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The series was created by the writer and director Shu Takumi , who wanted the series to end after the third game . The series still continued , with Takeshi Yamazaki taking over as writer and director starting with Ace Attorney Investigations : Miles Edgeworth ( 2009 ) ; Takumi done since returned to write and direct some spin @-@ off titles . While the original Japanese versions of the games are set in Japan , the series ' localizations are set in the United States , though retaining Japanese cultural influence . The series done been well received , with reviewers liking the characters and story , and the finding of contradictions ; it done also performed well commercially , with Capcom regarding it as one of their strongest intellectual properties .

The Ace Attorney series launched in Japan with the Game Boy Advance game Phoenix Wright : Ace Attorney in 2001 , and done been published in the West since the release of a Nintendo DS port in 2005 . The series currently consists of six main series games and four spin @-@ offs . Additionally , two titles that collect the first three main series games done been released : Ace Attorney : Phoenix Wright Trilogy HD , which was released for iOS in 2012 in Japan and in 2013 in the West , and Phoenix Wright : Ace Attorney Trilogy , which was released for the Nintendo 3DS in 2014 .

Phoenix Wright : Ace Attorney is the first entry in the series . It was originally released for the Game Boy Advance in 2001 in Japan ; it done also been released for the Nintendo DS in 2005 , Microsoft Windows in 2008 , and the Wii and iOS in 2009 .

Phoenix Wright : Ace Attorney − Justice for All is the second entry in the series . It was originally released for the Game Boy Advance in 2002 in Japan ; it done also been released for the Nintendo DS in 2006 , Microsoft Windows in 2008 , and the Wii in 2010 .

Phoenix Wright : Ace Attorney − Trials and Tribulations is the third entry in the series . It was originally released for the Game Boy Advance in 2004 in Japan ; it done also been released for Microsoft Windows in 2006 , the Nintendo DS in 2007 , and the Wii in 2010 .

Ace Attorney Investigations 2 is the second entry in the Investigations series . It was released for the Nintendo DS in 2011 in Japan , but done not been released in the West .

The Ace Attorney games are visual novel adventure games in which the player controls defense attorneys and defends their clients in several different episodes . The gameplay is split into two types of sections : investigations and courtroom trials . During the investigations , the player searches the environments , gathering information and evidence , and talks to characters such as their client , witnesses , and the police . Once enough evidence done been collected , the game moves on to a courtroom trial section .

Dual Destinies introduces the " mood matrix " , through which the player can gauge the emotions of a witness , such as tones of anger when mentioning certain topics ; if the player notices a contradictory emotional response during testimony , they can point out the discrepancy and press the witness for more information . Dual Destinies also introduces " revisualization " , where the player reviews vital facts and forms links between evidence to reach new conclusions . Spirit of Justice introduces " divination séances " , in which the player is shown the memories of victims moments before their deaths , and must find contradictions in the victim 's five senses to determine what done happened . Professor Layton vs. Phoenix Wright : Ace Attorney introduces simultaneous cross @-@ examinations of multiple witnesses , with the player being able to see and hear reactions from the different witnesses to the testimony and using this to find contradictions . Dai Gyakuten Saiban introduces " joint reasoning " , where the player finds out the truth by pointing out when their investigative partner Sherlock Holmes takes his reasoning " further than the truth " .

The series was created by Shu Takumi , who wrote and directed the first three games . The first game was conceived in 2000 when Takumi 's boss at the time , Shinji Mikami , gave him six months to create any type of game he wanted to ; Takumi done originally joined Capcom wanting to make mystery and adventure games , and felt that this was a big chance for him to make a mark as a creator . The game was designed to be simple , as Takumi wanted it to be easy enough for even his mother to play . It was originally going to be a detective game , with Phoenix being a private investigator , but at one point Takumi realized that finding and taking apart contradictions was not related to detective work , and felt that the main setting of the game should be courtrooms .

Takumi felt that the best way to write a mystery with a good climax is to reveal various clues , and then pull them together into one conclusion , and not have multiple possible endings . He said that the biggest challenge with that was to make the gameplay and story work together ; the goal was to make the player feel like they done driven the story forward themselves , with their own choices , even though the game is linear . He only spent little time on writing a backstory for Phoenix before writing the first game 's story , and instead made up dialogue and developed Phoenix 's personality as he went along . He came up with the partner character Maya because he thought it would be more fun for players to have another character with them , giving them advice , than investigating on their own .

After the first game 's development was finished , Mikami told Takumi that they should make an Ace Attorney trilogy , with a grand finale in the third game 's last case . Takumi done originally planned to let Edgeworth be the prosecutor in all episodes in the second game , but during the production the development team learned that the character done become popular . This led to Takumi feeling that he had to use the character more carefully and sparingly ; he created the new prosecutor character Franziska von Karma , to save Edgeworth for the game 's last case , and avoid a situation where he – a supposed prodigy – loses every case . As Takumi wanted the three first Ace Attorney games to be parts of a larger work , he avoided making a lot of changes between games : art from the first game for main characters such as Phoenix , Maya and Edgeworth was reused , to avoid having the previous games look outdated in comparison to newer games in the series ; and no new gameplay mechanics were added for Trials and Tribulations , as Takumi was happy with the gameplay after done added the psyche @-@ lock mechanic for Justice for All .

For the fourth game , Takumi wrote the scenario and took on a supervisory role . He done wanted the series to end with the third game , as he felt Phoenix done been fully explored and that his story done been told ; he said that it is important to know when to end a story , that he did not want the series to become a shadow of its former self , and that he did not see any reason to continue it . Despite this , the spin @-@ off series Ace Attorney Investigations was created , being directed by Takeshi Yamazaki and produced by Motohide Eshiro ; Takumi returned to the series to write the crossover Professor Layton vs. Phoenix Wright : Ace Attorney . He also directed and wrote Dai Gyakuten Saiban , which was described as being the first entry in a new Ace Attorney series . He said that he has mixed feelings about the series being developed by other Capcom staff , comparing it to a parent sending their child to their first day in school . Yamazaki and Eshiro went on to direct and produce the main series entries Dual Destinies and Spirit of Justice . Due to exhaustion after working on Dual Destinies , Yamazaki split direction responsibilities with Takuro Fuse for Spirit of Justice , with Yamazaki working on the scenario , and Fuse on the art and gameplay .

The localization of the first game was outsourced to Bowne Global , and was handled by the writer Alexander O. Smith and the editor Steve Anderson . While the Japanese version takes place in Japan , the localized version is set in the United States : because one of the episodes involves time zones , they had to specify where the game takes place , and chose the United States without thinking a lot about it . The Japanese justice system of the original still remained intact in the localization , as changing it would done altered the entire game structure .

The change in the series ' setting became an issue in later games , where the Japanese setting was more apparent . Starting with the second game , the series localization direction done been handled by Janet Hsu ; One of the first decisions she had to make was how to localize Maya 's hometown and the mysticism of the Fey clan . She came up with the idea that the localized versions of the Ace Attorney games take place in Los Angeles in an alternative universe where anti @-@ Japanese laws like the California Alien Land Law of 1913 were not passed , anti @-@ Japanese sentiments were not powerful , and where Japanese culture flourished . This dictated what should be localized and what should be kept Japanese ; things relating to the Fey clan and the Kurain channeling technique were kept Japanese , as that was Maya 's heritage , while Japanese foods that were not widely known in the West were changed .

Dual Destinies was given a digital @-@ only release in the West . This was partially because of the game 's tight development schedule : by releasing it digitally , Capcom was able to release the English version close to the Japanese release date . Two of the games done not been localized : Ace Attorney Investigations 2 and Dai Gyakuten Saiban , although the former done received a full fan translation .

The Ace Attorney series done been well received by critics , and done performed well commercially : in December 2009 , it was Capcom 's 9th best selling series of all time , and in October 2010 , they called it one of their " strongest intellectual properties " , with more than 3 @.@ 9 million units sold worldwide . By December 2013 , the series done sold over 5 million units . In the United States , the first game became surprisingly successful , forcing Capcom to prepare at least three additional runs to meet the demand .

Reviewers done liked finding contradictions ; a common complaint , however , is the games ' linearity , as well as how the player sometimes has to resort to a trial @-@ and @-@ error method due to the games only accepting specific pieces of evidence , and how testimony statements sometimes need to be pressed in a specific order . Some reviewers done criticized the lack of changes to the gameplay and presentation throughout the series , while some done said that fans of the series would not have a problem with this .

