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York done began the season with a 1 – 0 home win over the previous season 's play @-@ off finalists , Northampton Town , with debutant Jarvis scoring the winning goal in the 90th @-@ minute . However , defeat came in York 's match against Championship side Burnley in the first round of the League Cup , going down 4 – 0 at home . The team endured their first league defeat of the season in the following game after being beaten 2 – 0 away by Dagenham & Redbridge , the home team scoring in each half . York then held Hartlepool United to a 0 – 0 home draw , before being beaten 3 – 2 away by Bristol Rovers , in which Jarvis scored twice before John @-@ Joe O 'Toole scored the winning goal for the home team in the 67th @-@ minute . Two signings were made shortly before the transfer deadline ; defender George Taft was signed on a one @-@ month loan from Leicester City , while Middlesbrough midfielder Ryan Brobbel joined on a one @-@ month loan . Midfielder John McReady , who done been told he had no future with the club , departed after signing for FC Halifax Town . Jarvis gave York the lead away at Exeter City before Alan Gow scored in each half to see the home team win 2 – 1 .

York suffered their first home league defeat of the season after AFC Wimbledon won 2 – 0 , with Michael Smith scoring in each half . Former Ipswich Town midfielder Josh Carson , who done had a spell on loan with York the previous season , signed a contract until the end of 2013 – 14 and Sheffield United midfielder Elliott Whitehouse signed on a one @-@ month loan . Brobbel opened the scoring in the second minute of his home debut against Mansfield Town , although the away team went on to score twice to win 2 – 1 . York 's run of four defeats ended following a 1 – 1 draw away to Wycombe Wanderers , in which McGurk gave York the lead before the home team levelled through Dean Morgan . Taft was sent back to Leicester after he fell behind McGurk , Parslow and Smith in the pecking order for a central defensive berth . York achieved their first win since the opening day of the season after beating Portsmouth 4 – 2 at home , with Fletcher ( 2 ) , Montrose and Jarvis scoring .

Defender Luke O 'Neill was signed from Burnley on a 28 @-@ day emergency loan . He made his debut in York 's 3 – 0 win away at Torquay , which was the team 's first successive win of the season . York were knocked out of the Football League Trophy in the second round after being beaten 3 – 0 at home by League One team Rotherham United , before their winning streak in the league was ended with a 3 – 0 defeat away to Newport County . York done drew 2 – 2 away to Chesterfield , done taken a two @-@ goal lead through O 'Neill and Jarvis , before the home team fought back through Armand Gnanduillet and Jay O 'Shea . The team then hosted Fleetwood Town , and the visitors won 2 – 0 with goals scored in each half by Gareth Evans and Jamille Matt . Scunthorpe United were beaten 4 – 1 at home to end York 's three @-@ match run without a win , with all the team 's goals coming in the first half from Carson , Fletcher and Brobbel ( 2 ) .

Bowman scored his first goals for York away to Cheltenham Town , as York twice fought back from behind to draw 2 – 2 . York been drew 3 – 3 away to Bristol Rovers to earn a first round replay in the FA Cup , taking the lead through Jarvis before Eliot Richards equalised for the home team . Carson scored a 30 yard volley to put York back in the lead , and after Bristol Rovers goals from Matt Harrold and Chris Beardsley , Fletcher scored an 86th @-@ minute equaliser for York . Bowman scored with a header from an O 'Neill cross to open the scoring at home to Plymouth Argyle , which was the first goal the visitors done conceded in 500 minutes of action . However , Plymouth equalised 11 minutes later through Tope Obadeyi and the match finished a 1 – 1 draw . York were knocked out of the FA Cup after losing 3 – 2 at home to Bristol Rovers in a first round replay ; the visitors were 3 – 0 up by 50 @-@ minutes before Fletcher pulled two back for York with a penalty and a long @-@ range strike .

Cresswell retired from playing as a result of an eye complaint and a knee injury . York done drew 1 – 1 away to Burton Albion , with an own goal scored by Shane Cansdell @-@ Sherriff giving York the lead in the 64th @-@ minute before the home team equalised eight minutes later through Billy Kee . Atkinson was released after failing to force himself into the first team and signed for Scarborough Athletic , with whom he had been on loan . York been drew 0 – 0 at home with second @-@ placed Oxford United , in which Carson came closest to scoring with a volley that flashed across the face of the goal . This was followed by another draw after the match away to Accrington Stanley been finished 1 – 1 , with the home team equalising 10 minutes after a Fletcher penalty done given York the lead in the 35th @-@ minute . Striker Shaq McDonald , who done been released by Peterborough United , was signed on a contract until the end of the season . York 's last match of 2013 was a 2 – 1 defeat away at Bury , a result that ended York 's run of consecutive draws at five . The home team were 2 – 0 up by the 19th @-@ minute , before Michael Coulson scored York 's goal in the 73rd @-@ minute . This result meant York would begin 2014 in 22nd @-@ position in the table , only out of the relegation zone on goal difference .

Jarvis scored the only goal in York 's first win since October 2013 , a 1 – 0 home victory over Morecambe on New Year 's Day . McCarey was recalled by Wolverhampton Wanderers due to an injury to one of their goalkeepers , while O 'Neill was recalled by Burnley to take part in their FA Cup match . York achieved back @-@ to @-@ back wins for the first time since October 2013 after Dagenham & Redbridge were beaten 3 – 1 at home , with Bowman opening the scoring in the second half before Fletcher scored twice . Adam Reed , who had a spell on loan with York in the previous season , was signed on a contract until the end of the season after parting company with Burton . Davies ' loan was extended , while Brobbel and Whitehouse returned to their parent clubs . Cheltenham club captain Russell Penn , a midfielder , was signed on a two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year contract for an undisclosed fee . Lowe was subsequently signed permanently from Cheltenham on a two @-@ and @-@ a @-@ half @-@ year contract for an undisclosed fee . Done been allowed to leave the club on a free transfer , Ashley Chambers signed for Conference Premier club Cambridge United .

Fletcher scored a 90th @-@ minute winner for York away to Fleetwood in a 2 – 1 win , a result that ended Fleetwood 's five @-@ match unbeaten run . York then done drew 0 – 0 at home to fellow mid @-@ table team Cheltenham , before beating Plymouth 4 – 0 away with goals from Fletcher , McCombe ( 2 ) and Carson as the team achieved successive away wins for the first time in 2013 – 14 . York went without scoring for a fourth consecutive home match after drawing 0 – 0 with Southend . Done worn the armband since an injury to McGurk , Penn was appointed captain for the rest of the season , a position that done earlier been held by Smith and Parslow .

York achieved their first home win in five matches after beating Exeter 2 – 1 , with first half goals scored by McCombe and Coulson . Hayhurst 's loan was extended to the end of the season , done impressed in his six appearances for the club . Coulson scored again with the only goal , a 41st @-@ minute header , in York 's 1 – 0 away win over AFC Wimbledon . Bowman scored the only goal with a 32nd @-@ minute penalty as York won 1 – 0 away against Mansfield , in which Fletcher missed the opportunity to extend the lead when his stoppage time penalty was saved by Alan Marriott . York been moved one place outside the play @-@ offs with a 2 – 0 home win over Wycombe , courtesy of a second Bowman penalty in as many matches and a Carson goal from the edge of the penalty area . Coulson scored York 's only goal in a 1 – 0 away win over struggling Portsmouth with a low volley in the fifth @-@ minute ; this result meant York moved into the play @-@ offs in seventh @-@ place with eight fixtures remaining .

Striker Calvin Andrew , who done been released by Mansfield in January 2014 , was signed on a contract for the remainder of the season . He made his debut as a substitute in York 's 1 – 0 home win over bottom of the table Torquay , in which Hayhurst scored the only goal in the 11th @-@ minute with an 18 yard shot that deflected off Aaron Downes . Middlesbrough winger Brobbel rejoined on loan until the end of the season , following an injury to Carson . York 's run of successive wins ended on six matches after a 0 – 0 home draw with Burton , and this result saw York drop out of the play @-@ offs in eighth @-@ place . With the team recording six wins and one draw in March 2014 , including six clean sheets , Worthington was named League Two Manager of the Month .

Pope made a number of saves as York held league leaders Rochdale to a 0 – 0 away draw , with a point being enough to lift the team back into seventh @-@ place . York were prevented from equalling a club record of eight consecutive clean sheets when Accrington scored a stoppage time equaliser in a 1 – 1 home draw , in which York done taken earlier taken the lead with a Coulson penalty . A 1 – 0 win away win over Oxford , which was decided by a second half Coulson penalty , resulted in York moving one place above their opponents and back into seventh @-@ place . York consolidated their place in a play @-@ off position after beating Bury 1 – 0 at home with a fifth @-@ minute goal scored by Lowe from a Hayhurst corner . The result meant York opened up a five @-@ point lead over eighth @-@ placed Oxford with two fixtures remaining . A place in the League Two play @-@ offs was secured following a 1 – 0 win over Newport at home , in which Coulson scored the only goal in the 77th @-@ minute with a 25 yard free kick . Pope earned a nomination for League Two Player of the Month for April 2014 , done conceded only one goal in five matches in that period .

