and litter up the beaches?\" Sure enough, on June 17, a big storm came in and destroyed the harbors. This cluttered up the beaches and made it tough to resupply the advancing army with enough diesel, and the attack inland stalled.\n\nIn retrospect, they were a bad idea. Top leadership ignored the advice of lower commanders with amphibious assault experience in the Mediterranean and the Marines in the Pacific, and pushed forward with untested technologies like the harbors (among others)." ], "score": [ 2 ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "du2j0wy" ], "text": [ "Do you mean the \"snout\" on a helmet like [this](url=_URL_0_)?\n\nYou'll likely get more answers on another subreddit like /r/medieval or such,\n\nBut, if that's the type of helmet you're asking about, the \"beak\" is on the visor. Specifically, that style is (now-days) called a \"pig-faced\" or a \"hounskull\" visor on a bascinet, and was popular right around the year 1400. The \"beak\" was developed and protruded like that to act as a glancing surface against blows coming toward the face, specifically from lances while on horseback." ], "score": [ 2 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [ "https://i.pinimg.com/originals/95/60/12/95601282178914501cb4458d80ef4b2f.jpg" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "crrsfc2" ], "text": [ "Both would most likely experience the same things, but at different times. The Germans routinely rotated units out of the eastern front to rest, refit, accept new equipment (and train in new tactics and learn to use new Equipment) and new recruits and other reinforcements and in many cases be rebuilt as units after devastating casualties.\n\nThe 6. Panzer-division, for example, partook in Operation Barbarossa and the drive on Moscow in the winter. In May 1942 it was withdrawn to France to be rebuilt after suffering high casualties and returned to the eastern front in time to take part in the attempt to relieve Stalingrad.\n\nThat said, not all units ended up in western Europe. Many were sent to rear areas in the Soviet Union to do anti-partisan and occupation duties and be placed in reserve while they rested and refitted. In fact, most of the German losses in armour at Kursk happened during the Soviet counter-offensive, which over-ran the field repair shops where much of the German armour was in for service and repairs after the battle and many weakened German formations ended up in the way of the Soviet offensive.\n\nIn western Europe, the German Soldiers could enjoy good infrastructure, reliable mail communication with their friends and relatives back home, secure leave for home and relative low-risk occupational duties, as the resistance mostly smuggled out downed allied air men and expanded their organisation to spring into action once the allied invasion happened. The Germans had also set the exchange rate of the reichsmark to about three times as high to the French franc as it had been in 1930 (well after the reichsmark had recovered from the hyperinflation), which meant that a German soldier in western Europe could buy a lot of things - including expensive luxuries - on his otherwise meagre soldier's pay.\n\nA soldier in garrison or occupational duties (note that the Heer did not man internment camps, only POW camps) would have access to three meals a day (which could be hard to get for a soldier on the frontline every day), sleep in requisitioned houses or barracks rather than tents, ahev regular access to mail, hygiene facilities and uniform washing, including lice extermination. Brothels were common and how the local military authorities handled them differed from accepted (including military medical personell checking for STDs regularly and 'clearing' prostitutes) to outright banned (but still existing).\n\nSoldiers in occupation or garrison duty would often work on field fortifications, help haul supplies, build barracks and other facilities, help clear or repair destroyed infrastructure as well as working on training and equipment maintenance.\n\nPatrols, suffering the occassional air raid, partisan raid, resistance attack, long range enemy patrol, hunting partisans, war crimes (such as shooting civilians as reprisals for partisan attacks), foraging (ie organised plundering of the countryside) and handling prisoners could also happen.\n\nBottom line is that it varied a lot depending on wether the German Soldier was stationed in western Europe or not, wether or not his unit was in reserve or on occupational duty, if his unit occupied a country where the Germans behaved decently (western Europe, Denmark, Norway, the Baltic states and Bohemia mostly) or commited lots of war crimes (Greece, Poland, Yugoslavia, the Soviet Union)." ], "score": [ 29 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