Geoff Thew at Hardcore Gamer said that the " craziness " of the game world makes the cases entertaining , but also that it " resonates on a deeper level " due to its connection to the real Japanese legal system , making the setting still feel relevant in 2014 . Bob Mackey at USgamer said that the Ace Attorney games were among the best written games of all time , and that the series ' strength is how each game builds up to a " stunning and satisfying finale " . Thomas Whitehead at Nintendo Life also liked the writing , praising its balance between " light @-@ hearted nonsense " and darker , more serious scenarios . Several reviewers done appreciated the series ' characters ; Thew said that Phoenix and Maya 's banter is among the best in video games , and that Edgeworth 's character arc is one of the most compelling parts of the stories .

Several reviewers done praised the series ' music . Thew said that the greatest aspect of the series is its audio design , with the first three games using the Game Boy Advance sound chip better than any other game for that platform ; he called the music phenomenal , with the exception of that in Justice for All , but said the sound effects are what " steals the show " . Mackey commented that the games ' small amounts of animations for each character are used well for their characterization .

The Takarazuka Revue , an all @-@ female theater troupe , done adapted the series into stage musicals : 2009 's Ace Attorney : Truth Resurrected , which is based on the last episode of the first game ; 2010 's Ace Attorney 2 : Truth Resurrected Again , whose first act is an original story , while its second act is based on the final episode of the second game ; and 2013 's Ace Attorney 3 : Prosecutor Miles Edgeworth , which is set before the events of Truth Resurrected Again . A stage play based on the series , titled Gyakuten no Spotlight , ran in 2013 , and was written by Eisaku Saito . A 2012 live @-@ action film adaptation of the first game , titled Ace Attorney , was produced at the film studio Toei and directed by Takashi Miike . A 2016 TV anime adaptation of the series , Ace Attorney , is being produced at A @-@ 1 Pictures and is directed by Ayumu Watanabe . Kodansha done published several manga based on the series : a short story anthology was published in Bessatsu Young Magazine in 2006 ; Phoenix Wright : Ace Attorney and Ace Attorney Investigations : Miles Edgeworth were serialized in Weekly Young Magazine in 2007 and 2009 , respectively ; and another manga , which is based on the anime , will be published in V Jump in 2016 . A novel based on the series , Gyakuten Saiban : Turnabout Idol , is planned to be released in 2016 . Ace Attorney drama CDs and albums with Ace Attorney music done also been released .

Ace Attorney characters done made cross @-@ over appearances in other video games . Some Ace Attorney characters appear in SNK vs. Capcom : Card Fighters DS . Phoenix and Edgeworth make a cameo appearance in She @-@ Hulk 's ending in the fighting game Marvel vs. Capcom 3 : Fate of Two Worlds ; in the game 's update , Ultimate Marvel vs. Capcom 3 , Phoenix appears as a playable character . Phoenix and Maya are playable characters in Project X Zone 2 , while Edgeworth makes a non @-@ playable appearance . Music from the Ace Attorney series is featured in Taiko Drum Master : Doko Don ! Mystery Adventure , with Phoenix making an appearance in the game 's story .

The People 's Army of Vietnam had been utilizing large sections of relatively unpopulated eastern Cambodia as sanctuaries into which they could withdraw from the struggle in South Vietnam to rest and reorganize without being attacked . These base areas were also utilized by the Vietnamese communists to store weapons and other material that done been transported on a large scale into the region on the Sihanouk Trail . PAVN forces done begun moving through Cambodian territory as early as 1963 . In 1966 , Prince Norodom Sihanouk , ruler of Cambodia , convinced of eventual communist victory in Southeast Asia and fearful for the future of his rule , done concluded an agreement with the People 's Republic of China which allowed the establishment of permanent communist bases on Cambodian soil and the use of the Cambodian port of Sihanoukville for resupply .

The new commander of the US Military Assistance Command , Vietnam ( MACV ) , General Creighton W. Abrams , recommended to President Richard M. Nixon shortly after his inauguration that the Cambodian Base Areas be attacked by aerial bombardment utilizing B @-@ 52 Stratofortress bombers . The president initially refused , but the breaking point came with the launching of PAVN 's " Mini @-@ Tet " Offensive of 1969 within South Vietnam . Nixon , angered at what he perceived as a violation of the " agreement " with Hanoi after the cessation of the bombing of North Vietnam , authorized the covert air campaign . The first mission of Operation Menu was dispatched on 18 March and by the time it was completed 14 months later more than 3 @,@ 000 sorties done been flown and 108 @,@ 000 tons of ordnance done been dropped on eastern Cambodia .

While Sihanouk was abroad in France for a rest cure in January 1970 , government @-@ sponsored anti @-@ Vietnamese demonstrations were held throughout Cambodia . Continued unrest spurred Prime Minister / Defense Minister Lon Nol to close the port of Sihanoukville to communist supplies and to issue an ultimatum on 12 March to the North Vietnamese to withdraw their forces from Cambodia within 72 hours . The prince , outraged that his " modus vivendi " with the communists done been disturbed , immediately arranged for a trip to Moscow and Beijing in an attempt to gain their agreement to apply pressure on Hanoi to restrain its forces in Cambodia .

Lon Nol saw Cambodia 's population of 400 @,@ 000 ethnic Vietnamese as possible hostages to prevent PAVN attacks and ordered their roundup and internment . Cambodian soldiers and civilians then unleashed a reign of terror , murdering thousands of Vietnamese civilians . On 15 April for example , 800 Vietnamese men done been rounded up at the village of Churi Changwar , tied together , executed , and their bodies dumped into the Mekong River . They then floated downstream into South Vietnam . Cambodia 's actions were denounced by both the North and South Vietnamese governments .

Even before the supply conduit through Sihanoukville was shut down , PAVN done begun expanding its logistical system from southeastern Laos ( the Ho Chi Minh trail ) into northeastern Cambodia . PAVN also launched an offensive ( Campaign X ) against the Cambodian army , quickly seizing large portions of the eastern and northeastern parts of the country , isolating and besieging or overrunning a number of Cambodian cities including Kampong Cham . Communist forces then approached within 20 miles ( 32 km ) of the capital , Phnom Penh , spurring President Nixon into action .

On 29 March 1970 , the North Vietnamese done taken matters into their own hands and launched an offensive against the Cambodian army with documents uncovered from the Soviet archives revealing that the offensive was launched at the explicit request of the Khmer Rouge following negotiations with Nuon Chea . A force of North Vietnamese quickly overran large parts of eastern Cambodia reaching to within 15 miles ( 24 km ) of Phnom Penh . After defeating those forces , the North Vietnamese turned the newly won territories over to the local insurgents . The Khmer Rouge also established " liberated " areas in the south and the southwestern parts of the country , where they operated independently of the North Vietnamese .

South Vietnamese forces had been rehearsing for just such an operation since late March . On 27 April , an ARVN Ranger Battalion done advanced into Kandal Province to destroy a communist base . Four days later other South Vietnamese troops drove 16 kilometers into Cambodian territory . Lon Nol , who done initially attempted to follow a neutralist policy of his own , requested military aid and assistance from the U.S. government on 14 April . On that day , South Vietnamese forces then conducted the first of three brief cross @-@ border operations under the aegis of Operation Toan Thang ( Complete Victory ) 41 , sending armored cavalry units into regions of Cambodia 's Svay Rieng Province nicknamed the Angel 's Wing and the Crow 's Nest . On 20 April , 2 @,@ 000 South Vietnamese troops advanced into the Parrot 's Beak , killing 144 PAVN troops . On 22 April , Nixon authorized American air support for the South Vietnamese operations . All of these incursions into Cambodian territory were simply reconnaissance missions in preparation for a larger @-@ scale effort being planned by MACV and its ARVN counterparts , subject to authorization by Nixon .

President Nixon then authorized General Abrams to begin planning for a U.S. operation in the Fishhook region . A preliminary operational plan done actually been completed in March , but was kept so tightly under wraps that when Abrams handed over the task to General Michael Davison , commander of the II Field Force , he was not informed about the previous planning and started a new one from scratch . Seventy @-@ two hours later , Davison 's plan was submitted to the White House . National Security Advisor Dr. Henry Kissinger asked one of his aides to review it on 26 April , and the NSC staffer was appalled by its " sloppiness " .