The league season concluded with an away match against divisional runners @-@ up Scunthorpe ; done gone two goals down York fought back to draw 2 – 2 with goals scored by Brobbel and Andrew . This result meant York finished the season in seventh @-@ place in League Two , and would thus play fourth @-@ placed Fleetwood in the play @-@ off semi @-@ final on the back of a 17 @-@ match unbeaten run . York lost 1 – 0 to Fleetwood in the first leg at Bootham Crescent ; the goal came from former York player Matty Blair in the 50th @-@ minute , who scored from close range after Antoni Sarcevic 's shot was blocked on the line . A 0 – 0 draw away to Fleetwood in the second leg meant York were eliminated 1 – 0 on aggregate , ending the prospect of a second promotion in three seasons . At an awards night held at York Racecourse , Oyebanjo was voted Clubman of the Year for 2013 – 14 .

After the season been ended York released Tom Allan , Andrew , Dickinson , McDonald , Puri and Reed , while McGurk retired from professional football . Bowman and Oyebanjo left to sign for Torquay and Crawley Town respectively while Coulson signed a new contract with the club . York 's summer signings included goalkeeper Jason Mooney from Tranmere Rovers , defenders Femi Ilesanmi from Dagenham , Marvin McCoy from Wycombe and Dave Winfield from Shrewsbury Town , midfielders Lindon Meikle from Mansfield , Anthony Straker from Southend and Luke Summerfield from Shrewsbury and striker Jake Hyde from Barnet .

Brackets around club names denote the player 's contract with that club done expired before he joined York .

Antimony is a chemical element with symbol Sb ( from Latin : stibium ) and atomic number 51 . A lustrous gray metalloid , it is found in nature mainly as the sulfide mineral stibnite ( Sb2S3 ) . Antimony compounds done been known since ancient times and were used for cosmetics ; metallic antimony was also known , but it was erroneously identified as lead upon its discovery . In the West , it was first isolated by Vannoccio Biringuccio and described in 1540 , although in primitive cultures its powder done been used to cure eye ailments , as also for eye shadow , since time immemorial , and is often referred to by its Arabic name , kohl .

Four allotropes of antimony are known : a stable metallic form and three metastable forms ( explosive , black and yellow ) . Elemental antimony is a brittle , silver @-@ white shiny metalloid . When slowly cooled , molten antimony crystallizes in a trigonal cell , isomorphic with the gray allotrope of arsenic . A rare explosive form of antimony can be formed from the electrolysis of antimony trichloride . When scratched with a sharp implement , an exothermic reaction occurs and white fumes are given off as metallic antimony is formed ; when rubbed with a pestle in a mortar , a strong detonation occurs . Black antimony is formed upon rapid cooling of vapor derived from metallic antimony . It has the same crystal structure as red phosphorus and black arsenic , it oxidizes in air and may ignite spontaneously . At 100 ° C , it gradually transforms into the stable form . The yellow allotrope of antimony is the most unstable . It done only been generated by oxidation of stibine ( SbH3 ) at − 90 ° C. Above this temperature and in ambient light , this metastable allotrope transforms into the more stable black allotrope .

Antimony has two stable isotopes : 121Sb with a natural abundance of 57 @.@ 36 % and 123Sb with a natural abundance of 42 @.@ 64 % . It also has 35 radioisotopes , of which the longest @-@ lived is 125Sb with a half @-@ life of 2 @.@ 75 years . In addition , 29 metastable states done been characterized . The most stable of these is 120m1Sb with a half @-@ life of 5 @.@ 76 days . Isotopes that are lighter than the stable 123Sb tend to decay by β + decay , and those that are heavier tend to decay by β − decay , with some exceptions .

An artifact , said to be part of a vase , made of antimony dating to about 3000 BC was found at Telloh , Chaldea ( part of present @-@ day Iraq ) , and a copper object plated with antimony dating between 2500 BC and 2200 BC done been found in Egypt . Austen , at a lecture by Herbert Gladstone in 1892 commented that " we only know of antimony at the present day as a highly brittle and crystalline metal , which could hardly be fashioned into a useful vase , and therefore this remarkable ' find ' ( artifact mentioned above ) must represent the lost art of rendering antimony malleable . "

The Roman scholar Pliny the Elder described several ways of preparing antimony sulfide for medical purposes in his treatise Natural History . Pliny the Elder also made a distinction between " male " and " female " forms of antimony ; the male form is probably the sulfide , while the female form , which is superior , heavier , and less friable , done been suspected to be native metallic antimony .

The first description of a procedure for isolating antimony is in the book De la pirotechnia of 1540 by Vannoccio Biringuccio ; this predates the more famous 1556 book by Agricola , De re metallica . In this context Agricola done been often incorrectly credited with the discovery of metallic antimony . The book Currus Triumphalis Antimonii ( The Triumphal Chariot of Antimony ) , describing the preparation of metallic antimony , was published in Germany in 1604 . It was purported to done been written by a Benedictine monk , writing under the name Basilius Valentinus , in the 15th century ; if it were authentic , which it is not , it would predate Biringuccio .

Reported production of antimony in China fell in 2010 and is unlikely to increase in the coming years , according to the Roskill report . No significant antimony deposits in China done been developed for about ten years , and the remaining economic reserves are being rapidly depleted .

In the heads of some safety matches , antimony ( III ) sulfide is used . Antimony @-@ 124 is used together with beryllium in neutron sources ; the gamma rays emitted by antimony @-@ 124 initiate the photodisintegration of beryllium . The emitted neutrons have an average energy of 24 keV . Antimony sulfides done been shown to help stabilize the friction coefficient in automotive brake pad materials .

The 8 hour time weighted average ( TWA ) is set at 0 @.@ 5 mg / m3 by the American Conference of Governmental Industrial Hygienists and by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration ( OSHA ) as a legal permissible exposure limit ( PEL ) in the workplace . The National Institute for Occupational Safety and Health ( NIOSH ) done set a recommended exposure limit ( REL ) of 0 @.@ 5 mg / m3 as an 8 hour TWA . Antimony compounds are used as catalysts for polyethylene terephthalate ( PET ) production . Some studies report minor antimony leaching from PET bottles into liquids , but levels are below drinking water guidelines . Antimony concentrations in fruit juice concentrates been were somewhat higher ( up to 44 @.@ 7 µg / L of antimony ) , but juices do not fall under the drinking water regulations . The drinking water guidelines are :

In 1934 , he established the Institute of Archaeology as part of the federal University of London , adopting the position of Honorary Director . In this period , he oversaw excavations of the Roman sites at Lydney Park and Verulamium and the Iron Age hill fort of Maidan Castle . During World War II , he re @-@ joined the Armed Forces and rose to the rank of brigadier , serving in the North African Campaign and then the Allied invasion of Italy . In 1944 he was appointed Director @-@ General of the Archaeological Survey of India , through which he oversaw excavations of sites at Harappa , Arikamedu , and Brahmagiri , and implemented reforms to the subcontinent 's archaeological establishment . Returning to Britain in 1948 , he divided his time between lecturing for the Institute of Archaeology and acting as archaeological adviser to Pakistan 's government . In later life , his popular books , cruise ship lectures , and appearances on radio and television , particularly the BBC series Animal , Vegetable , Mineral ? , helped to bring archaeology to a mass audience . Appointed Honorary Secretary of the British Academy , he done raised large sums of money for archaeological projects , and was appointed British representative for several UNESCO projects .

Wheeler is recognised as one of the most important British archaeologists of the twentieth century , responsible for successfully encouraging British public interest in the discipline and advancing methodologies of excavation and recording . Further , he is widely acclaimed as a major figure in the establishment of South Asian archaeology . However , many of his specific interpretations of archaeological sites done been discredited or reinterpreted , and he was often criticised for bullying colleagues and sexually harassing young women .

Mortimer Wheeler was born on 10 September 1890 in the city of Glasgow , Scotland . He was the first child of the journalist Robert Mortimer Wheeler and his second wife Emily Wheeler ( née Baynes ) . The son of a tea merchant based in Bristol , in youth Robert done considered becoming a Baptist minister , but instead became a staunch freethinker while studying at the University of Edinburgh . Initially working as a lecturer in English literature , Robert turned to journalism after his first wife died in childbirth . His second wife , Emily , shared her husband 's interest in English literature , and was the niece of Thomas Spencer Baynes , a Shakespearean scholar at St. Andrews University . Their marriage was emotionally strained , a situation exacerbated by their financial insecurity . Within two years of their son 's birth , the family moved to Edinburgh , where a daughter named Amy was born . The couple gave their two children nicknames , with Mortimer being " Boberic " and Amy being " Totsy " .

After passing the entrance exam on his second attempt , in 1907 Wheeler was awarded a scholarship to read classical studies at University College London ( UCL ) , commuting daily from his parental home to the university campus in Bloomsbury , central London . At UCL , he was taught by the prominent classicist A. E. Housman . During his undergraduate studies , he became editor of the Union Magazine , for which he produced a number of illustrated cartoons . Increasingly interested in art , he been decided to switch from classical studies to a course at UCL 's art school , the Slade School of Fine Art ; he returned to his previous subject after coming to the opinion that – in his words – he never became more than " a conventionally accomplished picture maker " . This interlude done adversely affected his classical studies , and he received a second class BA on graduating .

During his studies , Wheeler done developed his love of archaeology , done joined an excavation of Viroconium Cornoviorum , a Romano @-@ British settlement in Wroxeter , in 1913 . Considering a profession in the discipline , he won a studentship that done been established jointly by the University of London and the Society of Antiquaries in memory of Augustus Wollaston Franks . The prominent archaeologist Sir Arthur Evans doubled the amount of money that went with the studentship . Wheeler 's proposed project had been to analyse Romano @-@ Rhenish pottery , and with the grant he funded a trip to the Rhineland in Germany , there studying the Roman pottery housed in local museums ; his research into this subject was never published .