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{ "a_id": [ "czkx5gn" ], "text": [ "It's not exactly a historical journal, but given we're discussing the history of a pop culture icon it qualifies as a reasonable source I think. [A Guy, a Palm Tree, and a Desert Island: The Cartoon Genre That Just Won’t Die](_URL_0_)\n\nThe article recounts that the desert island cartoons you're describing were made famous by the New Yorker in the 1950's, with 1957 being their most popular year. The article describes the cartoon trope having most likely arisen in the 1920's or 1930's, in the magazines that predated the New Yorker, *Judge* and *Life*. Both of which had witty single frame cartoons within their pages. \n\nThe idea of a desert island in literature is far older. Shakespeare used a desert island in *The Tempest* (1610) and some much earlier arabic/moorish literature by [Ibn Tufail](_URL_1_) uses the idea as well." ], "score": [ 1049 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [ "http://www.vanityfair.com/culture/2012/05/history-of-the-desert-island-cartoon", "https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ibn_Tufail" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "c7u5n1x" ], "text": [ "The picture is simply iconic, and what makes it iconic is not really a question for a historian. [Here is a link that includes a critique by a notable photographer.](_URL_1_)\n\n > As a photograph, it derives its power from a simple, dynamic composition, a sense of momentum and the kinetic energy of six men straining toward a common goal, which for one man has slipped just out of grasp. \"It has every element. ... It has everything,\" marveled Eddie Adams, a former AP photographer who took another picture that helped sum up a war — one of a South Vietnamese police chief executing a suspect.\n\n > Of Rosenthal's picture, he added: \"It's perfect: The position, the body language. ... You couldn't set anything up like this — it's just so perfect.\"\n\nA Google search for \"Raising the Flag on Iwo Jima composition\" produces a lot of hits, some of which might provide more insight into why the photo is iconic.\n\nThe details of the flag raising itself are only interesting if you accept that the photograph is special for itself, but they've been talked to death on Reddit (there's some conspiracy stuff regarding whether the photo was staged that seems to be resolvable) and it doesn't sound like you need that.\n\n[This part of the wiki article is interesting.](_URL_0_) \"Upon seeing it, Associated Press (AP) photo editor John Bodkin exclaimed 'Here's one for all time!'\" He recognized that the picture was iconic and it was immediately widely published, and won a Pulitzer.\n\nThe people in the photo were used in war bond drive, the image inspired the Marine Corps war memorial, there's been a movie made about the event and the war bond drive, and it's been on a stamp.\n\nBut the reason is that the photo is striking. There are lots of photos of war, and some of them are special, including that one." ], "score": [ 2 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [ "http://imgur.com/LzBke" ] }

{ "url": [ "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Raising_the_Flag_on_Iwo_Jima#Publication_and_staging_confusion", "http://www.paulrother.com/IwoJima/JR50YearsLater.html" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "dkj0phg", "dkj7vog" ], "text": [ "The site you found is actually about the most comprehensive research I've ever found on the effort (you did follow [the links at the end,](_URL_0_) right?) It's possible there was a contemporary report in *Scientific American;* I don't think any of the engineering journals yet existed.\n\nAs for how the screwjacks were initially placed, remember that virtually any building in Chicago will have a basement, because once you've dug out footings for the walls that extend below the frost line, you may as well make the lower level useable space. So it was pretty simple in concept to carry the screwjacks into the basement, place them under the floor joists, and use a combination of cribbing and jacks to lift the buildings.", "I doubt that there will be much scholarly work on the methods, as these would have been worked out on the fly. But I doubt that the techniques they used differ much from what we do today. You chop a bunch of holes in the foundation and insert cross beams. It is these beams that see the force of the jacks. \nHere are some sites showing the recent [moving](_URL_2_) of the [Harriet Rees House](_URL_2_) that might give you a idea of the process." ], "score": [ 2, 2 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [ "http://users.ox.ac.uk/~sedm1912/lch.html" ] }