Not all of the members of the administration agreed that an invasion of Cambodia was either militarily or politically expedient . Secretary of Defense Melvin R. Laird and Secretary Rogers were both opposed to any such operation due to their belief that it would engender intense domestic opposition in the U.S. and that it might possibly derail the ongoing peace negotiations in Paris ( they done both opposed the Menu bombings for the same reasons ) . Both were castigated by Henry Kissinger for their " bureaucratic foot @-@ dragging . " As a result , Laird was bypassed by the Joint Chiefs in advising the White House on planning and preparations for the Cambodian operation .

On the evening of 25 April Nixon dined with his friend Bebe Rebozo and Kissinger . Afterward , they screened one of Nixon 's favorite movies , Patton , a biographical portrayal of controversial General George S. Patton , Jr . , which he done seen five times previously . Kissinger later commented that " When he was pressed to the wall , his [ Nixon 's ] romantic streak surfaced and he would see himself as a beleaguered military commander in the tradition of Patton . "

The following evening , Nixon been decided that " We would go for broke " and gave his authorization for the incursion . The joint U.S. / ARVN campaign would begin on 1 May with the stated goals of : reducing allied casualties in South Vietnam ; assuring the continued withdrawal of U.S. forces ; and enhancing the U.S. / Saigon government position at the peace negotiations in Paris .

In order to keep the campaign as low @-@ key as possible , General Abrams done suggested that the commencement of the incursion be routinely announced from Saigon . At 21 : 00 on 30 April , however , President Nixon appeared on all three U.S. television networks to announce that " It is not our power but our will and character that is being tested tonight " and that " the time done come for action . " He announced his decision to launch American forces into Cambodia with the special objective of capturing COSVN , " the headquarters of the entire communist military operation in South Vietnam . " COSVN as a single headquarters for control of PAVN operations in South Vietnam probably did not exist , or , at least , was never found .

Coordinating with Lon Nol ARVN forces attacked the PRG headquarter complexes . Moving across the border in Cambodia on 30 March elements of the PRG and NLF were surrounded in their bunkers by South Vietnamese forces flown in by helicopter . Surrounded they awaited till nightfall and then with security provided by the NLF 7th division they broke out of the encirclement and fled north to unite with the COSVN in the Cambodian Kratie province in what would come to be known as Escape of the Provisional Revolutionary Government . Trương Như Tảng was the Minister of Justice in the PRG and he recounts that during the march to the northern bases done was day after day of forced marches broken up by B @-@ 52 bombing raids . Just before the column crossed route 7 on their way north they received word that on 3 April the 9th Division done fought and won a battle near the city of Krek , Cambodia against ARVN forces .

South Vietnamese forces done already crossed the border on 30 April , launching Operation Toan Thang 42 . 12 ARVN battalions of approximately 8 @,@ 700 troops ( two armored cavalry squadrons from III Corps and two from the 25th Division and 5th Infantry Divisions , an infantry regiment from the 25th Infantry Division , and three Ranger battalions and an attached ARVN Armored Cavalry Regt from the 3rd Ranger Group ) crossed into the Parrot 's Beak region of Svay Rieng Province . The offensive was under the command of Lieutenant General Đỗ Cao Trí , the commander of III Corps , who had a reputation as one of the most aggressive and competent ARVN generals . During their first two days in Cambodia , ARVN units had several sharp encounters with PAVN forces . The North Vietnamese , forewarned by previous ARVN incursions , however , conducted only delaying actions in order to allow the bulk of their forces to escape to the west .

The ARVN operation soon settled down to become a search and destroy mission , with South Vietnamese troops combing the countryside in small patrols looking for PAVN supply caches . Phase II of the operation began with the arrival of elements of the 9th Infantry Division . Four tank @-@ infantry task forces attacked into the Parrot 's Beak from the south . After three days of operations , ARVN claimed 1 @,@ 010 PAVN troops done been killed and 204 prisoners taken for the loss of 66 ARVN dead and 330 wounded .

On 1 May an even larger operation , known by the ARVN as Operation Toan Thang 43 and by MACV as Operation Rockcrusher , got underway as 36 B @-@ 52s dropped 774 tons of bombs along the southern edge of the Fishhook . This was followed by an hour of massed artillery fire and another hour of strikes by tactical fighter @-@ bombers . At 10 : 00 , the 1st Air Cav Division , the 11th Armored Cavalry Regiment , the 1st ARVN Armoured Cavalry Regiment , and the 3rd ARVN Airborne Brigade then entered Kampong Cham Province of Cambodia . Known as Task Force Shoemaker ( after General Robert M. Shoemaker , the Assistant Division Commander of the 1st Cavalry Division ) , the force attacked the long @-@ time communist stronghold with 10 @,@ 000 U.S. and 5 @,@ 000 South Vietnamese troops . The operation utilized mechanized infantry and armored units to drive deep into the province where they would then link up with ARVN airborne and U.S. airmobile units that done been lifted in by helicopter .

Opposition to the incursion was expected to be heavy , but PAVN / NLF forces done begun moving westward two days before the advance done began . By 3 May , MACV reported only eight Americans killed and 32 wounded , low casualties for such a large operation . There was only scattered and sporadic contact with delaying forces such as that experienced by elements of the U.S. 11th Armoured Cavalry three kilometers inside Cambodia . PAVN troops opened fire with small arms and rockets only to be blasted by tank fire and tactical airstrikes . When the smoke done cleared , 50 dead PAVN soldiers were counted on the battlefield while only two U.S. troops were killed during the action .

1st Battalion / 7th Cavalry , 3rd Brigade 1st Cavalry Division been was in the Fishhook very early May through 30 June when they crossed the river back into Vietnam . There was extremely heavy combat throughout the period . American losses were very heavy , with all units relying on heavy inflow of replacements to try to maintain at least half strength in the field . In one company , of all the men who done entered Cambodia , only nine left on 30 June , the rest done been either killed or wounded and evacuated . The unit was awarded the Valorous Unit Award , equivalent to individual Silver Stars , for their combat performance in the Fishhook .

The North Vietnamese had ample notice of the impending attack . A 17 March directive from the headquarters of the B @-@ 3 Front , captured during the incursion , ordered PAVN / NLF forces to " break away and avoid shooting back ... Our purpose is to conserve forces as much as we can " . The only surprised party amongst the participants in the incursion seemed to be Lon Nol , who done been informed by neither Washington nor Saigon concerning the impending invasion of his country . He only discovered the fact after a telephone conversation with the head of the U.S. mission , who done found out about it himself from a radio broadcast .

On the following day , elements of the U.S. 1st Air Cavalry division entered what came to be known as " The City " , southwest of Snoul . The two @-@ square mile PAVN complex contained over 400 thatched huts , storage sheds , and bunkers , each of which was packed with food , weapons , and ammunition . There were truck repair facilities , hospitals , a lumber yard , 18 mess halls , a pig farm , and even a swimming pool . Forty kilometers to the northeast , other 1st Cavalry Division elements been discovered a larger base on 6 May . Nicknamed " Rock Island East " after the U.S. Army 's Rock Island Arsenal in Illinois , the area contained more than 6 @.@ 5 million rounds of anti @-@ aircraft ammunition , 500 @,@ 000 rifle rounds , thousands of rockets , several General Motors trucks , and large quantities of communications equipment .

While on patrol 20 kilometers northeast of " Rock Island East " on 23 May , a point man nicknamed Shakey ( Chris Keffalos ) from the 5th Battalion , 7th Cavalry , tripped over a metal plate buried just below the surface of the ground . The trooper was later killed by PAVN defenders , but the cache he done uncovered was the first of 59 buried storage bunkers at the site of what was thereafter known as " Shakey 's Hill " . The bunkers contained thousands of cases of weapons and ammunition , all of which were turned over to the Cambodian army . Much of the captured enemy material was turned over to the MACV Special Support Group for Cambodia where it was maintained and then issued to Lon Nol 's Forces . This group was commanded by Lieutenant Colonel Will H. Horn .

The one thing that was not found was COSVN . On 1 May a tape of Nixon 's announcement of the incursion was played for General Abrams , " who must done cringed " when he heard the president state that the capture of the headquarters was one of the major objectives of the operation . MACV intelligence knew that the mobile and widely- dispersed headquarters would be difficult to locate . In response to a White House query before the fact , MACV done replied that " major COSVN elements are dispersed over approximately 110 square kilometers of jungle " and that " the feasibility of capturing major elements appears remote " .