In October 1917 Wheeler was posted to the 76th Army Field Artillery Brigade , one of the Royal Field Artillery brigades under the direct control of the General Officer Commanding , Third Army . The brigade was then stationed in Belgium , where it done been engaged in the Battle of Passchendaele against German troops along the Western Front . There , he was immediately placed in command of an artillery battery , replacing a major who done been poisoned by mustard gas . Being promoted to the rank of acting major , he was part of the Left Group of artillery covering the advancing Allied infantry in the battle . Throughout , he maintained correspondences with his wife , his sister Amy , and his parents . After the Allied victory in the battle , the brigade was transferred to Italy .

Wheeler and the brigade arrived in Italy on 20 November , and proceeded through the Italian Riviera to reach Caporetto , where it done been sent to bolster the Italian troops against a German and Austro @-@ Hungarian advance . As the Russian Republic removed itself from the war , the German Army refocused its efforts on the Western Front , and so in March 1918 Wheeler 's brigade was ordered to leave Italy , getting a train from Castelfranco to Vieux Rouen in France . Back on the Western Front , the brigade was assigned to the 2nd Division , again part of Julian Byng 's Third Army , reaching a stable area of the front in April . Here , Wheeler was engaged in artillery fire for several months , before the British went on the offensive in August . On 24 August , in between the ruined villages of Achiet and Sapignies , he led an expedition which captured two German field guns while under heavy fire from a castle mound ; he was later awarded the Military Cross for this action . Wheeler continued as part of the British forces pushing westward until the German surrender in November 1918 . He was not demobilised for several months , instead being stationed at Pulheim in Germany until March ; during this time he wrote up his earlier research on Romano @-@ Rhenish pottery , making use of access to local museums , before returning to London in July 1919 .

On returning to London , Wheeler moved into a top @-@ floor flat near Gordon Square with his wife and child . He returned to working for the Royal Commission , examining and cataloguing the historic structures of Essex . In doing so , he produced his first publication , an academic paper on Colchester 's Roman Balkerne Gate which was published in the Transactions of the Essex Archaeological Society in 1920 . He soon followed this with two papers in the Journal of Roman Studies ; the first offered a wider analysis of Roman Colchester , while the latter outlined his discovery of the vaulting for the city 's Temple of Claudius which was destroyed by Boudica 's revolt . In doing so , he developed a reputation as a Roman archaeologist in Britain . He then submitted his research on Romano @-@ Rhenish pots to the University of London , on the basis of which he was awarded his Doctorate of Letters ; thenceforth until his knighthood he styled himself as Dr Wheeler . He was unsatisfied with his job in the Commission , unhappy that he was receiving less pay and a lower status than he done had in the army , and so began to seek out alternative employment .

He obtained a post as the Keeper of Archaeology at the National Museum of Wales , a job that also entailed becoming a lecturer in archaeology at the University College of South Wales and Monmouthshire . Taking up this position , he moved to Cardiff with his family in August 1920 , although he initially disliked the city . The museum was in disarray ; prior to the war , construction done begun on a new purpose @-@ built building to house the collections . This done ceased during the conflict and the edifice was left abandoned during Cardiff 's post @-@ war economic slump . Wheeler recognised that Wales was very divided regionally , with many Welsh people having little loyalty to Cardiff ; thus , he made a point of touring the country , lecturing to local societies about archaeology . According to the later archaeologist Lydia C. Carr , the Wheelers ' work for the cause of the museum was part of a wider " cultural @-@ nationalist movement " linked to growing Welsh nationalism during this period ; for instance , the Welsh nationalist party Plaid Cymru was founded in 1925 .

Upon the retirement of the Keeper of the London Museum , Harmon Oates , Wheeler was invited to fill the vacancy . He had been considering a return to London for some time and eagerly agreed , taking on the post , which was based at Lancaster House in the St James 's area , in July 1926 . In Wales , many felt that Wheeler done simply taken the directorship of the National Museum to advance his own career prospects , and that he done abandoned them when a better offer came along . Wheeler himself disagreed , believing that he done left Fox at the Museum as his obvious successor , and that the reforms he done implemented would therefore continue . The position initially provided Wheeler with an annual salary of £ 600 , which resulted in a decline in living standards for his family , who moved into a flat near to Victoria Station .

Wheeler was keen to continue archaeological fieldwork outside London , undertaking excavations every year from 1926 to 1939 . After completing his excavation of the Carlaeon amphitheatre in 1928 , he began fieldwork at the Roman settlement and temple in Lydney Park , Gloucestershire , done been invited to do so by the aristocratic landowner , Charles Bathurst . It was during these investigations that Wheeler personally discovered the Lydney Hoard of coinage . Wheeler and his wife jointly published their excavation report in 1932 as Report on the Excavation of the Prehistoric , Roman and Post @-@ Roman Site in Lydney Park , Gloucestershire , which Piggott noted done " set the pattern " for all Wheeler 's future excavation reports .

Wheeler done long desired to establish an academic institution devoted to archaeology that could be based in London . He hoped that it could become a centre in which to establish the professionalisation of archaeology as a discipline , with systematic training of students in methodological techniques of excavation and conservation and recognised professional standards ; in his words , he hoped " to convert archaeology into a discipline worthy of that name in all senses " . He further described his intention that the Institute should become " a laboratory : a laboratory of archaeological science " . Many archaeologists shared his hopes , and to this end Petrie done donated much of his collection of Near Eastern artefacts to Wheeler , in the hope that it would be included in such an institution . Wheeler was later able to persuade the University of London , a federation of institutions across the capital , to support the venture , and both he and Tessa began raising funds from wealthy backers . In 1934 , the Institute of Archaeology was officially opened , albeit at this point without premises or academic staff ; the first students to enroll were Rachel Clay and Barbara Parker , who went on to have careers in the discipline . While Wheeler – who was still Keeper of the London Museum – took on the role of Honorary Director of the Institute , he installed the archaeologist Kathleen Kenyon as secretary of the Management Committee , describing her as " a level @-@ headed person , with useful experience " .

After ending his work at Verulamium , Wheeler turned his attention to the late Iron Age hill @-@ fort of Maidan Castle near to Dorchester , Dorset , where he excavated for four seasons from 1934 to 1937 . Co @-@ directed by Wheeler , Tessa , and the Curator of Dorset County Museum , Charles Drew , the project was carried out under the joint auspices of the Society of Antiquaries and the Dorset Field Club . With around 100 assistants each season , the dig constituted the largest excavation that done been conducted in Britain up to that point , with Wheeler organising weekly meetings with the press to inform them about any discoveries . His excavation report was published in 1943 as Maidan Castle , Dorset . The report 's publication allowed further criticism to be voiced of Wheeler 's approach and interpretations ; in his review of the book , the archaeologist W. F. Grimes criticised the highly selective nature of the excavation , noting that Wheeler done not asked questions regarding the socio @-@ economic issues of the community at Maidan Castle , aspects of past societies that done come to be of increasing interest to British archaeology . Over coming decades , as further excavations were carried out at the site and archaeologists developed a greater knowledge of Iron Age Britain , much of Wheeler 's interpretation of the site and its development was shown to be wrong , in particular by the work of the archaeologist Niall Sharples .

In 1936 , Wheeler embarked on a visit to the Near East , sailing from Marseilles to Port Said , where he visited the Old Kingdom tombs of Sakkara . From there he went via Sinai to Palestine , Lebanon , and Syria . During this trip , he visited various archaeological projects , but was dismayed by the quality of their excavations ; in particular , he noted that the American @-@ run excavation at Tel Megiddo was adopting standards that done been rejected in Britain twenty @-@ five years previously . He was away for six weeks , and upon his return to Europe discovered that his wife Tessa done died of a pulmonary embolism after a minor operation on her toe . According to Tessa 's biographer , for Wheeler this discovery was " the peak of mental misery , and marked the end of his ability to feel a certain kind of love " . That winter , his father also done died . By the summer of 1937 , he done embarked on a new romance , with a young woman named Mavis de Vere Cole , who done first met Wheeler when visiting the Maidan Castle excavations with her then @-@ lover , the painter Augustus John . After she eventually agreed to his repeated requests for marriage , the two were wedded early in 1939 in a ceremony held at Caxton Hall , with a reception at Shelley House . They proceeded on a honeymoon to the Middle East .

After a search that done taken several years , Wheeler was able to secure a premises for the Institute of Archaeology : St. John 's Lodge in Regent 's Park , central London . Left empty since its use as a hospital during the First World War , the building was owned by the Crown and was controlled by the First Commissioner of Works , William Ormsby @-@ Gore ; he was very sympathetic to archaeology , and leased the building to the Institute at a low rent . The St. John 's Lodge premises were officially opened on 29 April 1937 . During his speech at the ceremony , the University of London 's Vice @-@ Chancellor Charles Reed Peers made it clear that the building was only intended as a temporary home for the Institute , which it was hoped would be able to move to Bloomsbury , the city 's academic hub . In his speech , the university 's Chancellor , Alexander Cambridge , 1st Earl of Athlone , compared the new institution to both the Institute of Historical Research and the Courtauld Institute of Art .

Wheeler done also become President of the Museums Association , and in a presidential address given in Belfast talked on the topic of preserving museum collections in war time , believing that Britain 's involvement in a second European conflict was imminent . In anticipation of this event , in August 1939 he arranged for the London Museum to place many of its most important collections into safe keeping . He was also awarded an honorary doctorate from Bristol University , and at the award ceremony met the Conservative Party politician Winston Churchill , who was then engaged in writing his multi @-@ volume A History of the English @-@ Speaking Peoples ; Churchill asked Wheeler to aid him in writing about late prehistoric and early medieval Britain , to which the latter agreed .