{ "url": [ "http://users.ox.ac.uk/~sedm1912/csc.html", "https://www.wolfehousebuildingmovers.com/project/rees-house-chicago/", "https://www.wolfehousebuildingmovers.com/news/chicagos-harriet-f-rees-house-relocation/" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "eogoqhe" ], "text": [ "I actually wrote a paper on this last term at university.\n\nLong story short: doctors. They turned to doctors. And midwives. And each other. Doctors could be male or female; female physicians were a incredibly small percentage, but not unheard of (Green, 440). Medieval society recognized a difference between \"female doctor\" and \"midwife\", as well (Green, 438-439). A midwife was not just any female medical practitioner, though the exact definition of what a midwife was varied across nations and language. Midwives were often women and did not have formal training and their medical knowledge was passed on orally in apprenticeship (Graver, 216). Thus, the majority of knowledge women had about midwifery was not committed to the page and is lost to us.\n\nNow, the \"medieval era\" is a huge span of time, usually measured from around the decline of the Western Roman Empire in the early 400s to the beginning of the Renaissance, usually considered be around the 1300s. Note: these dates are extremely loose. Eras in history do not start and stop on hard lines like chapters in a book. Elements of \"medieval\" culture predate 400 and persist after 1300 throughout Europe, but when people say \"Medieval Europe\", this is usually the era they mean.\n\nThe main difference between a doctor, surgeon, or barber and a midwife is that a doctor had to be licensed. Doctors were university educated (or they would claim to be), and belonged to a guild. Records of both licensed, trained female healthcare practitioners and unlicensed midwives are found in medieval England, France, Spain, Italy, and the Carolingian Empire (Green, 439). Evidence of Jewish female doctors (Green, 444) and Muslim female doctors (Green, 442) living and working in Europe also exists.\n\nIt's important to remember that most laywomen, whether noble or merchants or serfs, would have probably attended or aided in a birth at some point in her life (Green, 472). Mothers assisted daughters in birth, servants assisted ladies. Women who were untrained but had practical experience in the delivery of children may by considered \"midwives\" (the term was vague in it's usage in the medieval era, since no organization oversaw them). It is possible (indeed, it is theory of some historians [Green, 439; Garver, 213) that this nontextual network of female medical knowledge acted as a source of reproductive healthcare for those women who could not afford to contract the services of a trained physician. \n\nGiven all this, it is difficult to know with certainty what sort of information laywomen would have had access to. Information did not circulate the same way in the medieval era as it does today. Women rarely left written firsthand accounts of their lives and knowledge that survive today, and of course, illiterate people, male or female, left no written accounts whatsoever. \n\nWe do know what trained physicians had access to, though. The writings of Soranus, Hippocrates, and Galen were Greek and Roman sources. Ibn Sina, Masawaih, and Al-Razi were Arab authors whose medical texts had been translated into Latin. All offer knowledge on contraception and abortion, most even provide recipes for abortifacients (Riddle, 86, 93, et al.). \n\nMedieval physicians actively added to this body of knowledge. Famously, there is Trotla of Salerno, purported to be a female physician whose work, the Trotula, a treatise on female medical care, was widely circulated throughout Europe (Riddle, 124). The work survives, but its authorship is in question. Regardless, Salerno was a huge centre of medical advancement in the 12th century (Green, 442; Riddle, 118). One physician, Arnald of Villanova, wrote a treatise where he titles a chapter within it, \"Things so that a women will not conceive in order that she might be seen as marriageable\". This is quiet extraordinary, because the author, in the 13th century, is offering advice on contraception specifically so that women may enjoy premarital sex without consequence (Riddle 138). \n\nSo in summation: we have no firsthand accounts of the knowledge that common women had about their reproductive healthcare, thus, everything we can surmise about their access to healthcare is contextual and circumstantial. However, given what we know about the state of medieval European medical knowledge and the nontextual network of midwives, we can perhaps assume that common women had access to some amount of reproductive \nhealth care, though perhaps not guaranteed to be the same level of knowledge as a literate university trained physician.\n\nIf you're further interested in this topic, I cannot recommend the scholar Monica Green enough. The majority of her work is centered on medieval women's healthcare and the intersection of medieval women and the medieval medical field. Her quantitative survey of the records of midwives that I've drawn heavily from here \"Women's Medical Practice and Health Care in Medieval Europe\", is a fantastic place to start.\n \nSources:\n\nValerie L. Garver, \"Childbearing and Infancy in the Carolingian World,\" *Journal of the History of Sexuality* 21, no. 2 (2012).\n\nMonica Green. \"Women's Medical Practice and Health Care in Medieval Europe.\" *Signs* 14, no. 2 (1989).\n\nJohn M. Riddle. *Contraception and Abortion from the Ancient World to the Renaissance*. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University Press, 1992." ], "score": [ 23 ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "dow1fei" ], "text": [ "I tried to answer this question before in this very long post: [How accurate is the stereotypical depiction of a pirate?](_URL_0_)\n\nBut there is always a lot more to be said. If you have any other specific questions, feel free to ask." ], "score": [ 3 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [ "https://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/6yp44c/how_accurate_is_the_stereotypical_depiction_of_a/dmsukme/" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "c9b3gnj", "c9b2fr3" ], "text": [ "Christopher Mackay calls the Romans \"a conservative people\" and repeatedly points out that Roman writers always talk about how much better things were in the past; it didn't seem to matter whether it was a 2nd century BC Roman referring to the 3rd century BC or a 2nd century AD Roman talking about the 1st century AD, they always seemed to think older was equal to better.", "You want to look at \"Primitivism in Antiquity\", which is a pretty definitive compilation by Lovejoy and Boas of, as you put it, \"idealization of the past\" in Western culture. They also have an appendix on Primitivism in Indian and East Asian Antiquity, but most of the material in the book focus textual evidence of these attitudes that can be found in Greek and Latin authors.\n\nThe idea was to for this to be the first volume in a three volume intellectual history extending to the present, and you can find sketches for that project in Lovejoy's essays published elsewhere, but I believe he died before it could be realized and Boas published the second volume (\"Primitivism in the Middle Ages\") by himself, and with that the project ended.\n\ntl;dr - Yes, there is." ], "score": [ 3, 2 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cl33kxz" ], "text": [ "It is a term used by historians to gauge whether or not a person, place, or thing actually existed in the past. Thus the Historicity of Jesus refers to the academic debate over whether or not there was an actual person named Jesus who lived in Judea in the first century. Historicity has been much more problematic and harder than what many historical laymen might expect. The records and data that have been preserved over most of human history privileged the elite and powerful, and even then were very sparse. So with Jesus, historians have had to parse out the few scraps of first and second century documents like the Jewish historian Josephus that refer to a man named Jesus and his Christian sect to make an argument. Part of the reason why this particular debate is so controversial is that these interpretations often turn on semantic and linguistic interpretations on a very narrow source base are thus very subjective. \n\nFor example, some historians argue that Josephus's references to Jesus are later forgeries added in by Christian chroniclers. Other scholars make a contention that such a reading is too restrictive and assert that Josephus should be taken more literally. Between these two poles is a mainstream voice that suggests some elements of Josephus are forgeries, but it represents a genuine voice from the first century that does say a man named Jesus existed. \n\nNormally, historicity is something that applies to academic debates that are tempests in a teapot, but when they touch on hot-button issues like religion, they can became quite lively." ], "score": [ 3 ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "cf54w7y" ], "text": [ "This depends heavily on your social position but from context I shall assume you mean the small tenant farmers who were worst impacted by the Famine. I studied this topic under David Fitzpatrick in TCD and the key point he made was that there was no uniform experience of emigration. Steerage tickets were not ridiculously expensive but you would also have to acquire enough supplies (primarily food) to last the voyage and transport to the ports themselves. The total cost would be roughly equivalent to two/three months wages. This money might be earned in a number of ways by selling off all possessions that would not accompany the family to America, the entire family working to send a single person to America (on the assumption that they would find work and send money back for whoever else had to emigrate) or moving to the port cities (like Dublin or Belfast) or Britain and finding temporary work there.\n\nRemittances from those already abroad were however open to less people during the Famine than they were later (the simple reason being that the Famine started the mass flood of people of the country)." ], "score": [ 2 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