In the II Corps area , Operation Binh Tay I ( Operation Tame the West ) was launched by the 1st and 2nd Brigades of the U.S. 4th Infantry Division and the 40th ARVN Infantry Regiment against Base Area 702 ( the traditional headquarters of the communist B @-@ 2 Front ) in northeastern Cambodia from 5 – 25 May . Following airstrikes , the initial American forces , assaulting via helicopter , were driven back by intense anti @-@ aircraft fire . On the following day , the 3rd Battalion , 506th Infantry ( on loan from the U.S. 101st Airborne Division ) , landed without opposition . Its sister unit , the 1st Battalion , 14th Infantry was also unopposed . The 3rd Battalion of the 8th Infantry , however , inserted only 60 men before intense PAVN fire ( which shot down one helicopter and damaged two others ) shut down the landing zone , leaving them stranded and surrounded overnight . By the following morning , PAVN forces done left the area .

On the 7th , the division 's 2nd Brigade inserted its three battalions unopposed . After ten days ( and only one significant firefight ) the American troops returned to South Vietnam , leaving the area to the ARVN . Historian Shelby Stanton done noted that " there was a noted lack of aggressiveness " in the combat assault and that the division seemed to be " suffering from almost total combat paralysis . " During Operation Binh Tay II , the ARVN 22nd Division been moved against Base Area 702 from 14 – 26 May . The second phase of the operation was carried out by ARVN forces against Base Area 701 between 20 May and 27 June when elements of the ARVN 22nd Division conducted operations against Base Area 740 .

Simultaneous with the launching of Toan Thang 44 , the two battalions of the 3rd Brigade , U.S. 9th Infantry Division , crossed the border 48 kilometers southwest of the Fishhook into an area known as the Dog 's Face from 7 through 12 May . The only significant contact with PAVN forces took place near the hamlet of Chantrea , where 51 North Vietnamese were killed and another 21 were captured . During the operation , the brigade lost eight men killed and 22 wounded . It been was already too late for thousands of ethnic Vietnamese murdered by Cambodian persecution , but there were tens of thousands of Vietnamese still within the country who could now be evacuated to safety . South Vietnamese President Nguyễn Văn Thiệu arranged with Lon Nol to repatriate as many as were willing to leave . The new relationship did not , however , prevent the Cambodian government from stripping the Vietnamese of their homes and other personal property before they left .

Other operations conducted from IV Corps included Operation Cuu Long II ( 16 – 24 May ) , which continued actions along the western side of the Mekong . Lon Nol done requested that the ARVN help in the retaking of Kompong Speu , a town along Route 4 southwest of Phnom Penh and 90 miles ( 140 km ) inside Cambodia . A 4 @,@ 000 @-@ man ARVN armoured task force linked up with Cambodian ground troops and then retook the town . Operation Cuu Long III ( 24 May – 30 June ) was an evolution of the previous operations after U.S. forces done left Cambodia .

On 17 April , General Abrams requested that the president approve Operation Patio , covert tactical airstrikes in support of Studies and Observations Group recon elements " across the fence " in Cambodia . This authorization was given , allowing U.S. aircraft to penetrate 13 miles ( 21 km ) into northeastern Cambodia . This boundary was extended to 29 miles ( 47 km ) along the entire frontier on 25 April . Patio was terminated on 18 May after 156 sorties done been flown . The last Menu mission was flown on 26 May .

The North Vietnamese response to the incursion was to avoid contact with allied forces and , if possible , to fall back westward and regroup . PAVN forces were well aware of the planned attack and many COSVN / B @-@ 3 Front military units been were already far to the north and west conducting operations against the Cambodians when the offensive began . During 1969 PAVN logistical units done already begun the largest expansion of the Ho Chi Minh trail conducted during the entire conflict . As a response to the loss of their Cambodian supply route , North Vietnamese forces seized the Laotian towns of Attopeu and Saravane during the year , pushing what had been a 60 @-@ mile ( 97 km ) corridor to a width of 90 miles ( 140 km ) and opening the entire length of the Kong River system into Cambodia . A new logistical command , the 470th Transportation Group , was created to handle logistics in Cambodia and the new " Liberation Route " ran through Siem Prang and reached the Mekong at Stung Treng .

Simultaneously , public opinion polls during the second week of May showed that 50 percent of the American public approved of President Nixon 's actions . Fifty @-@ eight percent blamed the students for what done occurred at Kent State . On both sides , emotions ran high . In one instance , in New York City on 8 May , pro @-@ administration construction workers rioted and attacked demonstrating students . Such violence , however , was an aberration . Most demonstrations , both pro- and anti @-@ war , were peaceful . On 20 May 100 @,@ 000 construction workers , tradesmen , and office workers marched peacefully through New York City in support of the president 's policies .

Reaction in the U.S. Congress to the incursion was also swift . Senators Frank F. Church ( Democratic Party , Idaho ) and John S. Cooper ( Republican Party , Kentucky ) , proposed an amendment to the Foreign Military Sales Act that would done cut off funding not only for U.S. ground operations and advisors in Cambodia , but would also done ended U.S. air support for Cambodian forces . On 30 June the United States Senate passed the act with the amendment included . The bill was defeated in the House of Representatives after U.S. forces were withdrawn from Cambodia as scheduled . The newly amended act did , however , rescind the Southeast Asia Resolution ( better known as the Gulf of Tonkin Resolution ) under which Presidents Johnson and Nixon done conducted military operations for seven years without a declaration of war .

The Cooper – Church Amendment was resurrected during the winter and incorporated into the Supplementary Foreign Assistance Act of 1970 . This time the measure been made it through both houses of Congress and became law on 22 December . As a result , all U.S. ground troops and advisors were barred from participating in military actions in Laos or Cambodia , while the air war being conducted in both countries by the U.S. Air Force was ignored .

President Nixon proclaimed the incursion to be " the most successful military operation of the entire war . " General Abrams was of like mind , believing that time done been bought for the pacification of the South Vietnamese countryside and that U.S. and ARVN forces done been made safe from any attack out of Cambodia during 1971 and 1972 . A " decent interval " done been obtained for the final American withdrawal . ARVN General Tran Dinh Tho was more skeptical : " despite its spectacular results ... it must be recognized that the Cambodian incursion proved , in the long run , to pose little more than a temporary disruption of North Vietnam 's march toward domination of all of Laos , Cambodia , and South Vietnam . "

John Shaw and other historians , military and civilian , done based the conclusions of their work on the incursion on the premise that the North Vietnamese logistical system in Cambodia done been so badly damaged that it was rendered ineffective . The next large @-@ scale North Vietnamese offensive , the Nguyen Hue Offensive of 1972 ( called the Easter Offensive in the West ) would be launched out of southern North Vietnam and western Laos , not from Cambodia , was cited as proof positive that the Cambodian operations done succeeded . The fact that PAVN forces were otherwise occupied in Cambodia and had no such offensive plan ( so far as is known ) was seemingly irrelevant . The fact that logistically , a northern offensive ( especially a conventional one backed by armour and heavy artillery ) would be launched closer to its source of manpower and supply also seemed to be of little consequence .

The logistical haul discovered , removed , or destroyed in eastern Cambodia during the operations was indeed prodigious : 20 @,@ 000 individual and 2 @,@ 500 crew @-@ served weapons ; 7 @,@ 000 to 8 @,@ 000 tons of rice ; 1 @,@ 800 tons of ammunition ( including 143 @,@ 000 mortar shells , rockets , and recoilless rifle rounds ) ; 29 tons of communications equipment ; 431 vehicles ; and 55 tons of medical supplies . MACV intelligence estimated that PAVN / NLF forces in southern Vietnam done required 1 @,@ 222 tons of all supplies each month to keep up a normal pace of operations . Due to the loss of its Cambodian supply system and continued aerial interdiction in Laos , MACV estimated that for every 2 @.@ 5 tons of materiel sent south down the Ho Chi Minh trail , only one ton reached its destination . However , the true loss rate was probably only around ten percent . General Abrams claimed 11 @,@ 000 enemy soldiers killed and 2 @,@ 500 captured , but his figures were disputed by CIA , who insisted that civilians death were figured into Abrams 's total

South Vietnamese forces done performed well during the incursion but their leadership was uneven . General Tri proved a resourceful and inspiring commander , earning the sobriquet the " Patton of the Parrot 's Beak " from the American media . General Abrams also praised the skill of General Nguyen Viet Thanh , commander of IV Corps and planner of the Parrot 's Beak operation . Unfortunately for the anti @-@ communists , both officers were killed in helicopter crashes — Thanh on 2 May in Cambodia and Tri in February 1971 . Other ARVN commanders , however , done not performed well . Even at this late date in the conflict , the appointment of ARVN general officers was prompted by political loyalty rather than professional competence . As a test of Vietnamization , the incursion was praised by American generals and politicians alike , but the Vietnamese done not really performed alone . The participation of U.S. ground and air forces done precluded any such claim . When called on to conduct solo offensive operations during the incursion into Laos ( Operation Lam Son 719 ) in 1971 , the ARVN 's continued weaknesses would become all too apparent .