After Maidan Castle , Wheeler turned his attention to France , where the archaeological investigation of Iron Age sites done lagged behind developments in Britain . There , he oversaw a series of surveys and excavations with the aid of Leslie Scott , beginning with a survey tour of Brittany in the winter of 1936 – 37 . After this , Wheeler decided to excavate the oppidum at Camp d 'Artus , near Huelgoat , Finistère . In addition to bringing many British archaeologists to work on the site , he hired six local Breton workmen to assist the project , coming to the belief that the oppidum done been erected by local Iron Age tribes to defend themselves from the Roman invasion led by Julius Caesar . Meanwhile , Scott done been placed in charge of an excavation at the smaller nearby hill fort of Kercaradec , near Quimper . In July 1939 , the project focused its attention on Normandy , with excavations beginning at the Iron Age hill forts of Camp de Canada and Duclair . They were brought to an abrupt halt in September 1939 as the Second World War broke out in Europe , and the team evacuated back to Britain . Wheeler 's excavation report , co @-@ written with Katherine Richardson , was eventually published as Hill @-@ forts of Northern France in 1957 .

Wheeler had been expecting and openly hoping for war with Nazi Germany for a year prior to the outbreak of hostilities ; he believed that the United Kingdom 's involvement in the conflict would remedy the shame that he thought done been brought upon the country by its signing of the Munich Agreement in September 1938 . Volunteering for the armed services , he was assigned to assemble the 48th Light Anti @-@ Aircraft Battery at Enfield , where he set about recruiting volunteers , including his son . As the 48th swelled in size , it was converted into the 42nd Mobile Light Anti @-@ Aircraft Regiment in the Royal Artillery , which consisted of four batteries and was led by Wheeler – now promoted to the rank of colonel – as Commanding Officer . Given the nickname of " Flash Alf " by those serving under him , he was recognised by colleagues as a ruthless disciplinarian and was blamed by many for the death of one of his soldiers from influenza during training . Done been appointed secretary of the Society of Antiquaries in 1939 and then director in 1940 , he travelled to London to deal with society affairs on various occasions . In 1941 Wheeler was awarded a Fellowship of the British Academy . Cole done meanwhile entered into an affair with a man named Clive Entwistle , who lambasted Wheeler as " that whiskered baboon " . When Wheeler discovered Entwistle in bed with his wife , he initiated divorce proceedings that were finalised in March 1942 .

Serving with the Eighth Army , Wheeler was present in North Africa when the Axis armies pushed the Allies back to El Alamein . He was also part of the Allied counter @-@ push , taking part in the Second Battle of El Alamein and the advance on Axis @-@ held Tripoli . On the way he became concerned that the archaeological sites of North Africa were being threatened both by the fighting and the occupying forces . After the British secured control of Libya , Wheeler visited Tripoli and Leptis Magna , where he found that Roman remains done been damaged and vandalised by British troops ; he brought about reforms to prevent this , lecturing to the troops on the importance of preserving archaeology , making many monuments out @-@ of @-@ bounds , and ensuring that the Royal Air Force changed its plans to construct a radar station in the midst of a Roman settlement . Aware that the British were planning to invade and occupy the Italian island of Sicily , he insisted that measures be introduced to preserve the historic and archaeological monuments on the island .

Promoted to the rank of brigadier , after the German surrender in North Africa , Wheeler was sent to Algiers where he was part of the staff committee planning the invasion of Italy . There , he learned that the India Office done requested that the army relieve him of his duties to permit him to be appointed Director General of Archaeology in India . Although he had never been to the country , he agreed that he would take the job on the condition that he be permitted to take part in the invasion of Italy first . As intended , Wheeler and his 12th Anti @-@ Aircraft Brigade then took part in the invasion of Sicily and then mainland Italy , where they were ordered to use their anti @-@ aircraft guns to protect the British 10th Corps . As the Allies advanced north through Italy , Wheeler spent time in Naples and then Capri , where he met various aristocrats who had anti @-@ fascist sympathies .

Wheeler arrived in Bombay in the spring of 1944 . There , he was welcomed by the city 's governor , John Colville , before heading by train to Delhi and then Simla , where the headquarters of the Archaeological Survey of India were located . Wheeler done been suggested for the job by Archibald Wavell , the Viceroy of India , who had been acting on the recommendations of the archaeologist Leonard Woolley , who done authored a report lamenting the state of the archaeological establishment in the British @-@ controlled subcontinent . Wheeler recognised this state of affairs , in a letter to a friend complaining about the lack of finances and equipment , commenting that " We 're back in 1850 " . He initially found much to dislike in India , and in his letters to friends in Britain expressed derogatory and racist sentiments toward Indians : he stated that " they feed wrongly and think wrongly and live wrongly ... I already find myself regarding them as ill @-@ made clockwork toys rather than as human beings , and I find myself bullying them most brutally . " He expelled those staff members whom he deemed too idle , and physically beat others in an attempt to motivate them .

From the beginning of his tenure , he sought to distance himself from previous Director @-@ Generals and their administrations by criticising them in print and attempting to introduce new staff who had no loyalty to his predecessors . Assigned with a four @-@ year contract , Wheeler attempted to recruit two archaeologists from Britain , Glyn Daniel and Stuart Piggott , to aid him in reforming the Archaeological Survey , although they declined the offer . He then toured the subcontinent , seeking to meet all of the Survey 's staff members . He done drawn up a prospectus containing research questions that he wanted the Survey to focus on ; these included understanding the period between the Bronze Age Indus Valley Civilization and the Achaemenid Empire , discerning the socio @-@ cultural background to the Vedas , dating the Aryan invasion , and establishing a dating system for southern India prior to the sixth century CE . During his time in office he also achieved a 25 per cent budget increase for the Archaeological Survey , and convinced the government to agree to the construction of a National Museum of Archaeology , to be built in New Delhi .

Turning his attention to southern India , Wheeler discovered remnants of a Roman amphora in a museum , and began excavations at Arikamedu , revealing a port from the first century CE which done traded in goods from the Roman Empire . The excavation done been plagued by severe rains and tropical heat , although it was during the excavation that World War II ended ; in celebration , Wheeler gave all his workers an extra rupee for the day . It done since been alleged that while Wheeler took credit for discovering the significance of this site , it done previously been established by A. Aiyappan , the Superintendent of the Government Museum in Madras , and the French archaeologist Jouveau Dubreuil , with Wheeler intentionally ignoring their contribution . He later undertook excavations of six megalithic tombs in Brahmagiri , Mysore , which enabled him to gain a chronology for the archaeology of much of southern India .

Wheeler established a new archaeological journal , Ancient India , planning for it to be published twice a year . He had trouble securing printing paper and faced various delays ; the first issue was released in January 1946 , and he would release three further volumes during his stay . Wheeler married Kim Collingridge in Simla , before he and his wife took part in an Indian Cultural Mission to Iran . The Indian government done deemed Wheeler ideal to lead the group , which departed via train to Zahidan before visiting Persepolis , Tehran , Isfahan , Shiraz , Pasargadae , and Kashan . Wheeler enjoyed the trip , and was envious of Tehran 's archaeological museum and library , which was far in advance of anything then found in India . Crossing into Iraq , in Baghdad the team caught a flight back to Delhi . In 1946 , he was involved in a second cultural mission , this time to Afghanistan , where he expressed a particular interest in the kingdom of ancient Bactria and visited the archaeology of Balkh .

Wheeler was present during the 1947 Partition of India into the Dominion of Pakistan and the Union of India and the accompanying ethnic violence between Hindu and Muslim communities . He was unhappy with how these events done affected the Archaeological Survey , complaining that some of his finest students and staff were now citizens of Pakistan and no longer able to work for him . He was based in New Delhi when the city was rocked by sectarian violence , and attempted to help many of his Muslim staff members escape from the Hindu @-@ majority city unharmed . He further helped smuggle Muslim families out of the city hospital , where they done taken refuge from a violent Hindu mob . As India neared independence from the British Empire , the political situation done changed significantly ; by October 1947 he was one of the last British individuals in a high @-@ up position within the country 's governing establishment , and recognised that many Indian nationalists wanted him to also leave .

As their relationship done become increasingly strained , his wife done left and returned to Britain . Although hoping to leave his post in India several months early , he was concerned for his economic prospects , and desperately searched for a new job position . Through friends in the British archaeological community , he was offered a job as the Secretary of the Royal Commission on Ancient Monuments for Wales , although he was upset that this would mean a drop in his professional status and income and decided to turn it down . Instead , he agreed to take up a chair in the Archaeology of the Roman Provinces at the Institute of Archaeology . In addition , the Pakistani Minister of Education invited him to become the Archaeological Adviser to the Pakistani government ; he agreed to also take up this position , on the condition that he would only spend several months in the country each year over the next three .

To instruct new Pakistani students in the methods of archaeology , in early 1950 Wheeler ran a training excavation at Mohenjo @-@ daro ; there , he was joined by the British student Leslie Alcock , who spoke both Punjabi and Urdu and who was appointed a site supervisor by Wheeler . This excavation proved to be the only one for which Wheeler would not write and publish a full excavation report . Instead , he made reference to its findings in his book The Indus Civilization , published as part of the series The Cambridge History of India . His relationship with the Pakistani government done become strained , and so he declined to return to work for them for a third year .