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{ "a_id": [ "dykts8w" ], "text": [ "We're skipping past the real question here: did the Spartans actually throw imperfect newborns off a cliff? Probably not. I've answered this in much more detail [here](_URL_0_).\n\nAs I point out in that post, the entirety of our evidence for this Spartan practice is a single passage in a very late source affected by several centuries of deliberately misleading Spartan propaganda. It does not give any details about the selection process, so we can't even answer the question how Sparta would *hypothetically* judge babies. Other sources advocating eugenic practices are similarly vague. Take Aristotle for example, who argued that the ideal state *should* expose babies deemed defective (but tellingly does not mention Sparta as a place where this was already done, reinforcing the point that Sparta did not actually do this): \n\n > As to exposing or rearing the children born, let there be a law that no deformed child shall be reared.\n\n-- Aristotle, *Politics* 1335b.19-21\n\nThat is the full extent of his comment on the matter, except to add that some states had laws preventing the killing of newborn babies, in which case Aristotle recommends fertility restrictions enforced through mandatory abortion.\n\nThe word he uses to define the babies he sentences to death is πεπηρωμένον, \"being defective/maimed/incapacitated\". Since it would be impossible to know what cognitive problems a newborn baby may develop, we have to assume that he is referring to obvious, visible physical deformities only." ], "score": [ 18 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [ "https://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/7y3kxy/did_spartans_really_used_to_throw_imperfect/due4yq5/" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "dwmwtfy" ], "text": [ "Mentioning previous replies is not intended to discourage follow-on questions, info, and debate.\n\n*Especially* in this case, because these deal with \"king in Prussia\", although some compare it with kingdoms *of* Bohemia, Poland, Germany, et cetera -- not the possible existence of any other \"king in\" titles.\n\n\"When, how, and why did Brandenburg change to Prussia?\" at _URL_1_ , a reply by /u/kieslowskifan\n\n\"Why did it take so long for the various German States to unify into one nation?\" , a subreply at _URL_2_ by /u/LiterallyBismarck\n\n\"Within the Holy Roman Empire, why were the Hohenzollerns forced to use the title \"King in Prussia\" while the Wettins were referred to as \"King of Poland\"?\" at _URL_0_ , with discussion by /u/coldsteeleyes , captkrob, Erusian, laertes78, and iwanttosaysmth." ], "score": [ 3 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [ "https://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/7uq9q7/within_the_holy_roman_empire_why_were_the/", "https://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/5y3mxx/when_how_and_why_did_brandenburg_change_to_prussia/den6xk8/", "https://www.reddit.com/r/AskHistorians/comments/6rheh5/why_did_it_take_so_long_for_the_various_german/dl6yexr/" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "d29abpu" ], "text": [ "Caps and turban-like pieces were often worn by working men as well as gentlemen in casual attire (Euler is wearing a banyan, so we'll assume the more worldly, casual attire). They could be both a substitute for the more formal (and less comfortable) wig, as well as keep the head warm and clean from dust/debris/smoke. What Euler specifically is wearing looks to be a more extreme version of [this style](_URL_3_) of cap. It's literally a tube knotted or tied on top. His just has a great deal of extra after the tied off point. You'll see a great variety of styles, some [knitted](_URL_1_), some [actually tied in a knot](_URL_4_), some [worn rather jaunty](_URL_0_), and others [oversized enough](_URL_2_) to begin to resemble crude turbans. Wrapping a kerchief about the head in a turban-like manner was also popular." ], "score": [ 15 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [ "https://upload.wikimedia.org/wikipedia/commons/d/d7/Leonhard_Euler.jpg" ] }

{ "url": [ "http://www.britishmuseum.org/research/collection_online/collection_object_details.aspx?objectId=3546258&partId=1&searchText=jacket&images=true&from=ad&fromDate=1760&to=ad&toDate=1780&page=3", "http://www.augusta-auction.com/component/auctions/?view=lot&id=723&auction_file_id=3", "http://artuk.org/discover/artworks/richard-peckham-d-1718-70678", "https://www.pinterest.com/pin/124200902199848366/", "http://www.huntsearch.gla.ac.uk/cgi-bin/foxweb/huntsearch/LargeImage.fwx?collection=hunter&catno=43507&mdaCode=GLAHA&filename=43507.jpg&browseMode=on" ] }

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{ "a_id": [ "c9h46x7" ], "text": [ "Actually, the US had at least one close call. The [Newburgh Conspiracy](_URL_0_) was a mutiny/coup in the making over pay/pension issues after the Revolution. George Washington played a role in defusing it.\n\nThere was also the [Business Plot](_URL_1_), an alleged coup plot against FDR in 1933, but there's a lot of doubt as to whether it was a real threat or just a \"wild scheme.\"" ], "score": [ 2 ] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [] }

{ "url": [ "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Newburgh_Conspiracy", "http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Business_Plot" ] }

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