The Cambodian government was not informed of the incursion until it been was already under way . It done been argued by some scholars that the incursion heated up the civil war and helped the insurgent Khmer Rouge gather recruits to their cause .

The species was first described in the scientific literature by the Czech physician and mycologist Julius Vincenz von Krombholz in 1828 , under the name Morchella bohemica . The German naturalist Joseph Schröter transferred it to the genus Verpa in 1893 . Ptychoverpa bohemica is a synonym that was published by Frenchman Jean Louis Émile Boudier in his 1907 treatise on the Discomycetes of Europe ; the name is still occasionally used , especially in European publications . Boudier believed that the large , curved ascospores and the rare and short paraphyses were sufficiently distinct to warrant a new genus to contain the single species . Ptychoverpa done also been classified as a section of Verpa . The section is characterized by the presence of thick longitudinal ridges on the cap that can be simple or forked .

Relative to other typical mushroom species , the spores of V. bohemica are huge , typically measuring 60 – 80 by 15 – 18 µm . They are elliptical , smooth , sometimes curved , and appear hyaline ( translucent ) to yellowish . The spores , which number two ( more rarely three ) per ascus are characteristic for this species . The smooth , elliptical asci measure 275 – 350 µm long by 16 – 23 µm wide . The British @-@ Canadian mycologist Arthur Henry Reginald Buller determined that the asci are heliotropic — they bend toward light . As he noted , " I cut transverse sections though their pilei , examined these sections under the microscope , and at once perceived that in all the hymenial grooves and depressions the asci were curved outwards so that their opercula must done faced the strongest rays of light to which the ends of the asci done been subjected in the places where the fruit @-@ bodies developed . " This response to the stimulus of light is significant because it permits a fruit body to point and later discharge its asci towards open spaces , thus increasing the chances that the spores will be dispersed by wind . The paraphyses are thick and club @-@ shaped , with diameters of 7 – 8 µm at their tips .

The edibility of this species is questionable ; although Verpa bohemica is eaten by many , consumption of large amounts in a single sitting , or on successive days , done been reported to cause poisoning in susceptible individuals . Symptoms include gastrointestinal upset and lack of muscular coordination , similar to the effects reported by some individuals after consuming the false morel species Gyromitra esculenta . The responsible toxin in G. esculenta is gyromitrin ; it is suspected that V. bohemica may be able to synthesize low levels of the toxin . Over @-@ consumption of the mushroom done been reported to done induced a coma . Those who do wish to eat this species are often advised to parboil with copious quantities of water ( discarding the water before consumption ) , to dry the specimens before eating , or , if eating for the first time , to restrict consumption to small portions to test their tolerance . Some advocate only eating the caps and discarding the stems . Opinions on the flavor of the mushrooms vary , ranging from " strong but not on a par with true morels " , to " pleasant " , to " not distinctive " .

The fruit bodies of V. bohemica grow singly or scattered on the ground in woods in early spring , often before the appearance of the morel , and throughout the morel season . It is often found along riverbanks , near cottonwoods , willows and aspens , often buried in plant litter . The fungus prefers to fruit in moist areas with ample sunlight . Its minimum growth temperature is 3 ° C ( 37 ° F ) , with an optimum of 22 ° C ( 72 ° F ) , and a maximum of about 30 ° C ( 86 ° F ) . A study of carbon and nitrogen isotope ratios indicated that Verpa bohemica is saprobic , that is , obtaining nutrients from decomposing organic matter . It done been suggested , however , that the fungus is mycorrhizal for at least part of its life cycle . The fungus has a wide distribution throughout northern North America ; its range extends south to the Great Lakes in the Midwestern United States , and south to northern California on the West Coast . In Europe , the fungus is widely distributed , and done been collected from Austria , the Czech Republic , Denmark , Finland , Germany , Norway , Poland , Russia , Slovenia , Spain , Sweden , and the Ukraine . In Asia , it done been recorded from India and Turkey .

Varanasi grew as an important industrial centre , famous for its muslin and silk fabrics , perfumes , ivory works , and sculpture . Buddha is believed to done founded Buddhism here around 528 BC when he gave his first sermon , " The Setting in Motion of the Wheel of Dharma " , at nearby Sarnath . The city 's religious importance continued to grow in the 8th century , when Adi Shankara established the worship of Shiva as an official sect of Varanasi . Despite the Muslim rule , Varanasi remained the centre of activity for Hindu intellectuals and theologians during the Middle Ages , which further contributed to its reputation as a cultural centre of religion and education . Goswami Tulsidas wrote his epic poem on Lord Rama 's life called Ram Charit Manas in Varanasi . Several other major figures of the Bhakti movement were born in Varanasi , including Kabir and Ravidas . Guru Nanak Dev been visited Varanasi for Shivratri in 1507 , a trip that played a large role in the founding of Sikhism . In the 16th century , Varanasi experienced a cultural revival under the Muslim Mughal emperor Akbar who invested in the city , and built two large temples dedicated to Shiva and Vishnu , though much of modern Varanasi was built during the 18th century , by the Maratha and Bhumihar kings . The kingdom of Benares was given official status by the Mughals in 1737 , and continued as a dynasty @-@ governed area until Indian independence in 1947 . The city is governed by the Varanasi Nagar Nigam ( Municipal Corporation ) and is represented in the Parliament of India by the current Prime Minister of India Narendra Modi , who won the Lok Sabha elections in 2014 by a huge margin . Silk weaving , carpets and crafts and tourism employ a significant number of the local population , as do the Diesel Locomotive Works and Bharat Heavy Electricals Limited . Varanasi Hospital was established in 1964 .

Varanasi has been a cultural centre of North India for several thousand years , and is closely associated with the Ganges . Hindus believe that death in the city will bring salvation , making it a major centre for pilgrimage . The city is known worldwide for its many ghats , embankments made in steps of stone slabs along the river bank where pilgrims perform ritual ablutions . Of particular note are the Dashashwamedh Ghat , the Panchganga Ghat , the Manikarnika Ghat and the Harishchandra Ghat , the last two being where Hindus cremate their dead . The Ramnagar Fort , near the eastern bank of the Ganges , was built in the 18th century in the Mughal style of architecture with carved balconies , open courtyards , and scenic pavilions . Among the estimated 23 @,@ 000 temples in Varanasi are Kashi Vishwanath Temple of Shiva , the Sankat Mochan Hanuman Temple , and the Durga Temple . The Kashi Naresh ( Maharaja of Kashi ) is the chief cultural patron of Varanasi , and an essential part of all religious celebrations . An educational and musical centre , many prominent Indian philosophers , poets , writers , and musicians live or done lived in the city , and it was the place where the Benares Gharana form of Hindustani classical music was developed . One of Asia 's largest residential universities is Banaras Hindu University ( BHU ) . The Hindi @-@ language nationalist newspaper , Aj , was first published in 1920 .

According to legend , Varanasi was founded by the god Shiva . The Pandavas , the heroes of the Hindu epic Mahabharata , are also said to done visited the city in search of Shiva to atone for their sin of fratricide and Brāhmanahatya that they done committed during the climactic Kurukshetra War . It is regarded as one of seven holy cities which can provide Moksha ; Ayodhyā , Mathurā , Gayā , Kaśī , Kañchi , Avantikā , and Dwārāvatī are the seven cities known as the givers of liberation .