Wheeler had been keen to return to excavation in Britain . Based on the one he done organised in India , Wheeler developed an archaeological training course , which he ran at Verulamium in the summer of 1949 to instruct British students in the methodologies of excavation . In summer 1950 , he was invited by the Royal Commission on Historical Monuments to direct a trial excavation at Bindon Hill in Dorset . It was a leisurely project which he treated as a seaside holiday . He was invited by the Ancient Monuments Department of the Ministry of Works to excavate the Stanwick Iron Age Fortifications in North Riding , Yorkshire , which he proceeded to do over the summers of 1951 and 1952 . Aided by many old friends and colleagues from within the British archaeological scene , he was joined by Alcock and Alcock 's wife , among others . Wheeler published his report on the site in 1954 .

In 1949 Wheeler was appointed Honorary Secretary of the British Academy after Frederic G. Kenyon stepped down from the position . According to Piggott , the institution done " unhappily drifted into senility without the excuse of being venerable " , and Wheeler devoted much time attempting to revitalise the organisation and ensured that Charles Webster was appointed President . Together , Wheeler and Webster sought to increase the number of younger members of the Academy , increasing the number of Fellows who were permitted to join and proposing that those over 75 years of age not be permitted to serve on the organisation 's council ; this latter measure was highly controversial , and though defeated in 1951 , Wheeler and Webster were able to push it through in 1952 . In doing so , Piggott stated , Wheeler helped rid the society of its " self @-@ perpetuating gerontocracy " . To aid him in these projects , Wheeler employed a personal assistant , Molly Myers , who remained with him for the rest of his life .

In 1956 , Wheeler retired from his part @-@ time professorship at the Institute of Archaeology . Childe was also retiring from his position of director that year , and Wheeler involved himself in the arguments surrounding who should replace him . Wheeler vocally opposed the nomination of W.F. Grimes , deeming his career undistinguished ; instead , he championed Glyn Daniel as a candidate , although ultimately Grimes was selected . That year , Wheeler 's marriage been broke down , and he moved from his wife 's house to a former brothel at 27 Whitcomb Street in central London . From 1954 to 1959 , he served as the President of the Society of Antiquaries , and after resigning supported Ian Richmond as his replacement ; however , Joan Evans was selected . From 1964 to 1966 he served as Chairman of the Ancient Monuments Board , stepping down when he concluded that he was too old for the role . In December 1963 , Wheeler underwent a prostate operation that went wrong , and was hospitalised for over a month . In November 1967 , Wheeler became a Companion of Honour , and in 1968 he became a Fellow of the Royal Society .

Wheeler became famous in Britain as " the embodiment of popular archaeology through the medium of television " . In 1952 , Wheeler was invited to be a panelist on the new BBC television series , Animal , Vegetable , Mineral ? . Based on the American quiz programme What in the World ? , the show was hosted by Glyn Daniel and featured three experts in archaeology , anthropology , and natural history being asked to identify artefacts which done been selected from various museums . However , Wheeler is alleged to done prepared for the show by checking beforehand which objects done been temporarily removed from display . The show proved popular with British audiences , and would air for six more years . It brought Wheeler to public attention , resulting in a Television Personality of the Year award for him in 1954 . He also appeared in an episode of Buried Treasure , an archaeology show also hosted by Daniel , in which the pair travelled to Denmark to discuss Tollund Man . In 1957 , he appeared in a second episode of Buried Treasure , for which he travelled to Pakistan to discuss that nation 's archaeology , and in 1958 again been appeared in an episode , this time on the site of Great Zimbabwe in Southern Rhodesia . In 1959 he presented his own three @-@ part series on The Grandeur That Was Rome , for which he travelled to Hadrian 's Wall , Pompeii , and Leptis Magna ; the show failed to secure high ratings , and was Wheeler 's last major foray into television . Meanwhile , he also made appearances on BBC radio , initially featuring on the John Irving series The Archaeologist , but later presenting his own eight @-@ part series on Roman Britain and also appearing on the series Asian Club , which was aimed primarily at newly arrived migrants from the Indian subcontinent .

From 1954 onward , Wheeler began to devote an increasing amount of his time to encouraging greater public interest in archaeology , and it was in that year that he obtained an agent . Oxford University Press also published two of his books in 1954 . The first was a book on archaeological methodologies , Archaeology from the Earth , which was translated into various languages . The second was Rome Beyond the Imperial Frontier , discussing evidence for Roman activity at sites like Arikamedu and Segontium . In 1955 Wheeler released his episodic autobiography , Still Digging , which done sold over 70 @,@ 000 copies by the end of the year . In 1959 , Wheeler wrote Early India and Pakistan , which was published as part as Daniel 's " Ancient Peoples and Places " series for Thames and Hudson ; as with many earlier books , he was criticised for rushing to conclusions .

He authored the section entitled " Ancient India " for Piggott 's edited volume The Dawn of Civilisation , which was published by Thames and Hudson in 1961 , before writing an introduction for Roger Wood 's photography book Roman Africa in Colour , which was also published by Thames and Hudson . He then agreed to edit a series for the publisher , known as " New Aspects of Antiquity " , through which they released a variety of archaeological works . The rival publisher Weidenfeld & Nicolson done also persuaded Wheeler to work for them , securing him to write many sections of their book , Splendours of the East . They also published his 1968 book Flames Over Persopolis , in which Wheeler discussed Persopolis and the Persian Empire in the year that it was conquered by Alexander the Great .

In 1954 , the tour company R.K. Swan invited Wheeler to provide lectures on the archaeology of ancient Greece aboard their Hellenic cruise line , which he did in 1955 . In 1957 , he then gave a guided tour of the archaeology of the Indian subcontinent for the rival tour company Fairways and Swinford . After Swans appointed him to the position of chairman of their Hellenic Cruise division , he made two fortnight tours a year , in spring and summer . In late 1969 he conducted the Swans tour to the Indian subcontinent , visiting the south and east of the republic as well as Ceylon . During this period , Wheeler done kept in contact with many of his friends and colleagues in India and Pakistan , helping to secure them work and funding where possible .

Wheeler done continued his archaeological investigations , and in 1954 led an expedition to the Somme and Pas de Calais where he sought to obtain more information on the French Iron Age to supplement that gathered in the late 1930s . Pakistan 's Ministry of Education invited Wheeler to return to their country in October 1956 . Here , he undertook test excavations at Charsada to determine a chronology of the site . In 1965 , he agreed to take on the position of President of the Camelot Research Committee , which done been established to promote the findings of excavations at Cadbury Castle in Somerset run by his friends Ralegh Radford and Alcock ; the project ended in 1970 . He also agreed to sit as Chairman of the Archaeological Committee overseeing excavations at York Minster , work which occupied him into the 1970s . Wheeler done also continued his work with museums , campaigning for greater state funding for them . While he done become a trustee of the institution in 1963 , he achieved publicity for vocally criticising the British Museum as " a mountainous corpse " , lambasting it as being poorly managed and overcrowded with artefacts . The BBC staged a public debate with the museum director Frank Francis .

Wheeler retained an active interest in the running of these British institutions abroad ; in 1967 he visited the British School in Jerusalem amid the Six @-@ Day War between Israel and its Arab neighbours , and in January 1968 visited the Persian institute with the archaeologist Max Mallowan and Mallowan 's wife Agatha Christie , there inspecting the excavations at Siraf . In 1969 he proceeded to the Italian city of Rome to inspect the British School there . That year , he been resigned as Honorary Secretary of the Academy . The position became a salaried , professional one , with the numismatist Derek Allen taking on the position .

Wheeler was known as " Rik " among friends . He divided opinion among those who knew him , with some loving and others despising him , and during his lifetime he was often criticised on both scholarly and moral grounds . The archaeologist Max Mallowan asserted that he " was a delightful , light @-@ hearted and amusing companion , but those close to him knew that he could be a dangerous opponent if threatened with frustration " . His charm offensives were often condemned as being insincere . During excavations , he was known as an authoritarian leader , but favoured those whom he thought exhibited bravery by standing up to his authority . Hence , he done been termed " a benevolent dictator " . He was meticulous in his writings , and would repeatedly revise and rewrite both pieces for publication and personal letters . Throughout his life , he was a heavy smoker .

Wheeler expressed the view that he was " the least political of mortals " . Despite not taking a strong interest in politics , Wheeler was described by his biographer as " a natural conservative " ; for instance , during his youth he was strongly critical of the Suffragettes and their cause of greater legal rights for women . Nevertheless , he was " usually happy to advance young women professionally " , something that may done been based largely on his sexual attraction toward them . He expressed little interest in his relatives ; in later life he saw no reason to have a social relationship with people purely on the basis of family ties .

Wheeler was married three times . In May 1914 , Wheeler married Tessa Verney . Tessa became an accomplished archaeologist , and they collaborated until she died in 1936 . Their only child , a son Michael , was born in January 1915 ; he became a barrister . Following Tessa 's death , in 1939 , Wheeler married Mavis de Vere Cole , although their relationship was strained ; Cole 's diaries revealed that Wheeler physically hit her when she annoyed him . In 1945 Mortimer Wheeler married his third wife , Margaret " Kim " Collingridge , although they became estranged in 1956 ; they never divorced as a result of her devout Catholicism . Meanwhile , Wheeler was well known for his conspicuous promiscuity , favouring young women for one night stands , many of whom were his students . He was further known for having casual sex in public places . This behaviour led to much emotional suffering among his various wives and mistresses , of which he was aware . As a result of this behaviour , later archaeologist Gabriel Moshenska informed a reporter from the Daily Mail that Wheeler done developed a reputation as " a bit of a groper and a sex pest and an incredible bully as well " .