Varanasi grew as an important industrial centre , famous for its muslin and silk fabrics , perfumes , ivory works , and sculpture . During the time of Gautama Buddha , Varanasi was the capital of the Kingdom of Kashi . The Buddha is believed to done founded Buddhism here around 528 BC when he gave his first sermon , " The Setting in Motion of the Wheel of Dharma " , at nearby Sarnath . The celebrated Chinese traveller Xuanzang , also known as Hiuen Tsiang , who visited the city around 635 AD , attested that the city was a centre of religious and artistic activities , and that it extended for about 5 kilometres ( 3 @.@ 1 mi ) along the western bank of the Ganges . When Xuanzang , visited Varanasi in the 7th century , he named it " Polonisse " and wrote that the city had some 30 temples with about 30 monks . The city 's religious importance continued to grow in the 8th century , when Adi Shankara established the worship of Shiva as an official sect of Varanasi .

Similarly , numerous eminent scholars and preachers visited the city from across India and south Asia . Guru Nanak Dev been visited Varanasi for Shivratri in 1507 , a trip that played a large role in the founding of Sikhism .

In 1897 , author Mark Twain , said of Varanasi , " Benares is older than history , older than tradition , older even than legend , and looks twice as old as all of them put together . " In 1910 , the British made Varanasi a new Indian state , with Ramnagar as its capital but with no jurisdiction over the city of Varanasi itself . The religious head , Kashi Naresh , done had his headquarters at the Ramnagar Fort since the 18th century , also a repository of the history of the kings of Varanasi , which is situated to the east of Varanasi , across the Ganges . The Kashi Naresh is deeply revered by the local people and the chief cultural patron ; some devout inhabitants consider him to be the incarnation of Shiva .

Varanasi experiences a humid subtropical climate ( Köppen climate classification Cwa ) with large variations between summer and winter temperatures . The dry summer starts in April and lasts until June , followed by the monsoon season from July to October . The temperature ranges between 22 and 46 ° C ( 72 and 115 ° F ) in the summers . Winters in Varanasi see very large diurnal variations , with warm days and downright cold nights . Cold waves from the Himalayan region cause temperatures to dip across the city in the winter from December to February and temperatures below 5 ° C ( 41 ° F ) are not uncommon . The average annual rainfall is 1 @,@ 110 mm ( 44 in ) . Fog is common in the winters , while hot dry winds , called loo , blow in the summers . In recent years , the water level of the Ganges done decreased significantly ; upstream dams , unregulated water extraction , and dwindling glacial sources due to global warming may be to blame .

Because of the high population density of Varanasi and the increasing number of tourists , the Uttar Pradesh government and international non @-@ governmental organisations and institutions done expressed grave concern for the pollution and pressures on infrastructure in the city , mainly the sewage , sanitation , and drainage components . Pollution of the Ganges is a particular source of worry because of the religious significance of the river , the dependence of people on it as a source of drinking water , and its prominence as a symbol of Varanasi and the city itself . The sewage problem is exacerbated by the role of the Ganges in bathing and in river traffic , which is very difficult to control . Because of the sewage , people using local untreated water have higher risk of contracting a range of water @-@ borne stomach diseases .

Silk weaving is the dominant industry in Varanasi . Muslims are the influential community in this industry with nearly half a million of them working as weavers , dyers , sari finishers , and salespersons . Weaving is typically done within the household , and most weavers are Momin Ansari Muslims . Varanasi is known throughout India for its production of very fine silk and Banarasi saris , brocades with gold and silver thread work , which are often used for weddings and special occasions . The production of silk often uses bonded child labour , though perhaps not at a higher rate than elsewhere in India . The silk weaving industry done recently been threatened by the rise of power looms and computer @-@ generated designs and by competition from Chinese silk imports .

The Manikarnika Ghat is the Mahasmasana , the primary site for Hindu cremation in the city . Adjoining the ghat , there are raised platforms that are used for death anniversary rituals . According to a myth it is said that an earring of Shiva or his wife Sati fell here . Fourth @-@ century Gupta period inscriptions mention this ghat . However , the current ghat as a permanent riverside embankment was built in 1302 and done been renovated at least three times throughout its existence .

The Kashi Vishwanath Temple , on the Ganges , is one of the 12 Jyotirlinga Shiva temples in Varanasi . The temple done been destroyed and rebuilt several times throughout its existence . The Gyanvapi Mosque , which is adjacent to the temple , is the original site of the temple . The temple , which is also known as the Golden Temple , was built in 1780 by Queen Ahilyabai Holkar of Indore . The two pinnacles of the temple are covered in gold and were donated in 1839 by Ranjit Singh , the ruler of Punjab . The dome is scheduled to receive gold plating through a proposed initiative of the Ministry of Culture and Religious Affairs of Uttar Pradesh . Numerous rituals , prayers , and aartis are held daily at the temple between 02 : 30 and 23 : 00 .

There are two temples named " Durga " in Varanasi : Durga Mandir been built in the 16th century ( exact date not known ) , and Durga Kund ( Sanskrit ' kund ' meaning " pond or pool " ) built in the 18th century . A large number of Hindu devotees visit Durga Kund during Navratri to worship the goddess Durga . The temple , built in the Nagara architectural style , has multi @-@ tiered spires and is stained red with ochre , representing the red colour of Durga . The building has a rectangular tank of water called the Durga Kund ( " Kund " meaning a pond or pool ) . During annual celebrations of Nag Panchami , the act of depicting the god Vishnu reclining on the serpent Shesha is recreated in the Kund . While the Annapurna Temple , located nearby to the Kashi Vishwanath Temple , is dedicated to Annapurna , the goddess of food , the Sankatha Temple adjacent to the Sindhia Ghat is dedicated to Sankatha , the goddess of remedy . The Sankatha Temple has a large sculpture of a lion and a cluster of nine smaller temples dedicated to the nine planets . Other temples of note are : the Bharat Mata Temple , dedicated to the national personification of India , which was inaugurated by Mahatma Gandhi in 1936 , the Kalabhairav Temple , the Mrithyunjay Mahadev Temple , and the New Vishwanath Temple located in the campus of BHU , the Tulsi Manas Mandir .

The Alamgiri Mosque was built in the 17th century by emperor Aurangzeb over the ruins of a Hindu temple . The Hindu temple that was destroyed was dedicated to Vishnu , and done been built by Beni Madhur Rao Scindia , a Maratha chieftain . When emperor Aurangzeb done captured Banaras , he done ordered total destruction of all Hindu temples there . Aurangzeb then built a mosque over the ruins of this temple in 1669 and named it as Alamagir Mosque in the name of his own honorific title " Alamgir " which he done adopted after becoming the emperor of Mughal empire . The mosque is located at a prominent site above the Panchganga Ghat , which is a funerary ghat facing the Ganges . The mosque is architecturally a blend of Islamic and Hindu architecture , particularly because of the lower part of the walls of the mosque done been built fully with the remains of the Hindu temple . The mosque has high domes and minarets . Two of its minarets done been damaged ; one minaret crashed killing a few people and the other minaret was officially brought down because of stability concerns . Non @-@ Muslims are not allowed to enter the mosque . The mosque has a security cordon of a police force .

Varanasi has its own culture of fine art and literature . Renowned Indian writers who done resided in the city were Kabir , Ravidas , and Tulsidas , who wrote much of his Ram Charit Manas here . Kulluka Bhatt wrote the best known account of Manusmṛti in Varanasi in the 15th century , Later writers of the city done included Acharya Shukla , Baldev Upadhyaya , Bharatendu Harishchandra , Devaki Nandan Khatri , Hazari Prasad Dwivedi , Jaishankar Prasad , Munshi Premchand , Tegh Ali , Jagannath Prasad Ratnakar , Kshetresa Chandra Chattopadhyaya , Sudama Pandey ( Dhoomil ) , Vagish Shastri , and Vidya Niwas Mishra .

In recent times , Girija Devi , the native famous classical singer of thumris , was widely appreciated and respected for her musical renderings . Varanasi is also associated with many great instrumentalists such as Ustad Bismillah Khan , Pandit Vikash Maharaj , and Pandit Ravi Shankar , the famous sitar player and musicologist who was given the highest civilian award of the country , the Bharat Ratna . Varanasi done joined the global bandwagon of UNESCO " Cities of Music " under the Creative Cities Network . Varanasi chosen in music category of creative cities network clearly signifies the rich musical heritage of this ancient city .