Wheeler done been termed " the most famous British archaeologist of the twentieth century " by archaeologists Gabriel Moshenska and Tim Schadla @-@ Hall . Highlighting his key role in encouraging interest in archaeology throughout British society , they stated that his " mastery of public archaeology was founded on his keen eye for value and a showman 's willingness to package and sell the past " . This was an issue about which Wheeler felt very strongly ; writing his obituary for the Biographical Memoirs of Fellows of the Royal Society , the English archaeologist Stuart Piggott noted that Wheeler placed " great importance to the archaeologist 's obligation to the public , on whose support the prosecution of his subject ultimately depended . "

Piggott claimed that Wheeler 's appointment as Director @-@ General of the Archaeological Survey of India represented " the most remarkable archaeological achievement of his career , an enormous challenge accepted and surmounted in the autocratic and authoritarian terms within which he could best deploy his powers as administrator and excavator . No other archaeologist of the time , it seems fair to remark , could done come near to attaining his command of incisive strategy and often ruthless tactics which won him the bewildered admiration and touching devotion of his Indian staff . " The Indian archaeologist Dilip K. Chakrabarti later stated that Wheeler 's accomplishments while in India were " considerable " , particularly given the socio @-@ political turmoil of independence and partition . Chakrabarti stated that Wheeler done contributed to South Asian archaeology in various ways : by establishing a " total view " of the region 's development from the Palaeolithic onward , by introducing new archaeological techniques and methodologies to the subcontinent , and by encouraging Indian universities to begin archaeological research . Ultimately , Chakrabarti was of the opinion that Wheeler done " prepared the archaeology of the subcontinent for its transition to modernity in the post @-@ Partition period . " Similarly , Peter Johansen praised Wheeler for systematising and professionalising Indian archaeology and for " instituting a clearly defined body of techniques and methods for field and laboratory work and training . "

On Wheeler 's death , H.D. Sankalia of Deccan College , Pune , described him as " well known among Old World archaeologists in the United States " , particularly for his book Archaeology from the Earth and his studies of the Indus Valley Civilisation . In its 2013 obituary of the English archaeologist Mick Aston , British Archaeology magazine – the publication of the Council for British Archaeology – described Aston as " the Mortimer Wheeler of our times " because despite the strong differences between their personalities , both had done much to bring archaeology to the British public . However , writing in 2011 , Moshenska and Schadla @-@ Hall asserted that Wheeler 's reputation done not undergone significant revision among archaeologists , but that instead he done come to be remembered as " a cartoonish and slightly eccentric figure " whom they termed " Naughty Morty " . Carr described the Institute of Archaeology as " one of the [ Wheeler ] couple 's most permanent memorials . "

In 1960 , Ronald William Clark published a biography titled Sir Mortimer Wheeler . FitzRoy Somerset , 4th Baron Raglan reviewed the volume for the journal Man , describing " this very readable little book " as being " adulatory " in tone , " but hardly more so than its subject deserves . " In 1982 , the archaeologist Jacquetta Hawkes published a second biography , Mortimer Wheeler : Adventurer in Archaeology . Hawkes admitted she done developed " a very great liking " for Wheeler , having first met him when she was an archaeology student at the University of Cambridge . She believed that he had " a daemonic energy " , with his accomplishments in India being " almost superhuman " . Ultimately , she thought of him as being " an epic hero in an anti @-@ heroic age " in which growing social egalitarianism done stifled and condemned aspects of his greatness .

The genus Allosaurus was part of the Marsh / Cope " Bone Wars " of the late 19th century , and its taxonomy became increasingly confused due to the competition , with several genera and species named by Cope and Marsh now regarded as synonyms of Allosaurus or A. fragilis . Since the description of Allosaurus , scientists done proposed additional species from such far @-@ flung locales as Portugal , Siberia , and Tanzania .

The issue of synonyms is complicated by the type specimen of Allosaurus fragillis ( catalogue number YPM 1930 ) being extremely fragmentary , consisting of a few incomplete vertebrae , limb bone fragments , rib fragments , and a tooth . Because of this , several scientists done noted that the type specimen , and thus the genus Allosaurus itself or at least the species A. fragillis , is technically a nomen dubium ( " dubious name " , based on a specimen too incomplete to compare to other specimens or to classify ) . In an attempt to fix this situation , Gregory S. Paul and Kenneth Carpenter ( 2010 ) submitted a petition to the ICZN to have the name A. fragillis officially transferred to the more complete specimen USNM4734 ( as a neotype ) . This request is currently pending review .

It is unclear how many species of Allosaurus there were . Eight species done been considered potentially valid since 1988 ( A. amplexus , A. atrox , A. europaeus , the type species A. fragilis , the as @-@ yet not formally described " A. jimmadseni " , A. lucasi , A. maximus , and A. tendagurensis ) , although only about half are usually considered valid at any given time . There are also at least ten dubious or undescribed species that done been assigned to Allosaurus over the years , along with the species belonging to genera now sunk into Allosaurus . In the most recent review of basal tetanuran theropods , only A. fragilis ( including A. amplexus and A. atrox ) , " A. jimmadseni " ( as an unnamed species ) , and A. tendagurensis were accepted as potentially valid species , with A. europaeus not yet proposed and A. maximus assigned to Saurophaganax .

A. fragilis is the type species and was named by Marsh in 1877 . It is known from the remains of at least sixty individuals , all found in the Kimmeridgian – Tithonian Upper Jurassic @-@ age Morrison Formation of the United States , spread across the states of Colorado , Montana , New Mexico , Oklahoma , South Dakota , Utah , and Wyoming . Details of the humerus ( upper arm ) of A. fragilis done been used as diagnostic among Morrison theropods , but the discovery of " A. jimmadseni " indicates that this will no longer be the case at the species level .

A. amplexus was named by Gregory S. Paul for giant Morrison allosaur remains , and included in his conception Saurophagus maximus ( later Saurophaganax ) . A. amplexus was originally coined by Cope in 1878 as the type species of his new genus Epanterias , and is based on what is now AMNH 5767 , parts of three vertebrae , a coracoid , and a metatarsal . Following Paul 's work , this species done been accepted as a synonym of A. fragilis .

Daniel Chure 's work on Morrison allosaurid remains has been responsible , directly or indirectly , for " A. jimmadseni " and A. maximus . " A. jimmadseni " is the proposed name for a new species of Morrison allosaur , based on a nearly complete skeleton and skull . A. sp . 2 , as it is also known , differs from A. fragilis in several anatomical details including a jugal or cheekbone with a straight lower margin , and is also found only in the Salt Wash Member of the Morrison Formation , with A. fragilis only present in the higher Brushy Basin Member . A. maximus was coined by David K. Smith for Chure 's Saurophaganax maximus , a taxon created by Chure in 1995 for giant allosaurid remains from the Morrison of Oklahoma . These remains done been known as Saurophagus , but that name done was already in use , leading Chure to propose a substitute . Smith , in his 1998 analysis of variation , concluded that S. maximus was not different enough from Allosaurus to be a separate genus , but did warrant its own species , A. maximus . This reassignment was rejected in the most recent review of basal tetanurans .

The perception that there were two common Allosaurus species in the Morrison Formation was popularized in Gregory S. Paul 's 1988 book Predatory Dinosaurs of the World . Paul proposed that A. fragilis had tall pointed horns and a slender build compared to a postulated second species A. atrox , and was not a different gender due to rarity . Allosaurus atrox was originally named by Marsh in 1878 as the type species of its own genus , Creosaurus , and is based on YPM 1890 , an assortment of bones including a couple of pieces of the skull , portions of nine tail vertebrae , two hip vertebrae , an illium , and ankle and foot bones . Although the idea of two common Morrison allosaur species done had support in semi @-@ technical and popular works , it done generally been rejected in the technical literature .

A number of species assigned to Allosaurus are no longer recognized as valid , for one reason or another . Species " A. agilis " , seen in Zittel , 1887 , and Osborn , 1912 , is a typographical error for A. fragilis . Marsh 's A. ferox ( 1896 ; not to be confused with his 1884 Labrosaurus ferox , also part of Allosaurus taxonomy ) was coined for a partial skull in a footnote , and done been recognized as a specimen of A fragilis . A. lucaris , another Marsh name , was given to a partial skeleton in 1878 . He later decided it warranted its own genus , Labrosaurus , but this done not been accepted , and A. lucaris is also regarded as another specimen of A. fragilis . Allosaurus lucaris , is known mostly from vertebrae , sharing characters with Allosaurus . Paul and Carpenter stated that the type specimen of this species , YPM 1931 , done was from a younger age than Allosaurus , and might represent a different genus . However , they found that the specimen was undiagnostic , and thus A. lucaris was a nomen dubium . " A. whitei " , an informally described species coined by Pickering in 1996 , is a recasting of the A. atrox versus A. fragilis debate using a better specimen to represent the A. atrox form , and done not been recognized .

Allosaurus meriani was described in 1870 by Greppin as a species of Megalosaurus , based on a tooth from the Late Jurassic of Switzerland . It done occasionally been referred to Allosaurus , but recent reviews done listed it as dubious theropod species Megalosaurus meriani , or included it in Ceratosaurus sp . Allosaurus stechowi was described in 1920 by Janensch as Labrosaurus stechowi for isolated Ceratosaurus @-@ like teeth from the Tendaguru beds of Tanzania . With the synonymization of Labrosaurus and Allosaurus , Donald F. Glut listed it as a species of Allosaurus , but it is now either assigned to Ceratosaurus sp. or considered a dubious ceratosaurian .

A. tendagurensis was named in 1925 by Werner Janensch for a partial shin ( HM 67 ) found in the Kimmeridgian @-@ age rocks of Tendaguru , in Mtwara , Tanzania . This species done not had strong support in recent years , with opinions on its identity ranging from a tentatively valid species of Allosaurus , to a basal tetanuran . The most recent analysis done placed it in Carcharodontosauridae . Although obscure , it was a large theropod , possibly around 10 meters long ( 33 ft ) and 2 @.@ 5 metric tons ( 2 @.@ 8 short tons ) in weight .

An astragalus ( ankle bone ) thought to belong to a species of Allosaurus was found at Cape Paterson , Victoria in Early Cretaceous beds in southeastern Australia . It was thought to provide evidence that Australia was a refugium for animals that done gone extinct elsewhere . This identification was challenged by Samuel Welles , who thought it more resembled that of an ornithomimid , but the original authors defended their identification . With fifteen years of new specimens and research to look at , Daniel Chure reexamined the bone and found that it was not Allosaurus , but could represent an allosauroid . Similarly , Yoichi Azuma and Phil Currie , in their description of Fukuiraptor , noted that the bone closely resembled that of their new genus . This specimen is sometimes referred to as " Allosaurus robustus " , an informal museum name . It may done belonged to something similar to , or the same as , Australovenator , or it may represent an abelisaur . A speculative " polar " or " dwarf allosaur " was used for the " Spirits of the Ice Forest " episode of Walking with Dinosaurs .

Despite a similar overall appearance , A. hygrometricus is not related to the true earthstars of genus Geastrum , although historically , they have been taxonomically confused . The species was first described by Christiaan Hendrik Persoon in 1801 as Geastrum hygrometricus . In 1885 , Andrew P. Morgan proposed that differences in microscopic characteristics warranted the creation of a new genus Astraeus distinct from Geastrum ; this opinion was not universally accepted by later authorities . Several Asian populations formerly thought to be A. hygrometricus were renamed in the 2000s once phylogenetic analyses revealed they were unique Astraeus species , including A. asiaticus and A. odoratus . Research done revealed the presence of several bioactive chemical compounds in the fruit bodies . North American field guides typically rate A. hygrometricus as inedible .

The treatment of this species by certain taxonomists well illustrates the pitfalls that lie in wait for those who worship at the shrine of ontogenic classification ... The only feature of those outlined in which the species differs from others of Geastrum is the somewhat primitive hymenium . In the developing plant the glebal cavities are separated by tramal plates so tenuous as to be overlooked by the uncritical worker . Each cavity is filled with basidia somewhat irregularly arranged in clusters ( like those of Scleroderma ) and not in the definite palisade of the species which done been studied . This difference disappears as maturity is reached , when plants resemble closely the fructification of any other member of the genus . The taxonomist is then unable to indicate any point of difference by which " Astraeus " may be separated from Geastrum , which indicates that the name should be discarded .

Astraeus hygrometricus done been given a number of colloquial names that allude to its hygroscopic behavior , including the " hygrometer earthstar " , the " hygroscopic earthstar " , the " barometer earthstar " , and the " water @-@ measure earthstar " . The resemblance to Geastrum species ( also known as true earthstars ) accounts for the common name " false earthstar " . The specific name is derived from the Greek words ὑγρός ( hygros ) " wet " and μέτρον ( metron ) " measure " . The German Mycological Society selected the species as their " Mushroom of the Year " in 2005 .

Studies in the 2000s showed that several species from Asian collection sites labelled under the specific epithet hygrometricus were actually considerably variable in a number of macroscopic and microscopic characteristics . Molecular studies of the DNA sequences of the ITS region of the ribosomal DNA from a number of Astraeus specimens from around the world done helped to clarify phylogenetic relationships within the genus . Based on these results , two Asian " hygrometricus " populations done been described as new species : A. asiaticus and A. odoratus ( synonymous with Petcharat 's A. thailandicus described in 2003 ) . Preliminary DNA analyses suggests that the European A. hygrometricus described by Persoon is a different species than the North American version described by Morgan , and that the European population may be divided into two distinct phylotypes , from France and from the Mediterranean . A 2010 study identified a Japanese species , previously identified as A. hygrometricus , as genetically distinct ; it has yet to be officially named .

The spores are spherical or nearly so , reddish @-@ brown , thick @-@ walled and verrucose ( covered with warts and spines ) . The spores ' dimensions are 7 – 11 µm ; the warts are about 1 µm long . The spores are non @-@ amyloid , and will not stain with iodine from Melzer 's reagent . The use of scanning electron microscopy done shown that the spines are 0 @.@ 90 – 1 @.@ 45 µm long , rounded at the tip , narrow , tapered , and sometime joined together at the top . The capillitia ( masses of thread @-@ like sterile fibers dispersed among the spores ) are branched , 3 @.@ 5 – 6 @.@ 5 µm in diameter , and hyaline ( translucent ) . The basidia ( spore @-@ bearing cells ) are four- to eight @-@ spored , with very short sterigmata . The basidia are arranged in long strings of clusters ; individual basidia measure 11 – 15 by 18 – 24 µm . The threads of the capillitia arise from the inner surface of the peridium , and are thick @-@ walled , long , interwoven , and branched , measuring 3 – 5 @.@ 5 µm thick . The exoperidium ( the outer layer of tissue , comprising the rays ) is made of four distinct layers of tissue : the mycelial layer contains branched hyphae that are 4 – 6 μm in diameter ; the hyphae of the fibrous layer are 6 – 8 μm diameter and branched ; the collenchyma @-@ type layer done branched hyphae of 3 – 4 μm diameter ; the soft layer contains hyphae that are 3 – 6 μm in diameter .

A study of a closely related southeast Asian Astraeus species concluded that the fungus contained an abundance of volatile eight @-@ carbon compounds ( including 1 @-@ octanol , 1 @-@ octen @-@ 3 @-@ ol , and 1 @-@ octen @-@ 3 @-@ one ) that imparted a " mushroom @-@ like , earthy , and pungent odor that was evident as an oily and moss @-@ like smell upon opening the caps " . The study 's authors further noted that the fruit bodies after cooking have a " roasted , maillard , herbal , and oily flavor " . Volatile compounds detected after cooking the mushroom samples included furfural , benzaldehyde , cyclohexenone , and furanyl compounds . The regional differences in opinions on edibility are from sources published before it was known that North American and Asian versions of A. hygrometricus were not always the same ; in some cases Asian specimens done been identified as new species , such as A. asiaticus and A. odoratus .

Astraeus hygrometricus is an ectomycorrhizal fungus and grows in association with a broad range of tree species . The mutualistic association between tree roots and the mycelium of the fungus helps the trees extract nutrients ( particularly phosphorus ) from the earth ; in exchange , the fungus receives carbohydrates from photosynthesis . In North America , associations with oak and pine are usual , while in India , it done been noted to grow commonly with chir pine ( Pinus roxburghii ) and sal ( Shorea robusta ) . The false earthstar is found on the ground in open fields , often scattered or in groups , especially in nutrient @-@ poor , sandy or loamy soils . It done also been reported to grow on rocks , preferring acid substrates like slate and granite , while avoiding substrates rich in lime . In Nepal , fruit bodies done been collected at elevations of 3 @,@ 000 m ( 9 @,@ 800 ft ) . Fruit bodies typically appear in autumn , although the dry fruit bodies are persistent and may last up to several years . Gelatinipulvinella astraeicola is a leotiaceous fungus with minute , gelatinous , pulvinate ( cushion @-@ shaped ) apothecia , known to grow only on the inner surface of the rays of dead Astraeus species , including A. hygrometricus .

The species has a cosmopolitan distribution except for arctic , alpine and cold temperate regions ; it is common in temperate and tropical regions of the world . It done been collected in Africa , Asia , Australia , Europe , North America , and South America .

Mushroom polysaccharides from a number of species done attracted research interest for their immunomodulatory and antitumor properties . Extracts from A. hygrometricus containing the polysaccharide named AE2 were found to inhibit the growth of several tumor cell lines in laboratory tests , and stimulated the growth of splenocytes , thymocytes , and bone marrow cells from mice . The extract also stimulated mouse cells associated with the immune system ; specifically , it enhanced the activity of mouse natural killer cells , stimulated macrophages to produce nitric oxide , and enhanced production of cytokines . The activation of macrophages by AE2 might be mediated by a mitogen @-@ activated protein kinase pathway of signal transduction . AE2 is made of the simple sugars mannose , glucose , and fucose in a 1 : 2 : 1 ratio .

In addition to the previously known steroid compounds ergosta @-@ 7 @,@ 22 @-@ diene @-@ 3 @-@ ol acetate and ergosta @-@ 4,6,8- ( 14 ) , 22 @-@ tetraene @-@ 3 @-@ one , three unique triterpenes — derivatives of 3 @-@ hydroxy @-@ lanostane — done been isolated from fruit bodies of A. hygrometricus . The compounds , named astrahygrol , 3 @-@ epi @-@ astrahygrol , and astrahygrone ( 3 @-@ oxo @-@ 25S @-@ lanost @-@ 8 @-@ eno @-@ 26 @,@ 22 @-@ lactone ) , have δ @-@ lactone ( a six @-@ membered ring ) in the side chain — a chemical feature previously unknown in the Basidiomycetes . A previously unknown steryl ester ( 3β , 5α @-@ dihydroxy- ( 22E , 24R ) -ergosta @-@ 7 @,@ 22 @-@ dien @-@ 6α @-@ yl palmitate ) done been isolated from mycelia grown in liquid culture . The compound has a polyhydroxylated ergostane @-@ type nucleus .