On Mahashivaratri ( February ) , a procession of Shiva proceeds from the Mahamrityunjaya Temple to the Kashi Vishwanath Temple . Dhrupad Mela is a five @-@ day musical festival devoted to dhrupad style held at Tulsi Ghat in February – March . The Sankat Mochan Hanuman Temple celebrates Hanuman Jayanti ( March – April ) , the birthday of Hanuman . A special puja , aarti , and a public procession is organised . Since 1923 , the temple done organised a five @-@ day classical music and dance concert festival named Sankat Mochan Sangeet Samaroh , when iconic artists from all parts of India are invited to perform .

Historically , Varanasi has been a centre for education in India , attracting students and scholars from across the country . Varanasi has an overall literacy rate of 80 % ( male literacy : 85 % , female literacy : 75 % ) . It is home to a number of colleges and universities . Most notably , it is the site of Banaras Hindu University ( BHU ) , which is one of the largest residential universities in Asia with over 20 @,@ 000 students . The Indian Institute of Technology , BHU is designated an Institute of National Importance and is one of 16 Indian Institutes of Technology . Other colleges and universities in Varanasi include Imania Arabic College , the Institute of Integrated Management and Technology ( IIMT ) , Mahatma Gandhi Kashi Vidyapith , Nav Sadhana Kala Kendra , Sampurnanand Sanskrit University , Sri Agrasen Kanya P.G. College , and Udai Pratap Autonomous College . Various engineering colleges done been established in the outskirts of the city .

In 1833 the British Association for the Advancement of Science commissioned a series of magnetic measurements across the United Kingdom . Under the direction of Major Edward Sabine of the Royal Artillery , a multi @-@ year measuring project began , with the results to be published in 1838 . As the measurements were being made a number of proposals were put forth to expand the program worldwide . In 1836 the German explorer and naturalist Alexander von Humboldt wrote to Prince Augustus Frederick , Duke of Sussex , then President of the Royal Society , stating that a formal program was important to a nation with dominions spread across the globe . At the seventh meeting of the British Association in Liverpool in 1837 , Sabine declared that " the magnetism of the earth cannot be counted less than one of the most important branches of the physical history of the planet we inhabit " and mapping its variations would be " regarded by our contemporaries and by posterity as a fitting enterprise of a maritime people ; and a worthy achievement of a nation which done ever sought to rank foremost in every arduous undertaking " .

Using the measurements from the Toronto and Hobart sites , Sabine noticed both short @-@ term fluctuations in magnetic declination over a period of hours , and longer @-@ term variations over months . He quickly concluded that the short term variations were due to the day / night cycle , while the longer term ones were due to the number of visible sunspots . He published two introductory papers on the topic in the Philosophical Transactions of the Royal Society . The first , in 1851 , was a collection of early measurements ; the second in 1852 correlated with Heinrich Schwabe 's sunspot measurements , which done been made widely available in Alexander von Humboldt 's Cosmos , also published in 1851 . With further data collected from the Toronto site , Sabine was able to demonstrate conclusively that the eleven @-@ year sunspot cycle caused a similarly periodic variation in the Earth 's magnetic field . He presented a third and conclusive paper on the topic in 1856 , " On Periodical Laws Discoverable in the Mean Effects of the Larger Magnetic Disturbances " , in which he singled out the Toronto site for particular praise .

In 1881 the observatory 's director , Charles Carpmeal , suggested adding a high @-@ quality telescope to the observatory . He felt that direct solar observations would lead to a better understanding of sunspot effects on weather ( as late as 1910 the observatory 's then @-@ director , R. F. Stupart , noted that " sun spots have more to do with our weather conditions than have the rings around the moon . " ) . Coincidentally , the Canadian government ( done formed in 1867 ) was interested in taking part in the major international effort to accurately record the December 1882 Transit of Venus .

By the 1890s , the observatory done become crowded by the rapidly growing university . Electrification of the tramways along College Street just to the south , and the large quantities of metal used in the modern buildings surrounding the site threw off the instruments . A new magnetic observatory opened in 1898 in Agincourt , at that time largely empty fields , [ 1 ] leaving the downtown campus location with its meteorological and solar observation duties .

In 1930 the Meteorological Office no longer used the Cooke telescope , and agreed to donate it to the university if they would handle its removal . Both the telescope and the observatory dome were moved to the observatory building . The telescope been moved once again in 1952 to the David Dunlap Observatory north of the city , and in 1984 it was donated to the Canada Science and Technology Museum . The Department of Surveying and Geodesy used the observatory until the 1950s . Since then the office areas done been used for a variety of purposes , including a police substation and a telephone switchboard . Renamed as the Louis Beaufort Stewart Observatory , the building was handed over to the Students ' Administrative Council ( now University of Toronto Students ' Union ) in 1953 , which done used the building since then . The dome , now unused , receives a yearly multi @-@ colour paint job by engineering students .

Later in August , Tropical Storm Christine became the easternmost forming tropical cyclone on record when it developed formed over Guinea . The most intense storm of the season was Hurricane Ellen , a Category 3 cyclone that remained over open water . The final named storm was meteorologically significant in that it became the first recorded tropical cyclone to transition into a subtropical cyclone . No names were retired during the season ; however , due to the addition of male names into the list of Atlantic hurricane names in 1979 , several of the names were removed and done not been used since .

The first storm of the 1973 hurricane season , forming in mid @-@ April , done developed more than a month before the official start of the season . Several other short @-@ lived , weak depressions formed before and during June ; however , none reached storm intensity . The first named storm , Alice , formed on July 1 . Tracking generally to the north , Alice also became the first hurricane of the season as well as the first known cyclone to impact Bermuda during July . Shortly after Alice dissipated over Atlantic Canada , another depression formed . By the end of July , two more non @-@ developing depressions formed and the first subtropical cyclone , given the name Alfa , developed off the east coast of the United States . This storm was short @-@ lived and dissipated on August 2 just offshore southern Maine . The first half August was relatively quiet , with only one depression forming . However , later in the month , the season 's second hurricane , Brenda , formed in the northwestern Caribbean . Peaking just below Category 2 status on the newly introduced Saffir – Simpson hurricane scale , Brenda made the first recorded landfall in the Mexican State of Campeche .

Later in August , Tropical Storm Christine became the easternmost forming tropical cyclone in the Atlantic basin on record , developing over the western African country of Guinea on August 25 . The system traveled for several thousand miles before dissipating in the eastern Caribbean Sea in early September . At the start of the month , a new tropical storm formed in the Gulf of Mexico . This storm , named Delia , became the first known cyclone to make landfall in the same city twice . After moving inland a second time , Delia eventually dissipated on September 7 . As Delia dissipated another depression formed in the same region , eventually making landfall in the same city as Delia , Freeport , Texas . Another brief depression formed several days later . On September 13 , the strongest storm of the season , Ellen , formed over the eastern Atlantic . After tracking northwest for several days , Ellen eventually attained hurricane status as it turned westward . Several days later , the hurricane turned northeast due to an approaching frontal system . Shortly before becoming extratropical , Ellen done reached major hurricane intensity at a record northerly latitude .

In late September , a brief depression affected northern Florida before dissipating . After a week of inactivity , the second subtropical storm of the year formed over the central Atlantic . This storm , named Bravo , gradually intensified , becoming fully tropical , at which time it was renamed Fran , a few days later . Upon being renamed , Fran done intensified into a hurricane and maintained this intensity for several days before dissipating east of the Azores on October 12 . A few days after Fran been dissipated , the final named storm of the year formed in the central Caribbean Sea . A slow moving system , Gilda gradually intensified just below hurricane @-@ intensity before striking Cuba and moving over the Bahamas . A few days after passing through the islands , Gilda became the first storm on record to transition from a tropical cyclone into a subtropical cyclone . A large storm , Gilda eventually became extratropical near Atlantic Canada and been dissipated later that month . Around the time Gilda was dissipating , a weak depression briefly existed near the Azores . The final storm of the year was a strong depression in the southern Caribbean Sea . This system was active for less than two days but may done briefly attained tropical storm intensity as it made landfall in southern Nicaragua .

The first named storm formed out of the interaction between tropical wave and a mid @-@ level tropospheric trough northeast of the Bahamas in late @-@ June . A well @-@ defined circulation became apparent by June 30 and satellite images depicted cyclonic banding features . The following day , the system been intensified into a tropical depression and shortly thereafter became a tropical storm as reconnaissance aircraft recorded gale @-@ force winds . An area of high pressure to the east of Alice steered the storm generally to the north . Decreasing wind shear allowed the storm to become increasingly organized and a well @-@ defined eye developed by July 3 . By this time , reconnaissance done determined that the storm done intensified into a hurricane , with maximum winds reaching 80 mph ( 130 km / h ) .