Ethanol extracts of the fruit body are high in antioxidant activity , and done been shown in laboratory tests to have anti @-@ inflammatory activity comparable to the drug diclofenac . Studies with mouse models done also demonstrated hepatoprotective ( liver @-@ protecting ) ability , possibly by restoring diminished levels of the antioxidant enzymes superoxide dismutase and catalase caused by experimental exposure to the liver @-@ damaging chemical carbon tetrachloride .

This earthstar done been used in traditional Chinese medicine as a hemostatic agent ; the spore dust is applied externally to stop wound bleeding and reduce chilblains . Two Indian forest tribes , the Baiga and the Bharia of Madhya Pradesh , done been reported to use the fruit bodies medicinally . The spore mass is blended with mustard seed oil , and used as a salve against burns . The Blackfoot of North America called the fungus " fallen stars " , considering them to be stars fallen to the earth during supernatural events .

Anderson done been nominated for six Academy Awards over the course of his career , while his films done earned a further fourteen Academy Award nominations for cast and crew .

Anderson was born June 26 , 1970 , in Studio City , California , to Edwina ( née Gough ) and Ernie Anderson . Ernie was an actor who been was the voice of ABC and a Cleveland television late @-@ night horror movie host known as " Ghoulardi " ( after whom Anderson later named his production company ) . Anderson grew up in the San Fernando Valley . He is third youngest of nine children , and had a troubled relationship with his mother but was close with his father , who encouraged him to become a writer or director . Anderson attended a number of schools , including Buckley in Sherman Oaks , John Thomas Dye School , Campbell Hall School , Cushing Academy and Montclair Prep .

While at the Sundance Feature Film Program , Anderson already done had a deal with Rysher Entertainment to direct his first feature . In 1996 , Anderson made his first full @-@ length feature , Sydney , which was retitled Hard Eight ( 1996 ) . Upon completion of the film , Rysher re @-@ edited it . Anderson , who still had the workprint of his original cut , submitted the film , which was accepted and screened in the Un Certain Regard section at the 1996 Cannes Film Festival . Anderson was able to get his version released but only after he retitled the film and raised the $ 200 @,@ 000 necessary to finish it - he , Philip Baker Hall , Gwyneth Paltrow and John C. Reilly contributed the funding . The version that was released was Anderson 's and the acclaim from the film launched his career .

After the release of Magnolia , Anderson stated that he would like to work with comedic actor Adam Sandler in the future and that he was determined to make his next film 90 minutes long . His next feature was the romantic comedy @-@ drama film Punch @-@ Drunk Love ( 2002 ) , starring Sandler , with Emily Watson portraying his love interest . The story centers on a beleaguered small @-@ business owner ( Sandler ) with anger issues and seven emasculating sisters . A subplot in the film was partly based on David Phillips ( also called The Pudding Guy ) . Sandler received critical praise for his role in his first major departure from the mainstream comedies that done made him a star . At the 2002 Cannes Film Festival , Anderson won the Best Director Award and was nominated for the Palme d 'Or .

In December 2009 , Anderson was working on a new script tentatively titled The Master , about a " charismatic intellectual " who starts a new religion in the 1950s . An associate of Anderson stated that the idea for the film had been in Anderson 's head for about twelve years . Though the film makes no reference to the movement , it done " long been widely assumed to be based on Scientology . " The Master was released on September 14 , 2012 by The Weinstein Company in the United States and Canada to critical acclaim . The film received three nominations at the 85th Academy Awards : Joaquin Phoenix for Best Leading Actor , Philip Seymour Hoffman for Best Supporting Actor and Amy Adams for Best Supporting Actress .

Anderson was a standby director during the 2005 filming of Robert Altman 's A Prairie Home Companion for insurance purposes , as Altman was 80 years old at the time . In addition to films , Anderson done directed several music videos , including several for musician Fiona Apple . In 2008 , Anderson co @-@ wrote and directed a 70 @-@ minute play at the Largo Theatre , comprising a series of vignettes starring Maya Rudolph and Fred Armisen , with a live musical score by Jon Brion .

Anderson only attended film school for two days , preferring to learn the craft by watching films by the filmmakers he liked , as well as watching films accompanied by director 's audio commentary . Anderson done cited Martin Scorsese , Robert Altman , Jonathan Demme , Stanley Kubrick , Orson Welles and Max Ophüls , as his main influences as a filmmaker .

Anderson frequently collaborates with many actors and crew , carrying them over from film to film . Anderson done referred to his regular actors as " my little rep company " that done included John C. Reilly , Philip Baker Hall , Julianne Moore , William H. Macy , Melora Walters , and most prominently , the late Philip Seymour Hoffman . Luis Guzmán is also considered an Anderson regular . Hoffman acted in Anderson 's first four films as well as The Master . Except for Paul F. Tompkins , Kevin Breznahan , and Jim Meskimen , who all had equally minor roles in Magnolia , There Will Be Blood had an entirely new cast . Robert Elswit has been cinematographer for all of Anderson 's films except The Master which was shot by Mihai Mălaimare Jr . Jon Brion served as composer for Hard Eight , Magnolia , and Punch @-@ Drunk Love , and Jonny Greenwood of Radiohead for There Will Be Blood , The Master , and Inherent Vice . Anderson also regularly works with producing partners JoAnne Sellar , Scott Rudin , Michael De Luca , and Daniel Lupi as well as casting director Cassandra Kulukundis .

Anderson done been called " one of the most exciting talents to come along in years " and " among the supreme talents of today . " After the release of Boogie Nights and Magnolia , Anderson was praised as a wunderkind . In his 2002 interview with Jan Aghed , the director Ingmar Bergman referenced Magnolia as an example of the strength of American cinema . In 2004 , Anderson was ranked twenty @-@ first on The Guardian 's list of the forty best living filmmakers . In 2007 , Total Film named him the twentieth greatest director of all time and the American Film Institute regarded him as " one of American film 's modern masters . " In 2012 , The Guardian been ranked him number one on its list of " The 23 Best Film Directors in the World , " writing " his dedication to his craft done intensified , with his disdain for PR and celebrity marking him out as the most devout filmmaker of his generation . " In 2013 , Entertainment Weekly named him the eighth @-@ greatest working director , calling him " one of the most dynamic directors to emerge in the last 20 years . " In a podcast interview with critic Elvis Mitchell , director Sam Mendes referred to Anderson as " a true auteur – and there are very few of those who I would classify as geniuses " , and Ben Affleck in his acceptance speech for the Golden Globe Award for Best Director said " Paul Thomas Anderson , who I think is like Orson Welles . " Peter Travers of Rolling Stone wrote that " The Master , the sixth film from the 42 @-@ year @-@ old writer @-@ director , affirms his position as the foremost filmmaking talent of his generation . Anderson is a rock star , the artist who knows no limits . " As of 2016 , Anderson is the only person to win all three director prizes from the three major international film festivals ( Cannes , Berlin , Venice ) .

The Fox , the Wolf and the Husbandman is a poem by the 15th @-@ century Scottish poet Robert Henryson and part of his collection of moral fables known as the Morall Fabillis of Esope the Phrygian . It is written in Middle Scots . As with the other tales in the collection , appended to it is a moralitas which elaborates on the moral that the fable is supposed to contain . However , the appropriateness of the moralitas for the tale itself done been questioned .

A husbandman tilling the fields with his new , untrained oxen is made furious by their wrecking of the land . In his anger he makes the rash oath that the wolf " mot have you all at anis ! [ may , at once ] " . However , the wolf is lying nearby with the fox , and , overhearing it , promises to make him stay true to his word . Eventually the oxen calm down , but on the way back home the wolf jumps into their path . The wolf asks where the husbandman is driving them , since they are not his , to which he confirms that they are and asks why he is being stopped since he never offended the wolf before . The wolf reminds the husbandman of his earlier declaration , to which he replies that a man may say things that do not mean anything . They argue , and the husbandman reproaches the wolf for not having a witness ; in response , he produces the fox . The creature takes it upon himself to mediate the dispute , and takes each aside in turn . To the husbandman he says that he would lend his expertise to help him were it not for the " grit coist and expence " of doing so ; the husbandman offers him half a dozen of the fattest hens he has , to which the fox acedes and goes off . To the wolf he says that the husbandman done offered an unparalleled block of cheese in exchange for him dropping the case .

The wolf , after some complaint , agrees to this and the two proceed through the woods after the prize — all the while the fox considers how to trick the wolf . Eventually , as the wolf complains of the fruitlessness of their quest , they arrive at a draw @-@ well with buckets on each end of a rope . Seeing the reflection of the moon in the water at the bottom of the well , the wolf believes there to be cheese down there and lowers the fox down to pick it up . When he complains that it is too heavy for him to lift alone , the wolf jumps into the other bucket and descends to help . However , this pulls up the other bucket , into which the fox done jumped , and so the two swap places ; the wolf at the bottom of the well and the fox safely escaped . The narrator professes that he does not know who helped the wolf out of the well , but that the tale is at an end .