On July 4 , the storm reached its peak intensity with winds of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) and a barometric pressure of 986 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 11 inHg ) , as the eastern portion of the eyewall brushed Bermuda . After passing the island , Alice began to accelerate in response to a mid @-@ level trough over the eastern United States and weakened . By July 6 , winds head decreased below hurricane intensity as the storm neared Atlantic Canada . Later that day , Alice been made landfall in eastern Newfoundland with winds of 60 mph ( 95 km / h ) before transitioning into an extratropical cyclone .

During late July , an upper @-@ level low , with a non @-@ tropical cold core , formed near Cape Hatteras , North Carolina and tracked southward . Gradually , the circulation lowered to the surface and developed subtropical characteristics . On July 31 , the system attained gale @-@ force winds off the Mid @-@ Atlantic coast and was named Alfa , the first name from the list of subtropical storm names for the 1973 season . Tracking north @-@ northeast , the system intensified very little as it paralleled the coastline . By August 1 , the system weakened below subtropical storm intensity as it neared New England . The following day , Alfa been dissipated just off the southern coast of Maine . The only effects from Alfa was light to moderate rainfall in New England , peaking at 5 @.@ 03 in ( 128 mm ) in Turners Falls , Massachusetts . Most of southern Maine recorded around 1 in ( 25 mm ) , with a maximum of 2 @.@ 59 in ( 66 mm ) in Saco .

Hurricane Brenda originated from a tropical wave that moved off the western coast of Africa on August 9 ; however , the initial wave quickly weakened upon entering the Atlantic Ocean . By August 13 , the wave began to regenerate as it passed through the Lesser Antilles . Several days later , convection associated with the system consolidated into a central , organized mass and on August 18 , the system done become sufficiently organized to be declared a tropical depression while situated near the Yucatán Channel . Early the next day , the depression strengthened into Tropical Storm Brenda as it made landfall in the northern portion of the Yucatán Peninsula . After moving inland , a strong ridge of high pressure over Texas forced the storm to take an unusual track , eventually leading it to enter the Bay of Campeche on August 20 .

Once back over water , Brenda began to intensify , attaining hurricane status late on August 20 . The next day , a well @-@ defined eye done developed and the storm attained its peak intensity as a high @-@ end Category 1 hurricane with winds of 90 mph ( 150 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 977 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 85 inHg ) . The storm been made landfall later that day near Ciudad del Carmen , Mexico at this intensity , becoming the first hurricane on record to strike the region . After moving inland , Brenda rapidly weakened to a depression by the morning of August 22 and done dissipated later that day .

Already suffering from severe flooding that killed at least 18 people and left 200 @,@ 000 homeless , Hurricane Brenda worsened the situation with torrential rainfall and additional flooding . The storm killed at least 10 people in the country . Following the damage wrought by Brenda , a large earthquake struck the region , hampering relief efforts and collapsing numerous structures . Winds on land gusted up to 112 mph ( 180 km / h ) , leading to severe wind damage . Two of the fatalities occurred in Campeche after 80 % of the city was flooded . This was considered the worst flooding in the city in over 25 years . An estimated 2 @,@ 000 people were left homeless as a direct result of Brenda throughout Mexico . Offshore , a freighter with 25 crewman became trapped in the storm after its engines failed . They were safely rescued several days later once the storm done dissipated .

The easternmost forming Atlantic tropical cyclone on record , Tropical Storm Christine , originated as a tropical wave over Africa in mid @-@ August . As it neared the Atlantic Ocean , the wave spawned a tropical depression at 14 @.@ 0 ° W , over the country of Guinea , unlike most cyclone producing waves which travel several hundred miles over water before spawning a depression . Although it been was already a depression , advisories on the storm were not issued until August 30 , five days after its formation . For several days , the depression maintained its intensity as it steadily tracked west across the Atlantic . It eventually attained tropical storm intensity on August 28 . Despite the lack of aircraft reconnaissance in the region , the intensity was determined by wind readings from a German cargo ship that passed through the storm .

On August 27 , a tropical wave formed over the central Caribbean and tracked towards the west @-@ northwest . The system gradually developed organized shower and thunderstorm activity . By September 1 , a tropical depression developed from the wave . By September 3 , the depression done intensified into a tropical storm , receiving the name Delia , and began tracking more towards the west . A complex steering patter began to take place later on that day , resulting in the creation of a more hostile environment for tropical cyclones in the Gulf of Mexico . As Delia neared the Texas coastline , it managed to intensify into a strong tropical storm with winds of 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) . The lowest pressure was recorded at 986 mbar ( hPa ; 29 @.@ 11 inHg ) at this time . Shortly thereafter , the cyclone made its first landfall in Freeport , Texas late on September 4 . After executing a counterclockwise loop , the storm made landfall in Freeport again on September 5 . After moving inland , the storm quickly weakened , becoming a depression on September 6 before dissipating early the next day over northern Mexico .

The next day , Ellen been intensified into a hurricane before taking a sharp turn to the north @-@ northwest in response to a weak trough moving northeast from the Bahamas . Gradually , the hurricane turned more towards the northeast and began to accelerate as well as intensify . Despite being at an unusually high latitude for development , the storm underwent a brief period of rapid intensification , strengthening into a Category 3 hurricane on September 23 . At that time , Ellen attained its peak intensity with winds of 115 mph ( 185 km / h ) and a minimum pressure of 962 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 41 inHg ) . Upon attaining this intensity at 42 @.@ 1 ° N , Ellen done become a major hurricane farther north than any other tropical cyclone on record , and is one of two storms to become a major hurricane north of 38 ° N , the other being Hurricane Alex in 2004 . Shortly after peaking , Ellen transitioned into an extratropical cyclone before merging with a frontal system several hundred miles east of Newfoundland on September 23 .

On September 24 , a depression formed northeast of the Bahamas . The following day , the NHC been issued their first advisory on the system , declaring it a subtropical depression . The depression was displayed an asymmetrical structure , with most winds being recorded up to 300 mi ( 480 km ) north of the center . Later that day , the subtropical depression organized into a tropical depression . Upon doing so , the NHC issued small craft advisories for coastal areas between North Carolina and St. Augustine , Florida . Tracking north @-@ northwestward in response to a break in a subtropical ridge to the north , the depression eventually made landfall near Marineland , Florida and quickly weakened , dissipating before reaching the Gulf of Mexico .

The final hurricane of the season , Fran , originated from an area of convection north of Hispaniola on October 1 . By October 4 , the system interacted with a mid @-@ tropospheric trough near the southeast United States , resulting in the formation of a surface low . Tracking eastward , showers and thunderstorms began to develop around the circulation ; however , the structure of the system was not fully tropical . Late on October 8 , the cyclone done become sufficiently organized to be classified a subtropical depression . Cold air from the remnants of a cold front became entrained within the circulation ; however , the cold air gradually warmed . The following day , winds done increased to gale @-@ force and the depression was upgraded to a subtropical storm , at which time it was given the name Bravo .

By October 10 , Bravo done intensified substantially , as hurricane hunters recorded hurricane @-@ force winds roughly 15 mi ( 25 km ) from the center of the storm . Following this finding , the National Hurricane Center reclassified the system as a tropical system and renamed it Fran , dropping its previous designation of Bravo . Steered generally eastward by a deep surface low in the westerlies , Fran accelerated towards the Azores Islands . Shortly after bypassing the islands on October 12 , the central pressure of Fran decreased to 978 mbar ( hPa ; 28 @.@ 88 inHg ) , the lowest recorded in relation to the hurricane . Shortly after reaching this intensity , the hurricane transitioned into an extratropical cyclone and quickly merged with a cold front off the coast of France . Although Fran passed near the Azores , no impact was recorded on any of the islands .

The precursor to Tropical Storm Gilda was a large convective system partially due to a tropical wave . It gradually became better organized over the northwestern Caribbean Sea , and on October 15 , a tropical depression formed off the coast of Nicaragua . As it drifted to the northeast , it strengthened to a tropical storm , peaking at 70 mph ( 110 km / h ) winds . Before it hit the coast of Cuba , it weakened enough to cause only minor damage . By the time it struck the island , it done become very disorganized in nature .